The National ibrar s, feanes ir Aaency Utes teat acto under | Mele can anys A Comparative Analysis of the Philosophical Underlying Creative Music Therapy and Analytical Music Therapy ‘Susan Hadley, PRD. MLT- B.C. Sippery Rock Universi, Philedelphia, USA. Abstract ‘This article deseribes Creative Music Therapy and Analytical Music Therapy and ‘examines the philosophical premises underlying each mode! of improvisational ‘music therapy. Comparisons are made in corms of what constitutes health or weliness and pathology (intrapersonal, interpersonal and transpersonal) and éynamies of therapy (focus, role of music, client-therapist relationship and client. ‘music relationship). This comparative analysis proposes that these two models of improvisational musie therapy represent distinctly diferent paradigms. ts argued that each model works with different premises about the individual and the goal of therapy. Furthermore, each places a different emphasis on the role of ‘music in therapy. CCreative Music Therapy (developed by Nordoff and Robbins) and Analytical ‘Music Therapy (developed by Mary Priestley) are the two most prominent models of improvisational music therapy. Although Creative Music Therapy was originally developed for use with children wich intellectual, emotional and/or physical isabiities and Analytical Music Therapy for use with adults with psychiatric isorders, both Creative Music Therapists and Analytical Music Therapists now ‘work with a wider range of clientele. Since therapists from both models work with similar clientele, can these models be integrated for use by one therapist, or do they represent two very diferent paradigms? How is pathology conceptualized in ‘each? Therapy? Wellness? How is musie concepsualized in terms ofits importance ‘as a therapeutic tool! In order to explore these questions a comparative analysis, ‘was undertaken to analyse and compare the philosophical premises underlying these ‘wo models af improvisational music therapy. Inthe music therapy literature, there are several descriptions of Creative Music ‘Therapy (Aigen 1996a & b, 1997; Ansdall 1995; Bruscia 1987; Lee 1996; Nordoff & Robbins 1971, 1977 & 1983: Robbins 1996; Robbins & Robbins 1980) and Analytical Music Therapy (Brusca 1987; Langenberg et al 993; Pristiey 1975, 1994; Scheiby| Volume 10, 1999 The Austratian Journal of Music Therapy ‘made rom the Cy ee copies oie pyright Furor ‘under fcence fons ofthis4 1991). However, within this body of literature there is no systematic comparison of the fundamental premises underiying each. A comparison ofthis kind wil provide greater carity of the salient features of each, and wil, in tum, allow for a more thorough exploration of che similarities and differences between ther, Historleal Perspectives and the Therapeutic Processes: ‘An Overview ‘Creative Music. Thesapy Creative Music Therapy was orginally developed, in 1958, by Paul Nordoft, an ‘American pianist and composer and Ciive Robbins, an English special education teacher, They worked together with children with intellectual, emotional, psychiatric andlor physical disabilities. After Nordof's death in 1977, Clive Robbins ‘continued to develop the model with his wife, Carol Robbins. Although the approach has evolved considerably over recent years, especially through the work of Pavlcevic (1990, 1995), Pavicevc & Trevarthen (1989), Ansdell (1995), Aldridge (1996) and Lee (1996), the underlying philosophical premises have largely been ‘maintained. Therefore, in this article the analysis has been mainly limited to the original work of Nordoff and Robbins. In Creative Music Therapy therapists may work in pairs or alone. The ‘herapist(s) generally begin therapy by improvising music that matches diverse aspects of che lent’s emotional andlor physical state, By meeting the client ‘musically, the therapist creates an accepting and responsive atmosphere while also ‘making contact with the client (Nordof & Robbins, 1977). This continual moment by moment reflection of the clients state, communicates that the therapist hears and understands the client which, in turn, builds a level of rapport with the client ‘Once some form of contact with the client has beon established in the therapists musie, the therapists) works to evoke active musical responses, instrumental or vocal, from the client. The therapist{s) uses a wide variety of ‘musical techniques to evoke and engage the client's sounds and rtythms including reflecting, modeling, imitating, repetition, and turn-taking (Brusca, 1987). The therapis(s) helps che client contro! and organize his oF her sounds so that they can be further developed (Nordoff & Robbins, 1977) ‘The therapists) also works to build the cliont’s repertoire of skills and to let him or her experience expressive freedom in the music. This enhances the client's awareness of the expressiveness and interresponsiveness of music and his for her ability to engage the music for those purposes. Certain basic musical skills ‘must be mastered as stepping stones to new expressive options for the client. The Australian Journal of Music Theropy Volume 10, 1999‘One fundamental skil isco maintain a basi beat. Changes in loudness and speed can sls0 be introduced and explored. Simple rhythms and melodies may be elicited, progretting to more complex rhythms and melodic phrases. The mastery ofthese ‘lls bulls a repertoire of responses that allow for expressive mobitity and creativity. Significant musical motifs that emerge ina session may be re-introduced and built upon in subsequent sessions. These mots may then develop into a specaly individualized song or activity, which may then be grouped into an individualized repertoire of musical material, specifiealy meeting the needs of that indvidual cient ‘These compositions help to provide a sense of continuity and consistency between ‘Anaiyial Music Therapy ‘Analyieal Music Therapy was orginally developed, inthe early 1970s, by Mary Priestley, Marjorie Wardle and Peter Wright, music therapy colleagues ina psychiatric hospital Together they developed various techniques and experimented ‘with each other before using them with their adult prychiatrle clients. Priestley continued to develop the mode! and was the only one ofthe three to use it throughout her fe work. Priest also provided training in Analytica! Music ‘Therapy. As part of the training students are required to undergo personal psychotherapy sestions. The approach has therefore evolved inthe work of many ‘of is proponents (Langenberg, Frommer & Tress 1993: Scheiby 1991). depending on the method of psychotherapy undertaken, Despite this, many ofthe fundamental promises have been mainained and so the anayssin this article has been limites to the work of Priestley In Analytical Music Therapy the first step in the session isto identify an ‘emotional issue on whith to work (Priestley, 1994, p.10). The client might tk ‘about what she or he as been fesing, thinking, andlor doing during the week. ‘Once the issue has been identied the therapist will suggest a tie that encapsuates the essence ofthe clients conflict or concer, The title should be suggestive enough to stimulate improvisation but open-ended enough to lic the cient’ {elings and projections Brusca, 1987, p.125). Sometimes the therapist will ask the client to suggest ate. When no issue can be idencied, or conversely 50 many issues have been raised that they have Become tangled. the therapist may move recy to improvising music freely withthe client to see what emerges. Sometimes, i is important to establish what roles the client and therapist will take for the improvisation. The therapist and clent may play different people ina relationship, diferent aspects of an isue or an emotional state, or each person may take on different aspects ofa single person. Roles may then be switched ina subsequent improvisation, Once roles have been estabished, the client improvises Volume 10, 1999 The Australian journal of Music Therapy 56 ‘alone or with the therapist on any of a varity of musical Instruments. The ‘therapist may use any instrument. as appropriate, but usualy pays the piano as the harmony and volume of this instrument gives more control of the situation (Priestley, 1994, p.10). Furthermore, the piano ean be both holding and containing, ‘allowing the client ro release emotions freely yet containing them so that they do rot became overwhelming ‘After creating the music, the therapist and client discuss immediate responses 10, and impressions of, the improvisation. This may include what the client was thinking and feeling while playing, and ways in which the client responded to various elements within the improvisation. After the initial discussion, the therapist and liens will often listen to a tape recording ofthe improvisation, which may uncover ‘other aspects of the interaction as well as more issues for discussion. Sometimes the postimprovisation discussion will point to other isues to explore or to a deepening ofthe original exploration. The therapist and client may then begin again with another tide and another improvisation and, subsequently further verbal ‘discussion and processing ofthe experiences. Alternatively, the therapist may Introduce other media such as drawing, writing. movement, andlor Imagery, in order to further process the experience, Comparisons In order to compare key concepts underlying these models, | analysed the orighal writings of Nordoff and Robbins (1965286, 1968, 1971, 1977, 1983), Robbins and Robbins (1991) and Priestley (1975, 1990, 1993, 1994, 1995) with a ‘number of questions in mind, allindigenous to theories of therapy. These were: ‘What concepts of health or wellness are implied? What constitutes pathology? ‘What are the dynamics of therapy? And, what is the nature of music that enables its use as therapy! ‘As found answers to these questions | grouped important ideas by themes and then used the themes to compare the models. In examining what constitutes health or wellness and pathology for each ‘model, chree main eazegories were developed: intrapersonal (dealing with inner parts of the personisel;incerpersonal (relationships with others); and, ‘transpersoval (extending beyond or transcending the persona), The Australian Journal of Music Theropy Volume 10, 1999Inscapersonal Conceats of Wellnes/Pashology For Nordoff and Robbins, the concept of wellness is intimately inked to the congansing ofthe inner sf andthe integration of the ego funcons such a thinking, feeling and witing (Gevcer, 1962). Nordoff and Robbins believe that each person is made up of several layers. The outside layer is the personaly that has developed as 2 result ofthe person’ life experiences to that point. perhaps restricted by those ‘experiences or by given physical and cognitive limitations. The ego functions of ‘thinking eeing and wiling ae pare ofthis ayer (Nordoff & Robbins, 1971, p08). Inside this outer layer is what Nordoff and Robbins refer to as the “music tile” defined as “che individualized musicality inborn in each child which responds ‘0 musial experience, finds it meaningful and engaging, remembers music, and ‘enjoys some form of musica expression” (Nordoff & Robbins, 1977, p.l). The “asic child” isthe potendial within the restricted outer sel, capable of orgaizing and integrating the ego functions. The "music child” represents freedom and pyfloess and consist of receptive, cogritive and expresive components (Nordoft ‘& Robbins. 1977, p.). However, tis “music child” may be lying dormant and, hence, may need to be activated. Robbins and Robbins (1991) further claim that inside this “music child” bes another layer ofthe se which contains a transformative capaciy to grow and change. a tendency to move towards selactualizaion (pp57-72). Like Abraham Maslow, Nordoff and Robbins believe that as humans we all have the imate capacity for creativity ad growth, This eapacty gives the "music child” the power co develop the person's potential fr interaction and expression, which by integrating the ego functions. leads to ales restricted outer self or personality, For Nordoff ‘and Robbins the concept of mastery is also essencal to wellness (Nordoff & Robbins, 1971, p.98). In Creative Musle Therapy. the acquisition and mastery of ‘musical sil not a focus for purely musical reasons but in order to provide a foundation for personal expression. For Nordoff and Robbins, the potential for musical mastery resides within the “music child” and i is through such mastery that the “musi child” i able to help shape and develop the whole se. Furthermore, asthe client becomes more aware of the musi, he or she becomes more aware of him or hersef as an independent being and as a being in relation to others, as inferred by his or her purposeful musical interactions (Nordoff {& Robbins, 1963, p24). The innate potential for awareness is expanded as one’ sof 's communicated and developed through musical interaction and interresponsiveness, In summary, Nordoff and Robbins believe that itis through the organization and integration of the ego functions, ané she structuring and mastery of sil, that a person gains greater freedom in expressiveness and, thus is beter able to ‘communicate the set. Volume 10, 1999 The Austrolion Journal of Music Therapy8 In contrast, Priestieys understanding ofthe self is shaped by the Freudlan -sructural model consisting ofthe “moral superego, the “thinking” ego, and the “instinctual” id (Priestley, 1994, pp.185-I6I). A person i beloved to be well or healthy wien these aspects ofthe personality are well-balanced and thus the person ‘ean function satisfactory. Pathology is imphed whenever one of these aspects of ‘the personality overwhelms the others, that i, ifthe superego dominates the ego and the id, or if the id fs not kp in chack by the superego. Furthermore, these personality structures oporate within layers ofthe self the ‘conscious, the pre-conscious and the unconscious (Priesy, 1994, p.155). Consciousness, the awareness of one's thoughts, flings and reactions, is central to Priestley’s notion of wellness. Conversely, pathology isthe repression of confit, unacknowledged aspects of the self and defense mechanisms which reside in the unconscious. Thus, to bea flly functioning adult requires bringing into consciousness the images and memories one has stored in the unconscious, and to bbe aware of "childish" attuudes that have become frozen by unexpressed painful ‘emotions (Priestley, 1975, p.193). In other words, by unearthing unconscious ‘material one can expand one's consciousness and enable one's psychic energy. Which resides inthe id, to flow frealy “To maintain one's health or well-being, then, one must continually bring into consciousness where this energy is blocked by repressions and other defense ‘mechanisms, and to unblock it, or mobilize it, and direct it positively. eis the unexplored unconscious processes which constitute the obstacles to free flowing energy. Thus, wellness as free flowing psychic energy, requires an interaction and balance between the id, the ego and the superego (Priestley, 1994, p.170) Priescley believes thatthe unconscious ean be reached through music. She describes people in terms of their “inner music” which i “the prevaing emotional climate behind the structure of one's thoughts” (Priestley, 1975, 9.199). Although ft is outwardly expressed in imprevised sound or music, a person's “inner music” isnot is or her musicality oF musical potential, bur rather the core ofthe psyche - where the unconscious resides. So, the Improvised music is “projective” in the sense that it 1s 2 manifesation of the unconscious. The alm of Analytical Music Therapy is to be able to recognite, through music, where the psychic energy has become blocked and what has caused it to become blocked, and to mobilize the energy. Peiestley's understanding of the sel is also shaped by Melanie Klein who belived that “there ita fragle ego existent from birch imbued with a strong fear of Aisintegration” (Priestley, 1994, pp.161-168). Klein asserts that this fear leads the Infant to split off the “good” or gratfying aspects ofits mother from the “bac or denying aspects, This split later evolves Into projective identification in which a person projects parts of him or herseif onto another. if one projects bad parts of The Australian Journal of Music Therapy Volume 10, 1999the self, the object of these projections is felt to be persecutory. I one projects ‘good parts, one feels depleted and idealizes the other. To develop to one’ fullest potentat one must become aware of these projections and integrate them into lone self (Priestley, 1994, p. 166). Priestly later also embraced Jungs concept of the “shadow.” “that region of the mind which concains lost memorles, impulses, instincts, and ideas which are not acceptable to the ego-consciousness and are therefore repressed” (Priestley, 1994, p23I). fa person either rejects the shadow part of che self totaly or projects it ‘onto ethers he or she is only two-dimensional, The shadow dimension must be acknowledged and accepted forthe sof to be well-ntegrated ‘To summarize, Priestley believes that wellness requires insight and Understanding and not jst expression of feelings and redirection of energy Table 1. Comparison of Interpersonal Concepts of Weliness/Pathology Creative Music Therapy ‘Analytical Music Therapy Layers of sel Layers of sel Personality - ego functions Conscious Music Child Preconscious ‘Transformative capacity Unconscious Self integration: The codlescing of the ego | Self integration: The balance of functions (thinking, feeling wiling) hrough | energy between the structures of the development of the “music chile” the personality (ego, id, superego) and between the content of the conscious and the unconscious as expressed by one’s “inner music” Waliness: Requires integration of the Wollness: Requires insight and personality functions, which leads to freer sof understanding, not just self expression expression of feelings and redirection of psychic energy Interpersonal Concepts of Wellnes/Pathology Cental to Nordof and Robbins’ nation of wellness isthe ability to interact with and relate to others freely (Nordoff & Robbins, 1971, p98) that is, without perseverative compulsiveness andior astertive inflexiblt (|977. p.183). its inthe responding to others that a perton communicates his or her indvidvalty and by $0 doing shapes and develops his or her slf (Robbins & Robbins, 1991, p.S7). Volume 10, 1999 The Australian Journal of Music Theropy10 ‘Conversely, the extent to which a person Interacts with others depends on both the will and capability of the person to communicate, assert and express him or herself. ‘Thus, neerpersonal freedom affects‘and is affected by sof-dovelopment. Ie follows then that Nordoff and Robbins describe pathology in terms of leolation, restricted communicativeness and unresponsiveness (Nordoff & Robbins, 1971, ppul517). Furthermore, they see chat the way out of this restriction is through interaction, and especially musical interaction; otherwise the person’ self will not be communicated or developed to is fullest potential. {As stated above, Nordoffand Robbins believe the innate potential in every Individual for inceraction with others and communication of the self through music is found in the form of the "music child” In terms of interpersonal freedom, when the “music child” is fre, it engages and interacts, and when the “music child” is restricted, ts communication is inhibited, “To summarize, Nordoff and Robbins have built thele model of therapy on three basic premises regarding health or wellness and pathology: (@) The ability to interact with and relate to others is central to the notion of wellness: (0) Interaction isthe context in which the self is shaped and developed and (©) There is 2 universal pountal for interaction and relationship dhrough music. Far Priestley, how we relate to and communicate to others i also central to wellness. She believes that we can achiove interpersonal freedom when we are not hindered by rigid defense mechanisms. Defense mechanisms are unconscious steps taken to protect oneself from perceived dangers (Priestley, 1994, p.169). They Include repression, denial, sping, projection, itrojecton, suppression, regression, ‘solation, intellectualization, avoidance, and identfietion. Defense mechanisms are 2 ‘normal and necessary part of psychic development because they help to contain some of the overwhelming anxiety that would otherwise be causad by the awareness of very hreatering feelings, thoughts, impulses and memories. However, defense mechanisms, i too elaborate can draw energy away from the rest of anes life activities (Priestley, 1994, pp. 169-180). Defense mechanisms also can restrict interpersonal freedom in that they are pattemed ways of responding to situations based on painful past intoractions and tionships. I, for example, a person has grown up in a damaging emotional climate, the damaged child can live on, shaping he responses of the adult, especially In incecpersonal relationships. According to Priestley, many difficulties in adult relavonships result from projecting unintegrated aspects of one’ self (often the so-called "bad" parts) onto other people. A person who has not resolved past conics, ends to seck relationships which re-create these conflicts, often reinforcing hither defenses even more strongly (Priestley, 1975, .13). The Australian journal of Music Therapy Volume 10, 1999Table 2. Comparison of Interpersonal Concepts of Wellness/Pathology ‘Creative Music Therapy ‘Analytical Muse Therapy Pathology: isolation restricted | Pathology: patterned ways of responding ‘communication, unresponsiveness | based on painful past experiences Incerpecsonal freedom affects and | Interpersonal freedom affects and is affected is affected by sel-development | by salf-development Wellness: abilty to interact and | Wellness: ability to interact and relate relate to others 1 others “The aim is to develop one’s self | The alm isto improve one's relavonships with through interaction with others | others by developing one’s self ‘Transpersonal Concepts of Welinesy/Pathology Robbins and Robbins (1991) describe the process of transformation from the “old self zo the "new sel ofthe client in terms of four major psychological coriencations, each addressing a particular aspect of their work: behavior, psychodynamic, humanistic and transpersoral (p.70). The wranspersonal aspects of ‘their work are associated with sel acwalzation, Robbins and Robbins (1991) wis: “Through Creative Music Therapy [we are} calling beings ince existance that have not existed before. There has been potental but ic has not been actualized into existence before" (6.70). In other words, transpersonal experiences are those musical experiences when the client creates a new self moving beyond the limits of his orher present self ‘The phenomenan is not unommen in Creative Musie Therapy. when, swept Up by the matical experience and reaching heights and depths not recognized in other situations, the client feels something beyond his or her boundaries. Ths is rot just the further development of existing characteristics or skis. but goes beyond, oF perhaps beneath these skis and reveals and acualzes new potentials. “Theve new parts may then join with the existing parts and result in an expanded sell. White generally not permanent the experience in and of itsel is sel-healing. and atleast for that moment the cent has reached 2 depth of being not previously experienced ‘Although Priestley does nor use the term tranepersoral per se, what she describes as “he inefable” can be considered transpersonal in rature. She oscribes moments when, while the therapist and cient are improvising, the music changes qualty and begins to hold the therapeutic couple: Volume 10, 1999 The Australian Journal of Music Theropy i“The sherapist may es hat che musi has Become greater than the two of them and then he fees that itis playing him. In fac. instead of being the player he feels that he has become the instrument. Ax sucha ime there may be an alteration of consciousness with te at of playing the music wth his gers on the piano creating the lower end ofthe quivering continuum, reaching up 0 3 lofty area of feeling and though in a quite diferent climate. One comes out ef such an experience altered, one has lst some of one’s constricting individuality and guined 2 fecing of a greater breadth of being (Priestley, 1994, p32!) Priestley refers to this type of experience as a “receptive creative experience” ‘aking place in the "Eternal Now" where our sense of time is altered and we stand stil and wonder. These “sacramental” experionces cannot be produced at wil: they Just happen, ahough both players must have a certain degree of empathy and ‘openness. Priestley writes, “Music, at such times, creates us, we no longer create it [and] this kind of music seems to be experienced in an extra dimension... itis as if ‘the music has already been composed” (1994, p.321). Often after such an ‘experiance, the players share its wonder in a prolonged and rich silence, words not able to express its “inefable” nature, Priestley believes that these experiences are a by-product ofthe improvisation but are not essential for good therapy to take place. However, they might provide the dient with an experience of cloteness, which he or she may need, oF joy. which the client may have lacked, and as such, may be very beneficial In Priesley's words, "1 do.not know what the inward and spiritual grace is but It is a very real presence (Priestey, 1994, p. 321). ‘Table 3. Comparisons of the Transpersonal Concepts of Wellness/Pathology (Creative Music Therapy ‘Analytical Music Therapy Experence of being swept up by the music | Experience of being swept up by the music and experiencing an expanded sense of se | and experiencing an expanded sense of sof ‘Actualzng of potential not Spiritual presence which momentarily experienced before lifts the therapeutic couple into different dimensions 12 The Australian Journal of Music Therapy Volume 10, 1999Dynamics of Therapy teaming he dans of hap four man cng were developed: fons el erapy role of msi cher herp rant, andere etn Focus of Therapy ln Creative Music Therap, the client moves through his or her own natural healing process, while the therapis() respects the integrity of the se-healing process and the powerful role of music and avoids imposing anything foreign or non-essential, conto that process, Creative Music Therapy is geared toward the client's potentials rather than pathology. Nordaffané Robbins believe that che clonts natural impulses and crives should be used positively to enhance the therapeutic process, rather than controlled, The focus i on the here-and.now and on experiencing ie fly. Within the Analytical Music Therapy model, musical experiences and the relationships that develop through them are used as a means of bringing the client Insights into his or her emotional life and of stimulating the desired changes therein (Bruscia, 1968). The aim isto provide corrective emotional experiences for the client and creates new emotional options by breaking patterned responses to siuations. Because the work in Analyleal Music Therapy centars around frozen ‘emotions or energy blocks, the same issues tend to arse repeatedly (Bruscia 1987 1.122). The focus is on bringing unresolved emotional material into consciousness and helping the client understand wivy he or she has been responding in certain ways. Therefore, biographial material is essential to seeing the founcation of the pathology and the relationship between the past and present behaviors Table 4. Comparison of the Focus of Therapy Creative Music Therapy Emphasis ison healing and wholeness Developing creative options for cient Locating and developing abies Focus on experience Biographical material is unimportant Focus i on the musical expression to bring a sense of wholoness toa client Volume 10, 1999 Analytical Music Therapy Emphasis is on psychotherapy and corrective emotional experiences ‘Creating new emotioral options for cient Locating and removing pathology Impact of the past on present experiences Focus on insight Biographical material is essential Focus i on the unearthing of unconscious processes to bring wholeness to che client's musical and personal expression The Australian Journal of Music Theropy 13Role of Music ‘The role of music is central to Creative Music Therapy and serves as the healing agent because it activates the client's inner resources (Brusca, 1989), It is through music that the client impulses are transformed into action and therefore into awareness, Music also helps the cont experience a variety of emotions, and helps the clint to build confidence to push beyond pathological restrictions. The experience of expressive freedom and Incerresponsiveness in music helps the lent build an interpersonal relationship withthe therapists) as well as independence, Nordoff and Robbins believe that music is central to life (existence). ‘As the role of music is central to Creative Musie Therapy, words are used sparingly. They are used primarily by the therapists), In the form of instructions, prompts or reflections of the ongoing moment. to enhance the musical relationship Con. not interrupt the essential musical realty of the moment (Nordoff & Robbins, 1977, p.103). Typically, the therapist and client do not verbally process the cliene's struggles, rections andlor experiences. ‘However, both music and words are integral to Analytical Music Therapy. As a bridge between one’ inner and outer worlds, between one’s unconscious and conscious processes, music can access unconscious feelings and stimulate memories and images. It ean cut through defenses and reduce resistance to denied or spit off ‘emotions and shen can faciitave verbalizations by providing 2 means of expressing feclings (Pressey, 1994, p.135-136). Improvsing music together is “a very subtle and incimate way of connecting with another person's emotional and spiritual life [while leaving] the therapy couple free at the mental and physical levels" (Priestley, 1994, p226) ‘While the expression of feelings through musie may bring temporary rele, Aealngs need to be understood to be resolved, and as humans our understanding comes through langvage (Priestley, 1994). Priestley belives thatthe therapist and client must verbally process the liens struggles, reactions and experiences ater Improvising together. “Once an emotion is clothed in words, chey both can become lee building blocks thac one can play with” Priestley, 1994, p35). Table 5. Comparison of the Role of Music ‘Creative Music Therapy Music isthe primary healing agent "Music is used in conjunction with words and other media to factace therapeutic growth 14 The Australian Journal of Music Therapy Volume 10, 1999‘Cliens-Therapist Relaionshio In Creative Music Therapy the client-therapist relationship is seen co progress through diferent stages based on levels of resistiveness of the client. At the lowest level, the relationship is tentative for the cliont, with Meeting awareness of, and responses to, the therapists and their activities. This develops into a more stable musical “activity relationship" with the therapse(s) in which the client has a “consistently recurring positive response to the therapy situation” (Nordoff & Robbins, 1977, p.186). With time, the relationship further develops into 2 “working relationship in which the clant is able to concentrate on “applying and developing skills in working with the tKerapist on particular evolving musical ‘expressions and strcwres” (Nordoff & Robbins, 1977, p.187). The final stage is a mutually co-creativeinterpersoral musical relationship. Priestley, on the other hand, sees the development of the cliet-therapist ‘relationship in terms of various éynamics: the working alliance; transference; ‘countertransference; the musical relationship: and the rolesfree human relationship (Priestley, 1994, pp.17873). In the early part of the client-cherapis relationship, ‘countertransference (the therapist's subverbal identifications with the client) helps the therapist develop rapport with the client and convey empathy. As the rapport builds, and the client works more on his her inner life, transferences (the chld- ‘parent relationships in which the client comes with already established ways of handling and avoiding certain feelings) become more obvious. The working aliance (the adult-to-adut relationship between the client and the therapist) Is then Important in helping the client take responsibilty for working through his her problems in spite of painful states of emotion. As the cllent works through transferences, the working allance grows stronger and the client and the therapist relate more on an adult-to-adult bass ‘The musical level of the relationship is reciprocal (Priestley, 1994, p.74). ‘Through the music, the therapist and clint exchange feaings and the therapist's countertransferences car often be openly expressed. Originating from the unconscious, the musical relationship allows the client and therapist to connect most closely and at the deepest level. “The aim in Analytical Music Therapy is forthe client to experience a role- free human relationship with the least possible distortions (Priestley 1994, p. 75) lien Music Relationship Nordoff and Robbins describe the client-music relationship as central in importance, in Creative Musie Therapy itis the music that creates the emotional ‘environment for therapy to take place. It provides the basic motivational force, and evokes self-expression by stimulating the “music child” Furthermore, music Volume 10, 1999 The Australian Journal of Music Therapy 1516 allows for the expression of emotione atherwise hampered by the client's rescricted communicativeness. In other words, certain emotions may never have been expressed, nt because they were repressed into the unconscious as a result of an emotionally debilitating experience, but because the capacity to ‘express thom has not been activated ané developed. Music provides a context or a language in which to express these emotions for people who have found no ‘other means Nordof and Robbins beleve thac music is a mode! of wholeness. Muscat improvisation involves the organization of receptive cognitive and expressive pails, which aro central to the organization of the personality. That i. in playing music 2 person is acting, thinking and feeling simultaneously. Furthermore, [Nordoff and Robbins believe that the Beauty, oF valu, of improvisation is that iis individualized and alvays changing. as we as human beings are continually composing and improvising ourselves in the world. AS Nordoff and Robbins put ig "Music is made moment by moment what it axpresses comes to life ast moves in time” (Nordoff & Rabbis, 1971, p17) In their Scales of Assessment (1977) Nordoff and Robbins describe the Clients relationship to muse In terms of levee of responsiveness and musical mastery. At the lowest level, the client does not partepate and shows extreme rasistveness to the music. As the music matches the client in mood or physialmelodic characteristics, she or he may have brief periods of auditory awareness. With auditory awareness engagement in music is possible. The cient may respond with vocal or insrumencal sounds or with movement. At fist chese responses may be fragmentary, musically unformed, unorganized. uncontrolled and unsustained. Late, musical patterns may develop. As the clien’s music Becomes more organized, she or he starts to inate certain patterns more spontaneous, ‘more independently. OF course, not all liens star atthe same point in thelr relationship to musle. Thelr responses may be affected by their intellectual, physical andlor emotional characteristics. However fr all lens, overtime there isan increase n awareness of the expressive potentials of music, and an increase in awareness of, and sensitivity €, the therapists muse. This leads to greater expressive freedom and interresponsiveness, and, hence, to greater variety inthe music. To summarize, the clients relationship with musi in Creative Music “Therapy moves from relative non-responsiveness through fragmercary evoked sounds, to more contrlled musically welMormed patterns, to spontaneously inated musieal structures, and, rally, to exprasive freedom and inueeresponsiveness. This relationship with music simultaneously develops the self ‘hile enhancing interaction with thers. OF course, clianss may begin therapy at different points along this continuum, The Australian Journal of Music Therapy Volume 10, 1999In contrast, Priestley views the client's relationship with music as of equal Importance to and interrelated with the client's relationship with the therapist. ‘The relationship between the dlient and the therapist becomes an effective means of therapeutic change through the music and the music becomes an effective change agent through the client-therapist relationship (Bruscia, 19872, p. 157) ‘As a language of the emotions, music can express fear, anger, joy. anxiety, frustration, and s0 on. Sometimes repressed emotions, vivid memories and inner Images may be less painful to express through music because itis 2 symbolic ‘medium. Music also has the capacity to contain the full magnitude of emotions by providing 2 safe atmosphere for the expression of intense emotions. In Priestley’, view, emotions are energy and energy can not be eliminated, it merely changes form (Priestley, 1994, p47). Music assists in positively redirecting energy. For ‘example, aggressive tendencies can be expressed lass destructively and more positively through music. Priestley believes that the cients relationship with music depends on from ‘whom the music has originated. When the client improvises, he or she uses music to ereate, listen to, explore and change his or her own “Through creating and listening to the music that expresses how he or she is feeling the client becomes more aware of these feclings. The music then becomes a means of exploring these feelings and of finding new ways to express wner music, him or hersel "Music originating from the therapist provides a safe container in which the client ean express emotions. The therapist's music may reflect the clients feelings, siving the client support. The therapist's musie may also complement the client's ‘music through countertransference. That is, the therapist may play an emotion that the client has buried in his her unconscious, possibly enabling the client to accept or reject these frozen emotions or lost parts ata conscious level Priestley believes that one of the most important features of the cient-music relationship i its existence in the dimension of time. Because of the time ‘element “there is always the possibly that the feelings ofa client will undergo a ‘change’ (Priestly, 1975, p.249). Furthermore, she says that although this change may not be musially impressive, it may be enough to convince the person that his for her feelings in the real lie situation will also be able to change. Volume 10, 1999 The Australian Journal of Music TherapyTable 6. Comparison of the nature of being in relationship to music that helps the client move towards wellness. Creative Music Therapy - ‘Analytical Music Therapy Music provides meuvation for sei expression | Music is a means for ‘exploring emotions and new ways to express self Music i a model of wholeness ‘Musici 2 projection of one's psychic condition ‘There sa development in responsiveness and | Music simultaneously allows for ‘musical mastery hat simuleaneousl stimulates | the expression of conscious and and necessitates the incegration of parts of the | unconscious emotions by the self and interaction with others client which can be contained Within and stimulated by the music of the therapist Conclusions In conclusion, this comparative analysis ofthe philosophical premises underying ‘Creative Music Therapy and Analytical Music Therapy delineates the salient features ‘of each model, This type of comparzon isnot evident within the music therapy literature, however it is valuble In providing a framework for future comparative analyses. Furthermore, this comparison has provided 2 foundation on which further ccomparigont can be made in terms of how these two models subsequently evohe. Final, in pointing out the ferences in the ways in which wellessthealth and ‘pathology and the nature of therapy are conceptualized, it demonstrates that an intgrasion ofthe two models may be inappropriate because the fundamental promises underiying the two models are conceptually incompatible. Creative Music ‘Therapy and Analytical music therapy encompass fundamentally diferent philosophies of personality development and the process of growth. They represent two dscinetly sitferent paracigms. ‘Agen, K. (19962), Bing in Matic The Fundtin of NerdofFRobbine Music Therapy. ‘St.Louis: MMB Msi, Ine. ‘Aigen,K. (19968). Nordof Robbins music therapy and musi psychotherapy. Newsletter ofthe IntemctionlAssocinion of NardofFRebbins Music Therapists. ‘igen, K (1997), Here We Are in Music. St Louls: MMB, Muse, Ine ‘Ansdel, G. 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Nevaleter ofthe International Associaton of NardfFRebias Music Therapists. Schelby,B. (|991), Mats Fourteenth — The Symphony of fate: Psychodynamic Improwsation therapy with a music therapy sudent in taining. In KE Brusca (Ed) Case Studies in Music Theropy. pp. 271-290, Phoeniavile, PA: Barcelona Publishers. Volume 10, 1999 The Australion Journal of Music Therapy 19