Chapter 6 AGR 1040

unit two
Plant Structure,
Chemistry, Growth,
Development, Genetics,
Biodiversity, and Processes
6 Structure of Higher Plants
7 Plant Growth & Development
8 Plant Chemistry & Metabolism
9 Genetics & Propagation
10 Cultivated Plants:
Naming, Classifying, Origin,
Improvement & Germplasm
Diversity and Preservation
11 Photosynthesis & Respiration
12 Water Relations
13 Mineral Nutrition
Chapter 6 - Structure of Higher Plants
KEY LEARNING CONCEPTS

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
Define the terminology that describes plant cells,

tissues, and organs.
Explain the basic functions of plant cells, tissues,
and organs.
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Practical Horticulture 5th edition

By Margaret J. McMahon, Anton M. Kofranek and Vincent E. Rubatsky
2011, 2007, 2002, 1988 Pearson Education, Inc.

Pearson Prentice Hall - Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
Some plants and their features can be identified

and appreciated from their external structure.
Internal structure and function are often overlooked.
An approach capitalizing on what is already known

is to follow a plant from germination to full size.
This approach allows us to study the external form or
morphology & internal structure, or anatomy, and
histology (microscopic features).
Major food, fiber, wood & ornamental plants belong

to two main classes.
Gymnospermsrepresented mainly by narrow-leaved,
evergreen trees
Angiosperms, usually broad-leaved, flowering plants.
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Angiosperms are divided into two subclasses:

Monocotyledons, which have an embryo with one
cotyledon, often shortened to monocot.
Dicotyledons, which have embryos with two cotyledons,
shortened to dicot.
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The Life Cycle of a Corn Plant (a Monocot)

A corn seed planted in moist soil
imbibes (absorbs) water from the soil.
Germination begins with emergence
of the radicle (the primary root) and
the plumule (the primary shoot).
These two enlarging axes form
the primary body of the plant.
The radicle grows down through
the coleorhiza, from which the
primary root develops and the
secondary roots branch.
A mature corn plant can
develop roots 2 m (6.1 ft) long.
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Adventitious roots grow from

the shoot axis just at or above the
soil surface.
Called anchor, brace, or prop roots,
they branch out in the soil to give
added support to the plant
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The emerging plumule is protected
by the coleoptile, enveloping the main
stem as it grows up through the soil.
As true foliage leaves develop, the
main stem continues to produce
sheathing leaves that encircle the
stems at each node.
When the plant reaches a given size,
producing a set number of leaves,
female flowerspistillate flowers
or earsappear at the base (axil)
of one or more sheath leaves.
Later, the male flowers, known as
staminate flowers or tassels,
develop at the top of the plant.
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B.
A.
C.
Figure 6-3 (A) A pollen-bearing corn tassel (staminate flower). (B) The ear (pistillate flower), showing the silks that
intercept the wind-blown pollen grains. (C) Each silk is attached to a single grain of corn. .
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Blown by the wind, pollen grains from the tassels fall
on and pollinate the long pistillate filaments (silks).
Subsequently fertilizing the ovaries, which become the
individual corn kernels borne on a stalk (cob).
Each ovary develops into a fruit, called a caryopsis, which
encloses the true seed.
After the kernels mature & dry, the fruits (containing

the seeds) are harvested and stored over the winter.
The seeds can be sown when weather conditions are
favorable for germination, and the life cycle repeats itself.
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The Life Cycle of a Bean Plant (a Dicot)

After a bean seed has been sown in moist soil,
it imbibes water and swells, the seed coat
bursts and the radicle emerges
The radicle grows

down, and the
hook of the bean,
the hypocotyl,
emerges above
the soil, carrying
the cotyledons
with it.
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Between the cotyledons lies a growing point
(apical or shoot meristem) flanked by two
opposite primary foliage leaves
The stem region

just above the
cotyledons and
the first trifoliate
leaves is called
the epicotyl.
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In favorable conditions the shoot apical meristem
rapidly produces two trifoliate leaves opposite each
other on the stem.
The cotyledons shrivel and abscise (drop off).
The plants green leaves are now capable of
manufacturing food for future growth of the seedling.
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Bean plants produces trifoliate leaves & flowers
begin to develop in the axils of about the fourth
set of leaves and in each succeeding set.
Flowers are selfpollinated; fruits

(pods) develop
as long as
environmental
conditions are
favorable.
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The seeds mature and dry within the pod, and can
be sown at once to produce another generation of
bean plants.
The difference in emergence of the growing points
of beans and corn from beneath the soil affects the
tolerance of each crop to light frosts.
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The Cell
The plant cell is the basic structural & physiological
unit of plantsplant tissues develop through an
orderly process of cell division and differentiation.
Cytology is the branch of biology involved in the
study of the components of cells and their functions.
Cells vary greatly in sizethe smallest measured in
micrometers, but some are several centimeters
long.
Enhanced light & electron microscopes have revealed
that living cells are highly organized complexes of subcellular compartments with special metabolic functions.
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In the living cell, these complexes are distributed

through a dynamic and orderly flow of materials
within the cytoplasm.

Cell Structure
Prokaryotic cells have no separate subcellular
unitsnuclear material is not enclosed in a
membrane.
These cells, considered primitive, are found in bacteria
and blue-green algae.
Eukaryotic cells are made up of compartments

bounded by membranes, with specialized structures
and functions.
Called organelles, these units include the nucleus,
mitochondria, plastids, microbodies, vacuoles,
dictyosomes, and endoplasmic reticulum.
Plant cells are eukaryotic cells.
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Cell Structure
Figure 6-5 Photomicrograph of a plant cell showing the various parts and organelles, x6,000. Source: Keith Weinstock.
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The Protoplast
The organelles of the plant cell are contained within
a membrane-bounded protoplast, encased within a
cell wall.
The plasma membrane, also called the plasmalemma,
is a lipid bilayer surrounding the cytoplasm.
Cytoplasm is a viscous fluid composed of matrix proteins,
bounded by the semipermeable plasma membrane.
Flow of organelles in the cytoplasmic matrix, called

cytoplasmic streaming, is clearly visible in active leaf
cells under a light microscope.
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The Protoplast
Within the cytoplasm is a very important network of
membranes, the endoplasmic reticulum (ER).
Proteins are synthesized on the surfaces of the ER
throughout the cell, on small discrete structures called
ribosomes.
Plastids of several types are located within the cytoplasm,
colorless leucoplasts serving as storage bodies for oil,
starch, and proteins.
Chromoplasts contain plant pigments, like chlorophyll.
Chromoplasts with chlorophyll are called chloroplasts and are
responsible for photosynthesis in leaves and in some stems.
In the chloroplast, light energy is harvested by pigments

bound to stacked membranes called grana and then
converted into chemical energy in the form of sugars.
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The Protoplast
Mitochondria are cytoplasmic bodies, smaller than
plastids, and like the chloroplasts, surrounded by a
double membrane, and contain a specialized inner
membrane system.
They are sites of respiration, involved in protein synthesis
and produce energy-rich compounds such as adenosine
triphosphate (ATP).
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The Nucleus
The nucleus is a prominent organelle, enclosed by
a double membrane and containing one or more
bodies called nucleoli.
In the nucleus are chromosomes, long lengths of
deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and associated
proteins that contain genetic information coding for
all cell functions, for differentiation of the organism,
and for reproduction.
Genetic codes are transcribed from the DNA in the
nucleus & translated into proteins on the ribosomes.
DNA is also found in the mitochondria and in the

chloroplasts, thereby giving these bodies a role in
heredity independent of the nucleus.
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Vacuoles
Vacuoles may occupy up to 90% of the volume of
mature cells, serving as a storage reserve for water
and salts, as well as for toxic products.
They contain a solution of dissolved materials, including
inorganic salts, blue or red pigments (anthocyanins),
sugars, organic acids, and various inclusions of crystals.
The membrane around the vacuole is the

tonoplast, controlling the flow of water and
dissolved materials, maintaining cell turgor, and
other functions.
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The Cell Wall

The non-living cell wall protects the protoplast,
provides an external structure, and may act as a
strong support for the plant.
It is made of cellulose, pectic substances, & lignins.
Between cells is an intercellular layermiddle

lamellawhich contains many mucilaginous pectic
compounds that hold adjacent cell walls together.
Adjacent to the middle lamella is the primary wall,
composed mostly of cellulose.
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The Cell Wall

The secondary wall layer, usually thicker than the
primary wall when fully developed, is also composed
of cellulose, but in some cells and tissues it may
contain lignins, suberins, or cutins.
Large quantities of water are contained and transferred
in cellulosic walls, which act as wicks.
Individual cells are connected to one another via

strands of cytoplasmic materialplasmodesmata.
The surrounding cell wall forms channels around the
plasmodesmata, called pits, through which water and
dissolved materials can move from cell to cell.
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The Cell Wall

Large tracts of organized cells of similar structure
that perform a collective function are called tissues.
Tissues of various types combine to form complex plant
organs such as leaves, flowers, fruits, stems, and roots.
Roots, stems & leaves are vegetative parts of the

plantflowers, fruits & seeds the reproductive parts.
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Plant Tissues
In all plants, both young and mature, two basic kinds
of tissues can be distinguished:
The meristem, or meristematic tissue, comprised of
actively dividing cells that develop & differentiate into
yet other tissues and organs.
Permanent tissue, which develops from the meristems
and has differentiated fully.
Simple, which includes the epidermis, parenchyma,
schlerenchyma, and collenchyma.
Complex, which includes the xylem and phloem.
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Meristematic Tissues
Shoot meristems, called shoot apical

meristems, are the termini of the
above-ground portions of the plant.
They are responsible for producing
new buds and leaves in a uniform
pattern at the terminus of the stem
and laterally along stems.
The pattern of leaves & lateral buds
that form from the shoot meristems
vary with the species of plant.
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The shoot apical meristem produces epidermis,
cortex, primary xylem & phloem, and the central
pith, tissues forming the primary stem structure.
The shoot apex may eventually develop terminal
inflorescences (floral groupings) instead of
continuing to produce leaves and lateral buds.
Some shoot meristems always remain vegetative
and continue to produce leaves and lateral buds.
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Root meristems, at various termini of the roots,

are the growing points for the root system.
Some plants have a dominant tap root,
which develops downward, together
with limited lateral root growth
Examples are carrots, beets & turnips,
all well-known root crops.
Other include oaks, pecans, alfalfa & cotton
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Many plants do not have a dominant tap root,

instead, the roots branch in many directions
creating a fibrous root system
Examples are the grasses, grain crops, and
many kinds of shallow-rooted trees.
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The subapical meristem produces new cells in the
region a few micrometers behind an active shoot or
apical meristem.
Activity of the subapical meristem is seen particularly
in certain plants that lack tall stems when they are
first producing leaves and that grow as a rosette.
Beets, carrots, China asters, lettuce, mustard & turnips.
Later, when shoot apical meristem initiates flowers,

the stem below the flower elongates rapidly (bolts)
because of the activity of the subapical meristem.
Cells divide as well as elongate, accounting for the rapid
stem growth below the terminal flower buds.
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The intercalary meristems are active tissues that have
been separated from the apical meristem by regions of
more mature or developed tissues.
The best examples of intercalary meristems are found
in monocots, and especially in the grasses.
Active meristematic cells just above the nodes in the

lower region of the leaf sheath divide, and those cells
develop (expand and elongate) rapidly.
Which explains why grass leaf blades continue to grow
after mowing even though the top has been cut off.
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Lateral Meristems, which

produce secondary growth,
are cylinders of actively
dividing cells starting somewhat below the apical or subapical meristems, continuing
through the plant axis.
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These meristems are the

vascular cambiumwhich
produces new xylem and
phloemand the cork
cambiumwhich chiefly
produces bark.
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Stem girth of woody
perennial plants and trees
increases mainly by the
activity of lateral meristems.
Measuring width of annual

growth rings in the stems
is one way to determine
the rapidity of lateral
growth of a tree.
Figure 6-9 Section of a three-year-old stem of pine (Pinus ) showing the annual rings by the end of the third summer.
The porous, fast-growing spring wood is followed by the more dense, slower-growing summer wood.
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Permanent Tissues - Simple

Simple Tissues The epidermis is a single exterior
layer of cells that protects stems, leaves, flowers, and
roots.
The outside surface of epidermal
cells is usually covered with a
waxy substance called cutin,
which reduces water loss.
Leaf epidermis of leaves is
usually colorless except for the
guard cells of the stomata,
which contain chlorophyll,
and are green.
Figure 6-10 Stomates on the underside of a leaf.
Source: Dr. Irving B. Sachs, USDA
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Some leaf epidermal cells are elongated into hairs
and are called trichomes.
The root epidermis lacks cutinit develops root hairs,
protuberances which actively absorb water from the soil.
Figure 6-11 Leaf surfaces of Ulmus elata : (A) Lower surface (x110). (B) Lower surface stomata and trichomes (x550).
(C) Leaf lamina transection (x230). Source: R. E. Meyer and S. M. Meola, USDA Tech. Bull. 1564 (1978).
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Parenchyma tissue is made up of living thin-walled
cells with large vacuoles and many flattened sides.
Principal tissue of the cylindrical zone under the epidermis
extending in to the phloem in a region called the cortex.
Sclerenchyma tissue is composed of thick-walled

cells found throughout the plant as sclereids
(fibers).
Sclerenchyma cells are common in stems & bark, and are
also found as stone cells in pear fruits and walnut shells.
Collenchyma tissue gives support to young stems,

petioles, and the veins of leaves.
The walls and corners of the cells are thickened, primarily
by cellulose, to provide reinforcement.
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Cork tissue occurs commonly in the bark of
maturing stems, trunks of trees, and potato skins.
Cell walls are waterproofed with a waxy material called
suberin.
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Permanent Tissues - Complex

Xylem is a structurally complex tissue that conducts
water and dissolved minerals from the roots to all
parts of the plant.
Cells found in the xylem may be vessels, tracheids, fibers,
and parenchyma.
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Tracheids are long, tapered, dead cells that conduct
water through pits.
Tracheids contribute significant strength and support to
the stems of gymnosperms.
Figure 6-14 The tracheids with bordered pits of Larch

(Larix lyalli) (x800). The central part is the
torus, and surrounding is the thin margo
through which liquids diffuse.
Source: USDA Forest Service.
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Fibers are thick-walled sclerenchyma cells that
provide support.
The parenchyma cells in xylem are arranged in
vertical files and act as food storage sites.
Movement of water and minerals

through the xylem is mostly through
physical, not biological, processes.
Figure 6-15
Long files of parenchyma cells surround the vessel.
Pitting in lateral vessel wall in red maple (Acer rubrum).
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Phloem conducts food and metabolites from the
leaves to the stem, flowers, roots & storage organs.
Phloem comprises sieve tubes, sieve tube members,
companion cells, fibers, and parenchyma.
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Sieve-tube members are long
slender cells with porous ends
called sieve platesand occur
only in angiosperms.
The equivalent in gymnosperms
is the sieve cell, which is like the
sieve-tube element except that it
lacks a sieve plate.
Companion cells aid in metabolite
conduction & are closely associated
with sieve-tube members.
Figure 6-16 Sieve cells, sieve-tube elements & companion cells in side
view & cross section, showing detail structure of sieve plates.
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Phloem fibers are
thick-walled cells that
provide stem support.
Parenchyma cells in
the phloem serve as
storage sites.
Unlike xylem phloem is
made up of living cells.
Movement of food &
metabolites through
phloem is biological.
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The Plant Body

When a plant first begins to grow from seed, the
original organs are the radicle and plumule.
These organs form the primary plant body.
As the plant grows, the primary organs develop into
mature organs made up of permanent tissues.
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Roots
Roots absorb/conducting water & minerals, and
anchor & support the plant.
Some act as storage organs for photosynthesized food.
Dissolved mineral nutrients and water

required for growth are absorbed by
the root hairs, which are extensions
of the epidermal cells.
Figure 6-18 Section of epidermis of a young root

showing three stages (bottom to top)
in the development of root hairs.
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Roots
A few kinds of trees develop aerial roots from the
underside of branches.
Once these roots reach the soil and penetrate it, they
become functional as ground roots.
The root system is about one-quarter to one-third of

the total of the entire dry weight of any plant.
Depending on the storage or fibrous nature of the root.
The depth that tree roots penetrate depends largely

on species & the structure/water status of the soil.
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Roots
The tap root usually grows downward, and the
branch roots grow downward or horizontally.
The tap root can be encouraged to branch at an early
stage by removing or breaking the apical root meristem.
Because most of the water and nutrients enter via

the root hairs, a healthy actively growing root
system is necessary for good plant growth &
development.
The meristematic region of a root is composed of
small, thin-walled cells with dense protoplasm that
produce primary tissue at a rapid rate.
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Behind this active region lies the zone of elongation.

Behind the region of elongation is the region of
maturation.
Practical
Horticulture 5 edition
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Roots
Figure 6-19 Left :Cross section of a young root showing the parts
of the primary plant body and their location. Right :
Developmental occurrences in the root tip, showing
the various components and their relative location.
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Roots
The root meristem gives rise to the root cap,
epidermis, cortex, and central vascular cylinder.
The root cap is a thimble-shaped group of cells that
protect the actively dividing meristem as it penetrates soil.
Sloughed off as the root contacts sharp soil particles.
The protoderm rise to the epidermis, or root outer layer.

The ground meristem is the tissue layer that gives rise to
the cortex just below the epidermis.
A single layer of inner cortical cells forms the
endodermis, a tissue found only in the root and not the
stem.
Each thin-walled endodermal cell is completely encircled
by a narrow, thickened band of waterproofed material
known as the Casparian strip.
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The solution of water and nutrients entering the root from the
Practical Horticulture 5 edition
soil cannot penetrate the Casparian strip.
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Roots
For the soil solution to enter the inner tissue (pericycle)
of the root, it must pass through the permeable
endodermal cell walls and the protoplast.
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The Procambium Layer

The procambium layer gives rise to various tissues
of the vascular cylinder.
The pericycle, the outermost layer of cells of the
central core, lies just inside the endodermis.
This layer also produces a vascular cylinder of primary
phloem/xylem, vascular cambium & in some species, pith.
The pericycle & vascular cylinder are collectively

called the stele.
The primary xylem is a central mass of tissue that
may extend as arms beyond the primary phloem.
The cambium layer develops from the procambium
and from pericycle cells outside the primary xylem.
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The Procambium Layer

Adventitious roots form any place on plant tissue
other than the radicle of a germinating seed and its
extensionsarising from meristematic cells
adjacent to vascular bundles.
Production of adventitious roots is the basis for
propagation by stem cuttings.
Adventitious roots can arise from plant parts other

than stems, such as from leaf petioles or leaf blades
or even from old root pieces.
Adventitious roots also develop on intact plants.
The ability of some plants to form adventitious roots

allows seedlings & transplants to be planted deep in
the ground if they have become tall and spindly.
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Stems
The main stem and its branches are
the scaffold of the plant, supporting
the leaves, flowers, and fruits.
The leaves and herbaceous green stems
manufacture food, which is transported to
roots, flowers & fruits through the phloem.
The stem develops from three primary

tissues produced by the apical
meristem:
Protoderm; Ground meristem; Procambium.
These give rise to the epidermis, cortex, and
vascular cambium.
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Stems
The epidermis, which is usually a single layer of
surface cells, protects the stem.
Epidermal cells are usually cutinized on their outer
surface to retard desiccation.
The cortex lies just beneath the epidermis and

encircles the inner core of the vascular tissue.
Parenchyma, collenchyma, sclerenchyma, and secretory
cellswith parenchyma cells the most numerous.
Some parenchyma cells have chloroplastschlorenchyma.
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Stems
Collenchyma is the outer cell layer of the cortex
adjacent to the epidermal layer.
These cells may be thickened at the corners, and their
walls contain cellulose, hemicellulose, and pectin.
Sclerenchyma cells have thick lignified walls.

They can form long fibers, the source of strength in stems.
Secretory cells produce resinous substances.

Commonly found, for example, in resin ducts of pine
trees.
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Stems
Figure 6-22 Cross section of a young woody plant stem toward the end of primary growth, showing various tissues.
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Stems
The vascular system of seed-bearing plants
consists of the pericycle, phloem, vascular
cambium, xylem, pith rays, and pith.
The arrangement of these complex tissues in the
vascular system differs among three broad groups
of plants:
Gymnosperms & woody dicotyledonous angiosperm
perennialssuch as trees & shrubs.
Herbaceous dicotyledonous plantssuch as potato,
petunia & phlox.
Monocotyledonous plantssuch as corn & date palms.
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Woody Perennials
All the cells & tissues originate from a terminal shoot
meristem that forms protophloem and protoxylem.
As the stem grows in length, the secondary tissues form from
the vascular cambium.
The secondary phloem develops toward the outside

of the stem & the secondary xylem forms inwardly.
Secondary xylem is actively produced by the vascular
cambium in early spring and less actively in late summer.
This xylem tissue becomes the early (porous) and late
(dense) wood that form the annual growth rings in trees.
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Woody Perennials
Vessels or tracheids formed during the spring flush of
growth are larger than those formed during summer.
Figure 6-21 Three-dimensional skeletal view
through a potato stem showing the
primary vascular system extending
through the stem with branches into
the cutaway leaf petioles.
Figure 6-23
Cross section through the xylem of
Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii)
(x200). The large pores to the left are
the spring wood and the more dense
cells were formed in summer of the
same year. The very large pore at the
top is a resin duct.
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Woody Perennials
Narrow-leaved evergreen treesgymnospermsare
usually called softwoods or nonporous wood trees
Figure 6-24
Three-dimensional view of the
wood of a softwood forest species:
(1) Cross-sectional face.
(2) Radial face.
(3) Tangential face.
(4) Annual ring.
(5) Early wood.
(6) Late wood.
(7) Wood ray.
(8) Fusiform ray.
(9) Vertical resin duct.
(10) Horizontal resin duct.
(11) Bordered pit.
(12) Simple pit.
Source:
U.S. Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, Wis.
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Woody Perennials
Narrow-leaved evergreen treesgymnospermsare
usually called softwoods or nonporous wood trees
Figure 6-24
End-wall perforations in
the ray cells of Douglas fir
(Pseudotsuga menziesii).
Xylem of
gymnosperms
consists mainly
of tracheids.
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Woody Perennials
Broad-leaved angiosperm trees
are called hardwoods or porous
wood trees.
Figure 6-26
Three-dimensional view of the wood
of a hardwood forest species:
(1) Cross-sectional face.
(2) Radial face.
(3) Tangential face.
(4) Annual ring.
(5) Early wood.
(6) Late wood.
(7) Wood ray.
(8) Vessel.
(9) Perforation plate.
Source:
U.S. Forest Products Laboratory, Madison, Wis.
The xylem tissue is made up

mostly of vessel elements
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Woody Perennials
Both gymnosperms & woody perennial angiosperms
grow in girth each year when cells of the vascular
cambium divide, forming annual rings of xylem.
Stems ending their first season of growth are mostly
xylem.
The
phloem is a relatively thin layer of complex
tissue protected by the bark or cork layer.

When the trunk of a tree is girdled, the bark and phloem
are removed from an area encompassing the entire trunk.
Damage to phloem stops metabolite flow below the
girdling, resulting in a weakening and often death.
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Woody Perennials
The cork cambium (phellogen), a meristematic
tissue, provides cells that grow outward and inward.
Outward cells become cork cells; the inward, phelloderm.
The unusually thick bark of

the cork oak (Quercus suber)
is stripped for a multitude of
commercial uses such as
corks and insulation.
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Woody Perennials
In young twigs & small

trunks of many kinds
of trees & shrubs, pore
openings, called
lenticels allow the
inward and outward
diffusion of gases.
Figure 6-10
Bark of a birch tree
(Betula verrucosa)
showing the lenticels.
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Woody Perennials
Herbaceous Dicotyledonous Plants
Early stem growth is much like early
growth of woody dicot stems.
Vascular bundles (fascicles) of a
herbaceous dicot usually remain
separated &distinct, arranged in
a single circle in the stem
A larger proportion of herbaceous
stem is cortex and pith, rather than
xylem or phloem.
Stem strength comes from pericycle
fibers adjacent to the phloem or from
collenchyma or sclerenchyma tissue
just beneath the epidermis.
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Woody Perennials
Herbaceous Monocotyledonous Plants
Stem growth originates from an apical
meristem producing vascular bundles
scattered through the parenchyma
Sclerenchyma cells near the epidermis
and thick-walled cells surrounding
the bundles provide principal support
in monocot stems.
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Woody Perennials
Herbaceous Monocotyledonous Plants
Monocots have no continuous cambium
and, therefore, lack secondary growth.
Stem diameter from the base to the
apex is usually more uniform in monocot
stems than in dicot stems with
secondary vascular growth.
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Woody Perennials
In woody perennial monocotyledonous plants
trees such as date and coconut palms (Arecaceae),
thickness at the stem apex increases by the activity
of a primary thickening meristem.
In the trunk below the terminal growing point, parenchyma
cells divide & enlarge allowing lateral stem enlargement.
This is termed diffuse secondary growth because no actual
lateral meristem is involved.
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Stem Forms
When we think of the stem of a plant, we envision
the upright portion that bears branches, leaves,
flowers & fruitsbut stems come in other forms.
Apple, cherry, plum & pear trees bear flowers and fruits
each spring on persistent shortened stems called spurs.
Stems can also grow horizontally, as in a pumpkin or
cucumber vine.
Some species have underground stems; only a small
portion shows above ground for a relatively short period
in the springthe so-called bulbous plants.
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Stem Forms
The white (Irish) potato plant (Solanum tuberosum).
Two kinds of stems:
The above-ground stem that
bears the leaves and flowers.
An underground stem whose
terminal portion swells into a
tuber as it accumulates
starches & sugars
Like other stems, the white
potato tuber has buds
(eyes) that sprout, when
planted, to form new
above-ground stems.
tab


Stem Forms
A rhizome is an underground stem that grows
horizontally.
Examples of plants with rhizomatous stems are bananas,
cannas, certain irises & bamboos, and some grasses,
such as quack grass, Johnson grass, and Bermuda grass.
Stolons are stems that grow horizontally above

ground.
Sometimes called runners, stolons can develop roots in
the soil at every node or at every other node (strawberry).
Examples of species with stolons are ajuga, Bermuda grass,
and some ferns.
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Stem Forms
Corms are thickened compressed

stems that grow underground
Buds on corms sprout to
produce upright stems, which bear
leaves and flowers.
Gladiolus, crocus & freesia
are some examples.
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Stem Forms
Bulbs are highly compressed underground stems to
which many storage leaves (scales) are attached.
One or more buds on the bulb sprout in the spring to
produce an elongated stem with leaves and flowers.
Hyacinths, lilies, onions, and tulips are examples of bulbous
plants.
Stem tubers are the enlarged, fleshy, terminal

portions of underground stemssuch as the
white potato.
tab


Stem Forms
Leaves Leaves develop in a complex series of
events closely associated with stem development.
Their prescribed pattern, position, and shape are
influenced to some extent by their environment.
Most monocots have strap-shaped leaves with

parallel veins & interveinous connections between
major veins.
The veins contain sheaths of vascular bundles including
xylem and phloem elements.
Palisade and spongy mesophyll parenchyma cells, containing
chlorophyll for photosynthesis, surround these veins.
tab


Stem Forms
Figure 6-33 Cross section through a lily leaf showing tissues involved in photosynthesis, transpiration, and translocation.
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Stem Forms
Figure 6-34 Three-dimensional cutaway view of an apple leaf showing the relation of cells in the various tissues.
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Stem Forms
Leaves of dicotyledonous plants vary considerably
in size and shapepractically all have veins
arranged in the shape of nets.
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Stem Forms
Leaves of dicotyledonous plants vary considerably
in size and shapepractically all have veins
arranged in the shape of nets.
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Stem Forms
The spongy mesophyll parenchyma contains the
intercellular spaces through which carbon dioxide,
oxygen, and water pass.
The outside layer or skin of the leaf is largely made up of
epidermal cells, which contains openings or pores called
stomates, each surrounded by two guard cells.
Generally more stomates in the lower epidermal layer.
The primary function of leaves is photosynthesis.

A secondary function is transpiration.
The guard cells control the opening and closing of

the stomata through which carbon dioxide enters,
and oxygen is released.
Water also enters or escapes through the stomata.
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Stem Forms
Loss of water from the leaf by evaporation is called
transpirationand helps regulate leaf temperature.
Also draws water into & through the xylem.
Some plant leavessuch as cabbagehave a thick

waxy surface (cuticle), greatly reducing water loss.
In other plants, epidermal cells produce elongated
hairs that reduce the wind velocity at the leaf
surface
Reducing the transpiration rate.
tab
Some kinds of plants minimize water loss by having

stomata sunken deep in the epidermal layer.
Plants often have leaves modified to perform
functions other than photosynthesis/transpiration.

Stem Forms
In most dicot plants, the leaf is made up of:
The bladethe flat thin part.
The petiolewhich attaches the blade to the stem.
In some plants, the stipules at the base of the petiole.
Some leaf blades are attached directly to the stem &

lack a petiole or stipulestermed sessile leaves.
Leaves are usually classified as simple (a single
leaf) or compound (one with three or more leaflets).
The best test is to examine the base of the petiole.
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Stem Forms
A compound leaf resembling a feather is termed
pinnateone resembling the palm of a hand is
called a palmate.
A trifoliate compound leaf has three leaflets.
Shapes of simple leaves are described as linear,

oblong, elliptical, lanceolate, deltoid, etc.
Leaf edges or margins range from entire (smooth),
dentate (tooth like), serrate (sawlike) to lobed
(rounded edges).
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Buds
Plant stems generally produce buds in the axils
of leaves at the nodes or terminally on shoots.
Buds usually do not occur on roots.
Buds include:
Vegetative buds, which develop into a shoot.
Flower buds, which open to produce a flower or flowers.
Mixed buds, which open to produce both shoots & flowers.
Cutting through a bud longitudinally reveals the

miniature parts of either a stem growing point or, in
a flower bud, all the miniaturized parts of a flower.
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Buds
Buds are especially prominent in winter on
deciduous plants when the leaves have fallen.
Buds may occur opposite each other on a stem
or in an alternate arrangement around the stem.
Buds are initiated by terminal growing points as
shoots elongate during the growing season.
Some buds continue to grow into shoots after forming.
Some buds remain latent for long periods of time &

become embedded in enlarging stem tissue.
These become latent buds.
Adventitious buds can develop where buds often do

not form, as on root pieces when cuttings are made.
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Flowers
Flower buds form by the differentiation of vegetative
buds into flower parts.
In angiosperms, specialized floral leaves on the stem are
adapted for sexual reproductionthese are the flowers.
After fertilization portions of the flower develop into a fruit,
which bears the seed(s).
Flowers or inflorescences vary in shape and form

among the species, a fact that aids in identifying a
plants species, genus, and family.
tab


Flowers
As with stems, botanists classify flowers in a
specialized morphological terminology.
tab


Flowers
As with stems, botanists classify flowers in a
specialized morphological terminology.
tab


Flowers
Complete Flowers Complete flowers usually have
four partssepals, petals, stamens, and pistil.
Sepals are the leaflike scales that encircle the other
flower parts, as in the carnation and rose.
The sepals collectively are called the calyx.
Petals are the next whorl of leaves in from the sepals.

The collective term for petals is corolla.
Usually brightly colored & often contain nectaries that
secrete nectar to attract insects, which pollinate the flowers.
Sepals and petals collectively are called the perianth.
The next whorl of floral organs in a complete flower is the

male part, or stamen.
Each consists of a filament & antherwhich produces pollen.
A group or whorl of stamens is the androecium.
tab


Flowers
Complete Flowers Complete flowers usually have
four partssepals, petals, stamens, and pistil.
The carpel (pistil)the central female componentis
composed of the stigma, the receptive surface that
receives the pollen; the style, a tube connected to the
stigma; the ovary, attached to the lower end of the style.
The ovary contains undeveloped ovules attached to a
placenta, which develop into seeds after pollination &
fertilization.
The pistil can be simple or compound.
Collectively, the carpels are known as the gynoecium.
tab


Flowers
The apricot & apple are examples of complete flowers
with a simple and a compound pistil, respectively.
Apricot
Apple
tab


Flowers
Incomplete Flowerslack one or more of the four
parts: sepals, petals, stamens, or pistil.
Those with both stamens & pistils are perfect flowers.
Flowers with stamens only and no pistils are called

staminate flowers and those with pistils, but no
stamens are pistillate flowers.
Staminate/pistillate flowers are imperfect flowers.
If the pistillate and staminate flowers are borne on

separate individual plants the species is dioecious.
tab


Flowers
Plants having both staminate and pistillate flowers
borne on the same plant are termed monoecious.
Figure 6-40 Flowers of a monoecious species,

the walnut.
Left : Female flowers.
Right : Male flowers, or catkins, are
borne in structures separate from the
female flowers on the same plant. The
female flowers are wind pollinated.
Alder, corn, walnut.
tab


Flowers
The corymb is a short, flat-topped flower with an
indeterminate cluster that continues to produce
flowers until conditions become unfavorable.
The cyme resembles the corymb, except that the
central or topmost flower is the first to open.
The raceme is a single elongated indeterminate
arrangement of stalked flowers, found in the
mustard & cole crops (Brassicaceae).
The spike is an elongated, simple, indeterminate
inflorescence with sessile (no stalk) flowers.
The catkin is a spike with only pistillate or staminate
flowerssuch as alder, poplar, walnut, and willow.
tab


Flowers
The panicle is an indeterminate branching raceme
found in many of the grasses.
The umbel is an indeterminate, often flat-topped,
cluster of flowers of equal length and arise from a
common pointas in carrots, dill, and onions.
A head is a short dense spike.
Daisies and sunflowers have heads.
A spadix is a complete densely flowered structure

surrounded by a spathe
Calla lily in the Araceae family.
tab


Fruits
A fruit is a matured ovary plus associated parts.
Fruit protects seeds in some plants & helps disseminate it.
Many of the vegetables we eat are actually fruits.

Tomatoes, peppers, squash, green beans & peas are all,
fruits botanicallythough dietarily considered vegetables.
Flowers are self-pollinated or cross-pollinated by

wind or insects.
Pollen grows from a pollen grain on the stigma through
the style and fertilizes the egg, causing fruit to develop.
Fruits may consist of a single carpel or combination

of several carpelsas in apples and tomatoes.
The ovary wall, which is called the pericarp, can develop
into different structures.
tab


Fruits
Simple fruits have a single ovary formed from one
flower.
Categorized as fleshy, semifleshy, or dry by the texture of
the mature pericarp.
In Fleshy Fruits the entire pericarp and accessory

parts develop into succulent tissue.
tab


Fruits
Berrya pulpy fruit from one or more carpels that
develops few to many seeds.
Bananas, dates, grapes, peppers, tomatoes, and papayas.
Figure 6-41
Grapes and peppers are
examples of berriesfruits
with one or more carpels that
develop few-to-many seeds.
tab


Fruits
Hesperidiumseveral carpels with inner pulp juice
sacs or vesicles enclosed in a leathery rind.
Orange, lemon, lime, and grapefruit.
Figure 6-42
Hesperidium fruit such as oranges and
limes have several carpels with pulp
juice sacs enclosed in a leathery rind.
The carpels, juice sacks, and leathery
rind are easily seen in the cross-section.
tab


Fruits
Pepoformed from an inferior ovary that develops
from multiple carpels each bearing many seeds.
Cucumbers, melons, squashes, and watermelons.
tab


Fruits
Drupesimple fruit derived from a single carpel.
Peaches, plums,
cherries, apricots,
almonds, and olives
are examples.
The exocarp (the outer layer) becomes the thin skin.

The mesocarp (the middle layer) becomes thick and
fleshy.
The endocarp (the inner layer) becomes hard & stony.
Often referred to as the pit (and erroneously as the seed).
tab


Fruits
Pomea simple fruit made up of several carpels.
The outer (edible) portion forms the hypanthium of the
flower, which surrounds the multiple carpels.
Apple pear, and quince are examples.
Dehiscent fruitsfruits split (dehise) at maturity to

expose the seeds.
Legume or podfruit from a single carpel which
usually dehisces along both carpel sutures (seams).
Typical of the pea family (Fabaceae), as in peas & beans.
Capsulefruits form from two or more carpels, each

of which produces many seeds.
Iris, poppy, and jimson weed are examples.
tab


Fruits
Follicle fruits form from a single carpel that splits
along one suture.
Delphinium and Helleborus are examples.
Siliquefruits form from two carpels with a septum.

The halves separate longitudinally, exposing the seeds
on a central membraneMustard, Lunaria & stocks.
Indehiscent fruitsdo not split open when mature.

Achenesimple, one-seeded, thinwalled fruit attached to an ovary wall.
Achenes are very often mistaken for seeds as
in the case of strawberry fruits, the so-called
seeds of the rose hip, and sunflower fruits.
tab


Fruits
Caryopsisa one-seeded fruit with a thin pericarp
surrounding & adhering tightly to the true seed.
Corn, rice, wheat, and barley are examples.
tab


Fruits
Nutone-seeded fruit; thick, hard, stony pericarp
Oak (acorn), chestnut, filbert, walnut, and hickory.
Samaraone-seeded (elm) or a two-seeded

(maple) fruit with a winglike structure formed from
the ovary wall.
Figure 6-46
Maple fruit is an example of a samara, which has a winglike
structure formed from the ovary wall.
Schizocarpfruit formed from two or more carpels

that at maturity yield two one-seeded halves.
Carrots, dill, caraway, and parsley are examples.
tab


Fruits
Aggregate and multiple fruits form from several
ovariesthe true fruits are attached to, or contained
within, a receptacle or an accessory structure.
Aggregate fruits form from many ovaries on a single flower.
Strawberries have many achenes (true fruits), each attached
to a single fleshy receptacle.
Blackberries & raspberries have individual small drupes,
instead of achenes, are attached to the fleshy receptacle.
Multiple fruits develop from many individual ovaries fused

into a single structure borne on a common stalk.
The fig fruit is made up of small drupes in a fleshy receptacle,
a structure termed a syconium.
The pineapple is a large accessory structure covered with
seedless (parthenocarpic) berries.
Mulberries are multiple drupelets borne on a fleshy receptacle.
tab


Seeds
Seeds are mature ovules, varying considerably in
size, shape, structure, and mode of dissemination.
The downy tufts of milkweed

and dandelion seeds enable
them to be carried great
distances on wind currents
tab

Seeds contained in
samaras take to the air
on their small wings.
Seeds
The three basic parts of a seed are:

The embryoa miniature plantlet formed in the seed from
the union of male & female gametes during fertilization.
The embryo has two growing points: the radicle, which is the
embryonic root, and the plumule, which is the embryonic
shoot.
One
or two cotyledons are located between these two
growing points on the root-shoot axis.

Food can be stored in the endosperm, cotyledons, or perisperm
in the form of starch, fats, or proteins.
Seeds having a large portion of their food stored as endosperm
are called albuminous seeds.
Those with no endosperm or only a thin layer surrounding the
embryo are called exalbuminous seeds.
There may be one or two seed coats (testa), which form

from the integuments, the outer layers of the ovule.
tab



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unit two

Chapter 6 - Structure of Higher Plants

KEY LEARNING CONCEPTS

Define the terminology that describes plant cells,

Practical Horticulture 5th edition

2011, 2007, 2002, 1988 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 6 - Structure of Higher Plants

Some plants and their features can be identified

An approach capitalizing on what is already known

Major food, fiber, wood & ornamental plants belong

Practical Horticulture 5th edition

2011, 2007, 2002, 1988 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 6 - Structure of Higher Plants

Angiosperms are divided into two subclasses:

Practical Horticulture 5th edition

2011, 2007, 2002, 1988 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 6 - Structure of Higher Plants

The Life Cycle of a Corn Plant (a Monocot)

Practical Horticulture 5th edition

2011, 2007, 2002, 1988 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 6 - Structure of Higher Plants

The Life Cycle of a Corn Plant (a Monocot)

Adventitious roots grow from

Practical Horticulture 5th edition

2011, 2007, 2002, 1988 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 6 - Structure of Higher Plants

The Life Cycle of a Corn Plant (a Monocot)

Practical Horticulture 5th edition

2011, 2007, 2002, 1988 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 6 - Structure of Higher Plants

The Life Cycle of a Corn Plant (a Monocot)

Practical Horticulture 5th edition

2011, 2007, 2002, 1988 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 6 - Structure of Higher Plants

The Life Cycle of a Corn Plant (a Monocot)

After the kernels mature & dry, the fruits (containing

Practical Horticulture 5th edition

2011, 2007, 2002, 1988 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 6 - Structure of Higher Plants

The Life Cycle of a Bean Plant (a Dicot)

The radicle grows

Practical Horticulture 5th edition

2011, 2007, 2002, 1988 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 6 - Structure of Higher Plants

The Life Cycle of a Bean Plant (a Dicot)

The stem region

Practical Horticulture 5th edition

2011, 2007, 2002, 1988 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 6 - Structure of Higher Plants

The Life Cycle of a Bean Plant (a Dicot)

Practical Horticulture 5th edition

2011, 2007, 2002, 1988 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 6 - Structure of Higher Plants

The Life Cycle of a Bean Plant (a Dicot)

Flowers are selfpollinated; fruits

Practical Horticulture 5th edition

2011, 2007, 2002, 1988 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 6 - Structure of Higher Plants

The Life Cycle of a Bean Plant (a Dicot)

Practical Horticulture 5th edition

2011, 2007, 2002, 1988 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 6 - Structure of Higher Plants

In the living cell, these complexes are distributed

2011, 2007, 2002, 1988 Pearson Education, Inc.