Chapter 7 AGR 1040 - 1.0

unit two
Plant Structure,
Chemistry, Growth,
Development, Genetics,
Biodiversity, and Processes
6 Structure of Higher Plants
7 Plant Growth & Development
8 Plant Chemistry & Metabolism
9 Genetics & Propagation
10 Cultivated Plants:
Naming, Classifying, Origin,
Improvement & Germplasm
Diversity and Preservation
11 Photosynthesis & Respiration
12 Water Relations
13 Mineral Nutrition
Chapter 7 - Plant Growth and Development
KEY LEARNING CONCEPTS

After reading this chapter, you should be able to:
Know the difference between plant growth and plant

development & understand ways to measure each.
Understand the factors that affect plant growth and
development and what the effects are.
Understand how those factors can be manipulated
to control plant growth and development.
Recognize the categories of plant hormones,
understand their role in plant growth and
development, and how they are used to control plant
growth and development.
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Practical Horticulture 5th edition

By Margaret J. McMahon, Anton M. Kofranek and Vincent E. Rubatsky
2011, 2007, 2002, 1988 Pearson Education, Inc.

Pearson Prentice Hall - Upper Saddle River, NJ 07458
Definitions and Measurements

Plant growth: A product of living cells, growth is an irreversible increase in volume or dry weight (biomass).
Growth can be measured as increase in fresh or dry weight, or in volume, length, height, or surface area.
size increase by cell division and enlargement,
including synthesis of new cellular material and
organization of subcellular organelles.
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Stages of Development
Seed germination
growth of vegetative
organs & tissues.
Initiation and maturation

of reproductive organs
and tissues
Fertilization, seed
development and
maturation
Figure 7-1
The poinsettia on the right has

more growth while the one on
the left is more developed.
Senescence and death

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How the Plant Grows

Dicot shoot growth points: meristematic cells in
vegetative buds at the shoot tips
capable of producing millions of cells along a longitudinal
axis.
Division, elongation & expansion, causes shoot growth.
Similar meristematic cells are also located in the

root tip, just behind the root cap.
Vegetative apical meristems can become
reproductive meristems to produce the floral parts
needed for seed production.
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Factors Affecting Plant Growth and Development

Developing plant under control of genes inherited
from the parents
Genes direct protein synthesis
Enzymes
Structural proteins (transcription factors)
Cell type, environmental conditions, and stage of

development control gene activity.
Genes are activated and deactivated, depending on
signals received in the nucleus.
Transcription factors turn on and off genes.
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What triggers regulatory genes? May include:
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Plant hormones
Certain inorganic ions
Coenzymes
Other metabolites.



Hormones:
Auxin
Gibberellin
Cytokinin
Ethylene
ABA kind of
Environmental factors temperature or light

Techniques to control plant growth and development
work by activating & deactivating gene transcription.
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The sun is the source of energy for photosynthesis.
A wavelength within 400 to 700 nm is visible light and photosynthetic active radiation (PAR).
Plants have many mechanisms to efficiently capture light for photosynthesis

Radiation can be:
Lost by absorption
Refracted
Scattered resulting in reflection of light back to space
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Growth & Development - Light
The amount of light reaching

earths surface also depends
on the angle of incidence, the
angle that a beam of sunlight,
makes with the earths surface.
An angle of incidence of 90 has the
maximum amount of light striking an area
spreading it out over a greater region
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As the angle of incidence decreases from
90 a greater proportion of the incident
light is reflected, which explains why so
much more sunlight is reflected around
sunrise and sunset than at midday.
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Angle of incidence of sunlight has two major crop
effects:
It affects the intensity of light
It affects the quality of light
Some plants compensate for reduced light intensity

& increased reflection by heliotropic movements.
Used by numerous species to both increase and decrease
amount of sunlight intercepted by a leaf
Helianthus annus (sunflower) gets its name from its ability
to keep its flowers facing the sun all day.
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Growth & Development - Light Quality

Light quality: relative quantity of individual
component wavelengths
AKA: spectral composition or spectral distribution.
Individual plant processes have narrow spectral

requirements.
Blue & red light at 440 & 650 nm, respectively, are much
more effective in driving photosynthesis than is green
light.
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Photomorphogenesis Light driven processes
that produce plant shape or form,
Seed germination; De-etiolation; Stem growth.
A factor distinguishing photomorphogenic response

from photosynthesis is insensitivity to light intensity.
Photomorphogenic responses are rather sensitive to
specific light spectral composition requirements.
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Most photomorphogenic responses are regulated by
the phytochrome pigment system.
A pigment that has two interconvertible forms:
A phytochrome molecule in the red absorbing

form is converted to the far-red absorbing
form following irradiation with red light.
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Relative amounts these phytochromes are
proportional to (R:FR) light in the environment
1.2:1 most of the day.
Irradiation with far-red light is required for

the phytochrome molecule to be converted
back to the red absorbing form.
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R:FR ratio declines dramatically as light penetrates
leaf canopies
Red light is efficiently absorbed by chlorophyll

Far-red light is transmitted or reflected.
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Plants compete for light by redirecting growth
towards light
Plants respond to a decline in the R:FR ratio with

increased height, reduced branching, and smaller
stem diameters.
Declining chlorophyll synthesis = plants appear chlorotic
Plants are also more susceptible to disease and stress.
Reduced branching and tillering results in lower yields.
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Figure 7-5 Right: Plant grown under a filter that blocked far-red but not red light (high R:FR).
Center: Plant grown under normal sunlight.
Left: Plant grown under a filter that blocked red but not far-red (low R:FR).
The intensity of photosynthetically active light was the same for all three plants.
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Other phytochromes:
Cryptochromes are involved in photomorphogenic responses & circadian rhythm.
Phototropins are responsible for phototropism movement in response to light
It may be involved with stomate opening.
Some species, roots exhibit a negative phototropic responsethey grow away from the light source.
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Growth & Development - Day Length

Photoperiodism photomorphogenic response to
variations in daylength.
All photoperiodically controlled processes can be
categorized into three basic response types:
Long-day plants (LDPs).
Short-day plants (SDPs).
Day-neutral plants (DNPs).
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Based on Critical Day-Length (CDL)
The long- or short-day designation is based

photoperiodically controlled process induced only
at daylengths longer or shorter than specific
daylength.
Different for each species
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A plant with photoperiodically controlled process
induced only when days are longer than the critical
daylength is considered an LDP for that process.
SDP represents the inversea process is induced only
when daylength is shorter than the CDL.
No direct relationship exists between the response

type and the absolute length of the CDL.
In general, whether or not a plant is an SDP or LDP
determines when the process is induced relative to the
summer solstice.
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Autumn syndrome getting ready for winter
observed in many woody plants is the most visible
photoperiodic process.
Acquisition of freeze tolerance; dormancy of buds & leaf
fall in deciduous trees.
Dormancy is a temporary cessation of growth.

Accompanied by bud scales, modified leaves that protect
delicate shoot tips from winter desiccation.
Typically induced by short days
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The critical daylength for dormancy induction

varies even within species.
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Other developmental processes are controlled by
photoperiod
Many herbaceous perennials survive winter by formation
of tubers that are protected by being buried underground.
A short-day process that is initiated at the end of the summer.
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Growth & Development - Temperature

Seasonal light intensity causes temperature changes
from summer to winter in various temperature zones.
The farther from the equator, the fewer available growing
days.
All plants have optimal temperatures for maximum

vegetative growth and flowering.
Most temperate-region plants grow between 39F & 50F.
These are generally the limits of plant growth.
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High temperatures destroy most cell protoplasm.
Solarized -- leaves sunburned when exposed to high light
intensitieslight energy converts to heat.
Wilt Drop in relative humidity + wind = loss of moisture
At low temperatures, most plants fail due to a lack of

cell activity
Ice crystals rupture cell membranes/walls, allowing water
to flow out, desiccating cells.
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Low, nonfreezing temperatures can coordinate plant
growth & development.
Temperatures for these cold-induced processes are usually
in the range of 0F to 10F.
Cold-induced processes:
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Seed germination stratification.

Floweringcold induction of flowering is vernalization.
Dormancy breakagechilling requirement.
Acquisition of cold and freeze tolerance


Growth & Development - Water

Limiting water impacts how the plant can grow & develop. Water is required for:
Biological processes
Plant structure
Nutrient/metabolite transport
Temperature control
With plentiful water, plants grow more succulently.

Cells are turgid
With limited water, cells can undergo plasmolysis.

The plasmalemma pulls away from the cell wall.
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Growth & Development - Water
Both carbon dioxide (CO2) and oxygen (O2) are

needed for plant growth.
Stomatal opening and closing regulated in part by
leaf CO2 level
Driven by photosynthesis.
Stomata remain open if other conditionsespecially water
availabilityare favorable.
Oxygen is important in respiration of all plant parts.

Respiration is release of energy captured and stored in the
carbohydrates (sugars) synthesized during
photosynthesis.
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The released energy drives biochemical reactions needed for

the growth & development.


Germination and Early Seedling Growth

In general, seed germination occurs in three stages:
Imbibition (water uptake).
Increase in biological activity.
Radicle (root) and shoot emergence.
Figure 7-1
The seed on the left has not begun to germinate.
The center seed has imbibed water.
The seed on the right has the radicle & plumule emerging.
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Germination and Early Seedling Growth

Germination starts with the seed imibing water.
This causes cells to swell and the seed increases in size.
Respiration, enzyme activity & synthesis increase.

Decreasing energy reserves of carbohydrates and lipids.
Cells elongate and begin to divide and differentiate.

The embryonic root (radicle) and shoot (plumule) emerge.
The radicle quickly becomes a functioning root.
Leaves start to photosynthesize & the new plant is then independent of energy reserves in the seed.
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Vegetative Growth/Development - Shoots & Roots
In growing most plants we are interested in

obtaining vigorous vegetative growth quickly.
With the exceptions, perhaps, of bonsai plants

and container-grown ornamentals.
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Strictly speaking, vegetative growth includes roots,
shoots, and leaves, but not reproductive structures.
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Four principal functions of roots in higher plants are:
Anchoring plants in the soil.
Absorbing water and mineral nutrients.
Conducting water and dissolved minerals, as well as
organic materials to other parts of the plant.
Storing food materials in plants such as sweet potatoes,
sugar beets, and carrots.
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The root system and the shoot system maintain a balanceas the top of the plant grows
larger, more roots are needed
Greater amounts of water and mineral absorption needed with growth.
Not all roots of a tree may be growing at any one time
The spring flush of root growth results from the accumulated foods stored the previous year.
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Shoot growth is determinate or indeterminate.
In determinate growth, after a period of vegetative growth,
flower bud clusters form at shoot terminals so most shoot
elongation stops.
Indeterminate growth plants bear flower clusters laterally
along the stems in the axils of the leaves.
Shoot terminals remain vegetative and the shoot grows until
it is stopped by senescence or environmental influence.
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Figure 7-8
The tomatoes, left have an indeterminate growth pattern.
The poinsettias, below, have a determinate pattern.
Determinate, bush-type plants produce much less

vegetative growth than do the indeterminate type.
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Annuals complete
their life cycle in
one growing season.
Flowering, followed by fruit
& seed production, occurs
at intervals through the
season.
Figure 7-9
Vegetative growth patterns of annual plants.
(A) Indeterminate vine-type plants.
(B) Determinate, bush-type plants.
(C) Terminal-flowering plants, such as cereals & grasses.
Arrows indicate times of flower initiation.
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Detailed growth
curve for barley,
an herbaceous
annual.
Figure 7-10
Growth curve of a field-grown barley plant
from leaf emergence to grain maturity.
= plant height.
= dry weight of plant minus grain weight.
= dry weight of plant plus grain weight.
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Life cycle events of a typical angiosperm annual.
All these events

occur during a
single summer
growing season.
(About four months)
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Biennials require two growing seasonsbut not

necessarily two yearsto complete their life cycle.
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Stem growth is limited in the first growing season.

Plants remain alive (dormant) through the winter.
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Figure 7-13 Hollyhocks are a biennial plant. The plant on the right is two years old and
flowering. The one on the left is in its first growing season and will remain
vegetative.


Exposure to chilling temperatures triggers hormonal
changes leading to stem elongation, flowering, fruit
Examples are celery, Swiss chard, beets, cabbage and
Brussels sprouts.
Most annual and biennial plants flower and fruit only

once before dying.
In such plants, continued removal of flowers and fruits
often delays senescence.
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Perennials are either herbaceous or woody.
Herbaceous roots & shoots can remain alive indefinitely.
Shoot growth resumes in spring from latent or adventitious
buds at the crown of the plant.
Figure 7-14 (A) Growth curve for a rapid-growing species such as poplar.
(B) Growth curve for a slow-growing species such as oak.
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Many tropical, subtropical and warm-temperate
herbaceous perennial ornamental plants are grown
as annuals in areas with severe winters.
When grown in areas with mild winters these plants
exhibit their perennial characteristics.
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In woody perennial plants, shoot & root systems
remain alive indefinitely, growing to the ultimate size
for the particular plant.
As programmed by its gene complement & environment.
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Shoot growth of temperate zone plants takes place annually,
adding to growth accumulated in previous seasons.
Figure 7-15
(Left) Growth patterns for temperate zone woody perennials
in the northern hemisphereone season.
(Right) Over a period of several years.
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Magnitude of growth can vary considerably from
season to season.
For some tropical trees, and all temperate trees, growth
occurs intermittentlyin flushesin the growing season.
There can be a single or multiple flush of growth.
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Phase Change: Juvenility, Maturation, Senescence

Plants undergoes phasic development throughout
life
Embryonic growth; juvenility; a transition stage; maturity
or adult phase; senescence; and death.
The juvenile phase is characterized by the inability

to reproduce sexually.
The duration of the juvenile phase varies from a week or
two up to thirty or forty years in some tree species.
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Comparison of the duration

of the juvenile phase in
various plant species.
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The morphology of
juvenile and adult plants
is often quite different.
Juvenile acacia leaves are
bipinnately compound, while
the adult form appears linear
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Growth form of juvenile & adult plants may be drastically different.

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unit two

Chapter 7 - Plant Growth and Development

KEY LEARNING CONCEPTS

Know the difference between plant growth and plant

Practical Horticulture 5th edition

2011, 2007, 2002, 1988 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 7 - Plant Growth and Development

Definitions and Measurements

Practical Horticulture 5th edition

2011, 2007, 2002, 1988 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 7 - Plant Growth and Development

Initiation and maturation

The poinsettia on the right has

Senescence and death

Practical Horticulture 5th edition

2011, 2007, 2002, 1988 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 7 - Plant Growth and Development

How the Plant Grows

Similar meristematic cells are also located in the

Practical Horticulture 5th edition

2011, 2007, 2002, 1988 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 7 - Plant Growth and Development

Factors Affecting Plant Growth and Development

Cell type, environmental conditions, and stage of

Transcription factors turn on and off genes.

Practical Horticulture 5th edition

2011, 2007, 2002, 1988 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 7 - Plant Growth and Development

Factors Affecting Plant Growth and Development

Practical Horticulture 5th edition

2011, 2007, 2002, 1988 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 7 - Plant Growth and Development

Factors Affecting Plant Growth and Development

Environmental factors temperature or light

Practical Horticulture 5th edition

2011, 2007, 2002, 1988 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 7 - Plant Growth and Development

Factors Affecting Plant Growth and Development

Plants have many mechanisms to efficiently capture light for photosynthesis

Practical Horticulture 5th edition

2011, 2007, 2002, 1988 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 7 - Plant Growth and Development

Growth & Development - Light

The amount of light reaching

Practical Horticulture 5th edition

2011, 2007, 2002, 1988 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 7 - Plant Growth and Development

Growth & Development - Light

Practical Horticulture 5th edition

2011, 2007, 2002, 1988 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 7 - Plant Growth and Development

Growth & Development - Light

Some plants compensate for reduced light intensity

Practical Horticulture 5th edition

2011, 2007, 2002, 1988 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 7 - Plant Growth and Development

Growth & Development - Light Quality

Individual plant processes have narrow spectral

Practical Horticulture 5th edition

2011, 2007, 2002, 1988 Pearson Education, Inc.

Chapter 7 - Plant Growth and Development

Growth & Development - Light Quality

A factor distinguishing photomorphogenic response

Practical Horticulture 5th edition