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1.0. Introduction
Leveling is the operation required in the determination or, more strictly, the
comparison, of heights of points on the surface of the earth. The
qualification is necessary, since the height of one point can be given only
relative to another point or plane. If a whole series of heights is given
relative to a plane, this plane is called a datum, and in topographical work
the datum used is the mean level of the sea, since it makes international
comparison of heights possible. In England, mean sea level was determined
at Newlyn, Cornwall, from hourly observations of the sea level over a sixyear period from 1 May 1915. This level is termed Ordnance Datum and is
the one which is normally used in England, though on small works an
arbitrary datum may be chosen.
1.1.
I.
Back sight:
This is the first reading taken after the instrument has be set up.
A. Foresight
This is the last reading taken after the instrument has nee set up.
B. A level line
A level line is one which is at a constant height relative to mean sea level,
and since it follows the mean surface of the earth, it must be a curved line.
C. Bench mark
This is the point / surface whose height is known and has accurately
determined by the survey means.
D. horizontal line
A horizontal line, however unlike level line, is tangential to the level
line at any particular point, since it is perpendicular to the direction of
gravity at that point. Over short distances the two lines are taken to
coincide; but over long distances a correction for their divergence
becomes necessary. Figure 1 illustrates this point.
Figure1
E. Reduced level
This is a level which has been referred to datum
F. Datum
This is a surface to which the all survey readings are referred.
2.0.
(a)
(b)
vertical
heights
(the
2.1.
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
Dumpy level
Tilting level
Automatic level
Precise level
2.1.1.
A dumpy level
In the dumpy level the telescope is rigidly fixed the tribrach or leveling plate.
The level has the following parts:
i. Telescope
ii.
Tribrach
iii. Trivet stage
The distinguishing features of this instrument from the other instrument are
that the telescope is fixed to the spindle.
2.1.2.
mTilting level
2.1.3.
Adjustment of a level
2.1.4.
Temporary adjustment
2.1.5.
i.
Centring
ii.
Leveling
iii.
three
Levelling Procedure
Open tripod legs to about 60 and press firmly into the ground.
Open box and note carefully how the instrument is packed -neglecting
to do this may cause considerable difficulty when replacing the
instrument, which if done incorrectly is a source of much of the
damage caused to surveying instruments.
Lift instrument from box, but never by the telescope tube.
Screw firmly on to the tripod, taking care not to cross the threads.
Roughly level the instrument by adjusting the tripod and complete by
means of the foot-screws, i:e. make the bubble axis at right angles to
the vertical axis of the instrument, as follows:
2.1.6.
Focusing and removing the Parallax
Parallax is the apparent movement of the stadia hairs against the
image of the reading of the staff.
When making observations with optical instruments it is important
that they should be focussed carefully.
Focus the instrument eye piece so that the cross hairs appear
clear and sharp.
Figure 2:
i.
ii.
iii.
iv.
Bs
IS
FS
FALL
RISE
2.191
RL
49.872
2.507
2.325
3.019
0.316
RL
OBM 49.872m
AOD
49.559 A
49.741 B
49.872
0-182
0.829
50.567 50.570
C (CP)
D
E (CP)
2.513
6.962
REMARKs
49.556
49.738
1.496
1. 752
CORR.
2.81I
0.506
0.298
51.073
50.775
3.817
2.065
48.710
8-124
1.517 2.679
49.872
6.962
1.517
48.710
51.079
50.781
48.71
9
rBM
48.719m
AOD
IS
FS
HPC
2.191
52.063
REMARKS
49.872
2.507
49.556
49.559/
2.325
49.738
49.741'
50.567
50. 570
C (CP)
51.073
51.079'
50.77 5
50.781 '
3.817
48.710
48. 719
8.124'
49.872
6.962
48.710
1.496
53.586
2.513
6.962
CORR. RL
49.872
3.019
1. 752
RL
2.811
52.527
+ 1. 162
+1.162'
D
E (CP)
TBM 48. 719m AOD
3.0.
In order for the instrument to give the best possible results, it should be
frequently tested and adjusted. Such adjustments are called permanent
adjustment.
A dumpy level has two permanent adjustments and these are the:
i.
ii.
Set the bubble parallel to two foot screws, centre it, turn it through
90 in the horizontal plane until over the third screw and centralize it
again using this screw only.
Re set the bubble parallel to two foot screws and centralizes
carefully.
Assuming the bubble axis is in error by some amount
Turn the bubble through 180 in the horizontal plane
Adjustment
-
1
01
Adjustment
(b)
hAB2 - hAB1
From figure 1
(a)
hAB = a-b=d1e+a-(b+d2e)
hAB1 = a-b since d1e = d2e
From figure 1
Example 1
A tilting level was set up with the eyepiece vertically over peg A. The height
from the top of to centre of the eyepiece is measured and found to be
1.516m. A level staff is then held on a distant peg B and the reading of
0.696m is obtained.
The level is set over peg B. The height of the eyepiece above B is 1.466m
and the reading on A is 2.162m. Determine
I.
II.
III.
= 0.758 m
Example 2
When checking a dumpy level the following readings were obtained in two
peg test:
Level set up mid way between two stations 100m apart.
Staff readings on A and B were 1.753m and 1.314m respectively.
Level set 10m behind B and in line AB produced. Staff readings on B and A
respectively were 1.039m and 1.509m.
Find the collimation error if present.
Example 3
the following readings were obtained with a tilting level to two staves A and
B 63 m apart.
Instrument station
midway
3 m from A and
60m from B
Stadia readings
A
1.655
1.881
B
1.865
2.033
h2 = a2 + e b2 = (ii)
Adding (i) and (ii)
2h = a1 b1+ a2 b2
h = (a1 b1+ a2 b2) /2
Example 1
A dumpy level is set up and a the following observations obtained
Observation from position X
Readings to a staff held at A = 1.470
Readings to a staff held at B = 3.562
Difference in level 3.562 1. 470 = 2.092
Observations at position Y
Readings on the staff held at A = 0.516
Readings on the staff held at B = 2.620
Difference in level
= 2.104
From the sketch above, the staff I held at B and the reading is B instead of
B. The length of the sight is L and the radius of the earth is R.
Using the Pythagoras theorem
L +R
= (R2 + (BB))
Let BB be C (curvature)
So the equation becomes
2
L +R
= (R + c)
L +L R
=R
L =2RC + C
2+
2RC + C
C is small compared to R and its square is even smaller and can be ignored
for the equation to be come
2RC = L
C = L /2R
If R is equal to 6378149 m
Then C = 0.0784 L
R = L2/2RX1/7 = L /14R
To combine refraction and curvature correction
2
= 6L /14R =0.0672L
5.
5-m intervals or less are taken. In this way a ground profile at right angles
to the centre-line is obtained. When the design template showing the road
details and side slopes is plotted at formation level, a cross-sectional area is
produced, which can later be used to compute volumes of earthwork.
When plotting cross-sections the vertical and horizontal scales are the same,
to permit easy scaling of the area and side slopes .
From the sketch above it can be seen that sectional leveling also requires
the measurement of horizontal distance between the points whose
elevations are obtained. As the process involves the observation
of many points, it is imperative to connect into existing BMs at regular
intervals. In most cases of route construction, one of the earliest tasks is to
establish BMs at 100-m intervals throughout the area of interest.
5.2.
Contouring
(1) The type of project involved; for instance, contouring an airstrip requires
an extremely small contour interval.
(2) The type of terrain, flat or undulating
(3) The cost, for the smaller the interval the greater the amount of field data
required, resulting in greater expense.
2
02
Contours are generally well understood so only a few of their most important
properties will be outlined here.
5.2.2. Characteristics Properties of the contour lines:
1) Contours are perpendicular to the direction of maximum slope.
(2) The horizontal separation between contour lines indicates the steepness
of the ground. Close spacing defines steep slopes, wide spacing gentle
slopes.
(3) Highly irregular contours define rugged, often mountainous terrain.
(4) Concentric closed contours represent hills or hollows, depending on the
increase or decrease in elevation.
(5) The slope between contour lines is assumed to be regular.
(6) Contour lines crossing a stream form Vs pointing upstream.
(7) The edge of a body of water forms a contour line.
5.2.3. Contours are used by engineers to:
(1) Construct longitudinal sections and cross-sections for initial investigation.
(2) Compute volumes.
(3) Construct route lines of constant gradient.
(4) Delineate the limits of constructed dams, road, railways, tunnels, etc.
(5) Delineate and measure drainage areas.
If the ground is reasonably flat, the optical level can be used for contouring
using either the direct or indirect methods. In undulating areas it is more
economical to use optical or electronic methods, as outlined later