Hardware Software System and Network

NAME

SOUNDRARAJAN S/O VAERAVAN

STUDENT NO

TP029696

INTAKE CODE

UC1F1207IT

SUBJECT

HARDWARE, SOFTWARE SYSTEM AND

NETWORK

SUBJECT CODE

CT014-3-1

QUESTION

1) SECTION A, QUESTION 2
2) SECTION B, QUESTION 1

ASSIGNMENT TYPE

INDIVIDUAL ASSIGNMENT

ASSIGNMENT SUBMISSION

15 APRIL 2013

LECTURER NAME

MR. QUSAY SABAH ISHAQ

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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Contents
1.0

Gantt chart........................................................................................................... 4

2.0

Abstract............................................................................................................... 6

3.0

Introduction (Section 1: Operating Systems, Question 2)...................................................7

3.1 Memory Management................................................................................................ 7

3.2 Physical Memory..................................................................................................... 8
3.3 Virtual Memory....................................................................................................... 8
4.0 Linux..................................................................................................................... 10
4.1 Virtual Memory Management in Linux.........................................................................10
4.2 Fragmentation...................................................................................................... 10
4.2.1 External Fragmentation..................................................................................... 11
4.2.2 Internal Fragmentation...................................................................................... 11
4.3 Variable Memory................................................................................................... 11
4.3.1 First Fit......................................................................................................... 11
4.3.2 Best Fit.......................................................................................................... 11
4.3.3 Worst Fit........................................................................................................ 11
4.4 Swapping............................................................................................................. 12
4.5 Paging................................................................................................................ 13
4.6 Demand Paging..................................................................................................... 14
4.7 Page Fault........................................................................................................... 14
4.8 Overlay............................................................................................................... 15
4.9 Conclusion........................................................................................................... 15
5.0 Introduction (Section 2: Computer Systems Architecture, Question 1)......................................16
5.1 What is Microprocessor........................................................................................... 16
5.2 Major Trends Affecting Microprocessor.......................................................................18
5.2.1 Transistor Speed Sealing.................................................................................... 18
5.2.2 Cache Memory Architecture................................................................................19
5.3 Differences between microprocessors design goals for laptops, servers, desktops and embedded
system...................................................................................................................... 20
5.3.1 Microprocessor for laptops.................................................................................20

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5.3.2 Microprocessors for Desktop............................................................................... 20
5.3.3 Microprocessor for Embedded Systems...................................................................20
5.3.4 Microprocessor for Servers.................................................................................21
5.4 Conclusion........................................................................................................... 21
6.0 Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ).................................................................................22
6.1 Memory Management.............................................................................................. 22
6.2 Microprocessor..................................................................................................... 22
7.0 Limitations and Extensions.......................................................................................... 24
7.1 Limitations........................................................................................................... 24
7.2 Extension............................................................................................................. 24
8.0 References............................................................................................................... 25
8.1 Memory Management (Section1, Question 2).................................................................25
8.2 Microprocessors (Section 2, Question 1)......................................................................26

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1.0 Gantt chart
2.0

8/317/3

18/324/3

25/330/3

1/48/4

9/411/4

12/414/4

15/419/4

20/422/4

Operation System Research

Information gathering for OS
Identify the information and document it
Research and gather information on
microprocessor
Research and gather information on
microprocessor
Identify the information and document it
Documenting the conclusion and the
references
Recheck the documentation

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2.0 Abstract
This paper research is an individual assignment in the module of Hardware Software System and
Networks (CT014-3-1).
Aim of this assignment is to research on Operating system and Computer System Architecture.
Research has been done regarding Virtual Memory Management in Linux. Research area
includes mechanisms and strategies used, problems faced by these techniques and solutions to
overcome them.
For Computer System Architecture, the areas to be covered are major trends affecting
microprocessors performance and design and differences between microprocessors design goals
for laptops, servers, desktops and embedded system.

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3.0 Introduction (Section 1: Operating Systems, Question 2)

3.1 Memory Management
Memory management is the process control and coordination of computer memory called blocks
to optimize the allocation of parts of different running programs on the overall performance of
the system. Memory management is implemented in hardware, the OS (operating system), as
well as programs and applications. Hardware, memory management includes parts that are
physically stored data, such as RAM (Random Access Memory) chips, memory, cache, and
flash-based SSDs (solid state drives). The operating system, memory management, is a division
that includes (permanent redistribution) memory blocks that are specific to particular programs,
such as changes in customer requirements. At the application level, the memory management is
to ensure enough available memory (Breecher.J, 2012) objects and data structures for each
program running all the time.

Diagram 1: Input and Output of Memory Management on Linux Operating System

Sources: http://files.cyberciti.biz/uploads/tips/2007/09/mmu-vs-iommu-memory.png

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3.2 Physical Memory
Physical memory is memory that can be directly used as data or processor instructions. It has
been steadily declining over the past few decades. Physical memory is still one of the most
important resources in a computer system .The speed of physical memory which can access the
data element is much slower than the rate at which the processor can process data (BookRags,
2006) and new technology simply expansion gap even further. These differences may be partially
mitigated the caches and other high-speed memories.

3.3 Virtual Memory

Virtual memory is an extra set of memory addresses. Programs make use of these virtual
addresses moderately than real addresses to accumulate instructions and data. When a specific
program is actually executed, the virtual addresses (Stein.A, 2004) turn into real memory
addresses. Virtual memory is to increase the address space, a set of addresses of program that can
utilize. A program can use all the virtual memory so it cannot be adapted to main memory at the
same time. Nevertheless, the computer can carry out such a program in the main memory copy of
that program needed at any given time during the exercise portions.
To facilitate copying virtual memory into computers memory, the operating system divides
virtual memory into pages, each of which has a fixed number of addresses. Each page is stored
on disk until it is needed. When the program is needed, the operating system (Regev.H, 2009)
copies from disk to main memory, is translating from virtual addresses to real addresses. A
virtual address to real addresses is called mapping .Copying of virtual page from disk to main
memory copy is known as paging or swapping.

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Diagram 2: Showing that virtual memory is larger than physical memory

Sources:
http://www.cs.uic.edu/~jbell/CourseNotes/OperatingSystems/images/Chapter9/9_01_VirtualMe
moryLarger.jpg

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4.0 Linux
The Linux operating systems is perhaps the greatest success of the open-source movement. Open
source software departs from the proprietary software development style that dominated
softwares in early years. With open-source development, individuals and companies contribute
their efforts in emergent, maintaining and developing software (Deitel.P, Deitel.H, 2013) in
replace for the right to use that software for their own purposes, typically at no charge. Enterprise
systems companies such as IBM, Oracle and many others, have made significant investments in
Linux open-source development. The Linux kernel is the core of the most admired open-source,
freely distributed, full feature operating system.

4.1 Virtual Memory Management in Linux

Virtual Memory Management is one of the main activities of the Linux kernel. Virtual memory
allows the system seems to have more memory than it actually has by sharing it between
competing processes they need it. The kernel will write the currently unused block of memory to
the hard disk contents so that the memory can be used for any different purpose. When the
imaginative content needed again, they will search back into the memory. This is all made totally
transparent to the user of Linux. As the Linux (Unknown, n.d.) kernels have grown and fullfledged, the more users who desire to process a lot of Linux systems can manage scientific
analysis applications or even use a large databases.

4.2 Fragmentation
A characteristic trouble that desires to be tackle via a Memory Management System is
Fragmentation. It frequently occurs once memory (Yellapragada.R, 2003) is broken down into
pieces, none of which can assure a latest demand but when put mutually could satisfy the
request.

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4.2.1 External Fragmentation
External Fragmentation occurs when a dynamic memory allocation algorithm to afford some
amount of memory and a little fragment of the left more, which is unable to used effectively. If
its a lot of external fragmentation occur, a valuable (Ustudy.in, 2008) amount of memory
drastically reduced. Total memory is to grant the request, but it is not closest. External
fragmentation occurs when the memory is divided into a plurality of blocks over time.
4.2.2 Internal Fragmentation
Internal fragmentation is the hole wasted within of allocated memory blocks because of
constraint on the acceptable size divided keen on blocks. Shared memory might be slightly larger
than the difference in size of the memory required is in the section of internal memory, but if it is
not used. Internal fragmentation occurs when extra (Jagmeet, 2013) space is allocated more than
what is actually required. It remained in place, is known as slack space, causing the system
performance.

4.3 Variable Memory

This dynamic storage space provision is essential to increase the efficiency of the system.
Variable memory consists of 3 components. The 3 components are first fit, best fit and worst fit
(Lee.I, 2002).
4.3.1 First Fit
Allocating the initial available hole (according to memory arrange), which the Linux memory is
large enough to hold the latest process.
4.3.2 Best Fit
Allocating the hole in which the progression fits most tightly for example, the differentiation
between the whole size and the process size is the minimum one.
4.3.3 Worst Fit
Allocating the biggest hole that will depart a maximum amount of unused space for example,
leftover gap is maximum after provision.

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4.4 Swapping
Linux shared physical RAM (memory) in memory cores called pages. Swapping is the process
whereby a memory page is derivative to the predefined hard disk, called swap space lying on the
side of the memory. The mutual size of the physical memory and swap space is the amount of
virtual memory available. Swapping is compulsory for two main reasons. First, while the system
requires more memory additional than physically memory existing, the kernel swaps away less
used pages and gives memory to the present application (process) that the memory needed
instantaneously. Second, a huge quantity (Linux-tutorial.info, 2012) of pages intended for which
an application during the start-up stage only used for initialization and then never used. The
system can swap on these pages and free the memory for new applications or even for the disk
cache. Swapping also has a disadvantage. Compared with memory, disks are very slow. The
more swapping happens, the slower the process of Linux will be. System occasionally excessive
swapping or unscrambling occurs when a page is deleting and then rapidly exchanged and after
that exchanged again, and so on. In such situations, Linux system is will be under pressure to
free memory to discover and maintain applications (Kay.T, 2011) running at the same time. Linux
have two types of swap space that are swap partition and a swap file. Swap partition be
autonomous of the hard disk used only for the swapping, no other files live there. Paging folder
is an extraordinary file in the folder system that sits connecting between Linux system and data
files.

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4.5 Paging
Paging is description to external fragmentation difficulty which is toward authorizing of the
rational address space of a procedure to be non-contiguous, thus allowing a progression to be
allocating physical memory wherever the latter is available. Paging is to overwrite the contents
of the physical memory on the hard drive, which makes the physical (everythingexplained.com,
2009) memory available for use by applications. Information least recently used first step.
Paging is costly in terms of results, because when the data stored on the disk are needed again in
the physical memory that is responsible for a slow process.

Diagram 3: Paging in Linux

Source: http://syszux.com/book/kernel/Understanding.the.Linux.Kernel(3rd
%20Edition)/images/understandlk_0212.jpg

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4.6 Demand Paging
Demand paging is the method of only loading virtual pages into memory as they are the process
and large address space mapped into a relatively small amount of physical memory. Demand
Paging is a page is bringing into memory just when a position on that page is really referenced
throughout execution. With pre-paging, pages extra than the one demanded through a page fault
are brought in. The variety of such pages is done based (Maha, 2012) on familiar access patterns,
particularly for secondary memory devices pre-paging is the tactic to convey the pages once
during the memory to facilitate when they needed. Whereas in demand paging one page is bring
only when it is really needed.

4.7 Page Fault

A page fault is a seducement to the software raised by the hardware when a program accesses
a page that is mapped in the virtual space, but not loaded in physical memory. It has a most
important influence on memory subsystems performance. A procedure has a page table, also
called as chart that consist of page table (Eranian.S, Mosberger.D, 2002) entries that points to
assigned the memory to the progression and communicates to the CPU, the memory locations
which are applicable for accessing a process.

Diagram 4: Page Fault in Linux

Source: http://www.tutorialspoint.com/operating_system/images/page_fault.jpg

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4.8 Overlay
Overlay is component of an application, which was loaded at same origin where earlier some
parts of the program were residing. A program based on overlay scheme mainly consists of a
root piece which is always memory resident and set of overlays. Overlay gives the program an
extension to limited main storage. Concept of mutual exclusion is important in overlays
identification in program, routines which doesnt invoke each other and unloaded in memory
simultaneously.

4.9 Conclusion
Memory management services in Linux are built on a programming foundation that includes a
peripheral device called Memory Management Unit (MMU).One of the best projecting examples
of free and open source software combinations. It encourages user to gain knowledge and to
become independent. As OS with a good memory management, able to handle memory and
lesser chances of facing page fault, processes virtual memory faster and efficiently.

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5.0 Introduction (Section 2: Computer Systems Architecture, Question 1)

5.1 What is Microprocessor
A microprocessor, on occasion called as logic chip, is a computer processor on a microchip. The
microprocessor contains all, or the majority of, the central processing unit (CPU) functions and is
the "engine" that goes into movement when you turn your computer on. A microprocessor is
deliberate to perform arithmetic and logic operations that make utilize of small number-holding
areas called registers. Characteristic of microprocessor (Theitlibrary.com, 2008) operations
include adding, subtracting, comparing two numbers, as well as fetching numbers from single
vicinity to another. These operations are the effect of a set of commands that is part of the
microprocessor design. When a computer is turned on, the microprocessor gets the first order
from the basic input/output system (BIOS) that comes with the computer as element of
its memory. Moreover, the BIOS, or the operating system that BIOS loads into computer
memory, or an application program is "driving" the microprocessor, giving it commands to
perform. In PCs, the majority popular microprocessor used is the Intel Pentium chip, while
Macintosh computers use the PowerPC chip (developed by Motorola, IBM, and Apple). Several
processors can complete more operations per clock cycle than other processors, making them
more capable than other processors with superior clock speeds. The velocity of a microprocessor
is calculated in megahertz, or cycles per second. But superior megahertz doesn't always mean its
a better performance.
Diagram 5: First Generation of Computers (1940 1956), using vacuum tubes

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Source:
http://www.tipsworld.org/wp-content/uploads/2011/09/firstgen.jpg

Diagram 6: Second Generation of Computers (1956-1963), using transistors

Source: http://www.mikroe.com/old/books/keu/04/4-01.gif

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Diagram 7: Third Generation of Computer (1964-1971), using Integrated Circuits

Source:
http://4.bp.blogspot.com/_jBvkQPEhOmc/TVAoWUEi5_I/AAAAAAAABV8/ThUgJG3f0VI/s1
600/Third-Generation-Computer.jpg

Diagram 8: Fourth Generation of Computer (1971- Present), using Microprocessors

Source: http://www.elprocus.com/wp-content/uploads/2013/02/Microprocessor.jpg

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5.2 Major Trends Affecting Microprocessor
A main trend affects microprocessor performance and designs in recent years are Transistorspeed sealing and Cache Memory Architecture.
5.2.1 Transistor Speed Sealing
The MOS transistor has been the workhorse intended for decades, scaling in presentation by
almost five orders of extent and given that the foundation for today's unprecedented compute
performance. The basic recipe for technology scaling was laid down by Robert N. Dennard of
IBM in the early 1970s and followed for the past three decades. The scaling recipe calls for
reducing transistor dimensions by 30% every generation (two years) and keeping electric fields
constant everywhere in the transistor to maintain reliability. This might sound simple but is
increasingly difficult to continue for reasons discussed later. Classical transistor scaling provided
three major benefits that made possible rapid growth (Yung.R, Rusu.S, and Shoemaker.K, 2013)
in compute performance. First, the transistor dimensions are scaled by 30% (0.7x), their area
shrinks 50%, doubling the transistor density every technology generationthe fundamental
reason behind Moore's Law. Second, as the transistor is scaled, its performance increases by
about 40% (0.7x delay reduction, or 1.4x frequency increase), providing higher system
performance. Third, to keep the electric field constant, supply voltage is reduced by 30%,
reducing energy by 65%, or power (at 1.4x frequency) by 50% (active power = CV2f). Putting it
all together, in every technology generation transistor integration doubles, circuits are 40% faster,
and system power consumption (with twice as many transistors) stays the same. This
serendipitous scaling (almost too good to be true) enabled three-orders-of-magnitude increase in
microprocessor performance over the past 20 years. Chip architects exploited transistor density
to create complex architectures and transistor speed to increase frequency, achieving it all within
a reasonable power and energy envelope.

5.2.2 Cache Memory Architecture

Dynamic memory technology (DRAM) has also progressive dramatically with Moore's Law
above the former 40 years, but through different appearances. For example, the memory density
has doubled almost every two years, and the performance has improved more slowly. It's a
slower improvement cycle developed memory bottleneck to reduce the overall system
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performance. It's finally leveled off for a simpler CPU clock frequency. Touching distance of the
memory latency is eliminated and still be able to remove most of the advantages of processor
development. Due to the slow improvement of DRAM speed is due to convenience rather than
technological. It is a misconception that the DRAM technology is based on the storage capacitor
inherently slower and the memory organization optimized for density and lower cost, making it
slower. DRAM market demanded a high capacity with minimum cost over speed, depending on
the small and fast caches onto the microprocessor die to emulate a high-performance memory,
providing the necessary bandwidth and low latency based on data locality entry, but efficient
memory hierarchy allows the DRAM to emphasize density (Lighterra.com, 2012) and cost more
than speed. For the first time in the single-level processor cache, but as the processor speed
increases, cache hierarchy levels 02:58 was introduced to tighten the increasing speed of the
processor and memory. This was the lowest level of the hierarchy cache is a small but fast
enough to meet the needs of the processor associated with high bandwidth and low latency,
higher-level cache hierarchy was then optimized in size and speed.

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5.3 Differences between microprocessors design goals for laptops, servers,
desktops and embedded system
5.3.1 Microprocessor for laptops
Laptops are known as notebook computers is a small or portable computer which has all the
same use as a personal computer but just that its portable, light weight and applies few
integration such as touch pad instead of mouse, thin screen, insert able hardware such as PC card
and built in drives. The laptop processor is commonly a lower-powered processor even though
some laptop manufacturer uses desktop processor in their laptop to gain higher performance. The
processors designed for laptop consume less power and runs cooler than desktop processor
because user requires longer life battery with cooler running laptop yet the fan drains laptop
battery quickly. As for the performance, the traits that differs laptops processing unit are the
number of cores they contain, cache memory and bus speed, the speed of the chip itself and
different cores with different capability. The mainstream processors are excelling towards
containing dual cores as the benefits are higher compared to single core CPU. The cache memory
high-speed local memory which enables CPU to keep from checking in slower main memory as
often and bus speed decides on how quick the processor communicates to the rest of the
computer. For different cores, the each of their performance differs according to different models
of laptops.
5.3.2 Microprocessors for Desktop
Desktop processors are different in the sense of architecture as the physical space required is not much
concerned and also for their power consumption. The aim is to build processor which does more efficient
work in a time unit with as much as performance as attainable whilst holding the power consumption with
limits. The design goal of desktop processors is to outcome processors (AmericanEssays.com, 2003)
which carry out more power to the end-user and another fact is that processors designed for most of the
programs that run in desktop are created to be done a long time processor scheduling jobs such as
rendering high definition image or compiling source file.

5.3.3 Microprocessor for Embedded Systems

Embedded system is said to be implemented overall in all intelligent devices available. Most of
the embedded devices use microcontrollers which is an implementation of computer inside a
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small thumb size chip instead of different microprocessors. Even some old routers created using
that chip. Microprocessors for embedded devices created using reduced instruction set
computing (RISC) architecture to reduce complexness of the mobile processor and number of
instruction per processor. Embedded device processor (Do It Easy with ScienceProg, 2008)
producers can generate speeder processor but the restriction they face is that extraordinary power
consumption and heating.
5.3.4 Microprocessor for Servers
The strategy goal for microprocessor for server is to provide a continual up time, constancy
issues and safety level. This microprocessor needs extraordinary processing power with higher
amount and response time where it necessitates to be run straight for 24 hours per day. As for
security level, features such as buffer overflow (Moore.C, 1999) detection, data error detection,
malicious code executive prevention and error code detection are required for server
microprocessor for secure usage.

5.4 Conclusion
For each of the system reviewed, we can conclude that each system varies in sense of design goal as the
environment which the area processor needs to be fit in and used have to be consider. Microprocessors are
multi-amputated but they are remaining best utilized when they are diminished to get suited to specific
needs.

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6.0 Frequently Asked Questions (FAQ)

6.1 Memory Management
1) What is the relation between UNIX and Linux?
~ Linux operating system is one of the varieties of UNIX operating system. In more focus, Linux
operating system is based on the form and function of UNIX system.

2) What is the advantage of using Linux instead of Windows?

~ The Linux is better to be used as it is free source software, it has a stronger aspect of security,
users choice or power to control aspects involved in operating system, software chosen based on
the differing task and it supports any form of hardware whether it is in a new or old condition.

3) The common type of RAM used generally is Double Data Rate (DDR) SDRAM. Are there
any other types of DDR SDRAM available in market?
~ DDR SDRAM is the most commonly used RAM at this moment and the first DDR SDRAM
are still on sale in market. However, the DDR3 SDRAM may take place of the DDR2 SDRAM
soon enough where it operates about twice faster than DDR2 SDRAM. The basic speed of DDR3
SDRAM is 1333MHz meanwhile DDR2 SDRAM is about 667MHz.

6.2 Microprocessor
1) What is multi-core?
~ Its a two or more independent core combined into a single package composed of a single
integrated circuit is known as multi-core processor.

2) How to prove that a desktop microprocessor is consuming much more energy than a laptop
microprocessor?
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~ This can be proved by using the Thermal Design Power (TDP) where it measures the energy
consumption of microprocessors. The common dual-core microprocessors such as Intel Core 2
Duo for laptops and desktops are differentiated. A mainstream laptop microprocessor uses a
maximum of 35W whereas a mainstream desktop microprocessor uses a maximum of 65W.

3) How can we know whether the microprocessor purchased is functioning or not?

~ The defect of microprocessor cannot be detected because it is installed in the hardware. So the
defect can be known only when the processor is in use. However the probability of the
microprocessor getting defect is low as the manufacturers are doing a perfect and good job on
producing a good processor.

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7.0 Limitations and Extensions

7.1 Limitations
Word count is the major limitation where the word limit is 4000 words so most of the
information has been summarized. Restriction to access to certain information. When researching
on internet, most of the websites requires charges in order to view and use the information
contained in the website. The pages will be blocked, diverted to some other irrelevant websites or
can be able to view some small portion of the information. Lastly, selecting the right information.
There is lot of information available which varies from different sources which I can take from.
However, some of the information can be irrelevant to be used in the assignment so I must
choose wisely and correctly on selecting right point of information.
7.2 Extension
Form of research. The information searched can be done through internet, reference book and IT
magazine which means there are many ways to research the information. However, the
information found is infinite and I must have overlooked it. However, the research I have done is
good enough as I took from educational website, IT related topics websites and also IT related
books. Adequate help. The help of HSSN lecturer Mr. Qusay Sabah Ishaq and friends were
helpful in helping me understanding most of the parts involved in this assignment.

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8.0 References
8.1 Memory Management (Section1, Question 2)
Breecher. J (2012), Operating Management Systems [Online], retrieved March 8, 2013,
available at: http://web.cs.wpi.edu/~cs3013/c07/lectures/Section08Memory_Management.pdf
BookRags (2006), Physical and Virtual Memory [Online], retrieved March 9, 2013,
available at: http://www.bookrags.com/research/physical-and-virtual-memory-wcs/
Stein. A (2004) Features of Virtual Memory [Online], retrieved March 11, 2013,
available at: http://www.ehow.com/facts_7279901_features-virtual-memory.html
Regev. H (2009), Virtual Memory [Online], retrieved March 12, 2013, available at:
http://searchstorage.techtarget.com/definition/virtual-memory
Deitel, P. and Deitel, H. C How to Program 7TH Edition Edinburgh Gate, Pearson (2013) [Book],
retrieved March 15, 2013,

Unknown (2013), Linux System Administrators Guide [Online], retrieved March 17, 2013,
available at: http://linux.about.com/od/lsa_guide/a/gdelsa39.htm
Yellapragada. R (2003), Linux Memory Management [Online], retrieved March 20, 2013,
available at:
http://frankdrews.com/public_filetree/cs458_558_sq03/studentpapers/ramaniyellapragad
a.pdf
Ustudy.in (2008), Internal and External Fragmentation [Online], retrieved March 21, 2013,
available at: http://www.ustudy.in/node/10328
Jagmeet (2013), What is Internal & External Fragmentation [Online], retrieved March 22,
2013, available at: http://www.howtoinform.com/what-is-internal-externalfragmentation/
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Lee. I (2002), Computer Operating System [Online], retrieved March 23 2013, available at:
http://www.cis.upenn.edu/~lee/03cse380/lectures/ln10-mem.2pp.pdf
Linux-tutorial.info (2012), Swapping out and Discarding Pages [Online], retrieved March
24, 2013, available at: http://www.linux-tutorial.info/modules.php?
name=MContent&pageid=311
Kay. T (2011), Linux Swap Space [Online], retrieved March 26, 2013, available at:
http://www.linuxjournal.com/article/10678
Everythingexplained.com (2009), Paging Explained [Online], retrieved March 28, 2013,
available at: http://everything.explained.at/Paging/
Maha (2012), Memory Management, Virtual Memory and Demanding Paging in Linux
[Online], retrieved March 29, 2013, available at: http://queforum.com/blogs/maha/1128memory-management-virtual-memory-demand-paging-linux.html
Eranian.S, Mosberger.D, (2002), Page Fault Handling [Online], retrieved April 1, 2013,
available at: http://www.informit.com/articles/article.aspx?p=29961&seqNum=5
8.2 Microprocessors (Section 2, Question 1)
Theitlibrary.com (2008), Introduction to Microprocessor [Online], retrieved April 4 2013,
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