NCSU Libraries Reserve Room Cover Sheet INSTRUCTOR: Hudson, Sam COURSE: TC504 AUTHOR: Brydson, J.A. TITLE: Flow Through Channels of simple Cross Section (Ch. 2) SOURCE: Brydson, J.A. Flow Properties of Polymer Melts (c. 1981). pp. 21-34. Reserve Module Filename: € Qs DRA Record Number: fmF- S5E3 ** BEST COPY AVAILABLE ** SS WARNING CONCERNING COPYRIGHT RESTRICTIONS The copyright law of the United States (Title 17, United States Code) governs the making of photocopies or other reproduction of copyrighted material. Under certain conditions specified in the law, libraries and archives are authorized to furnish a photocopy or other reproduction. One of these specified conditions is that the photocopy or reproduction is not to be used for any purpose other than private study, scholarship or research. Ifelectronic transmission of reserve material is used for purposes in excess of what constitutes “fair use”, that user may be liable for copyright infringement. iniiiT 801167018 0a CHAPTER 2 Flow Through Channels of Simple Cross Section 2 INTRODUCTION ‘There are three good reasons for deriving quantitative retation- ships for flow through channels of simple eross section. The first is that it allows fundamental shear stress-shear rate data to be obtained from output and pressure readings obtained on labora~ tory equipment. The second is that the shear stress-shear rate data so obtained may then be applied to production equipment in order to estimate output-pressure—power relationships. The third, and in reality often the most important reason, is that the oeeurrence and extent of flow anomalies and elastic effects can be quantitatively related to the shear conditions existing within the chat 22 FLOW THROUGH A PIPE (CAPILLARY FLOW) Capillary flow is particularly worthy of study since it is the basis of the most useful method of studying flow properties at the ‘normally high shear rates used in polymer melt processing. For a very long time it has been realised that if the head of pres- sure applied to a liquid at the end of a pipe is increased so the rate of flow of the liquid through the pipe increases. In due course it was observed that the output Q was proportional to the pressuren FLOW THROUGH CHANNELS OF SIMPLE CROSS SECTION AAP in the case of many liquids such as water and Eqn (2.1) could be postulated: Q=KAP ey Subsequently it was shown that for such fluids K equals 2R*/SaL so that Eqn (2.1) could be rewritten as Q = RAPR‘/SuL. where R is the radius of the pipe of length Land jis the coefficient of viscosity. This is the mathematical representation of the well- known Poiseuille’s law. For the materials then being commonly studied, in which js was independent of shear rate, it was possible to calculate j from the slope of a Q vs AP plot and then use this in calculations for large scale plant. When however non-Newtonian materials were involved this was no longer possible and plots of Q vs P were of little value. It is much better to use Q and P data to derive shear stress-shear rate data (usually in the form of a flow curve). Such data’is independent of the dimensions and shape_ of the apparatus and can be applied not only to pressure flow through pipes but also through rectangular channels, annuli and other flow paths of various cross sections. In order to derive quantitative relationships certain assumptions need to be made but the fewer postulated the more general the result will be. In the analysis given here it will be assumed that: (a) The velocity of the fluid at the wall of the tube is zero (itis said that there is ‘no-slip at the wall’. (6) The fluid is time-independent, ie. j = f(2) only. (¢) The flow pattern is constant all along the tube. (@ The flow is isothermal (e) The melt is incompressible. For many years some of these assumptions remained un- questioned but, in the case of polymer melts at least, these assump. tions are not always applicable,and they will be dealt with in the hhext chapter. In the following section equations concerned with the quanti- tative study of flow through a pipe will be derived. 2.2.1 SHEAR STRESS AT THE WALL OF A PIPE ‘The equations for shear stress at the wall of a pipe may be derived from the equation of momentum (Chapter 7) or by considering FLOW THROUGH CHANNELS OF SIMPLE CROSS SECTION a the balance of forces on an element of fluid within a pipe. At this stage of the book the latter method is most conveniently employed. In Fig, 2.1 we have a pipe of length L and radius R with a pres- sure drop of AP between the ends. We first consider the balance of forces on a cylindrical element of fuid of length dZ and radius r. ae : rele o = : _i _ pS —a Fig, 241. Balance of forces ona fd element moxing along withthe flow ina tbe Since the flow is steady it follows by the laws of motion that the sum of all the forces acting on the element is zero is. =F y+ Fit Fy 22) By inspection of the diagram it will be seen that F(a hydrostatic force) = Par? F, (a hydrostatic force [P+ (@P/0Z)Az xr? where P/2Z is an expression showing how the pressure P changes with position in the Z direction and e ee F (the drag on the surface of the element) (surface area) x(drag/unit surface) surface area x shear stress 2nrdZe ‘Substituting these equations into Eqn (2.2) we obtain Par? —[P+(6P/0Z)SZ]nr? + 2nr dZ x = 0 ‘This when rearranged simplifies to 1 (P a5 (5 23)Py FLOW THROUGH CHANNELS OF SIMPLE CROSS SECTION Common experience would lead to the expectation that OP/2Z is independent of Z and this can be shown to be the case.' Hence if the total pressure drop between the ends of the pipe of length Lis AP then we may write pee 2 It is thus seen that + increases from zero at the centre linearly with r to a maximum (r,) at the wall, In this case (ie. where r=R) : (23a) ‘This simple relationship between wall shear stress and pressure difference between the ends of a pipe of known L and Ris extremely ir ind_not just to (230) ‘The above derivation may lack mathematical rigour and it is perhaps better to consider the fluid as flowing in thin telescopic ee Fig. 22. Velocity flow profile ina tube Jor & fluid with 200 yleld sess and | ‘assuming mo slip at al shells of thickness dr. In this case there will be four terms in the balance of forces equation. Whilst the result is the same the more exact derivation is given in the appendix at the end of the chapter. 2.2.2 SHEAR RATE AT WALL. Consider the velocity flow profile in a tube (Fig. 2.2) Let the linear velocity of the fluid at distance r from the centre be o7 (NB. Atr = R, vz = 0). BY definition the shear rate at any point will be do,/dr. It will (2.36) FLOW THROUGH CHANNELS OF SIMPLE CROSS SECTION as first be necessary to obtain an expression for the volumetric flow rate (flow/unit time) denoted by Q. In the diagram above it will be the volume under the curve. This can be calculated by the following argument. Consider a shell of uid of thickness dr, and height vy and radius r, ic. 5 vom of se = ar drag afc = Since vz is the linear flow rate, integration with respect to r between the limits 0 and R will give the volumetric flow rate Q, ie. o= [seme sfc Since v depends on 1, i f(0) it is necessary to integrate by parts using the rule In this case we will let » = vz and du = rdr. Hence dp = dv and u = 77/2 So that o-mforo=s [l-[oam| Now when r = R, vz = 0, therefore, the first term is zero so that we write o- which may also be written Q=-n [Prteouen or 24) It is now convenient to express these terms in terms of x. From Eqn (2.3¢) we can write from which dr = Rit, de may also easily be derived.2% FLOW THROUGH CHANNELS OF SIMPLE CROSS SECTION Substituting into Eqn (2.4) and writing # for de/dr Bo - [ee Differentiating both sides with respect to r, (and using Liebnitz” _ da[ed2e20} ©) dQ ‘ evar 9] en ‘This is known as the Rabinowitsch equation and enables the calculation of the wall shear rate to be calculated from three measurable quantities (R, Q and AP) We are now in the position of being able to determine both the shear stress and the shear rate at the same point, ie. at the wall, over a range of outputs and pressures. Since the true shear stre shear rate curve is a function of the material and not of the eq nent a plot of ,, vs jy is the same as a plot of vs j. Siich a plot “is known as a flow curve. Since no assumptions havé been made about the relationship of ¢ to (for example, no power law relation- ship has been postulated.) flow curves are often more useful in practice than empirical inexact formulae 2.2.3 SIMPLIFICATION OF THE RABINOWITSCHE EQUATION For some purposes the use of the Rabinowitsch equation is unnecessarily tedious and the following mathematical rearrange- ments are made in order to justify the use of simpler equations. First rearrange Eqn (2.5) to give j -1(9) pfu dldQinR?) fe 5 (Se) +7 ae ane FLOW THROUGH CHANNELS OF SIMPLE CROSS SECTION v This is an alternative form of the Rabinowitsch equation. Now for a time-independent fluid only 3/40) , te dl40/nR’ a\ar') 4 as, Inspection of this expression shows that 1 = fl4Q/nR?) only ‘This means that if x, is plotted against 4Q/nR? a unique flow curve will result. For reasons which will be obvious later the expression 4Q/AR? is referred to as the apparent wall shear rate and is written 3, » For most purposes plots of t, against jy, are just as useful as true flow curves. It will be noted that the last term of Eqn (2.6) is of the form Mdxidy). If we remember that Hence i only logy ay a YY ‘becomes \ Using this identity and rearranging Eqn (2.7) we obtain we apparent shear rate at It might be useful here to call this the false apparent viscosity denoted by the symbol yy. The important distinction between these two is rarely if ever made.» FLOW THROUGH CHANNELS OF SIMPLE CROSS SECTION ‘The relationship between 4, andy, can easily be derived using the Metzner form of the Rabinowitsch equation (2.80). Ss gods cet. 23 FLOW BETWEEN PARALLEL PLATES Many plastics processes involve flow between parallel surfaces and an analysis of flow between parallel plates will provide @ simplified guide to the analysis of such processes. It will not pro- vide an exact analysis for various reasons. For example, in sheet ‘extrusion with the use of a flat die the restrictions imposed by the die ends should be taken into account in a full theoretical fanalysis? In the lay-flat extrusion process on the other hand, where we can imagine two parallel plates curled into circles, there Will be no die-edge eflects but there will be some error due to curvatire ‘Details of the mathematical analyses for slit flow are given in the appendix to this monograph. “The main results are however given here for reference. It is assumed that the slit width () is much greater than its thickness Hy the depth of the slit is L. Shear stress at plate wall x, = HOF 214) Shear rate at plate wall jy = — Jaleo + anagnary] (2.150) or 2/60 , 2x» (40 RGR) GQ] em or 2 1 (62) dog (60/1) -5 +3(Q) ere (2150) 2n's1 (60)] , -pesi(@y. aw where (2.16) Ae Ar 12 FLOW THROUGH CHANNELS OF SIMPLE CROSS SECTION u In analogy with pipe flow an equation between shear stress and apparent shear rate at plate wall may be derived: uk (@) aun For a true power law fluid n” = n’ and for n”"<1, K” = K’ 24 FLOW THROUGH AN ANNULUS ‘This is of importance in the manufacture of pipe and lay flat tubing, Quantitative solutions have been derived for both Newton- jan and power law fluids? but in the latter instance have been subjected to some criticism.* Tn Appendix A.S a simplified derivation is given assuming that the difference between the outer radius R, and the inner radius Ry is small compared with the radius diameter. ‘The main results derived are (Rit Re)(R, Output (Q) = =Ri? | (Re— RNAP | OEK" for a_general time-independent fluid whilst for a Newtonian fluid this simplifies to = (RAM R= RIPAP Lye (2.18) 2.19) 25. SUMMARY ‘The contents of this chapter have involved a large amount of algebraic manipulation so much so that the important conclusions tend to be buried amongst a mass of equations. It is, therefore, useful to summarise them here (a) An equation has been derived to calculate shear stress at the pipe wall from experimental data which will apply to all time-independent fluids (Eqn (2.36). (b) Several equivalent equations have been derived to enable ‘the calculation of the(true) shear rate at the wall of a pipe from experimental data which will apply to all time- independent fluids (Eqns (26), (2.7), (28) and (286). PA2 FLOW THROUGH CHANNELS OF SIMPLE CROSS SECTION (6) A true flow curve may be constructed from this data but is rather tedious because of the time taken to determine the true shear rate at the wall ofthe pipe. (@) For a pipe there is a unique relationship between x, and (4/aR'), (the apparent shear rate at the wall. A’ plot of against (4Q/eR*) is much easier to construct than a true"flow curve and is just as useful in seale-up work on pipes. (@) Itis possible to derive an equation (2 x te = K(4Q/nRY" to describe any time-independent fluid where K’ is known as the consistency index and nas the flow behaviour index. It should however be noted that n’ is not necessarily con- stant (/) Pressure output relationships for true power law fluids and for Newtonian fluids are scen to be simplifying cases of the above treatment, (g) The flow in a slit is treated in the Appendix in a manner analogous to that in a pipe and equations for the true shear stress and shear rate are derived, It is also shown that there is a unique relationship between r, and 6Q/wH? and that ‘an equation of the form, ty = K(6Q/wH?)" may be derived. For practical purposes KK’ and n" =n and a plot of 1, against (6Q/wH®) approximately superimposes a plot of ty against (4/nR2). Hence the ‘apparent flow curve’ for pipes may also be used for slits (f) Approximate equations for flow in an annulus are also derived in Appendix AS (p. 173). (APPENDIX Shear Stress in Pipe Flow A. The following is a more rigorous derivation ofthe equation relating FLOW THROUGH CHANNELS OF SIMPLE CROSS SECTION 2 Consider an annular shell of inner radius r, thickness dr and length 5z. Hence the area of each end of the shell is 2nrér. Fy is a drag force pulling the shell on the inner surface with a force/unit area of t. F, is a retarding force on the outside of the shell with a force/unit area of r+6r. Fig, 23 Balance of forces oma lid shell element mov ine pie. In this case — [P+ (@P/t2) dz}2nr5r Qari Fy = —2ardze Fy = nly} 5ribe(e +5) and EP =Fi+F;+F,+F,=0 Combining these equations and simplifying we obtain bc which has the general solution jel jQe/d“ FLOW THROUGH CHANNELS OF SIMPLE CROSS SECTION In this case Hence which on integration, rearranging and assuming that when =O then t = 0, gives oP % which is the same result as obtained earlier. 1 wexatvey, 2, Polymer Processing, p. 6, Wiley, New York (1962) 2, meksLvey, 3, Polymer Processing, p. 97, Wiley, New York (1962) 3. mepnicksow, 4. 6: and aia, 8, Ind. Engnt Chem, $0, 347 (1958) and $0, 1359 1958). 4. YauoHN, R. D. and sEROMAN, #, D, Ind. Engng. Chem, Process Design and Development, §, 44 (1966).