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Running Head: CEREAL HEALTH CLAIMS

College Males Attitudes On Cereal Health Claims and Their Purchasing Behavior
Troi Barksdale, Michelle Phan, Elise Gahan, Katie Hojara
Indiana University - Bloomington

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Table of Contents
Introduction

Methods

Procedures

Instrument

Data Analysis

Participants

Results

Discussion

10

Limitations

10

Implications

11

Recommendations and Future Research

12

Conclusion

12

References

13

Appendix A (Flyer)

16

Appendix B (Survey)

17

Appendix C (Theory/Evidences Tables)

22

Appendix D (Survey Responses)

32

Appendix E (Response Code)

37

Appendix F (SPSS Data)

39

Appendix G (Group Contribution)

50

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Introduction
In the United States of America, breakfast cereal is over a seven billion dollar industry
with almost three billion boxes being sold annually according to the market research company
NPD Groups 2012 report. The top three breakfast producing companies spend more than a
combined 421.8 million dollars on advertising and promoting their products annually, both
through media and package design. Since the passing of the Nutrition Labeling and Education
Act of 1990 (NLEA), food advertisements with health claims must meet specific validity
guidelines based on testing, with the goal of the claims to improve customers overall health
(Roe, Levy, & Derby, 1999). According to the Codex Alimentarius guidelines, a company that
establishes international health guidelines, health claims include nutrient function claims, which
highlight the nutrients role in growth, development, and functions of the body (Williams, 2005).
Health claims also include other function claims, which describe how the nutrient may improve
normal body functions, and reduction of disease risk claims (Williams, 2005). The NLEA
immediately impacted the marketing approach of companies and investigative studies on the
effects of advertising and food packaging related to the impact of health claims soon occurred.
Both sales and customer knowledge are important when examining claims because reading and
understanding health claims are entirely different, as found by Kozup, Creyer and Burton (2003).
The effectiveness of health claims in advertisements has been measured based on the correct
interpretation of the claim (Grunert, Scholderer & Rogeaux, 2011), the prior knowledge of the
consumer (Ippolito & Mathios, 1991), as well as how products that are endorsed are perceived
(Silvera & Austad, 2004). Since the NLEA passed, breakfast cereal companies have increasingly
used health claims as a marketing tool to convince consumers to purchase their products by
relying on marketing research on effective advertising methods. Therefore, it is important to

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investigate how consumers perceive health claims and how these advertisements impact the
attitudes, behaviors and purchasing intention among male college students at a large Midwestern
university.
Because the primary concern of the cereal is profit, the cereal industries motivation
behind health claims are not always solely to improve the health and wellbeing of consumers.
Therefore, it is important to investigate consumers interpretation of health claims to insure that
they are truly beneficial. Roe et al. (1999) investigated consumers understanding of health claims
and found that 67% of consumers correctly interpreted the claim and that these individuals often
had higher health motivation and education. Their findings indicated that 21% of consumers had
risky or inaccurate interpretations of the claim and often exaggerated the extent of the claim,
with the average risky respondent having a lower education than those that could correctly
interpret the presented claim. According to federal regulation, health claims are meant to be
aimed at the general consumer, Williams (2005) and van Kleef, van Trijp, and Lunnig (2005)
evaluated what this means and how many consumers actually do understand the health claims.
They both found that upper class, more educated women correctly understand the claim most
often.
The effectiveness of health claims is largely based off of consumers perceived strength
and belief in the claims. Zezelj, Milosevic, Stojanovic, and Ognajanov (2012) found that
consumers trust health claims the most when the government, rather than a company, sponsored
them, when there was a third party certification, and when the claim was backed up by research.
Acknowledgment of the health claim alone did not lead to an increase in purchasing behavior
according Gravel et al. (2012). Their study focused on the connection between nutrition facts
that positively support the health claim and found that a greater number of subjects were

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positively influenced by the health claim only after examining the nutrition label. They also
noted that because multiple types of health labeling occur, consumers often became confused
about what health eating should be. Additionally, van Kleef et al. (2005) found that health claims
that reduce disease risk led to higher purchasing intentions. Their evaluations of past research
found that health claim effectiveness is unrelated to attractiveness or credibility but is entirely
related to the framing of the claim.
The target population of this study was chosen because past studies indicate that college
students represent a population that can be primed to respond to health claims; however, results
have varied on this population's response to the claims. Nocella and Kennedy (2012) found via a
survey study that 70.2% of students look at a label when purchasing a product and that 72.1%
purchase a product with health claims versus a similar product with no claims. Although it seems
this population has positive attitudes towards the claims, many did not completely trust the
information. In opposition to the above study, Freedman and Connors (2011) found in their
quasi-experimental study at an on-campus convenience store that there was no significant
difference in sales of food items between those labeled as healthy and those that were unlabeled.
Rather, purchases would increase after price reduction, indicating that price is an important
factor that must be considered in this population.
A study sponsored by the Federal Trade Commission investigated how purchasing
behavior changed because of the claim on a Kellogg's breakfast cereal that foods high in fiber
reduce the risk of colon cancer, which was one of the original health claims on breakfast cereals
(Ippolito & Mathios, 1989). The Commission primarily focused on how consumers react to
health incentives and purchases as a result of the claims that led to greater overall health. This
ground breaking research provided some of the first data that included greater nutritional and

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health information that could lead to an increase in sales. The most notable result from this study
include the correlation between higher levels of education and increased purchasing of breakfast
cereal with health claims. Additionally, the frequency of eating breakfast cereal with advertised
high fiber content increases with higher income level and when there is a male head of house.
The important demographic factors found in Ippolito and Mathios (1989) have been continually
investigated in follow-up studies. Roe et. al (1999) found that breakfast cereals with specific
health claims were more attractive to consumers than only having broad nutrition claims. They
also noted, that when prompted, 96% of respondents noticed the claim and when not prompted
only 62% acknowledged the information in the claim. This raises the important point that a
claims presence does not guarantee a consumer response.
Past research used a variety of models to examine the effects of health claims on eating
behavior. Most commonly, the theory of reasoned action is the framework for examining how
and to what extent consumers process and understand health claims. Van Assema, Glanz, Brug,
& Kok (1996) established that health claims have the goal of changing behavior. When using the
theory of reasoned action, the behavior can be predicted from the essential constructs of attitude,
social influence, and self-efficacy. Using the theory of reasoned action, Kozup et. al (2003)
found that health claims improve consumers perceived control therefore improving self-efficacy
which lead to higher buying habits among the studied consumers. Additionally, the social
learning theory has been used to study how the purchasing behavior of others impacts consumers
(Grunert, Scholderer, & Rogeaux, 2011; Williams, 2005).
Petty and Cacioppos (1999) elaboration likelihood model has also been used extensively
when looking at consumers response to food claims specifically in the marketing field. Their
theory focuses on the way consumers think and identify how some see a claim and pay

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significant attention to the claim content. Thus, some are able to process the material, while
others are more connected emotionally and behaviorally when making a decision. The
overarching implication of this model is that the more personally relevant an advertisement is the
greater the effect was on the consumer (Rusmevichientong, Streletskaya, Amatyakul & Kaiser,
2014). Cereal companies have used these findings to improve marketing strategies; however, the
elaboration likelihood model has little influence on consumers actual attitude and behavior
towards breakfast cereal.
Past studies have established links between purchasing behavior associated with health
claims, education level, and prior health knowledge; however, they have not exclusively
examined how these factors influenced an overall diet intentions, specifically in male college
students between the ages of 18 and 25 (Gravel et. al, 2012; Grunert et. al, 2011; Nocella &
Kennedy, 2012). Investigating how this age group and gender demographic responds to health
claims can be insightful for both companies and individuals working to promote nutrition within
the college population. The purpose of this study is to examine how health claims affect males
attitudes to purchase cereal in college at a Midwestern university. The results of this study can
be used in nutrition education programs on college campuses to increase the benefits that health
claims in food advertising can have.
Methods
The purpose of this study was to examine the association between male college students
attitudes towards health claims on breakfast cereals and their purchasing behavior. This
hypothetical study has been approved by the Institutional Review Board and the hypothetical
participants in this study consented prior to participating in the study. The inclusion criteria for
participation in this study consisted of males between the ages of 18-25, all of which needed to

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attend a Midwestern university. Participants were recruited using flyers (see Appendix A) that
were placed in high traffic locations around the selected university, including hallways,
cafeterias, and outdoor billboards. The sample size of 40 was deemed appropriate because it
decreased the risk for sampling error as discussed by Creswell (2007). Voluntary participation of
males from across the universitys campus created a random sample size because all majors,
ethnicities, and ages had equal opportunity to be included in the study. However, due to the
placement of the flyers, results were primarily isolated to health majors and upperclassmen. The
size of the sample population validated the obtained results.
Procedure
Flyers (see Appendix A) were first placed in high traffic areas of the Midwest university
where many college males would see it. Interested students were able to rip off tabs on the flyers,
which provided a link to the online survey. Participants were asked to go to the link and complete
the survey. If participants had completed the survey, they were entered into a drawing to win a
15-dollar gift card to their restaurant of choice. The flyers were put up on two different days and
were left hanging for a total of three weeks. This was done to maximize male college student
participation.
Instrument
The survey contained a total of 29 questions. Five of the total questions asked about
demographics. Both the attitudes and behavioral questions had nine questions each while the
knowledge portion contained six questions. All of the questions in the knowledge, attitude, and
behavior sections were given on a one to seven point Likert scale, with number one being
strongly disagree and seven as strongly agree. All questions from the knowledge portion and
three pertaining to attitude, functional foods, benefit health, and healthy eating were taken from

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Ajzens (2002) article in order to better suit the study (see Appendix B). The questions to
improve health and reduce illness from the attitude section were extracted from Williams (2007).
Based on conceptual framework, it was more appropriate to create unique questions for the
remaining attitude as well as all of the behavioral related questions presented in the study.
Data Analysis
The survey data was analyzed using the SPSS software. The software was then used to
run correlation and T-tests on the survey responses. The correlation was used to show the
relationship between the variables of the study; age, school year, major, and ethnicity. The T-tests
show the difference between the variables and the constructs of the study, such as overall
behavior. Making the survey voluntary to every participant and creating non-leading questions
all of which were mandatory to aid in creating a solid data set reduced potential biases. This
improves validity and reliability of the survey questions based on their conciseness, clarity, and
the single scale used to measure the results.
Participants
There were 40 male participants that completed the online survey. Of the 40, 15% (n=6)
were 18-20 years old, 72.5% (n=29) were 21-22 years old, and 12.5% (n=5) were 23-25 years
old. The majority of the sample consisted of Seniors, 62.5% (n=25), 10% (n=4) were Freshmen,
17.5% (n=7) were Juniors, and the remaining 10% (n=4) have been an undergraduate for over 4
years; there were no Sophomores. Health-related majors made up 72.5% (n=29) of the
participants, 10% (n=4) were science majors, 5% (n=2) were education majors, 5% (n=2) were
arts/humanities majors, and 7.5% (n=3) indicated their major as Other. The ethnicity
distribution of the participants was almost proportional to the university demographics; 87.5%

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(n=35) were white, 2.5% (n=1) were Asian, 5% (n=2) were African American, and those who
selected Other made up 5% (n=2).
Results
The correlations suggest that there is a positive impact, or less than 5% error, between
age and the following variables; school year (P<.000), major (P<.033), and ethnicity (P<.014).
The correlation between school year and age of the participants is also significant (P<.000).
Other significant correlations include major and age (P<.033), ethnicity and age (P<.014), as
well as overall knowledge and ethnicity (P<.002) (see Appendix F). Data found a correlation
between overall attitude and overall behavior (P<.000), which is also significant among this
sample.
One sample T-tests with n=40, suggest that age, school year, major, ethnicity, overall
knowledge are significant (P<.05) (see Appendix F).
Paired sample T-tests were also conducted which had the following indications: age and
overall behavior is significant (P<.000), school year and overall behavior (P<.000), major and
overall behavior (P<.000), as well as ethnicity and overall behavior (P<.000); showing that all
the differences between these variables are significant. Comparing another Paired T-test, with
overall attitude with the variables; age, school year, major, and ethnicity, showed to be
significant (P<.032). This indicates that overall attitude is affected by all of the variables listed
when studying n=40 (see Appendix F).
Although the significance of the correlation is positive, the Likert Scale utilized in this
study was generic because without definite numbers, the data only represents an all inclusive
measurement of the variables and constructs.

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Discussion
The purpose of this study is to examine how health claims affect males attitudes to
purchase cereal in college at a Midwestern university through an online survey. The findings of
the study for 40 male participants showed that age, school year, major, overall knowledge,
overall attitude, and overall behavior were affected by health claims presented on cereal boxes.
All variables were significant when health claims were presented, when dealing with purchasing
behavior. These were unanticipated results in regards to the original hypothesis that speculated
that, only major and school year would have an affect on participants responses about
purchasing foods with health claims due to their overall knowledge and different perspectives.
According to Marietta (1999), past studies have shown that college students will purchase
products that have health claims presented on them versus those that do not. However, according
to another study, the presence of health claims is not a significant factor on whether or not
students purchase that food (Freedman, 2011). The current research found information contrary
to Freedmans study, that health claims do increase the purchasing behavior in college males. In
Freedmans research, women, as well as a combination of men and women from all different age
groups, were studied which is why a study comprised solely of males was needed. The lack of
male studies in the research leaves a gap that is important to investigate in order to better
understand male purchasing behavior when health claims are present. The results found in this
study can be used to further marketing campaigns that include health claims where college males
are the target consumer.
Limitations
The limitations presented in the study could have been the sample size (n=40) of male
participants that completed the survey. With so few men, this may not represent the total male

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population at the Midwestern university. The amount of time the participant had available to
complete the survey presents another possible limitation. Participants could have been answering
the questions too quickly, therefore leaving room for false information, inaccurate answers, or
not fully understanding the questions. Another limitation presented could have been the
placement of the flyers that were created to post around campus. This could have narrowed the
participant selection to a narrower group of males. In addition, the data collected was crosssectional, meaning it was only gathered at one point and time, and not over the course of weeks,
months, or years. Lastly, out of 40 participants, 35 of them were white. This presents a
significant racial gap in the research conducted. With the study being so densely populated with
white males, the data doesnt represent the black, Asian, or other ethnicities/races in the male
populace and therefore would not be able to be generalized for all ethnicities. This absence of
data could also be the reason that ethnicity shows as a significant variable when examining how
health claims affect males attitude to purchase cereal in college.
Implications
The implications of the study were that with the data collected from the survey: age,
school year, major, overall knowledge, overall attitude, and overall behavior have a positive
impact on whether or not a college male at a Midwestern university will purchase that particular
food that presents a health claim. This study, as well as past studies (Kozup et al., 2003; Nocella
& Kennedy, 2012; Van Assema et al., 1996) implies that health claims have the potential to
persuade consumers to purchase one cereal over another, but the questionable reliability will
influence the participants decision regardless of the variables and constructs. Another key point
in the research conducted and a prior study was the foreknowledge and interpretation of the
health claim presented on the cereal box (Grunert et al., 2011). This would also affect the

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decision of the participant when purchasing this cereal. Both areas of marketing and health can
capitalize on these findings by creating new campaigns that use these findings.
Recommendations and Future Research
Recommendations for future research include acquiring a larger sample size as well as a
more diverse group of men that are of different races. A study that is composed of 100+ male
participants that vary in ethnicity/race would allow the researcher to obtain more realistic data
for the male population as a whole. In addition, increasing the amount of flyers presented on
campus in various places would increase the number of participants. Leaving the survey open for
a longer period of time can also increase the number responses. Future research can also be made
into a longitudinal study to see if purchasing behaviors change over time due to new knowledge
acquired, attitude changes, and other personal developments.
Conclusion
In conclusion, more research needs to be done in order to gain a better understanding of
how health claims presented on cereal boxes affect 18-25 year old males attitudes from a
Midwestern University. The results of this study show that all variables; age, school year, major,
and ethnicity, reveal significance on the knowledge and attitudes of the participants when
questioned about health claims presented on cereal boxes. Similar past studies like that of
Nocella and Kennedy reveal the same results, however, no study was composed of strictly males
on college campuses (2012). However, in a study conducted by Freedman (2011), the data
showed that none of these variables played a role in the purchasing behaviors of college aged
students. The gap in data leaves more room to complete more research to gain knowledge about
attitudes and their impact on purchasing cereal with males at a Midwestern University.

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References
Ajzen, I. (2006). Constructing a TPB questionnaire: Conceptual and methodological
considerations. Retrieved from http://people.umass.edu/aizen/pdf/tpb.measurement.pdf
Creswell, J. W., & Clark, V. L. P. (2007). Designing and conducting mixed methods research.
Thousand Oaks, Calif: SAGE Publications.
Freedman, M. R., & Connors, R. (2011). Point-of-purchase nutrition information influences
food-purchasing behaviors of college students: a pilot study. Journal of the American
Dietetic Association, 111(5), S42-S46.
Gravel, K., Doucet, E., Herman, C. P., Pomerleau, S., Bourlaud, A. S., & Provencher, V. (2012).
"Healthy," "diet," or "hedonic". How nutrition claims affect food-related perceptions and
intake? Appetite, 59, 877-884.
Grunert, K. G., Scholderer, J., & Rogeaux, M. (2011). Determinants of consumer understanding
of health claims. Appetite, 56, 269-277.
Ippolito, P. M., & Mathios, A. D. (1989). Health claims in advertising and labeling: A study of
the cereal market. Retrieved from
http://www.ftc.gov/sites/default/files/documents/reports/health-claims-advertising-andlabeling-study-cereal-market/232187.pdf
Kozup, J. C., Creyer, E. H., & Burton, S. (2003). Making healthful food choices: The influence
of health claims and nutrition information on consumers' evaluations of packaged food
products and restaurant menu items. Journal of Marketing, 67(2), 19-34.
Marietta, A. B., Welshimer, K. J., & Long, A. (1999). Knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors of
college students regarding the 1990 Nutrition Labeling Education Act food labels. Journal
of the American Dietetic Association, 99(4), 445-449.

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Nocella, G., & Kennedy, O. (2012). Food health claims: What consumers understand. Food
Policy, 37, 571-580.
Petty, R. E., & Cacioppo, J. T. (1983). Central and peripheral routes to advertising effectiveness:
The moderating role of involvement. Journal of Consumer Research, 10, 135-146.
Roe, B., Levy, A. S., & Derby, B. M. (1999). The impact of health claims on consumer search
and product evaluation outcomes: Results from FDA experimental data. Journal of
Public Policy & Marketing, 18(1), 89-105.
Rusmevichientong, P., Streletskaya, N. A., Amatyakul, W., & Kaiser, H. M. (2014). The
impact of food advertisements on changing eating behaviors: An experimental
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Silvera, D. H., and B. Austad. 2004. Factors predicting the effectiveness of celebrity
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Van Assema, P., Glanz, K., Burg, J., & Kok, G. (1996). Effects of health claims on eating habits
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Van Kleef, E., van Trijp, H. C.M., & Luning, P. (2005). Functional foods: Health claim-food
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Williams, P. G., Yeatman, H., Zakrzewski, S., Aboozaid, B., Henshaw, S., Ingram, K., & Ghani,
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Zezelj, I. (2012). The motivational and informational basis of attitudes toward foods with health
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Appendix A

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Appendix B

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Appendix C
Theory Table
Author and Date

Description of theory

Findings Relevant to Scope and


Magnitdue of Health issue:

Rusmevichientong et al. 2014

- Elaboration Likelihood Model


Message Delivery

- the more personally relevant the


product is, the more persuasive
the advertising is
- threshhold exposure level before
impact of advertising is effective
-change in environmental cues
that prompt desired behavior
- Prompting behavior change is
easier than surpressing it

Van Assema, 1996

-Theory of Reasoned Action


given behavior predicted from
intention to display that behavior,
intention is predicted by attitude,
social influcence, and self-efficacy

Van Assema, 1996

- Elaboration Likelihood Model


- presentation effects brain function
- appeal to the senses to
entice/make relevent

- Presentation can cause an


individual to feel like they belong
within a certain group
- ex: healthy claims may cause
them to think they're healthier
than they are in reality
- stronger claims cause stronger
attraction, not necessarily action

Roe, Levy, Derby 1999

-Theory of Reasoned Action


- Confirmatory bias where
inaccurate info is not updated
- Belief about the nutrients cause
intention/behavior

- What is seen first is primarily


processed
- How do consumers handle
information from 2 sources
(nutritional claims and nutrition
facts)

Kozup, Creyer, Burton, Making -Theory of Reasoned Action


Healthful Food Choices
-Does health claim influence
consumers opinion on the item
- Health claim improves percieved
control - in regards to heart
disease/health
- Source credibility

- Health claim weight decreased


when subjects percieve to be
eating a healthy food
-Favarable information leads to
positive attitudes about the
product

Ippolito, Mathios (1989) Health


Claims in Advertising and
Labeling: A Study of the Cereal
Market

- advertising does increase


awareness about marketing
nutrition information
- Nutrition attitude varies on what

- Theory of Reasoned Action


- Behavior stems from percieved
control of diet (Perceived behavior
control)

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- the 30% presuring for increased
type of health claim is made (fat
nutrition have strong attitude toward content vs. fiber)
the behavior = strong intention
- 30% of those that eat based on
nutritional claims are the ones
putting pressure on market to
improve nutrtional value in other
cereals
- Could NOT prove that
advertising leads to higher
consumption of 'bad' nutritional
features in the product
K.G. Grunnert et al. 2011:

Elaboration Liklihood Model


-duel processing models have 2
groups of determinants of level of
processin (motivation to process and
ability to process)

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Evidence Table 1
What studies exist regarding purchasing behavior among college students?
Author & Date Description
Findings relevant to college students purchasing
behavior
Marietta,
Kathleen,
Anderson,
1999

Freedman,
Connors, 2011

Noble,
Haytko,
Phillips, 2009

Graham,
Pelletier,
NeumarkSztainer, ,
Lust, Laska,
2013

Survey study examined


the impact of Nutrition
Facts label on college

students knowledge,
attitudes, and behaviors
(whether students think
the label is a useful tool,
how they use it, and if
label-reading education is
associated with label use)
Quasi-experimental study
- determine whether the
Eat Smart point-ofpurchase nutrition

information affected foodpurchasing habits of

multiethnic college
students shopping at an
on-campus convenience
store

70.2% of students usually looked at the label


when purchasing a product for the first time
72.1% would purchase a product with a health
claim on the label versus a similar product with
no health claim.
95% perceived label to be useful, but many
distrusted nutrition claims

Phenomenological

focused interviews used to


collect data about Gen Y,
mainly college students
(18-22) thoughts and
feelings regarding their
consumption behaviors
Survey study of perceived
social-ecological factors
associated with fruit and
vegetable purchasing,
preparation, and
consumption among
young adults.

Key themes/variables of purchasing motivation


emerged from interviews: freedom, finding
yourself, blend in/stand out, brand personality,
fashion knowledge, value seeking, comfort of
brands

No significant difference in sales of any food


item between those that were labeled healthful
and those that were not labeled
3.6% increase in percentage of sales from labeled
items
Purchases increase after price reduction

Factors identified and evaluated: personal


barriers, fruit/vegetable knowledge, family,
friends, neighborhood, access barriers, campus
Individual, social, environment-level perceptions
were related to purchasing, preparation, and
consumption
74% of participants who lived with
parents/family members reported purchasing
food at least once per week
68% of participants who lived with
parents/family members reported preparing a
meal at home at least once per week

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Personal barriers is the strongest factor in
fruit/vegetable purchasing, preparation,
consumption
Buscher,
Study examining effects Use of POP intervention increased yogurt and
Martin,
of point-of-purchase
pretzel sales but had no effect on fruit/vegetable
Crocker, 2001 (POP) intervention and
basket sales
college students healthful Using the best POP interventions may be
snack purchases
beneficial in promoting the consumption of
healthful foods among college students
Healthy food promotion may be beneficial when
targeted foods are priced comparably to less
healthful foods
Gerend, 2009 Experiment evaluates
Women chose lower calorie items when provided
effects of calorie
calorie information
information on college Mens selections were unaffected
students fast food choices Women chose lower priced meals when calorie
information was not provided
Meal price did not affect mens selection
Findings suggest provided calorie information in
fast-food restaurants could have beneficial
effects for public health
Boek, BiacoCross-sectional study
Race and gender played a significant role in
Simeral, Chan, developed to assess roles
students food dislikes
Goto, 2012
of gender and race in
Males more likely to choose cost, taste, poor
college students food
quality over poor nutrition
determinants
White students less likely to choose cost,
inconvenience, taste over poor nutrition than
other races
Marketing may be more effective when tailored
to gender and race
Regardless of race, taste was number 1 factor in
food choice

Evidence Table 2

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Knowledge,
Beliefs, and
Attitudes
Associated to
Dieting and Diets
Author and Date

Description

Model/Sample/Study

Malinauskas, et al,
Dieting practices, weight
2006
perceptions, and body
composition: A comparison of
normal weight, overweight,
and obese college students

Quasi-Experimental design involving a (1)


survey and (2) body composition
assessments
Sample of students from 5 introductory
nutrition courses
208 female participants
Final sample size 183, 23 excluded due to
age and pregnancy

Neumark-Sztainer,
Eating Disturbances among
et al 1995
Adolescent Girls: Evaluation
of a School-Based Primary
Prevention Program

Social Cognitive Theory


Based on social learning
Adolescent girls and beyond who had
ideas about binging, dieting, and being
healthy/unhealthy
269 girls
2 year examination

Storz, Nancy,
2000

Body Weight, Body Image,


and Perception of Fad Diets

in Adolescent Girls

Social ecological model


203 healthy girls
some who wanted to lose weight
some who did not want to lose weight
those attracted to fad diets

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ODea, Jennifer, Knowledge, Beliefs,
Health Belief Model
Trainee home economics and physical
2006
Attitudes, and Behaviors
education teacher in their last month at a
Related to Weight control,
University
Eating Disorders, and Body
216 participants
Image
those with knowledge of nutrition
average age 22 years
Conducted Questionaire

Shoneye, C. et al, A Qualitative Analysis of Health Belief Model


24 Black Women 25 white women
2011
black and white British
Womens attitudes to weight Variety of ethnicities
and weight control

Evidence Table 3

Cereal Health Claims 28


Author &
Date

Priority Group
& Description

Importance of
Advertisements

Effectiveness of
Advertisements

Evaluation
Method

Ambler &
Vakratsas,
1999

Females and
Males

How
advertisements
affect
consumers
Hierarchy of
effects AIDA
(attentionintere
stdesireaction
)
Advertisement
likeability
positively
coorelates to
brand
preference
Persons
attitudes
towards the
advertisement
affects brand
attitudes

Effectiveness of
advertisement is
played largely by
its frequency and
scheduling

Pure Affect
Models and
Cognitive
Information
Models

Hitchings
&
Moynihan,
2008

Children years
9 and 10 from
private and
state schools
in Newcastleupon-Tyne
Total of 169
subjects from
four schools,
44 started and
41 actually
completed the
study
Children were
interviewed at

Identification of
effective diet
intervention
strategies
Most children
understand what
is healthy and
what is not.
However, actual
dietary intake is
high in sugar
and fat
Important to
develop
strategies about

The strongest
relationships for
advertisements
remembered and
foods consumed
was soft drinks (r
= 0.68) and
snacks (r = 0.61)
The list of 10
most commonly
requested foods
and 10 most
frequently
recalled food
advertisements

Interviews
of children
prior to food
diary
Evaluation
of 3 day
diary
Tables to
show
correlation
of number
of foods for
which
advertiseme
nts were

Cereal Health Claims 29

Ippolito &
Mathios,
1991

school to
recall tv
advertisement
s of food
Each child
filled out a 3
day food entry
for all foods
ate and drank
during this
time including
brand names

what
information is
given and how
they make their
food choices

shared four in
common:
Kelloggs
Frosties, Microships, Walkers
crisps, and Cocopops.
All of these four
foods groups,
when asked
permission by
children, were
granted 96
percent of the
time by their
parents

remembered
versus the
number of
these foods
that were
eaten by
each child

27.8% of
adults in
United States

There was no
change in intake
of higher fiber
cereals prior to
health claims
Can help
educate the
public,
specifically
pertaining to
health related
issues

Substantial
resources devoted
to advertising the
fiber health claim
in one main
important reason
for knowledge of
the link between
cancer and fiber

Bar graph of
increase
fiber levels
in cereal
throughout
the years of
1978 and
1987 with a
dotted line
to show the
beginning of
health claim
advertising

Between the
studies done
before health
claims were
allowed in
advertisements,
1984, to many
years later when
they were legally
allowed, 1988,
there were huge
jumps in the
knowledge.

Chart with
percent of
knowledge
of fibercancer
relationship
Based on
who
mentioned

Cereal Health Claims 30

Silvera &
Austad,
2004

66 students
(41 females,
25 males)
University of
Tromso
Average age =
25 years
Participants
were given
black n white
copies of
celebrity
advertisement
There were
two
advertisement
s, one that
said the
celebrity was
unpaid and
the other
stating how
much she was
paid

Celebrities can
play a huge role
in how well the
advertisement
does.
Celebrities who
endorsed a
single product
are viewed as
more credible
than those who
endorsed
multiple.
Those who are
endorsing
products and
said to have
been involved
in a negative
event also have
a negative effect
on the
advertisement.
Not only the
celebrity but as
well as the
product itself
and societal
conditions.
Celebrity

Knowledge in
education level
for college
graduates jumped
27%. Income over
$35,000 had a
26.4% increase.
Race 23%
increase.

fiber,
roughage,
whole
grains,
cereals, or
bran

SIR (satisfactory
internal
reliability)
Attitude towardadvertisement:
SIR = .85
product: SIR = .
82
endorser: SIR = .
87

Questionnai
re, includes
attitude of:
Advertiseme
nt
Product
Celebrity
endorser
All were
measured in
terms of:
Pleasant/unp
leasant
Likeable/not
likeable
Interesting/u
ninteresting
Good/bad
On a scale
of 1-7 with
1 being the
most
negative
response
and 7 being
the most
positive
response

Cereal Health Claims 31


endorsed
advertisements
can also have a
large impact on
the increase of
financial
revenue.
Day to day
viewers are
motivated
through their
idea that they
celebrity is
genuinely for
that product

Appendix D

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Cereal Health Claims 36

Appendix E
Demographics
What is your age:
18-20 = 0
21-22 =1
23-25= 2
What is your school year:
Freshman = 0
Sophomore = 1
Junior =2
Senior = 3
4+ years= 4
Grad = 5
Intended field of study:
Science = 0
Health = 1
Other = 2
Art/Humanities = 3
Education = 4
What is your ethnicity:
White American = 0
Asian American = 1
Other =2
African American = 3
I eat cereal
Never = 0

Cereal Health Claims 37


1-4/month = 1
1-2/week = 2
3-5x/week = 3
everyday = 4
Likert Scale
Knowledge:
G: I am knowledgeable about foods that are healthy for me
H: I understand what functional foods are
I: I can identify health claims
J: All health claims are FDA approved
K: I am aware of my specific dietary needs
L: I believe consuming a balanced diet is important for a healthy lifestyle
Attitude:
M: If a food does not promote a certain health claim, I wont purchase it
N: I intend to eat foods that benefit my health
O: Health claims that appear on the front of cereal boxes are truthful
P: Health claims make it easy to follow a healthy lifestyle
Q: I prefer health claims that focus on the improvement of health
R: I prefer health claims that focus on the reduction of an illness
S: Functional foods are an important part of my diet
T: Cereal with health claims are healthy for me
U: Eating healthy is important to me
Behavior:
V: I purchase foods that are low in fat
W: I purchase foods that are low in sugar
X: I purchase foods that are low in calories
Y: I purchase foods based on advertised health claims
Z: I purchase cereals that help lower cholesterol
AA: I purchase cereals that are heart healthy
AB: I purchase foods that are healthy for me
AC: I purchase whole grain foods

Cereal Health Claims 38

Appendix F

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Cereal Health Claims 43

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Cereal Health Claims 45

Cereal Health Claims 46

Cereal Health Claims 47

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Appendix G
Troi Barksdale: Completed the results, part of the discussion, and conclusion portion of the
paper. Went through all of the revisions from professor and revised these sections as well as the
methods section. Completed the in-text citatations for these sections as well. After completing
the revisions put them into final paper and formatted the paper while in google docs. Created the
table of contents except the page numbers, those were completed by all members of group.
Created the flyer for the project and created the gmail account where participants could reach the
researchers. Assisted other group members with final revisions and edits to the paper, in addition
to adding results and discussion information into Michelle's slides she created for the results on
prezi.
Michelle Phan: Completed participants section and part of the discussion. Helped put references
into APA format. Helped with introduction and methods sections. Revised everything with
professors comments. Created an evidence table, the survey responses excel sheet, and response
code. Put in all of the appendices into the final paper. Organized table of contents. Converted
Googledoc to word document and reformatted everything. Created Prezi presentation, inputted
the majority of the information.
Elise Gahan: Completed the introduction, compiled the references and checked all in text
citations, did final edits on the paper as a whole, and contributed to Prezi presentation
Katie Hojara: Helped with extensive edits of the introduction edits, completed the methods,
edited the methods, helped edit the results and discussion, did edits to the entire finalized paper,
and helped with organizing the table of contents.

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