WeldingTechnology1 English

ISF Welding Institute
RWTH Aachen University
Lecture Notes
Welding Technology 1
Welding and Cutting Technologies
Prof. Dr.Ing. U. Dilthey
Table of Contents
Chapter
Subject
Page
0.
Introduction
1.
Gas Welding
2.
Manual Metal Arc Welding
13
3.
Submerged Arc Welding
26
4.
TIG Welding and

Plasma Arc Welding
43
5.
Gas Shielded Metal Arc Welding
56
6.
Narrow Gap Welding,

Electrogas - and
Electroslag Welding
73
7.
Pressure Welding
85
8.
Resistance Spot Welding,

Resistance Projection Welding
and Resistance Seam Welding
101
Electron Beam Welding
115
10.
Laser Beam Welding
129
11.
Surfacing and Shape Welding
146
12.
Thermal Cutting
160
13.
Special Processes
175
14.
Mechanisation and Welding Fixtures
187
15.
Welding Robots
200
16.
Sensors
208
Literature
218
9.
0.
Introduction
2003
0. Introduction
Welding fabrication processes are classified in accordance with the German Standards DIN 8580 and DIN 8595 in main group 4 Joining, group 4.6 Joining by
Welding, Figure 0.1.
2
Forming
1
Casting
4.1
Joining by
composition
4.2
Joining
by filling
3
Cutting
4.3
Joining by
pressing
4.4
Joining by
casting
4
Joining
4.5
Joining by
forming
4.6.1
Pressure welding
5
Coating
4.6
Joining by
welding
4.7
Joining by
soldering
6
Changing of
materials
properties
4.8
Joining by
adhesive
bonding
4.6.2
Fusion welding
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Production Processes acc. to DIN 8580
Figure 0.1
Welding: permanent, positive joining

method. The course of the strain
lines is almost ideal. Welded joints
Screwing
show therefore higher strength properties than the joint types depicted
in Figure 0.2. This is of advantage,
Riveting
especially in the case of dynamic

stress, as the notch effects are
lower.
Adhesive
bonding
Soldering
Welding
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Connection Types
Figure 0.2
0. Introduction
Figures 0.3 and 0.4 show the further subdivision of the different welding methods
according to DIN 1910.
Production processes
4
Joining
4.6
Joining by welding
4.6.1
Pressure welding
4.6.2
Fusion welding
4.6.1.1
Welding
by
solid bodies
4.6.1.2
Welding
by liquids
4.6.1.3
Welding
by gas
4.6.1.4
Welding by
electrical
gas discharge
4.6.1.6
Welding
by motion
4.6.1.7
Welding by
electric current
Heated tool
welding
Flow welding
Gas pressure-/
roll-/ forge-/
diffusion
welding
Arc pressure
welding
Cold pressure-/
shock-/ friction-/
ultrasonic
welding
Resistance
pressure
welding
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Joining by Welding acc. to DIN 1910

Pressure Welding
Figure 0.3
Production processes
4
Joining
4.6
Joining by welding
4.6.1
Pressure welding
4.6.2
Fusion welding
4.6.2.2
Welding
by liquids
4.6.2.3
Welding
by gas
4.6.2.4
Welding by
electrical
gas discharge
4.6.2.5
Welding
by beam
4.6.2.7
Welding by
electric current
Cast welding
Gas welding
Arc welding
Beam welding
Resistance
welding
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Joining by Welding acc. to DIN 1910

Fusion Welding
Figure 0.4
1.
Gas Welding
2003
1. Gas Welding
3
Although the oxy-acetylene process
has been introduced long time ago it
is still applied for its flexibility and mo4
5
8
7
9
1
2
bility. Equipment for oxyacetylene

welding consists of just a few elements, the energy necessary for welding can be transported in cylinders,
Figure 1.1.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
oxygen cylinder with pressure reducer

acetylene cylinder with pressure reducer
oxygen hose
acetylene hose
welding torch
welding rod
workpiece
welding nozzle
welding flame
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Figure 1.1
3
density in normal state [kg/m ]
oxygen
propane
1.43
0.9
ignition temperature [OC]

600
ral gas; here C3H8 has the highest
400
calorific value. The highest flame in-
200
tensity from point of view of calorific
645
645
value and flame propagation speed is,

3200
flame temperature with O2

flame efficiency with O 2
flame velocity with O2
43 1350
2850
2770
0
300
490
335
510
natural gas
C2H2, lighting gas, H2, C3H8 and natu-
however, obtained with C2H2.
1.17
propane
1.2. Suitable combustible gases are
1.29
air
oxygen and a combustible gas, Figure
2.0
air
exothermal chemical reaction between
2.5
2.0
1.5
1.0
0.5
0
oxygen
Process energy is obtained from the
10.3
370
8.5
330
KW
k
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Figure 1.2
/cm2
cm
/s
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1. Gas Welding
4
C2H2 is produced in acetylene gas
loading funnel
generators by the exothermal transformation of calcium carbide with wa-
material lock
ter, Figure 1.3. Carbide is obtained

from the reaction of lime and carbon
in the arc furnace.
gas exit
feed wheel
C2H2 tends to decompose already at

a pressure of 0.2 MPa. Nonetheless,
grille
commercial quantities can be stored
sludge
when C2H2 is dissolved in acetone

(1 l of acetone dissolves approx. 24 l
of C2H2 at 0.1 MPa), Figure 1.4.
to
sludge pit
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Acetylene Generator
Figure 1.3
Acetone disintegrates at a pressure of
acetone
acetylene
more than 1.8 MPa, i.e., with a filling

pressure of 1.5 MPa the storage of 6m
of C2H2 is possible in a standard cylinporous mass
der (40 l). For gas exchange (storage

and drawing of quantities up to 700 l/h)
a larger surface is necessary, therefore
acetylene cylinder
acetone quantity :
~13 l
the gas cylinders are filled with a po-
acetylene quantity :
6000 l
rous mass (diatomite). Gas consump-
cylinder pressure :
15 bar
tion during welding can be observed

from the weight reduction of the gas
filling quantity : up to 700 l/h
cylinder.
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Storage of Acetylene
Figure 1.4
1. Gas Welding
5
Oxygen
duced
gaseous
is
by
profrac-
cooling
tional distillation
cylinder
nitrogen
air
of liquid air and

bundle
stored in cylinders
oxygen
liquid
air
with a filling pres-
pipeline
liquid
oxygen
sure of up to 20
MPa, Figure 1.5.
tank car
nitrogen
vaporized
cleaning
compressor
For higher oxygen
separation
consumption, stor-
supply
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age in a liquid state
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Principle of Oxygen Extraction
and cold gasification is more profit-
Figure 1.5
able.
The standard cylinder (40 l) contains,
50 l oxygen cylinder
at a filling pressure of 15 MPa, 6m of
protective cap
cylinder valve
O2 (pressureless state), Figure 1.6.
gaseous
take-off connection
Moreover, cylinders with contents of
p = cylinder pressure : 200 bar
10 or 20 l (15 MPa) as well as 50 l at
V = volume of cylinder : 50 l
Q = volume of oxygen : 10 000 l
20 MPa are common. Gas consumpcontent control
tion can be calculated from the pres-
Q=pV
sure difference by means of the gen-
foot ring
eral gas equation.

manometer
liquid
safety valve
vaporizer
filling
connection
user
still
liquid
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Storage of Oxygen
Figure 1.6
gaseous
1. Gas Welding
In order to prevent mistakes, the gas cylinders are colour-coded. Figure 1.7 shows a
survey of the present colour code and the future colour code which is in accordance
with DIN EN 1089.
The cylinder valves are also of
show a
thread
right-hand
union
Acetylene
different designs. Oxygen cylinder connections
actual condition
nut.
DIN EN 1089
blue
actual condition
white
DIN EN 1089
grey
cylinder
helium
oxygen techn.
valves are equipped
yellow
brown
grey
blue (grey)
brown
red
dark green
grey
with screw clamp

acetylene
retentions. Cylinder
valves
for
grey
other
argon
darkgreen
left-hand
vivid green
grey
grey
combustible gases
have
hydrogen
argon-carbon-dioxide mixture
black
grey
grey
darkgreen
thread-connection
nitrogen
carbon-dioxide
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with a circumferen-
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Gas Cylinder-Identification
according to DIN EN 1089
tial groove.
Figure 1.7
Pressure regulators reduce the cylinder pressure to the requested working pressure, Figures 1.8 and 1.9.
cylinder pressure
working pressure
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Single Pressure Reducing Valve

during Gas Discharge Operation
Figure 1.8
1. Gas Welding
At a low cylinder pressure (e.g. acetylene cylinder) and low pressure fluctuations,
single-stage regulators
are applied; at higher cylinder pressures normally two-stage pressure regulators are
discharge pressure
locking pressure
used.
The
requested
pressure is set by
the
adjusting
screw. If the pressure increases on

the low pressure
side,
the
throttle
valve
closes
the
increased pressure
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onto
Single Pressure Reducing Valve,

Shut Down
the
brane.
Figure 1.9
The
injector-type
welding torch
injector or blowpipe
torch consists of a
body
with
valves
and welding chamber
with
mixer tube
coupling nut
mixer nozzle
oxygen valve
hose connection
for oxygen
A6x1/4" right
welding
nozzle, Figure 1.10.

injector
pressure nozzle
suction nozzle
By the selection of
suitable
welding
chambers,
fuel gas valve
welding nozzle
the
welding torch head
flame intensity can

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be
adjusted
for
different
plate thicknesses.
Figure 1.10
torch body
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Welding Torch
welding
hose connection
for fuel gas
A9 x R3/8 left
mem-
1. Gas Welding
The special form of the mixing chamber guarantees highest possible safety against
flashback, Figure 1.11. The high outlet speed of the escaping O2 generates a negative pressure in the acetylene gas line, in consequence C2H2 is sucked and drawn-in.
C2H2 is therefore available with a very low pressure of 0.02 up to 0.05 MPa compared with O2 (0.2 up to 0.3 MPa).
acetylene
oxygen
acetylene
welding torch head injector nozzle

coupling nut
pressure nozzle
torch body
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Injector-Area of Torch
Figure 1.11
A neutral flame adjustment allows the differentiation of three zones of a chemical
reaction, Figure 1.12:
0. dark core:
escaping gas mixture
1. brightly shining centre cone:
acetylene decomposition
C2H2 -> 2C+H2
2. welding zone:
1st stage of combustion

2C + H2 + O2 (cylinder) -> 2CO + H2
3. outer flame:
2nd stage of combustion

4CO + 2H2 + 3O2 (air) ->
4CO2 + 2H2O
complete reaction:
2C2H2 + 5O2 ->

4CO2 + 2H2O
1. Gas Welding
welding flame
combustion
welding nozzle centre cone
welding zone
2-5
outer flame
3200C
2500C
1800C
1100C
400C
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Figure 1.12
welding flame
ratio of mixture
By changing the mixture ratio of the
excess of
oxygen
normal
(neutral)
excess of
acetylene
volumes O2:C2H2 the weld pool can

greatly be influenced, Figure 1.13. At a
neutral flame adjustment the mixture
ratio is O2:C2H2 = 1:1. By reason of the
higher flame temperature, an excess
oxygen flame might allow faster welding of steel, however, there is the risk
of oxidizing (flame cutting).
effects in welding of steel
Area of application: brass
foaming
spattering
sparking
The excess acetylene causes the

carburising of steel materials.
consequences:
carburizing
hardening
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reducing
oxidizing
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Area of application: cast iron
Effects of the Welding Flame

Depending on the Ratio of Mixture
Figure 1.13
1. Gas Welding
10
By changing the gas mixture outlet
welding flame
speed the flame can be adjusted to
balanced (neutral) flame

nozzle size: for plate thickness of 2-4 mm
the heat requirements of the welding
discharging velocity and weld heat-input rate: low

2
job, for example when welding plates

(thickness: 2 to 4 mm) with the welding chamber size 3: 2 to 4 mm, Fig-
soft flame
discharging velocity and weld heat-input rate: middle
3
ure 1.14. The gas mixture outlet

speed is 100 to 130 m/s when using a
medium or normal flame, applied to
moderate flame
at, for example, a 3 mm plate. Using a
discharging velocity and weld head-input rate: high

4
soft flame, the gas outlet speed is

lower (80 to 100 m/s) for the 2 mm
plate, with a hard flame it is higher
(130 to 160 m/s) for the 4 mm plate.
hard flame
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Effects of the Welding Flame

Depending on the Discharge Velocity
Figure 1.14
Depending on the plate thickness are
the working methods leftward weld-
Leftward welding is applied to a plate thickness of up to 3 mm.

The weld-rod dips into the molten pool from time to time,
but remains calm otherwise. The torch swings a little.
Advantages:
easy to handle on thin plates
ing and rightward welding applied,

Figure 1.15. A decisive factor for the
designation of the working method is
the sequence of flame and welding rod
as well as the manipulation of flame
and welding rod. The welding direction
itself is of no importance. In leftward
welding-rod
flame
welding bead
Rightward welding ist applied to a plate thickness of 3mm

upwards. The wire circles, the torch remains calm.
Advantages:
- the molten pool and the weld keyhole are easy to observe
- good root fusion
- the bath and the melting weld-rod are permanently protected
from the air
- narrow welding seam
- low gas consumption
welding the flame is pointed at the

open gap and wets the molten pool;
the heat input to the molten pool can
be well controlled by a slight move-
weld-rod
flame
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ment of the torch (s = 3 mm).
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Flame Welding
Figure 1.15
1. Gas Welding
11
In rightward welding the flame is directed onto the molten pool; a weld
can be applied to a plate thickness of
1,5
approx. 1.5 mm without filler material,
symbol
flange weld
1,0
but this does not apply to any other
plain butt
weld
1,0
4,0
3,0
12,0
1,0
8,0
1,0
8,0
lap seam
1,0
8,0
fillet weld
plate thickness and weld shape, Figure 1.16.
denotation
gap
preparations
r=
Flanged welds and plain butt welds
plate thickness
range s [mm]
from to
~
~ s+1
keyhole is formed (s = 3 mm).
V - weld
1-2
1-2
corner weld
By the specific heat input of the different welding methods all welding positions can be carried out using the
oxyacetylene welding method, Figures
1.17 and 1.18
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Gap Shapes for Gas Welding
Figure 1.16
butt-welded seams in
gravity position
When working in tanks and confined
PA
spaces, the welder (and all other per-
gravity fillet welds
sons present!) have to be protected

against the welding heat, the gases
PB
produced during welding and lack of
horizontal fillet welds

vertical fillet and butt welds
oxygen ((1.5 % (vol.) O2 per 2 % (vol.)
C2H2 are taken out from the ambient

atmosphere)), Figure 1.19. The addi-
PF
PG
vertical-upwelding position
vertical-down position
PC
horizontal on
vertical wall
PE
overhead position
PD
horizontal overhead position
tion of pure oxygen is unsuitable (explosion hazard!).
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Welding Positions I
Figure 1.17
1. Gas Welding
12
A special type of autogene method is
flame-straightening, where specific locally applied flame heating allows for
shape correction of workpieces, Figure
PA
1.20. Much experience is needed to
PB
PF
carry out flame straightening processes.

The basic principle of flame straightening
depends on locally applied heating in
PC
connection with prevention of expansion.

This process causes the appearance of a
PG
PD
heated zone. During cooling, shrinking

forces are generated in the heated zone
PE
and lead to the desired shape correction.

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Welding Positions II
Figure 1.18
Safety in welding and cutting inside of

tanks and narrow rooms
Flame straightening
welded parts
first warm up both

lateral plates, then belt
Hazards through gas, fumes, explosive mixtures,

electric current
protective measures / safety precautions
1. requirement for a permission to enter
2. extraction unit, ventilation
butt weld
3 to 5 heat sources
close to the weld-seam
3. second person for safety reasons

4. illumination and electric machines: max 42volt
double fillet weld

1,3 or 5 heat sources
5. after welding: Removing the equipment from the tank
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Gas Welding in Tanks and

Narrow Rooms
Figure 1.19
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Flame Straightening
Figure 1.20
2.
Manual Metal Arc Welding
2003
2. Manual Metal Arc Welding
13
Figure 2.1 describes the burn-off of a
covered stick electrode. The stick
electrode consists of a core wire with
a mineral covering. The welding arc
between the electrode and the workpiece melts core wire and covering.
Droplets of the liquefied core wire mix
with the molten base material forming
weld metal while the molten covering
is forming slag which, due to its lower
density, solidifies on the weld pool.
The slag layer and gases which are
generated inside the arc protect the
metal during transfer and also the
c ISF 2002
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Weld Point
weld pool from the detrimental influences of the surrounding atmosphere.
Figure 2.1
Covered stick electrodes
have
1. Conductivity of the arc plasma is improved by
re-
a) ease of ignition
b) increase of arc stability
placed the initially
2. Constitution of slag, to
applied metal arc

and
carbon
electrodes.
a) influence the transferred metal droplet

b) shield the droplet and the weld pool
against atmosphere
c) form weld bead
arc
The
3. Constitution of gas shielding atmosphere of
covering has taken

on
the
a) organic components
b) carbides
functions
4. Desoxidation and alloying of the weld metal
which are described
5. Additional input of metallic particles
in Figure 2.2.
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Task of Electrode Coating
Figure 2.2
14
The covering of the stick electrode consists of a multitude of components which are
mainly mineral, Figure 2.3.
coating raw material
effect on the welding characteristics
quartz - SiO2
to raise current-carrying capacity
rutile -TiO2
fluorspar - CaF2
to increase slag viscosity,

good re-striking
to refine transfer of droplets through the arc
to reduce arc voltage, shielding gas
emitter and slag formation
to increase slag viscosity of basic electrodes,
decrease ionization
calcareous- fluorspar K2O Al2O3 6SiO2
easy to ionize,
to improve arc stability
ferro-manganese / ferro-silicon
deoxidant
shielding gas emitter
magnetite - Fe3O4
calcareous spar -CaCO3
cellulose
kaolin Al2O3 2SiO2 2H2O
lubricant
potassium water glass

K2SiO3 / Na2SiO3
bonding agent
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Influence of the Coating Constituents

on Welding Characteristics
Figure 2.3
For the stick electrode manufacturing mixed ground and screened covering materials are used as protection for the core wire which has been drawn to finished diameter and subsequently cut to size, Figure 2.4.
raw material storage

for flux production
raw wire
storage
jaw
crusher
wire drawing machine

and cutting system
2
descaling
magnetic
separation
inspection
example of a three-stage wire drawing machine

drawing plate
cone crusher
for pulverisation
6 mm
sieving
to further treatment like milling,
sieving, cleaning and weighing
sieving system
5,5 mm
4 mm
weighing
and
mixing
inspection
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electrode
compound
3,25 mm
wet mixer
inspection
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Stick Electrode Fabrication 1
Figure 2.4
to the
pressing
plant
15
the pressing plant
inspection
electrodepress
electrode
compound
inspection
compound
packing
inspection
TO
DELIVERY
core wire
magazine
nozzleconveying
wire wire pressing
belt
feeder
magazine
head
drying stove
inspection
inspection
inspection
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Stick Electrode Fabrication 2
Figure 2.5
The core wires are coated with the

covering material which contains bind-
pressing cylinder
core rod
coating
pressing nozzle
pressing cylinder
pressing mass
core rod guide
ing agents in electrode extrusion

presses. The defect-free electrodes
then pass through a drying oven and
are, after a final inspection, automatically packed, Figure 2.5.
Figure 2.6 shows how the moist extruded covering is deposited onto the
core wire inside an electrode extrusion
press.
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Production of Stick Electrodes
Figure 2.6
16
Stick electrodes are, according to their covering compositions, categorized into

four different types, Figure 2.7. with concern to burn-off characteristics and achievable weld metal toughness these types show fundamental differences.
cellulosic type
acid type
cellulose
40
rutile TiO2
20
quartz SiO2
25
Fe - Mn
15
almost
no slag
droplet transfer :
medium- sized
droplets
toughness value:
good
basic typ
rutile type
magnetite Fe3O4 50
SiO2 20
quartz
CaCO3 10
calcite
Fe - Mn
20
slag solidification
time: long
droplet transfer :
fine droplets
to sprinkle
toughness value:
rutile
TiO2
45
magnetite Fe3O4 10
SiO2
quartz
20
CaCO3 10
calcite
Fe - Mn
15
fluorspar CaF2 45
CaCO3 40
calcite
SiO2 10
quartz
5
Fe - Mn
slag solidification
time: medium
slag solidification
time: short
droplet transfer :
medium- sized to
fine droplets
toughness value:
droplet transfer :
medium- sized to
big droplets
toughness value:
good
very good
normal
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Characteristic Features of
Different Coating Types
Figure 2.7
The melting characteristics of the different coverings and the slag properties result in
further properties; these determine the areas of application, Figure 2.8.
coating type
symbol
cellulosic type
C
acid type
A
rutile type
R
basic type
B
~/+
~/+
~/+
=/+
very good
moderate
good
good
PG,(PA,PB,
PC,PE,PF)
PA,PB,PC,
PE,PF,PG
PA,PB,PC,
PE,PF,(PG)
PA,PB,PC,
PE,PF,PG
low
high
low
very low
moderate
good
good
moderate
slag
detachability
good
very good
very good
moderate
characteristic
features
spatter,
little slag,
intensive fume
formation
high burn-out
losses
universal
application
low burn-out
losses
hygroscopic
predrying!!
current type/polarity
gap bridging
ability
welding positions
sensitivity of
cold cracking
weld appearance
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Characteristics of
Different Coating Types
Figure 2.8
17
The dependence on temperature of the slags electrical conductivity determines

the reignition behaviour of a stick electrode, Figure 2.9. The electrical conductivity for
a rutile stick electrode lies, also at
room temperature,
above the threshreignition
threshold
old value which is
h ac
co igh id s
n d - te l a
uc mp g
to e r
r a
tu
re
hig bas
h- ic s
co tem lag
nd pe
uc ra
to tur
r
e
conductivity
g slag
ntainin
o
c
le
ti
high ru
r
nducto
semico
necessary for reignition.
Therefore,
rutile
electrodes
are given prefertemperature
ence
in
the
ISF 2002
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production of tack
Conductivity of Slags
welds where reignition occurs fre-
Figure 2.9
quently.
The complete designation
for
filler
materials, following
DIN EN 499 - E 46 3 1Ni B 5 4 H5

3
European
dardisation,
cludes
hydrogen content < 5 cm /100 g welding deposit

butt weld: gravity position
fillet weld: gravity position
suitable for direct and alternating current
recovery between 125% and 160%
basic thick-coated electrode
chemical composition 1,4% Mn and approx. 1% Ni
o
minimum impact 47 J in -30 C
2
minimum weld metal deposit yield strength: 460 N/mm
distinguishing letter for manual electrode stick welding
Stanin-
details
partly as encoded
abbreviation
which are relevant
The mandatory part of the standard designation is: EN 499 - E 46 3 1Ni B
for welding, Figure

ISF 2002
br-er2-10.cdr
2.10. The identification letter
Designation Example
for Stick Electrodes
for the
welding process is
Figure 2.10
first:
E
manual electrode welding
gas metal arc welding
flux cored arc welding
- tungsten inert gas welding
submerged arc welding
18
The identification numbers give information about yield point, tensile strength and
elongation of the weld metal where the tenfold of the identification number is the
minimum yield point in N/mm, Figure 2.11.
key number
minimum yield strength

N/mm2
tensile strength
N/mm2
minimum elongation*)
%
35
355
440-570
22
38
380
470-600
20
42
420
500-640
20
46
460
530-680
20
50
500
560-720
18
*) L0 = 5 D0
br-er2-11.cdr
ISF 2002
Characteristic Key Numbers of Yield Strength,

Tensile Strength and Elongation
Figure 2.11
The identification figures for the minimum impact energy value of 47 J a parameter for the weld metal toughness are shown in Figure 2.12.
characteristic figure
Z
A
0
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
minimum impact energy 47 J [ C]

no demands
+20
0
-20
-30
-40
-50
-60
-70
-80
The minimum value of the impact energy allocated to the characteristic

figures is the average value of three ISO-V-Specimen, the lowest
value of whitch amounts to 32 Joule.
br-er2-12.cdr
Characteristic Key Numbers

for Impact Energy
Figure 2.12
19
The
chemical
composition
of
the weld metal is

shown by the alloy
symbol,
Figure
2.13.
br-er2-13.cdr
ISF 2002
Alloy Symbols for Weld Metals

Minimum Yield Strength up to 500 N/mm2
Figure 2.13
The properties of a stick electrode are

characterised by the covering thickkey letter
ness and the covering type. Both de-
type of coating
tails are determined by the identification letter for the electrode covering,
Figure 2.14.
acid coating
basic coating
cellulose coating
rutile coated
(medium thick)
RR
rutile coated (thick)
RA
rutile acid coating
RB
rutile basic coating
RC
rutile cellulose coating
br-er2-14.cdr
Figure 2.14
ISF 2002

Figure
2.15
20
ex-
plains the additional

identification figure
for electrode recovery and applicable
type
of
The
current.
subsequent
identification figure
determines the application
possibili-
ties
different
for
ISF 2002
br-er2-15.cdr
Additional Characteristic Numbers

for Deposition Efficiency and Current Type
welding positions:
Figure 2.15
1-
all positions
2-
all positions, except vertical down position
3-
flat position butt weld, flat position fillet weld, horizontal-, vertical up position
4-
flat position butt and fillet weld
5-
as 3; and recommended for vertical down position
The last detail of the European Standard designation determines the maximum hydrogen content of the weld metal in cm per 100 g weld metal.
Welding
current
amperage
and
core wire diameter
of
the
stick
electrode are determined
by
the
thickness
of
the
workpiece
to
be
welded. Fixed stick

electrode
br-er2-16.cdr
ISF 2002
Size and Welding Current

of Stick Electrodes
Figure 2.16
are
each
lengths
assigned
to
diameter,
Figure 2.16.
21
Figure 2.17 shows

electrode holder
the process principle
of
manual
metal arc welding.
stick electrode
- (+)
Polarity and type of

current depend on
power source
= or ~
the
+ (-)
applied
elec-
arc
trode
types.
known
All
power
work piece
sources with a de-
ISF 2002
br-er2-17.cdr
scending
Principle Set-up of MMAW Process
characteristic curve
can be used.
Figure 2.17
Since in manual metal arc welding the

arc length cannot always be kept constant, a steeply descending power
source is used. Different arc lengths
power source
characteristic
lead therefore to just minimally altered

A2
A1
weld current intensities, Figure 2.18.

Penetration remains basically unaltered.
A2
2
1
A1
21
characteristic
of the arc
br-er2-18.cdr
Figure 2.18
ISF 2002
22
Simple welding transformers are
arc welding
converter
used for a.c. welding. For d.c. welding

mainly converters, rectifiers and series regulator transistorised power
sources (inverters) are applied. Con-
transformer
verters are specifically suitable for

site
welding
and
are
mains-
independent when an internal combustion engine is used. The advanrectifier
tages of inverters are their small size

and low weight, however, a more
complicated electronic design is necinverter
type
br-er2-19.cdr
essary, Figure 2.19.
ISF 2002
Figure 2.19
45
RA73
Figure 2.20 shows the standard weld-
ing parameters of different stick elec-
40
trode diameters and stick electrode
The rate of deposition of a stick

electrode is, besides the used current
intensity, dependent on the so-called
medium weld voltage
types.
RR73
electrode recovery, Figure 2.21. This
35
RR12
RA12
30
B53
B15
25
=
=
=
=
describes the mass of deposited

weld metal / mass of core wire ratio
20
in percent. Electrode recovery can
100
200
300
3,25
4
5
6
400
medium weld current
reach values of up to 220% with metal

br-er2-20.cdr
covering components in high-efficiency

electrodes.
Figure 2.20
ISF 2002
23
A survey of the material spectrum which is suitable for manual metal arc welding is
given in Figure 2.22. The survey comprises almost all metals known for technical applications and also explains the wide application range of the method.
cy
constructional steels
shipbuilding steels
high-strength constructional steels
boiler and pressure vessel steels
austenitic steels
creep resistant steels
austenitic-ferritic steels (duplex)
scale resistant steels
wear resistant steels
hydrogen resistant steels
high-speed steels
cast steels
combinations of materials (ferritic/ austenitic)
cast iron:
cast iron with lamella graphite

cast iron with globular graphite
nickel:
pure nickel
Ni-Cu-alloys
Ni-Cr-Fe-alloys
Ni-Cr-Mo-alloys
copper:
electrical grade copper (ETP copper)

bronzes (CuSn, CuAl)
gunmetal (CuSnZnPb)
Cu-Ni-alloys
aluminium:
pure aluminium
AlMg-alloys
AlSi -alloys
eff
ic
ion
de
po
s it
de
po
s it
io n
ef
fic
ien
cy
22
0%
16
0%
burn-off rate at 100% duty cycle
steel:
ien
kg/h
th
d
te
oa
c
ick
2
th
in-
ed
at
co
1
= RR12 - 5 mm
RR73 - 5 mm
X=
100
200
300
welding amperage
400 A 500
a = A- and R- coated electrodes, recovery 105%

b = basic-coated electrodes, recovery <125%
c = high-performance electrodes
br-er2-21.cdr
ISF 2002
Figure 2.21
br-er2-22.cdr
ISF 2002
Figure 2.22
In d.c. welding, the
concentration of the
magnetic
arc-blow
producing forces can

lead to the deflection
of the arc from power
supply point on the
side of the workpiece,
Figure 2.23. The material
br-er2-23e.cdr
Arc Blow Effect through Concentration

of Magnetic Fields
Figure 2.23
transfer
also
does not occur at the

intended point.
24
Arc deflection may also occur at
magnetizable
mass
accumulations
although, in that case, in the direction
inwards at the edges
of the respective mass, Figure 2.24.
Figures 2.25 and 2.26 show how by
close to current-connection
various measures the magnetic arc

blow can be compensated or even
avoided.
close to large workpiece masses
The positioning of the electrodes in

opposite direction brings about the
in gaps towards the weld
correct placement of the weld metal.

Numerous strong tacks close the
br-er2-24.cdr
ISF 2002
Arc Blow Effect

on Steel Parts
magnetic flux inside the workpiece. By

additional,
opposite
placed
steel
masses as well as by skilful transfer

Figure 2.24
tilting of electrode
through additional blocks of steel

great number of tacks
through relocating the currentconnection (rarely used)

the welding
sequence
through using
a welding transformer
alternating current (not
applicable for all
types of electrodes)
tacks
br-er2-25.cdr
Figure 2.25
ISF 2002
br-er2-26.cdr
Figure 2.26
ISF 2002
25
of the power supply point the various
reasons for arc deflection can be
eliminated. The fast magnetic reversal
4,0
when a.c. is used minimises the influ-
20C / 70% RF
Water content of the coating
ence of the magnetic arc blow.
3,0
Depending on the electrode covering,

2,0
the water absorption of a stick electrode may vary strongly during stor-
1,0
age, Figure 2.27. The absorbed humidity leads during subsequent weld-
10
Tage
ing frequently to an increased hydro-
100
Time of storage
gen content in the weld metal and,

thus, increases cold cracking suscep-
br-er2-27.cdr
tibility.
ISF 2002
Figure 2.27
Stick electrodes, particularly those with a basic, rutile or cellulosic cover have to be
baked before welding to keep the water content of the cover during welding below
the permissible values in order to avoid hydrogen-induced cracks, Figure 2.28. The
baking temperature
1,0
%
0,9
and time are speci-
facturer. Baking is
carried out in special ovens; in damp
working
conditions
and only just before
Water content of the coating
fied by the manu-
taken
basic-coated electrode
(having been stored at
18 - 20C for one year)
0,7
0,74
0,6
0,5
0,4
0,39
0,3
0,28
AWS A5.5
0,2
0,1
welding are electrodes
0,8
storage and baking
out
30
40
50
60
from
electrically
Water Content of the Coating

after Storage and Baking
heated receptacles.
Figure 2.28
70
80
ISF 2002
br-er2-28.cdr
3.
2003
3. Submerged Arc Welding
26
In submerged arc welding a mineral weld flux layer protects the welding point and
the freezing weld from the influence of the surrounding atmosphere, Figure 3.1. The
arc burns in a cavity filled with ionised gases and vapours where the droplets from
the
electrode
flux hopper
contact piece
continuously-
fed wire electrode

are transferred into
the weld pool. Unfused flux can be
extracted from behind the welding
head and subsequently recycled.
br-er3-01e.cdr
Process Principle of Submerged Arc Welding
Figure 3.1
Main components of a submerged arc welding unit are:

the wire electrode reel, the wire feed motor equipped with grooved wire feed rolls
which are suitable for the demanded wire diameters, a wire straigthener as well as a
torch head for current transmission, Figure 3.2.
Flux supply is carried out via a hose
AC or DC current supply
wire straightener
wire feed rolls
flux supply
indicators
power source
wire reel
welding machine holder
from the flux container to the feeding

hopper
which
mounted
torch
is
on
the
head.
De-
pending on the degree of automation

it is possible to inbr-er3-02e.cdr
ISF 2002
stall a flux excess

Assembly of a SA Welding Equipment
pickup behind the

torch.
Submerged
Figure 3.2
27
arc welding can be operated using
alloy type
commercial wire
electrodes
main alloying elements

Mn Ni Mo Cr V
Mn
S1
S2
S3
S4
0,5
1,0
1,5
2,0
MnMo
S2Mo
S3Mo
S4Mo
1,0
1,5
2,0
Ni
S2Ni1
S2Ni2
1,0
1,0
1,0
2,0
NiMo
S2NiMo1
S3NiMo1
1,0
1,5
1,0
1,0
NiV
S3NiV1
1,5
1,0
NiCrMo
S1NiCrMo2,5
S2NiCrMo1
S3NiCrMo2,5
0,5
1,0
1,5
2,5
1,0
2,5
either an a.c. power source or a d.c.

power source where the electrode is
normally connected to the positive
terminal.
0,5
0,5
0,5
Welding advance is provided by the

welding machine or by workpiece
0,5
0,5
movement.
0,15
0,6 0,8
0,6 0,5
0,6 0,8
Identification of wire electrodes for

submerged arc welding is based on
From a diameter of 3 mm upwards all wire electrodes have

to be marked with the following symbols:
S1
Si
Mo
S6: I
: _
:
the average Mn-content and is carried
Example:
S2Si: II _
S3Mo: III
IIIIII
br-er3-03e.cdr
out in steps of 0.5%, Figure 3.3.

Standardisation for welding filler ma ISF 2002
terials for unalloyed steels as well as

for fine-grain structural steels is contained in DIN EN 756, for creep resisFigure 3.3
tant steels in DIN pr EN 12070 (previously DIN 8575) and for stainless and
heat resistant steels in DIN pr EN
DIN EN 756 Reference

analysis
mat.-no.
approx.
weight %
S1
C = 0,08
1.0351
Si = 0,09
Mn = 0,50
elements are dependent on the mate-
C = 0,10
Si = 0,10
Mn = 1,00
For higher welding joint quality requirements; in:

pipe production, boiler and tank construction,
sructural steel engineering, shipbuilding.
Fine-grain structural steels up to StE 380.
S3
1.5064
C = 0,11
Si = 0,15
Mn = 1,50
C = 0,10
Si = 0,30
Mn = 1,00
For high-quality welds with medium

wall-thicknesses.
Especially suitable for welding of pipe steels,
no tendency to porosity of unkilled steels.
C = 0,10
Si = 0,15
Mn = 1,00
Mo = 0,50
C = 0,09
Si = 0,12
Mn = 1,00
Ni = 1,20
C = 0,10
Si = 0,12
Mn = 1,00
Ni = 2,20
C = 0,12
Si = 0,15
Mn = 1,00
Mo = 0,50
Ni = 1,00
For welding in boiler and tank construction and

pipeline production with creep-resistant steels.
Working temperatures of up 500 C. Suitable
for higher-strength fine-grain structural steels.
S2Si
1.5034
S2Mo
1.5425
rials to be welded and on the mechanical-technological demands which

emerge from the prevailing operating
S2Ni1
S2Ni2
conditions, Figure 3.4. Connected to

this, most important alloying ele-
S3NiMo1
ments are manganese for strength,

molybdenum
for
high-temperature
For lower welding joint quality requirements;in:

boiler and tank construction, pipe production,
structural steel engineering, shipbuilding
S2
1.5035
12072 (previously DIN 8556-10).
The proportions of additional alloying
Properties and application
br-er3-04e.cdr
strength and nickel for toughness.

Figure 3.4
For welding low-temperature fine-grain

structural steels.
Non-ageing.
Especially suitable for low-temperature welds.
Non-ageing.
For quenched and tempered fine-grain

structural steels.
Suitable for normalising and/or re-quenching
and tempering.
ISF 2002
28
The identification
of wire electrodes
W i r e e l e c t r o d e DIN EN 756 - S2Mo
for submerged arc

welding
is
stan-
dardised in DIN EN
DIN main no.
756, Figure 3.5.

Symbols of the chemical
composition:
S0, S1...S4, S1Si, S2Si, S2Si2, S3Si,
S4Si, S1Mo,..., S4Mo, S2Ni1, S2Ni1.5,
S2Ni2, S2Ni3, S2Ni1Mo, S3Ni1.5,
S3Ni1Mo, S3Ni1.5Mo
br-er3-05e.cdr
Identification of a Wire Electrode

in Accordance with DIN EN 756
Figure 3.5
During manufacture of fused welding fluxes the individual mineral constituents

are, with regard of their future composition,
weighed
and
lime
subsequently
quarz
rutile
bauxite
magnesite
fused in a cupola or electric furnace,

roasting kiln
Figure 3.6. In the dry granulation proc-
silos
balance
ess, the melt is poured stresses break
coke
the crust into large fragments. During

coke
raw material
water granulation the melt hardens to
molten metal
air
form small grains with a diameter of

tapping
approximately 5 mm.
granulation
air
cylindrical crusher
screen
additionally blown into the water tank

drying oven
low bulk weight. The fragments or

grains are subsequently ground and
tub
foaming
As a third variant, compressed air is
resulting in finely blistered grains with
coal-burning stove
electrical furnace
balance
br-er3-06e.cdr
screened thus bringing about the

desired grain size.
Figure 3.6
ISF 2002
29
During manufacture of agglomer-
rutile
Mn - ore
fluorspar
magnesite
alloys
ated weld fluxes the raw materials

are very finely ground, Figure 3.7.
sintering furnace
silos
After weighing and with the aid of a
ball mill
suitable binding agent (waterglass) a
mixer
balance
pre-stage granulate is produced in the

mixer.
dish granulator
gas
Manufacture of the granulate is fin-
drying oven
ished on a rotary dish granulator

where the individual grains are rolled
heat treatment furnace
up to their desired size and consoli-
screen
date. Water evaporation in the drying

cooling pipe
oven hardens the grains. In the annealing furnace the remaining water is
balance
br-er3-07e.cdr
ISF 2002
subsequently removed at temperatures of between 500C and 900C,

depending on the type of flux.
Figure 3.7
Properties
The fused welding fluxes are characterised by high homogeneity, low sen-
Fused fluxes
1)
Agglomerated
1)
fluxes
uniformity of grain
size distribution
+/++
sitivity to moisture, good storing prop-
grain strength
+/++
-/++
erties and high abrasion resistance.
homogeneity
+/++
-- /++
An important advantage of the ag-
susceptibility
to moisture
+/++
-/+
storing properties
+/++
-/++
resistance to dirt
--/+
-/++
current carrying capacity
+/++
+/++
-/+
+/++
glomerated fluxes is the relatively low

manufacturing
temperature,
Figure
-/++
2)
3.8. The technological properties of
slag removability
the welded joint can be improved by
high-speed welding
properties
+/++
+/++
the addition of temperature-sensitive
multiple-wire weldability
-/++
+/++
deoxidation and alloying constituents
flux consumption
-/+
+/++
1)
to the flux. Agglomerated fluxes have,

in general, a lower bulk weight (lower
2)
assessment : -- bad, - moderate, + good, ++ very good

core agglomerated flux
br-er3-08e.cdr
consumption) which allows the use of

components which are reacting among
Figure 3.8
ISF 2002
30
themselves during
MS
CS
ZS
RS
AR
AB
AS
AF
FB
Z
MnO + SiO2
CaO
CaO + MgO + SiO2
CaO + MgO
ZrO2 + SiO2 + MnO
ZrO2
TiO2 + SiO2
TiO2
Al2O3 + TiO2
Al2O3 + CaO + MgO
Al2O3
CaF2
Al2O3 + SiO 2 + ZrO2
CaF2 + MgO
ZrO2
Al2O3 + CaF2
CaO + MgO + CaF2 + Mo
SiO2
CaF2
other compositions
min. 50%
max. 15%
min. 55%
min.15%
min. 45%
min. 15%
min. 50%
min. 20%
min. 40%
min. 40%
min. 20%
max. 22%
min. 40%
min. 30%
min. 5%
min. 70%
min. 50%
max. 20%
min. 15%
manganese-silicate
the melting proc-
calcium-silicate
zirconium-silicate
rutile-silicate
ess. However, the

higher susceptibil-
aluminate-rutilel
ity to moisture dur-
aluminate-basic
ing storage and-
aluminate-silicate
processing has to
aluminate-fluoride-basic
be taken intocon-
fluoride-basic
sideration.
br-er3-09e.cdr
Different Welding Flux Types

According to DIN EN 760
Figure 3.9
The SA welding fluxes are, in accordance with their mineralogical constituents, classified into nine groups, Figure 3.9. The composition of the individual flux groups is to
be considered as in principle, as fluxes which belong to the same group may differ
substantially with regards to their
MS - high manganese and silicon pickup
- restricted toughness values
- high current carrying capacity/ high weld speed
- unsusceptible to pores and undercuts
- unsuitable for thick parts
- suitable for high-speed welding and fillet welds
welding or weld metal properties.

In addition to the groups mentioned
above there is also the Z-group which
CS
acidic types
- highest current carrying capacity of all fluxes
- high silicon pickup
- suitable for welding by the pass/ capping method of thick
parts with low requirements
basic types
- low silicon pickup
- suitable for multiple pass welding
- current carrying capacity decreases with increaseing
basicity
ZS
- high-speed welding of single-pass welds
RS
- high manganese pickup/ high silicon pickup

- restricted toughness values of the weld metal
- suitable for single and multi wire welding
- typical: welding by the pass/ capping pass method
allows free compositions of the flux.
The calcium silicate fluxes are recognized by their effective silicon

pickup. A low Si pickup has low cracking tendency and liability to rust, on
the other hand the lower current carrying capacity of these fluxes has to
AR
- average manganese and silicon pickup

- suitable for a.c. and d.c.
- single and multi wire welding
- application fields: thin-walled tanks, fillet welds for
structural steel construction and shipbuilding
br-er3-10ae.cdr
be accepted. A high Si pickup leads to

a high current currying capacity up to
ISF 2002
2500 A and a deep penetration. Aluminate-basic fluxes have, due to the

higher Mn pickup, good mechanical
Figure 3.10a
31
properties. With the application of wire
AB
AS
AF
FB
- medium manganese pickup

- good weldability
- good toughness values in welding by the pass/ capping
pass method
- application field:unalloyed and low alloyed structural steels
- suitable for a.c. and d.c.
- applicable for multilayer welding or welding by the
pass/ capping pass method
electrodes, as S1, S2 or S2Mo, a low

cracking tendency can be obtained.
Fluoride-basic fluxes are character-
- mainly neutral metallurgical behavior

- manganese burnoff possible
- good weld appearance and slag removability
- to some degree suitable for d.c.
- recommended for multi layer welds for high toughness
requirements
- application field: high-tensile fine grain structural steels,
pressure vessels, nuclear- and offshore components
ised by good weld metal impact values and high cracking insensitivity.
Figures 3.10a and 3.10b show typical
- suitable for welding stainless steels and nickel-base alloys

- neutral behaviour as regards Mn, Si and other
constituents
properties and application areas for

the different flux types.
- mainly neutral metallurgical behaviour

- however, manganese burnoff possible
- highest toughness values right down to very low
temperatures
- limited current carrying capacity and welding speed
- recommended for multi layer welds
- application field: high-tensile fine-grain structural steeels
Figure 3.11 shows the identification
- all other compositions
EN 760 by the example of a fused
br-er3-10be.cdr
of a welding flux according to DIN
ISF 2002
calcium silicate flux. This type of flux

is suitable for the welding of joints as
well as for overlap welds. The flux can
Figure 3.10b
be used for SA welding of unalloyed
and low-alloy steels, as, e.g. general structural steels, as well as for welding hightensile and creep resistant steels. The silicon pickup is 0.1 0.3% (6), while the
manganese pickup is expected to be 0.3 0.5% (7). Either d.c. or a.c. can be used,
as, in principle, a.c.
weldability
allows
also for d.c. power
w e l d i n g f l u x D I N EN 760-SF CS 1 67 AC H10
source. The hydrogen content in the
DIN main no.
clean weld metal is
flux/SA welding
lower
method of manufacture
hydrogen content
(table 4)
than
10 ml/100 g
metal.
the
weld
type of current
F fused
A agglomerated
M mechanically mixed flux
(table 2)
flux class 1-3
flux type
(table 1)
(figure 3.9)
br-er3-11e.cdr
Identification of a Welding Flux

Figure 3.11
metallurgical
behaviour
32
The flux classes 1-3 (table 1) explain the suitability of a flux for welding certain material groups, for welding of joints and for overlap welding. The flux classes also
characterise the metallurgical material behaviour. In table 2 defines the identification
figure
for
the
table 2
table 1
unalloyed and
low-alloyed steel
general
structural steel
high-tensile & creep
resistant steels
stainless and heat
resistant steels
Cr- & CrNi steels
welding of joints
hardfacing
identification proportion flux in

all-weld metal
figure
%
metallurgial
behaviour
flux class
1 2 3
identification
behaviour of the
burnoff
1
2
3
4
over 0,7
0,5 up to 0,7
0,3 up to 0,5
0,1 up to 0,3
respective
pickup or
burnoff
0 up to 0,1
ment.
pickup
6
7
8
9
0,1 up to 0,3
0,3 up to 0,5
0,5 up to 0,7
over 0,7
table 4
pickup of elements
as C, Cr, Mo
pickup or burn-off
hydrogen content
ml/100g all-weld metal
ele-
Table
shows the gradation of the diffusible
hydrogen
max.
H5
H10
10
H15
15
content
in
the
weld metal, Fig-
br-er3-12e.cdr
Parameters for Flux Identification

ure 3.12.
Figure 3.12
Figure 3.13 shows the identification of a wire-flux combination and the resultant
weld metal. It is a case of a combination for multipass SA welding where the weld
metal
shows
minimum
wire-flux combination
D I N E N 7 5 6 - S 4 6 3 AB S2
yield
point of 460 N/mm

(46) and a mini-
standard no.
wire electrode and/or
wire-flux combination
for submerged arc
welding
chemical
composition of
the wire electrode
mum metal impact
type of flux
30C (3). The flux
(figure 3.10)
value of 47 J at
type is aluminatestrength and

fracture strain
impact energy
(table 3)
basic (AB) and is
(table1 and 2)
used with a wire of

br-er 3-13e.cdr
Identification of a Wire-Flux Combination

Figure 3.13
the quality S2.
33
The tables for the identification of the tensile properties as well as of the impact energy are combined in Figure 3.14.
The chemical composition of the weld
Identification for strength properties of multipass weld joints
table 1
identification
minimum yield point

n/mm2
35
355
440 up to 570
22
38
380
470 up to 600
20
42
420
500 up to 640
20
46
460
530 up to 680
20
50
500
560 up to 720
18
metal and the structural constitution
tensile strength minimum fracture strain

N/mm2
%
are dependent on the different metallurgical reactions during the welding

process as well as on the used materials, Figure 3.15. The welding flux
table 2
Identification for strength properties of welding by the

pass/ capping pass method welded joints
identification
minimum base metal

yield strength
N/mm2
minimum tensile
strength
N/mm2
2T
275
370
3T
355
470
4T
420
520
5T
500
600
influences the slag viscosity, the pool

motion and the bead surface. The
different combinations of filler material
and welding flux cause, in direct dependence on the weld parameters
Identification for the impact energy of clean all-weld metal or of welding by

the pass/ capping pass method welded joints
table 3
identification
temp. for minimum

impact energy 47J
C
no
demands
+20
-20 -30 -40 -50 -60 -70 -80
(current, voltage), a different melting

behaviour and also different chemical
reactions. The dilution with the base
br-er3-14e.cdr
ISF 2002
metal leads to various strong weld

pool reactions, this being dependent
on the weld parameters.
Figure 3.14
The diagram of the

characteristics for
welding flux
3 different welding
fluxes
assists,
welding filler metal

droplet reaction
in
dependence of the
used
wire
welding data
elec-
base metal
slag
dilution
welding data
trodes, to determine
the
pickup
burn-off
of
the
and
weld pool reaction
welding data
behaviour
element
weld metal
br-er 3-15e.cdr
manganese, Figure
Metallurgical Reactions During

3.16. For example:

A welding flux with
Figure 3.15
34
the mean charac-
Mn-pickup
teristic and when a

wire electrode S3
is used, has a neu1,0%
S1
S2
2,0%
S3
S4
S5
3,0% Mn in wire
tral
point
where
S6
neither pickup nor

burn-off occur.
Mn-burnoff
br-er 3-16e.cdr
Manganese-Pickup and Manganese-Burnoff

During Submerged Arc Welding
Figure 3.16
The pickup and burn-off behaviour is, besides the filler material and the welding
flux, also directly dependent on the welding amperage and welding voltage, Figure
3.17. By the example of the selected flux a higher welding voltage causes a more
steeply descending manganese charweld flux LW 280
current intensity 580 A
welding speed 55 cm/min
acteristic at a constant neutral point.

Silicon pickup increases with the increased voltage. The influence of cur-
neutral point
rent and voltage on the carbon content

is, as a rule, negligible.
the rising characteristic as regards

manganese in dependence on the
welding current, Figure 3.18. Higher
currents cause the characteristic curve
pickup/ burnoff rX in weight %
Inversely proportional to the voltage is
% Mn wire
% Si wire
% C wire
to flatten. As the welding voltage, the

welding current also has practically no
influence on the location of the neutral
br-er3-17e.cdr
point. Silicon pickup decreases with

increasing current intensity.
Figure 3.17
ISF 2002
35
The Mn-content of the weld metal can be
determined by means of a welding flux
weld flux LW 280

arc voltage 29 V
welding speed 55 cm/min
diagram, Figure 3.19.
pickup/ burnoff rX in weight %
neutral point
In this example, the two points on the

axis which determine the flux characteris-
% Mn wire
tic are defined for the parameters 600A

welding current and 29V welding voltage,
450 A
with the aid of the auxiliary straight line

and the neutral point curve (MnNP). In this
% Si wire
case, the two points are positioned at

0.6% Mn and 1.25% MnSZ. Dependent
% C wire
on the manganese content of the used

filler material, the pickup or burn-off conbr-er3-18e.cdr
ISF 2002
tents can be recognized by the reflection

with respect to the characteristic line
Figure 3.18
(0.38% Mn-pickup with a wire containing 0.5%Mn, 0.2% Mn-burnoff with a
flux diagramm LW 280,

manganese
wire containing 1.75%Mn).
wire electrode 4 mm
acc. to Prof. Thier
example:
The structure of the characteristic line
I = 580 A
U = 29 V
MnSZ1 = 0.48 % Mn
MnSZ2 = 1.69 % Mn
for the determination of the silicon

pickup content, is, in principle, exactly
the same as described above, Figure
3.20. As silicon has only pickup properties and therefore no neutral point
exists, the second auxiliary straight
line must be considered for the determination of the second characteristic
br-er3-19e.cdr
line point.
Figure 3.19
ISF 2002
36
Weld preparations for multipass fabrication are dependent on the thickness of the
plates to be welded, Figure 3.21. If no
root is planned during weld preparaflux diagramm LW 280,
silicon
wire electrode 4 mm
acc. to Prof. Thier
example:
tion and also no support of the weld

pool is made, the root pass must be
I = 580 A
U = 29 V
SiSZ = 0.16 % Si
auxiliary
straight line
welded using low energy input.
When welding very thick plates which

are accessible from both sides, the
double-U butt weld may be applied,
Figure 3.22. Before the opposite side
is welded, the root must be milled out
(gouging/sanding). This type of weld
cannot be produced by flame cutting
auxiliary
straight line
and is, as milling is necessary, more
br-er3-20e.cdr
ISF 2002
expensive,
although
exact
weld
preparation and correct selection of

the welding parameters lead to a high
Figure 3.20
weld quality.
Another variation of
heavy-plate
welded
preparation geometry
joints is the so-called
weld buildup
and
manual metal arc welding

SA
SA
steep single-V butt

weld, Figure 3.23.
SA
SA
SA
SA
The very steep edges

keep the welding volume at a very low

level. This technique,
SA
SA
SA
SA
however, requires the

application of special
narrow-gap
br-er 3-21e.cdr
Welding Procedure Sheets for Single-V Butt Welds, Single-Y

Butt Welds with Broad Root Faces and Double-V Butt Welds
torches.
The geometry during

slag detachment and
Figure 3.21
37
also during rework-
preparation geometry
ing
weld buildup
weld-related
defects may cause

turning and sanding
side 1
SA
SA
turn
high demands are
nipulation
turn
SA
SA
process
turn
SA
SA
and
control.
Special narrow-gap
ISF 2002
br-er3-22e.cdr
Here,
made on torch ma-
SA
SA
side 2
problems.
Welding Procedure Sheet

for Double-U Butt Welds
welding fluxes facilitate
slag
re-
moval.
Figure 3.22
The most important welding parameters as regards weld bead formation are welding current, voltage and speed, Figure 3.24. A higher welding current causes higher
deposition rates and energy input, which leads to reinforced beads and a deeper
penetration. The weld width remains roughly constant. The increased welding voltage
leads to a longer arc which also causes the bead to be wider. The change in welding
speed causes - on both sides of an optimum - a decrease of the penetration depth.
At lower weld speeds, the weld pool running ahead of the welding arc acts as a
buffer between arc
and base metal. At
high
speeds,
the
energy
per
length
decreases
which
GMA welding
unit
leads,
GMA welding
beSA welding
sides
lower
penetration, also to
SA welding
narrower beads.
oscillated
ISF 2002
br-er3-23e.cdr
Welding Procedure Sheet

for Square-Edge Welds
Figure 3.23
38
2,4
2,2
2,0
1,8
1,6
1,4
1,2
1,0
0,8
0,6
0,4
0,2
0
w
plate thickness:
wire electrode:
flux:
penetration depth tp in mm
tp
weld width b in mm
welding current (I)

I
constant:
arc voltage (U)
w
te
constant:
A) flat weld - I square butt joint

fused composition fluxes
agglomerated fluxes
400
ISF 2002
Figure 3.24
600
700
800 900 1000 1100

current intensity (A)
fused composition fluxes
agglomerated fluxes
0
400
welding speed (v)

br-er3-24e.cdr
500
B) fillet weld
1,6
1,4
1,2
1,0
0,8
0,6
0,4
0,2
consumption kg flux/ kg wire
tp
consumption kg flux / kg wire
constant:
500
600
700
800 900 1000 1100

current intensity (A)
br-er3-25e.cdr
ISF 2002
Figure 3.25
Weld flux consumption is dependent on the selected weld type, Figure 3.25. Due to
geometrical shape, the flux consumption of a fillet weld is significantly lower than that
of a butt weld. Because of their lower bulk weight, the specific consumption of agglomerated fluxes is
direction of welding
lower than that of

fused fluxes.
Two different control
L2
L1
concepts allow the
L3
regulation of the arc

length (the principle
is shown in Figure
3.26). The applica ISF 2002
br-er3-26e.cdr
Control of the Arc Length
tion of the appropriate control system is
Figure 3.26
39
dependent on the available power
U
U0
source characteristics.
US
The external regulation of the arc

length by the control of the wire feed
speed requires a power source with a
steeply
I
IS IK
external regulation ( U-regulation)
descending
characteristic,
Figure 3.27. In this case, the shortening of the arc caused by some
process disturbance, entails a strong

I
U0
US
the initial arc length can be regulated

IS
internal self regulation ( I-regulation)

br-er3-27e.cdr
a regulated quantity, this voltage drop

reduces the wire feed speed. Thus,
voltage drop at a low current rise. As
ISF 2002
at an almost constant deposition rate.

In contrast, the internal regulation
effects, when the arc is reduced, a
strong current rise at a low voltage
Figure 3.27
drop (slightly descending characteristic). At a constant wire feed speed the
backing flux
initial arc length is independently regulated by the increased burn-off rate

which again is a consequence of the
high current.
ceramic backing bar
The reaction of the internal regulation to process disturbance is very

fast. This process is self regulating
and does not require any machine ex-
flux copper backing
penditure.
In submerged arc welding of butt
br-er3-28e.cdr
joints, it is, depending on the weld
Examples of Weld
Pool Backups
preparation, necessary to support the

Figure 3.28
40
liquid weld pool with a backing, Figure 3.28. This is normally done with either a ceramic or copper backing with a flux layer or by a backing flux. Dependent on the
shape of the backing bar, direct formation of the underside seam can be achieved.
When welding circumferential tubes,
0 -
30
the inclination angle of the electrode has a direct influence onto the
formation of the weld bead, Figure
3.29. For external as well as for internal tube welds, the best weld shapes
may be obtained with an adjusted an-
1 = 0
gular position of the torch. If the advance is too low, the molten bath runs
ahead and produces a narrow weld
with a medium-sized ridge, too high
b3
t1
an advance causes the flowback of

t3
b2
t2
b1
a formed trough in the centre. The
inclusion
br-er3-29e.cdr
the molten bath and a wide seam with
ISF 2002
processes described here for external

tube welds are, the other way round,
also applicable to internal tube welds.
Figure 3.29
To
increase
the
efficiency of submerged arc weld-
single wire
tandem
parallel twin
wire
tandem, twin
wire
ing, different process variations are

applied,
Figure
3.30. In multiwire
welding, where up
to 6 wires are used,
each welding torch
ISF 2002
br-er3-30e.cdr
is operated from a
separate
Process Variations of
Submerged-Arc Welding
power
source. In twin wire
Figure 3.30
41
welding, two wire
electrodes
are
connected in one
torch and supplied
cold wire
iron powder/
chopped wire
from
one
power
source. Dependent
on the application,
the wires can be
hot wire
arranged
strip
in
parallel or in a tan ISF 2002
br-er3-31e.cdr
dem.
Process Variations of
Submerged-Arc Welding
Figure 3.31
In submerged arc welding with iron powder addition can the deposition rate be
substantially increased at constant electrical parameters, Figure 3.31. The increased
deposition rate is realised by either the addition of a currentless wire (cold wire) or of
a preheated filler wire (hot wire). The
1. WH
use of a rectangular strip instead of a
carrying capacity and opens the SA
wire electrode allows a higher current
2. WH
65
tandem welding
12..16
method also for the wide application
1. WH
range of surfacing.
2. WH
3. WH
~
65
three-wire welding
However,
the
mentioned
35
12..16
process
1. WH
HW
2. WH 3. WH
variations can be combined over

wide ranges, where the electrode distances and positions have to be ap-
three-wire, hot wire

welding
15
10 10
35
12..16
propriately optimised, Figure 3.32.

Current type, polarity, geometrical coordination of the individual weld heads
and the selected weld parameters also
~
80
four-wire welding
br-er3-32e.cdr
have substantial influence on the weld

result.
Figure 3.32
~
75
15
18
12
ISF 2002
42
The description of these individual
process variations of submerged arc
deposition rate
100
kg/h
welding shows that this method can
80
70
be applied sensibly and economically

single wire+ metal powder
60
50
single wire+ hot wire
40
30
20
Figure 3.33. It is a high-efficiency
three-wire
welding process with a deposition
tandem
10
0
over a very wide operating range,
four-wire
double wire
single wire
0
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
3500
current intensity
molten pools and flux application posi-
12
kg/h
weld metal
rate of up to 100 kg/h. Due to large
tional welding is not possible.
5,0 mm
4,0 mm
3,0 mm
3~
~
0 300 400 500 600
voltage = 30 V
speed = 40 cm/min
wire protrusion = 10d
length
800
current intensity
br-er3-33e.cdr
ISF 2002
Figure 3.33
When more than one wire is used in order to obtain a high deposition rate, arc interactions occur due
to magnetic arc
blow, Figure 3.34.
Therefore,
selection
the
of
elektrode
(_)
(_)
_( )
+
the
current type (d.c.

or a.c.) and also
sensible
(+) _
phase
arc
displacements
between the individual
workpiece
welding
Magnetic Interaction of Arcs

at SA Tandem Welding
torches are very

important.
ISF 2002
br-er3-34e.cdr
Figure 3.34
4.
TIG Welding and
Plasma Arc Welding
2003
4. TIG Welding and Plasma Arc Welding
43
TIG welding and plasma welding belong to the group of the gas-shielded tungsten
arc welding processes, Figure 4.1. In all processes mentioned in Figure 4.1, the arc
burns between a
nonconsumable
Gas-shielded arc welding
tungsten
Gas-shielded
metal arc welding
GMAW
Gas-shielded tungsten
arc welding
trode
elec-
and
workpiece
Metal inert-gas
welding
MIG
narrow-gap
gas-shielded
arc welding
Metal active gas

welding
MAG
electrogas
welding
CO2 welding
Mixed gas
welding
plasma metal
arc welding
Tungsten inert- Tungsten plasma

gas welding
welding with
TIG
electrode
Tungsten
hydrogen
welding
the
or,
in
plasma arc welding, between the

tungsten electrode
Plasma arc
Plasma arc
Plasma
welding with
arc welding
welding with
semi-transferred
non-transferred with transferred
arc
arc
arc
ISF 2002
br-er4-01e.cdr
Classification of Gas-Shielded
Arc Welding acc. to DIN ISO 857
and a live copper

electrode
inside
the torch. Exclusively inert gases

(Ar, He) are used
Figure 4.1
as shielding gases.
The potential curve of the ideal arc, as shown in Figure 4.2, can be divided into
three characteristic sectors:
1.cathode- drop region
2.arc
3. anode-drop region
In
the
cathode-
drop region almost
50%
of the total
voltage
drop
oc-
curs over a length

U
A: anode spot (up to 4000C)
K: cathode spot (approx. 3600C)
L: arc column (4500-20000C)
l: arc length
US
20
V
10
0
10
-4
4 mm 5
arc potential curve

(example)
of 10-4 mm.
A
similarly
voltage
high
drop
oc-
curs in the anode-
0,5
drop region, here,

ISF 2002
br-er4-02e.cdr
however,
Arc Potential Curve
Figure 4.2
over
length of 0.5 mm.
44
The voltage drop on the remaining arc
20
Argon
60 A
length is comparatively low. Main en-
UK = 6,5 V
ergy conversion occurs accordingly in

the anode-drop and cathode-drop re-
10
UARC
anode
gion.
cathode
UA = 3,5 V
0
mm
Figure 4.3 shows the potential dis-
X ARC
tribution by the example of a real TIG
40
Helium
60 A
arc under the influence of different

shielding gases. UA and UK have dif-
UK = 6,5 V
20
ferent values, the potential curve in
UARC
anode
10
the arc is not exactly linear. There is
cathode
no discernible expansion of the cath-
UA = 6,1 V
0
mm
ode-drop and anode-drop region
XARC
br-er4--03e.cdr
ISF 2002
Figure 4.3
The electrical characteristics of the
arc differ, depending on the selected
25
shielding gas, Figure 4.4. As the ionisation potential of helium in comparison
20
he
lium
15
4
2
n
argo
10
50
100
150
200
250
350
weld current
br-er4-04e.cdr
Figure 4.4
ISF 2002
arc length
arc voltage
with argon is higher, arc voltage must

necessarily be higher.
4
mm
2
45
The
temperature
8 000 K
9 000 K
TIG arc is shown in
distribution of a
2
10 000 K
TIG cathode
mm
x
x
x
Figure 4.5.
mm
mm
anode
spot
weld pool
br-er4-05e.cdr
ISF 2002
Temperature Distribution in a
TIG Arc (at I=100 A)
Figure 4.5
In TIG welding just approximately 30%

P = U .I
of the input electrical energy may be

used for melting the base metal, Fig-
welding direction
ure 4.6. Losses result from the arc raradiation
diation and heat dissipation in the

workpiece and also from the heat con-
R.I2
melting of wire
version in the tungsten electrode.
thermal conductivity
[W/m K]
fusion heat
[kJ/kg]
specific heat
[kJ/kg K]
br-er4-06e.cdr
Figure 4.6
ISF 2002
46
Figure 4.7 describes the process principle of TIG welding.
Figure 4.8 explains by an example the code for a TIG welding wire, as stipulated in
the drafts of the European Standardisations.
tungsten electrode
electric contact
shielding gas
shielding gas nozzle
welding
power
source
filler
metal
weld
workpiece
arc
isf 2002
br-er4-07e.cdr
Tungsten Inert Gas Welding (TIG)
Figure 4.7
A table with the chemical compositions of the filler materials is shown in Figure 4.9.
W 46 3 W2
chemical composition table
rods and wires for tig-welding
minimum impact energy value 47 J at -30C
minimum weld metal yield point: 460 N/mm2
identification letter for TIG-welding
identification of filler rod as an individual product: W2

ISF 2002
br-er4-08e.cdr
Designation of a Tungsten Innert

Gas Welding Wire to EN 1668
Figure 4.8
47
According to Figure 4.10, a conventional TIG welding installation consists of a

transformer, a set of rectifiers and a torch. For most applications an electrode with a
negative polarity is
used. However, for
welding of aluminium,
alternating
current
must
be
used. For arc ignition
high-
frequency
high
voltage is superimposed
br-er4-09e.cdr
and
ISF 2002
causes
Chemical composition of
filler rods and wires for TIG-welding
ionisation
between electrode
and workpiece.
Figure 4.9
The central part of the torch for TIG welding is the tungsten electrode which is held
in a collet inside the torch body, Figure 4.11. The hose package contains the supply
lines for shielding gas and welding current. The shielding gas nozzle is more often
than not made of
ceramic. Manually
high-frequency choke coil
filter
capacitor
mains
L1
L2
L3
N
PE
_
O
torches
for
welding
TIG
which are used for

high amperages as
high voltage
impulse generator
well
St
transformer
SC: scattering core for adjusting
the characteristic curve
as
torches
rectifier
+
O
=
~
duty
selector switch
Principle Structure of a
TIG Welding Installation
machine
for
cycles
water-cooled.
ISF 2002
br-er4-10e.cdr
Figure 4.10
operated
long
are
48
longer arc
shorter arc
R and U rise
R and U
drop
I drops
I rises
handle of the torch
torch cap
with seal
control switch
control cable
long
short
arc length
torch body
with cooling device
electrode collet
voltage
shielding
gas supply
cooling water
supply
collet
case
increasing
cooling water
return with
welding current
cable
tungsten electrode
gas nozzle
decreasing
current intensity
increasing
decreasing
i
br-er4-11e.cdr
br-er4-12e.cdr
ISF 2002
isf 2002
Construction of a Water-Cooled
Torch for TIG Welding
Figure 4.11
Figure 4.12
In order to keep the influence of torch distance variations on the current intensity and
thus on the penetration depth as low as possible, power sources used for TIG welding always have a steeply drooping characteristic, Figure 4.12.
voltage
The
reignition of the arc
by voltage impulses
non-contact
reignition of the
A.C.
a.c. TIG arc after a

voltage zero cross+
over requires ioni-
+
-
time
sation of the elec-
trode-workpiece
gap
by
high-
frequent
Reignition of the Tungsten A.C. Arc
Through Voltage Impulses
Figure 4.13
high
ISF 2002
br-er4-13e.cdr
voltage
pulses,
Figure 4.13.
49
When argon is used as a shielding gas, metals as, for example, aluminium and
magnesium, which besides having low melting points and also simultaneously forming tight and hard-to-melt-off oxide skins, cannot be welded with a negative polarity
electrode. With a positive polarity, however, a cleaning effect takes place which is
caused by the impact of the positive charged ions from the shielding gas atmosphere
on the negative charged work surface, thus destroying the oxide skin due to their
large cross-section. However, as a positive polarity would cause thermal overload of
the electrode, these materials are welded with alternating current.
However, this has a disturbing side-effect. The electron emission and, consequently,
the current flow are dependent on the temperature of the cathode.
During the negative phase on the work surface the emission is, due to the lower melting temperature substantially lower than during the negative phase on the tungsten
electrode. As a consequence, a positively connected electrode leads to lower welding current flows than this would be the case with a negatively connected electrode,
Figure 4.14. A filter capacitor in the welding current circuit filters out the d.c. component which results in equal half-wave components. With modern transistorised power
time
+
lower
smaller
time
+
-
alternating current
current
a
time
- time
+
time
+
-
- time
+
cleaning effect
stronger
heat load
of the electrode
increasing
Figure 4.14
faster zero crossover,
is
duration
and height of the

phase components
adjustable.
stress
isf 2002
Influence of the Half-Wave Components

during A.C. TIG Welding
(square wave) for a
electrode
weld seam width

br-er4-14e.cdr
balanced half-wave components
with filter
capacitor
without filter
capacitor
current
a
electronic controled
power source
electrode polarity
sources which use
The
thermal
and
the
cleaning effect may

be
freely
enced.
influ-
50
Figure 4.15 shows that the thermal
electrode load can be recognized
from the shape of the electrode tip.
While the normal-load negative connected electrode end has the shape
of a pointed cone (point angle approx.
electrode for D.C. welding

(direct current)
10), a flattened electrode tip is the
electrode for A.C. welding

(alternating current)
result from a.c. welding (higher thermal load by positive half-waves).The

tip of a thermally overloaded electrode
is hemispherical and leads to a
stronger spread of the arc and thus to
overloaded electrode
wider welds with lower penetration.
influence of the electrode

shape on penetration profile
ISF 2002
br-er4-15e.cdr
Electrode Shapes
for TIG Welding
Figure 4.15
All fusion weldable materials can be

joined using the TIG process; from
materials:
- steels, especially high-alloy steel
- aluminium and aluminium alloys
- copper and copper alloys
- nickel and nickel alloys
- titanium
- circonium
- tantalum
the economical point of view this applies especially to plate thickness of

less than 5 mm. The method is,
moreover, predestined for welding
workpiece thickness:
- 0,5 - 5,0 mm
root passes without backing sup-
weld types:
- plain butt weld, V-type welds,
flanged weld, fillet weld
- all positions
- surfacing
port, Figure 4.16.
application examples:
- tube to tube sheet welding
- orbital welding
- root welding
ISF 2002
br-er4-16e.cdr
Applications of TIG Welding
Figure 4.16
51
For circumferential welding of fixed pipes, the TIG orbital welding method is applied.
The welding torch moves orbitrally around the pipe, i.e., the pipe is welded in the positions flat, vertical down, overhead, vertical-up and also interpass welding is applied.
preflow of the
shielding gas
postflow of the
shielding gas
movement in
switch-on position
Moreover,
must
achieved.
welding
orbital
movement
0
360
be
Orbital
installa-
tions are equipped
with process op-
welding
current
rise of
current
de-
fect-free weld bead

overlap
shielding
gas
erational
preheating
pulsing
overlap
current decay
which
the
br-er4-17e.cdr
controls
determine
appropriate
ISF 2002
process
Flow Chart of TIG Orbital Welding
parame-
ters, Figure 4.17.

Figure 4.17
In plasma arc welding burns the arc between the tungsten electrode (- pole) and the
plasma gas nozzle (+ pole) and is called the non-transferred arc, Figure 4.18.
The non-transferred arc is mainly used for metal-spraying and for the welding of
metal-foil strips.
In
contact tube
plasma
welding
tungsten electrode
arc
with
transferred
arc
shielding gas
burns the arc beIgnition

device
plasma gas nozzle
tween the tungsten
plasma gas
welding
power
source
filler
material
surface weld
electrode
and the workpiece

(+
workpiece
non-transferred
arc
(-pole)
pole)
and
is
called the transferred arc, Figure
isf 2002
br-er4-18e.cdr
Plasma Arc Welding with

Non-Transferred Arc
Figure 4.18
4.19. The plasma

gas constricts the
contact tube
52
arc and leads to a
tungsten
electrode
more
concentrated
heat input than in
shielding gas
Ignition
device
plasma gas nozzle
TIG welding and al-
plasma gas
welding
power
source
filler
material
lows thus the exploitation of the keyhole effect. Plasma
seam
arc
welding
transferred
work piece
transferred
arc
mainly
br-er4-19e.cdr
with
arc
used
is
for
isf 2002
welding of joints.
Plasma Arc Welding

with Transferred Arc
Figure 4.19
Plasma arc welding with semi-transferred arc is a combination of the two methods
mentioned above. This process variant is used for microplasma welding, plasma-arc
powder surfacing and weld-joining of aluminium, Figure 4.20
The plasma welding equipment includes, besides the water-cooled welding torch, a
gas supply for plasma gas (Ar) and shielding gas (ArH2-mixture, Ar/He mixture or Ar);
the gas supply is, in most cases, separated, Figure 4.21.
The copper anode and the additional focusing gas flow constrict the plasma arc
which leads, in comparison with TIG welding, to a more concentrated heat input
and thus to deeper
contact tube
tungsten
electrode
penetration. An arc
that has been gen-

ignition
device
shielding gas
erated in this way
conveying gas and

welding filler (powder)
welding
power
source
plasma gas
plasma gas nozzle
and is not easy to

deflect, as, for ex-
surface weld
ample,
non-transferred
arc
ure 4.21.
ISF 2002
br-er4-20e.cdr
Plasma Arc Welding with

Semi-Transferred Arc
at
work-
piece edges, Fig-
workpiece
transferred arc
Figure 4.20
burns more stable
br-er4-21e.cdr
ISF 2002
Figure 4.21
53
br-er4-22e.cdr
ISF 2002
Figure 4.22
The TIG arc is cone shaped or bell shaped, respectively, and has an aperture angle
of 45. The plasma arc, in comparison, burns highly concentrated with almost parallel flanks, Figure 4.22.
The
shielding
gas
used in plasma arc
arc length
welding exerts, due to

Arc shapes of shielding gases:
its thermal conductiv-
argon with 6,5% hydrogen

helium
50% argon, 50% helium
argon
ity, a decisive influence
onto
the
configuration.
plasma gas: argon
arc
The
use of a mixture of
argon with hydrogen
results in the often
br-er4-23e.cdr
ISF 2002
Arc Shapes in Microplasma Welding

with Different Shielding Gases
Figure 4.23
desired cylindrical arc

shape, Figure 4.23.
54
In plasma arc welding of plates thicker
than 2.5mm the so-called keyhole
plasma torch
effect is utilised, Figure 4.24. The

plasma jet penetrates the material,
welding direction
forming a weld keyhole. During welding the plasma jet with the keyhole
weld (seam)
moves along the joint edges. Behind

the plasma jet as result of the surface
tension and the vapour pressure in
weld
surface
the keyhole, the liquid metal flows

back together and the weld bead is
keyhole
created.
root
br-er4-24e.cdr
ISF 2002
Figure 4.24
Very
thin
sheets
and metal-foils can

be
welded
using
microplasma
welding with amperages
between
0.05 and 50 A.
ISF 2002
br-er4-25e.cdr
Microplasma Welding of a
Diaphragm Disk Made of CrNi
Figure 4.25
55
Figures 4.25 and 4.26 show these application examples: The circumferential weld
in a diaphragm disk with a wall thickness of 0.15mm and the joining of fine metal
grids made of Cr-Ni steel.
br-er4-26e.cdr
Figure 4.26
ISF 2002
5.
Gas Shielded Metal Arc Welding
2003
5. Gas-Shielded Metal Arc Welding
56
The difference between gas-shielded metal arc welding (GMA) and the gas tungsten arc welding process is the consumable electrode. Essentially the process is
classified as metal inert gas welding (MIG) and metal active gas welding (MAG).
Besides, there are
gas-shielded arc
welding (SG)
two more process
gas-shielded metal-arc
welding (GMAW)
metal inert
gas welding
(MIG)
electrogas
welding
(MSGG)
Narrow-gap gasshielded arc
welding (MSGE)
variants, the elec-
tungsten gasshielded welding
trogas and the nar-
metal
active gas
welding
plasma gas
metal arc
welding
tungsten
inert-gas
welding
tungsten
plasma
welding
hydrogen
tungsten arc
welding
(MAG)
(MSGP)
(TIG)
(WP)
(WHG)
plasma
jet
welding
plasma
arc
welding
(WPS)
(WPL)
plasma jet
plasma
arc
welding
(WPSL)
gas mixture gas metalarc CO2

metal-arc
welding
welding
(GMMA)
(MAGC)
consumable electrode
and also the gasshielded
plasma
metal arc welding,

a combination of
both plasma weld-
non consumable electrode
br-er5-01e.cdr
row gap welding
ISF 2002
ing and MIG weld-
Classification of Gas-Shielded
Arc Welding Processes
ing, Figure 5.1.
Figure 5.1
In contrast to TIG welding, where the
electrode is normally negative in order
to avoid the melting of the tungsten
wire feed unit
electrode, this effect is exploited in

MIG welding, as the positive pole is
water
cooling
strongly heated than the negative pole,
shielding gas
control device
thus improving the melting characteris-
control switch
cooling water
control
tics of the feed wire.

Figure 5.2 shows the principle of a
rectifier
transformer
GMA welding installation. The welding power source is assembled using
welding power source
the following assembly groups: The

transformer converts the mains voltage to low voltage which is subsebr-er5-02e.cdr
ISF 2002
quently rectified.
GMA Welding Installation
Figure 5.2
compact device
57
Apart from the torch cooling and the
universal device
shielding gas control, the process

5, 10 or 20m
3 to 5m
3 to 5m
control is the most important installation component. The process control

ensures that once set welding data
are adhered to.
mini-spool device
push-pull device
A selection of common welding installation variants is depicted in Figure 5.3, where the universal device
10, 20 or 30m
5 to 10m
with a separate wire feed housing is

the most frequently
used variant in
the industry.
ISF 2002
br-er5-03e.cdr
Types of Welding Installations
Figure 5.4 shows in detail a manually

operated inert-gas shielded torch
with the common swan-neck shape. A
Figure 5.3
machine torch has no handle and its
shape is straight or swan-necked. The
hose package contains the wire core
and also supply lines for shielding gas,
current and cooling water, the latter for
contact tube cooling. The current is
transferred to the wire electrode over
the contact tube. The shielding gas
1 torch handle
2 torch neck
3 torch trigger
4 hose package
5 shielding gas nozzle
6 contact tube
7 contact tube fixture
8 insulator
9 wire core
10 wire guide tube
11 wire electrode
12 shielding gas supply
13 welding current supply
nozzle is shaped to ensure a steady

gas flow in the arc space, thus protecting arc and molten pool against the
atmosphere.
ISF 2002
br-er5-04e.cdr
Manual Gas-Shielded
Arc Welding Torch
Figure 5.4
58
A so-called Two-Wire-Drive wire
1
2
feed system is of the most simple de-
sign, as shown in Figure 5.5. The wire

is pulled off a wire reel and fed into
the hose package. The wire transport
roller, which shows different grooves

depending on the used material, is
driven by an electric motor. The counterpressure roller generates the frictional force which is needed for wire
feeding.
1 wire reel
3 wire transport roll
2 wire guide tube
4 counter pressure roll
More complicated but following the
5 wire feed roll with a V-groove for steel electrodes
same operation principle is the Four-
6 wire feed roll with a rounded groove for aluminium

br-er5-05e.cdr
ISF 2002
Wire Feed System
Wire-Drive, Figure 5.6. Here, the

second pair of rollers guarantees
higher feeding reliability by reducing
Figure 5.5
4-roller drive
4
the risk of wheel slip. Another design
among the wire feed drive systems is

the planetary drive, where the wire is
fed in axial direction by the motor. A
rectilinear rotation-free wire feed motion is the outcome of the motor rota-
1 wire guide tube

2 drive rollers
3 counter pressure rollers
4 wire guide tube
tion and the angular offset of the drive

rollers which are firmly connected to
planetary drive
3
the motor shaft.

direction of
rotation
Figure 5.7 depicts the metal transfer in

the short arc range. During the burn-
ing phase of the arc, material is molten

1
and accumulates at the electrode end.
1 wire guide tube

2 roller holding device
3 drive rollers
br-er5-06e.cdr
The voltage drops slowly while the arc
ISF 2002
Wire Drives
shortens. Electrode and workpiece

Figure 5.6
59
make contact and a short-circuit occurs. In the short-circuit phase is the liquid electrode material drawn as result of surface tension into the molten pool. The narrowing
liquid root and the
welding voltage
rising current lead

to a very high current
time
density
that
welding current
causes a sudden
evaporation of the
remaining
time
1 ms
1 mm
root.
The arc is reignited. The shortarc
technique
is
particularly suitable
br-er5-07e.cdr
for
Short-Circuiting Arc Metal Transfer
and
Figure 5.7
out-of-position
root
passes
welding.
The limitation of the rate of the current rise during the short-circuit phase with a
choke leads to a pointed burn-off process which is smoother and clearly shows less
spatter formation, Figures 5.8
In shielding gases
welding current
welding current
with a high CO2

proportion a long
arc is formed in the
upper power range,
Figure 5.9. Material
time
time
transfer
is
unde-
fined and occurs as

illustrated in Figlow
choke effect
br-er5-08e.cdr
medium
ures 5.13 and 5.14.
ISF 2002
Short-circuits
Choke Effect
Figure 5.8
with
very strong spatter

formation
are
60
welding current
welding current
caused by the formation of very large droplets at the electrode end.
time
welding voltage
welding voltage
time
time
time
br-er5-09e.cdr
ISF 2002
br-er5-10e.cdr
ISF 2002
Long Arc
Spray Arc
Figure 5.9
Figure 5.10
If the inert gas content of the shielding gas exceeds 80%, a spray arc forms in
the upper power range, Figure 5.10. The spray arc is characterised by a non-shortcircuiting
35
C1
shielding gas composition:
C1: CO2
M21: 82% Ar, 18% CO2
M23: 92% Ar, 8% O2
welding voltage
long arc
and
spray-like material
M21
M23
transfer.
high
For
its
deposition
25
rate the spray arc

20
is used for welding

mixed
circuiting arc
15
short arc
contact tube distance: approx. 15 mm
150
3,5
br-er5-11e.cdr
4,5
filler
spray arc
contact tube distance: approx. 19 mm
Figure 5.11
cover
passes in the flat

position.
200
welding current
250
300
5,5
7,0
wire feed
8,0
m/min
10,5
Welding Parameters in Dependence on

the Shielding Gas Mixture (SG 2, 1,2 mm)
and
ISF 2002
Connections
tween
be-
welding
61
parameters, shielding gas and arc
type are shown in Figure 5.11. When
the shielding gas M23 is used, the
thermal conductivity
helium
spray arc may already be produced

hydrogen
with an amperage of 260 A. With the

decreasing argon proportion the am-
CO2
perage has to be increased in order to
nitrogen
remain in the spray arc range. When

pure carbon dioxide is applied, the
argon
spray arc cannot be produced. Figure
temperature
5.11 shows, moreover, that with the

argon 82%Ar+18%CO2
CO2
increasing CO2 content the welding
helium
voltage must also be increased in order to achieve the same deposition

br-er2-12e.cdr
ISF 2002
rate.
The different thermal conductivity of

Figure 5.12
current-carrying
arc core
the shielding gases has a considerable

influence on the arc configuration and
by the low thermal conductivity of the

argon the arc core becomes very hot
temperature
weld geometry, Figure 5.12. Caused
this results in a deep penetration in the
argon
weld centre, the so-called argon finger-type penetration. Weld reinforce-
carbon dioxide
Fa
ment is strongly pronounced. ApplicaFr
tion of CO2 and helium leads, due to
Fr
the better thermal conductivity of these

F
shielding gases, to a wide and deep
Fa
penetration.
argon
br-er5-13e.cdr
A recombination (endothermic break

of the linkage in the arc space exoFigure 5.13
carbon dioxide
ISF 2002
62
thermal reaction 2CO + O2 ->2CO2 in
the workpiece proximity) intensifies
wire elektrodes
this effect when CO2 is used.

In argon, the current-carrying arc core
current-carrying
arc core
is wider and envelops the wire electrode end, Figure 5.13. This generates electromagnetic forces which
argon
bring about the detachment of the
carbon dioxide
liquid electrode material. This socalled pinch effect causes a metal

transfer in small drops, Figure 5.14.
The pointed shape of the arc attachbr-er5-14e.cdr
ISF 2002
ment in carbon dioxide produces a

reverse-direction
force
component,
i.e., the molten metal is pushed up

Figure 5.14
until gravity has overcome that force

component and material transfer in the
form of very coarse drops appear.
acceleration
due to gravity
wire electrode
electromagnetic
force FL
(pinch effect)
Besides the pinch effect, the inertia

and
the
gravitational
force,
other
forces, shown in Figure 5.15, are ac-
viscosity
surface
tension S
droplets necking
down
tive inside the arc space; however

these forces are of less importance.
backlash forces fr
of the evaporating
material
inertia
electrostatic
forces
suction forces,
plasma flow
induced
work piece
br-er5-15e.cdr
ISF 2002
Forces in Arc Space
Figure 5.15
63
If the welding voltage and the wire feed speed are further increased, a rotating arc
occurs after an undefined transition zone, Figure 5.16. High-efficiency MAG welding has been applied since the beginning of the nineties; the deposition rate, when
this process is used, is twice the size as, in comparison, to spray arc welding. Apart
from a multicomponent gas with a helium
proportion,
also a high-rating
power source and a
precisely controlled
wire feed system for
high
wire
feed
speeds are necessary.
br-er5-16e.cdr
ISF 2002
Rotating Arc
Figure 5.16
Figure 5.17 depicts the deposition rates over the wire feed speed, as achievable with
modern high-efficiency MAG welding processes.
During
1,2 mm
kg/h
deposition rate
transi-
tion from the short
25
to the spray arc the
high performance
GMA welding
20
1,0 mm
15
drop frequency rate

increases erratically
10
0,8 mm
conventional
GMA
while the drop volume
the
0
the
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45 m/min
wire feed speed

br-er5-17e.cdr
decreases
same
degree.
With an increasing
CO2-content,
this
ISF 2002
critical
Deposition Rate
Figure 5.17
at
current
range moves up to
higher power ranges
64
and is, with inert gas constituents of lower than 80%, hardly achievable thereafter.
This effect facilitates the pulsed-arc welding technique, Figure 5.18.
300
300
200
100
100
V
arc voltage
200
critical current
range
UEff
10 cm
drop volume
number of droplets
35
-4
1/s
25
20
Um
15
10
5
500
0
0
400
tP
200
600
A
400
welding current
Ikrit
Im
- background current IG
- pulse voltage UP
- impulse time tP
- background time
tG or frequency f with
f = 1 / ( tG + tP), resp.
- wire feed speed vD
time
IG
tG
Setting parameters:
350
300
IEff
250
200
Im
150
100
50
0
5
br-er5-18e.cdr
ISF 2002
10
15
time
20
ms
br-er5-19e.cdr
30
ISF 2002
Pulsed Arc
Figure 5.18
Figure 5.19
In pulsed-arc welding, a change-over occurs between a low, subcritical background

current and a high, supercritical pulsed current. During the background phase which
welding current
corresponds with the

pulsed current intensity
short arc range, the
Non-short-circuiting
metal tranfer range
arc length is ionised

and
backround current
intensity
wire
electrode
and work surface are

preheated. During the
time
pulsed
material
phase
is
the
molten
and, as in spray arc

welding,
superseded
isf 2002
br-er5-20e.cdr
by
the
magnetic
Pulsed Metal Transfer
forces. Figure 5.20.

Figure 5.20
65
Figure 5.19 shows an example of pulsed arc real current path and voltage time
curve. The formula for mean current is:
Im =
1T
idt
T 0
for energy per unit length of weld is:
1T 2
i dt
T 0
Ieff =
By a sensible se-
50
working range welding current / arc voltage
lection of welding
45
parameters,
40
optimal setting
lower limit
upper limit
35
voltage [v]
spray arc
GMA
the
welding
technique allows a
30
transition arc
selection of differ-
25
short arc
shielding gas: 82%Ar, 18%CO2
wire diameter: 1,2 mm
wire type: SG 2
20
15
10
50
75
100
125
150
175 200 225 250

welding current
275
300
325
350
375
are
distinguished
by
their
metal
400
transfer way. Fig-
ISF 2002
br-er5-21e.cdr
ent arc types which
ure 5.21 shows the
Parameter Setting Range

in GMA Welding
setting range for a
Figure 5.21
good
welding
process in the field

filler metal: SG2 -1,2 mm
shielding gas: Ar/He/CO2/O2-65/26,5/8/0,5
conventional
GMA welding.
transition zones
spray arc
voltage
of
rotating
arc
50
Figure 5.22 shows
30
high-efficiency
spray arc
the extended set-
20
ting range for the
high-efficiency short arc
10
short arc
high-efficiency
MAGM
100
br-er5-22e.cdr
200
300
welding current
400
A
Quelle: Linde, ISF2002
Setting Range or Welding Parameters

in Dependence on Arc Type
Figure 5.22
welding
600
process
with
rotating arc.
66
Some typical ap-
arc types
welding methods
MAGC MAGM MIG
seam type, positions
workpiece thickness
applications
spray arc
short arc
long arc
aluminium
copper
steel unalloyed, lowalloy, high-alloy
fillet welds or inner

passes and cover
passes of butt welds
at medium-thick or thick
components in position
PA, PB
aluminium
copper
different arc types
steel unalloyed,
low-alloy
steel unalloyed, low-alloy, steel low-alloy,

high-alloy
high-alloy
steel unalloyed,
low-alloy
steel unalloyed,
low-alloy

passes and cover
passes of butt welds
components in position
PA, PB
fillet welds or butt welds

at thin sheets, all positions passes and cover
passes of thin and
root layers of butt welds
medium-thick
components, all
components, all positions positions
welding of root layers in

position PA
plications of the
pulsed arc
aluminium
(s < 1,5 mm)
are depicted in Fig-
inner passes and cover

passes of fillet or butt
welds in position
PC, PD, PE, PF, PG
(out-of-position)
ure
5.23.
The
rotating arc, (not

mentioned in the
figure), is applied
root layer welds only

conditionally possible
in just the same

way as the spray
br-er5-23e.cdr
ISF 2002
arc, however, it is
Applications of Different Arc Types
not used for the

Figure 5.23
welding of copper
and aluminium.
The arc length within the working

range is linearly dependent on the set
welding voltage, Figure 5.24. The

AL
weld seam shape is considerably in-
AM
AK
arc length:
long
medium
short
fluenced by the arc length. A long arc

produces a wide flat weld seam and, in
the case of fillet welds, generally undercuts. A short arc produces a narrow, banked weld bead.
On the other hand, the arc length is

inversely proportional to the wire
vD, I
operating point:
wire feed speed:
arc length:
welding current:
deposition efficiency:
AL
AM
AK
low
long
low
low
medium
medium
medium
medium
high
short
high
high
weld appearance:
feed speed, Figure 5.25. This has influence on the current over the internal
adjustment with a slightly dropping
power
source
characteristic.
br-er5-24e.cdr
This
Wire Feed Speed
again is of considerable importance for

the deposition rate, i.e., a low wire
feed speed leads to a low deposition
ISF 2002
Figure 5.24
67
rate, the result is flat penetration and
arc length:
long
medium
short
U
AL
AM
AK
low base metal fusion. At a constant

weld speed and a high wire feed
speed a deep penetration can be obtained.
vD, I
operating point:
welding voltage:
arc length:
AL
AM
high
long
medium
medium
AK
low
short
At equal arc lengths, the current intensity is dependent on the contact

tube distance, Figure 5.26. With a
large contact tube distance, the wire
weld appearance
butt weld
stickout is longer and is therefore

characterised by a higher ohmic resisweld appearance
fillet weld
tance which leads to a decreased current intensity. For the adjustment of
br-er5-25e.cdr
ISF 2002
Welding Voltage
the contact tube distance, as a thumb

rule, ten to twelve times the size of
Figure 5.25
the wire diameter should be considered.
lk1
lk2
lk3
influence on weld formation and

welding process, Figure 5.27. When
welding with the torch pointed in forward direction of the weld, a part of the
weld pool is moved in front of the arc.
This results in process instability.
contact tube-to-work distance lk
The torch position has considerable

3
30
mm
20
lk = 10 to 12 dD
1
10
0
200
250
However, it ha s the advantage of a

flat smooth weld surface with good
gap bridging. When welding with the
torch pointed in reversing direction of
operating rule:
300 A
350
current
wire electrode:
1,2 mm diameter
shielding gas:
82% Ar + 18% CO2
arc voltage:
29 V
wire feed speed:
8,8 m/min
welding speed:
58 cm/min
br-er5-26e.cdr
the weld, the weld process is more
ISF 2002
Contact Tube-to-Work Distance
stable and the penetration deeper, as

Figure 5.26
68
base metal fusion by the arc is better,
advance direction
although the weld bead surface is irregular and banked.
Figure 5.28 shows a selection of different application areas for the GMA
technique and the appropriate shieldpenetration:
shallow
average
deep
gap
bridging:
good
average
bad
arc
stability:
bad
average
good
spatter formation: strong
average
low
weld width:
average
narrow
average
rippled
ing gases.
The welding current may be produced

by different welding power sources. In
d.c. welding the transformer must be
wide
equipped with downstream rectifier

weld appearance: smooth
br-er5-27e.cdr
assemblies, Figure 5.29. An additional
ISF 2002
ripple-filter choke suppresses the residual ripple of the rectified current
Torch Position
and has also a process-stabilising

Figure 5.27
effect.
power
sources
became
possible,
Figure
92% Ar + 8% CO2
forming gas (N2-H2-mixture)
88% Ar + 12% O2
82% Ar + 18% CO2
application examples
autoclaves, vessels, mixers, cylinders
panelling, window frames, gates, grids
stainless steel pipes, flanges, bends
spherical holders, bridges, vehicles, dump bodies
reactors, fuel rods, control devices
rocket, launch platforms, satellites
valves, sliders, control systems
stator packages, transformer boxes
passenger cars, trucks
radiators, shock absorbers, exhausts
cranes, conveyor roads, excavators (crawlers)
shelves (chains), switch boxes
braces, railings, stock boxes
mud guards, side parts, tops, engine bonnets
attachments to flame nozzles, blast pipes, rollers
vessels, tanks, containers, pipe lines
stanchions, stands, frames, cages
beams, bracings, craneways
harvester-threshers, tractors, narrows, ploughs
waggons, locomotives, lorries
5.29. The operating

principle of a transistor
80% Ar + 5% O2 + 15% CO2

92% Ar + 8% O2
industrial sections
analogue
83% Ar + 15% He + 2% CO2

90% Ar + 5% O2 + 5% CO2
sign of transistor
99% Ar + 1% O2 or
97% Ar + 3% O2
97,5% Ar + 2,5% CO2
transistors the de-
Argon 4.8
Helium 4.6
efficient
Argon 4.6
of
shielding gases
ment
Ar/He-mixture
Ar + 5% H2 or 7,5% H2
With the develop-
analogue
br-er5-28e.cdr
power source fol-
Fields of Application of
Different Shielding Gases
lows the principle of

an audio frequency
ISF 2002
Figure 5.28
amplifier which amplifies a low-level to a high level input signal, possibly distortion-free. The transistor
power source is, as conventional power sources, also equipped with a three-phase
69
transformer, with generally only one secondary tap. The secondary voltage is rectified by silicon diodes into full wave operation, smoothed by capacitors and fed to the
arc through a transistor cascade. The welding voltage is steplessly adjustable until
no-load voltage is reached. The difference between source voltage and welding voltage reduces at the transistor cascade and produces a comparatively high stray
power which, in general, makes water-cooling necessary. The efficiency factor is
between 50 and 75%. This disadvantage is, however, accepted as those power
sources are characterised by very short reaction times (30 to 50 s). Along with the
development of transistor analogue power sources, the consequent separation of the
power section (transformer and rectifier) and electronic control took place. The analogue or digital control sets the reference values and also controls the welding process. The power section operates exclusively as an amplifier for the signals coming
from the control.
The output stage may also be carried out by clocked cycle. A secondary clocked
transistor power source features just as the analogue power sources, a transformer
and a rectifier, Figure 5.30. The transistor unit functions as an on-off switch. By varying the on-off period, i.e., of the pulse duty factor, the average voltage at the output of
the transistor stage may be varied. The arc voltage achieves small ripples, which are
of a limited amplitude, in the switching frequency of, in general, 20 kHz; whereas the
welding current shows to be strongly smoothed during the high pulse frequencies
caused by inductivities. As the transistor unit has only a switching function, the stray
power is lower than
that
three-phase
transformer
fully-controlled
three-phase
bridge rectifier
energy
store
of
analogue
sources. The effi-
transistor
power section
mains
supply
welding current
ciency factor is
approx. 75 95%.
The reaction times
of
uist
u1 . . un
reference input
values
iist
signal processor
(analog-to-digital)
these
clocked
units are within of

current
pickup
300
500
clearly longer than

isf 2002
br-er5-29e.cdr
GMA Welding Power Source,

Electronically Controlled, Analogue
Figure 5.29
those of analogue
power sources.
70
Series regulator power sources, the so-called inverter power sources, differ widely
from the afore-mentioned welding machines, Figure 5.31. The alternating voltage
coming from the mains (50 Hz) is initially rectified, smoothed and converted into a
medium frequency alternating voltage (approx. 25-50 kHz) with the help of controllable transistor and thyristor switches. The alternating voltage is then transformer reduced to welding voltage levels and fed into the welding process through a secondary rectifier, where the alternating voltage also shows switching frequency related
ripples. The advantage of inverter power sources is their low weight. A transformer
that
transforms
voltage
with
fre-
quency of 20 kHz,
has, compared with
a
50
former,
Hz
3-phase
transformer
3-phase
bridge
rectifier
energy
store
transistor
switch
protective
reactor
welding
current
mains
supply
trans-
considera-
bly lower magnetic
Uist
U1 . . Un
losses, that is to
reference input
values
say, its size may

accordingly
be
smaller
its
Iist
signal processor
(analog-to-digital)
br-er5-30e.cdr
and
ISF 2002
GMA Welding Power Source,

Electronically Controlled, Secondary Chopped
weight is just 10%

of that of a 50 Hz
current
pickup
Figure 5.30
transformer.
Reaction time and

efficiency
factor
are comparable to
the
filter
3-phase
bridge
rectifier
energy
storage
transistor
inverter
medium
frequency
transformer
rectifier
welding
current
mains
supply
corresponding
values of switchingUist
type power sources.
U1 . . Un
reference input
values
br-er5-31e.cdr
Iist
signal processor
(analog-to-digital)
current
pickup
ISF 2002
GMA Welding Power Source, Electronically

Controlled, Primary Chopped, Inverter
Figure 5.31
71
All welding power sources are fitted with a rating plate, Figure 5.32. Here the performance capability and the properties of the power source are listed. The S in capital
letter (former K) in
manufacturer
insulations
class
rotary current welding rectifier
protective
IP21
system
VDE 0542
production
number
type
welding
MIG/MAG
U0 15 - 38 V
cooling
type
the middle shows

F
that
DIN 40 050
input
3~50Hz
6,6 kVA (DB) cosj 0,72
power
source is suitable
switchgear
number
the
35A/13V - 220A/25V
power range
X 60% ED 100% ED
170 A
I2 220 A
23 V
U2 25 V
power capacity
in dependence
of current flow
17 A
10 A
U1 220 V
I1 26 A
U1 380 V
I1
15 A
U1
I1
U1
I1
power supply
for welding operations
under
ardous
haz-
situations,
i.e., the secondary

no-load voltage is
lower than 48 Volt
min. and max. no-load voltage

ISF 2002
br-er5-32e.cdr
and therefore not

Rating Plate
dangerous to the
welder.
Figure 5.32
Besides the familiar solid wires also

filler wires are used
for
gas-shielded
metal arc welding.

They consist of a
a
seamless flux-cored
wire electrode
metallic tube and a

flux
form-enclosed flux-cored
wire electrode
core
Figure 5.33 depicts

common
br-er5-33e.cdr
cross-
ISF 2002
Cross-Sections of Flux-Cored
Wire Electrodes
Figure 5.33
filling.
sectional shapes.
72
Filler wires contain arc stabilisators, slag-forming and also alloying elements which
support a stable welding process, help to protect the solidifying weld from the atmosphere and, more often than not, guarantee very good mechanical properties.
An important distinctive criteria is the type of the filling. The influence of the filling is
symbol
R
slag characteristics
rutile base,
slowly soldifying slag
rutile base,
rapidly soldifying slag
basic
filling: metal powder
P
B
M
V
W
rutile- or fluoride-basic
fluoride basic,
fluoride basic,
other types
Y
S
customary
application*
S and M
very similar to that

shielding gas **
C and M2
S and M
C and M2
S and M
S and M
S
S and M
C and M2
C and M2
without
without
S and M
without
Figure 5.34
electrode
covering in manual
electrode
(see
welding
chapter
2).
Figure 5.34 shows

a list of the differ-
wire.
ISF 2002
Type Symbols of Flux-Cored Wire

Electrodes According to DIN EN 12535
the
ent types of filler
*) S: single pass welding - M: multi pass welding

**) C: CO2 - M2: mixed gas M2 according to DIN EN 439
br-er5-34e.cdr
of
6.
Narrow Gap Welding,
Electrogas - and
Electroslag Welding
2003
6. Narrow Gap Welding, Electrogas- and Electroslag Welding
73
Up to this day, there is no universal agreement about the definition of the term Narrow Gap Welding although the term is actually self-explanatory. In the international
technical literature, the process characteristics mentioned in the upper part of Figure
6.1 are frequently connected with the definition for narrow gap welding. In spite of
these
Process characteristics:
- narrow, almost parallel weld edges. The small preparation angle has the function
to compensate the distortion of the joining members
- multipass technique where the weld build-up is a constant 1 or 2 beads per pass
- usually very small heat affected zone (HAZ) caused by low energy input
definition
difficulties
questions
the
Disadvantages
- higher apparatus expenditure,
espacially for the control of the weld
head and the wire feed device
- increased risk of imperfections at
large wall thicknesses due to more
difficult accessibility during process
control
- repair possibilities more difficult
about
universally
valid
Advantages:
- profitable through low consumption
quantities of filler material, gas and/
or powder due to the narrow gaps
- excellent quality values of the weld
metal and the HAZ due to low heat
input
- decreased tendency to shrink
all
advantages
and disadvantages
of the narrow gap
welding
method
can be clearly answered.
ISF 2002
br-er6-01e.cdr
Narrow Gap Welding
Figure 6.1
The numerous variations of narrow gap welding are, in general, a further development of the conventional welding technologies. Figure 6.2 shows a classification with
emphasis on several important process characteristics. Narrow gap TIG welding
with cold or hot wire addition is mainly applied as an orbital process method or for the
joining
submerged arc
electroslag narrow
narrow gap welding
gap welding
process with
straightened
wire electrode
(1R/L, 2R/L, 3R/L)
process with
oscillating
wire electrode
(1R/L)
process with
twin electrode
(1R/L, 2R/L)
process with
lengthwise
positioned
strip electrode
(2R/L)
flat position
gas-shielded metal arc

narrow gap welding
tungsten innert
gas-shielded
narrow gap welding
high-
alloy as well as
non-ferrous
process with
linearly oscillating
filler wire
process with
stripshaped
filler and
fusing feed
electrogas
process with
linearly
oscillating
wire electrode
electrogas
process with
bent,
longitudinally
positioned
strip electrode
process with hot

wire addition
(1R/L, 2R/L)
MIG/MAGprocesses
(1R/L,2R/L,3R/L)
als. This method

is, however, hardly
tice.
The
other
processes
more
vertical up position
met-
applied in the pracprocess with cold

wire addition
(1R/L, 2R/L)
all welding positions
br-er6-02e.cdr
spread
are
widely
and
explainedin
Survey of Narrow Gap Welding Techniques
Based on Conventional Technologies
Figure 6.2
of
are
detail
in the following.
74
In Figure 6.3, a systematic subdivision

GMA narrow gap welding
no wire-deformation
GMA narrow gap welding

wire-deformation
technologies is shown. In accor-
long-wire method
(1 B/P, 2 B/P)
thick-wire method
(1 B/P, 2 B/P)
twin-wire method
(1 B/P)
whether the process is carried out

B
coiled-wire method
(1 B/P)
corrugated wire method
with mechanical oscillator
(1 B/P)
with oscillating rollers
(1 B/P)
with contour roll (1 R/L)
zigzag wire method
(1 B/P)
wire loop method
(1 B/P)
explanation:
B/ P:
Bead/ Pass
A: method without forced arc movement

B: method with rotating arc movement
C: method with oscillating arc movement
D: method with two or more filler wires
br-er6-03e.cdr
dance with this, the fundamental distinguishing feature of the methods is
tandem-wire method
(1 B/P, 2 B/P, 3 B/P)
twisted wire method
(1 B/P)
rotation method
(1 B/P)
of the various GMA narrow gap
with or without wire deformation.

Overlaps in the structure result from
the application of methods where a
single or several additional wires are
used. While most methods are suitable for single layer per pass welding,
other methods require a weld build-up
with at least two layers per pass. A
ISF 2002
further subdivision is made in accordance with the different types of arc

movement.
Figure 6.3
In the following, some of the GMA narrow gap technologies are explained:
Using the turning tube method, Figure 6.4, side wall fusion is achieved by the turning
of the contact tube; the contact tip angles are set in degrees of between 3 and 15
towards the torch axis. With an electronic stepper motor control, arbitrary transversearc oscillating mocorrugated wire method with mech. oscillator
tions with defined
dwell periods of os-
2
3
cillation and oscillation frequencies can

be realised - inde-
contrast, when the

corrugated
wire
method
me-
1 - wire reel
2 - drive rollers
3 - wire mechanism
for wire guidance
4 - inert gas shroud
5 - wire guide tube and
shielding gas tube
6 - contact tip
1 - wire reel
2 - mechanical oscillator
for wire deformation
3 - drive rollers
5 - wire feed nozzle and
shielding gas tube
6 - contact tip
br-er 6-04e.cdr
with
Principle of GMA
Narrow Gap Welding
chanical oscillator is
Figure 6.4
8 - 10
wire properties. In
12 - 14
pendent of the filler
75
applied, arc oscillation is produced by

the plastic, wavy deformation of the
plate thickness:
gap preparation:
300 mm
square-butt joint, 9 mm
flame cut
1.2 mm
elctrode diameter:
amperage:
260 A
pulse frequency:
120 HZ
arc voltage:
30 V
welding speed:
22 cm/min
-1
wire oscillation:
80 min
oscillation width:
4 mm
shielding gas:
80% Ar/ 20% Co2
primery gas flow:
25 l/min
secondary gas flow: 50 l/min
number of passes: approx. 70
wire electrode. The deformation is

obtained by a continuously swinging
oscillator which is fixed above the wire
feed rollers. Amplitude and frequency
of the wave motion can be varied over
the total amplitude of oscillation and
the speed of the mechanical oscillator
or, also, over the wire feed speed. As
the contact tube remains stationary,
very narrow gaps with widths from 9
to 12 mm with plate thicknesses of up
to 300 mm can be welded.
br-er6-05e.cdr
ISF 2002
Figure 6.5
Figure 6.5 shows the macro section of a GMA narrow gap welded joint with plates
(thickness: 300 mm) which has been produced by the mechanical oscillator method
in approx. 70 passes. A highly regular weld build-up and an almost straight fusion
line with an extremely narrow heat affected zone can be noticed. Thanks to the correct setting of the
oscillation parame-
rotation method
1
spiral wire method

1
ters and the precise, centred torch

manipulation
2
3
2
3
4
no
sidewall fusion de-
of
the
low
sidewall penetration
depth. A further ad-
1 - wire reel
2 - drive rollers
3 - mechanism for
nozzle rotation
5 - shielding gas nozzle
6 - wire guiding tube
1 - wire reel
2 - wire mechanism for
wire deformation
3 - drive rollers
shielding gas supply
5 - contact piece
br-er 6-06e.cdr
vantage
of
weave-bead
the
Principle of
GMA Narrow Gap Welding
techFigure 6.6
9 - 12
spite
13 - 14
fects occurred, in
76
nique is the high crystal restructuring rate in the weld metal and in the basemetal adjacent to the fusion line an advantage that gains good toughness properties.
Two narrow-gap welding variations with a rotating arc movement are shown in Figure 6.6. When the rotation method is applied, the arc movement is produced by an
eccentrically protruding wire electrode (1.2 mm) from a contact tube nozzle which is
rotating with frequencies between 100 and 150 Hz. When the wave wire method is
used, the 1.2 mm solid wire is being spiralwise deformed. This happens before it enters the rotating 3 roll wire feed device. With a turning speed of 120 to 150 revs per
minute the welding wire is deformed. The effect of this is such that after leaving the
contact piece the deformed wire creates a spiral diameter of 2.5 to 3.0 mm in the gap
adequate enough to weld plates with thicknesses of up to 200 mm at gap widths
between 9 and 12 mm with a good sidewall fusion.
Figure 6.7 explains two GMA narrow gap welding methods which are operated without forced arc movement, where a reliable sidewall fusion is obtained either by the
wire deflection through constant deformation (tandem wire method) or by forced
wire deflection with the contact tip (twin-wire method). In both cases, two wire electrodes with thicknesses between 0.8 and 1.2 mm are used. When the tandem technique is applied, these electrodes are transported to the two weld heads which are
arranged inside the gap in tandem and which are indeFigure pendently selectable.
When
tandem method
twin-wire method
350
twin-
wire method is applied, two parallel
2
3
the
switched
elec-
trodes are transported by a com-
9 - 12
1 - wire reel
2 - deflection rollers
3 - drive rollers
5 - shielding gas nozzle
6 - wire feed nozzle
and contact tip
1 - wire reel
2 - drive rollers
shielding gas supply
5 - contact tips
15 - 18
mon wire feed unit,

and, subsequently,
adjusted
in
common
sword-
br-er 6-07e.cdr
Principle of GMA
Narrow Gap Welding
Figure 6.7
type torch at an
incline towards the
77
weld edges at small spaces behind
strip electrode
each other (approx. 8 mm) and molSO stick out

s
s
a
x
gap width
electrode deflection
distance of strip tip to flank
twisting angle
h
w
bead hight
bead width
so
x
ten.
In place of the SA narrow gap welding methods, mentioned in Figure

6.2, the method with a lengthwise po-
twin-wire electrode
sitioned strip electrode as well as the

twin-wire method are explained in
vw
H
z
a
h
vw
a
H
z
weld speed
electrode deflection
stick out
distance torch - flank
s
h
w
p
gap width
bead height
bead width
penetration depth
more detail, Figure 6.8. SA narrow

gap welding with strip electrode is
carried out in the multipass layer
technique, where the strip electrode is
deflected at an angle of approx. 5
towards the edge in order to avoid
br-er6-08e.cdr
Submerged Arc
Narrow Gap Welding
collisions. After completing the first
Figure 6.8
10
fillet weld and slag removal the oppo8

s
site fillet is made. Solid wire as well as

cored-strip electrodes with widths be-
16
tween 10 and 25 mm are used. The

gap width is, depending on the number
of passes per layer, between 20 and
double-U butt weld

SA-DU weld preparation
(8UP DIN 8551)
8
square-edge butt weld

SA-SE weld preparation
(3UP DIN 8551)
10
25 mm. SA twin-wire welding is, in

general, carried out using two elecs
trodes (1.2 to 1.6 mm) where one electrode is deflected towards one weld
of the groove or towards the opposite

weld edge. Either a single pass layer
edge and the other towards the bottom

double-U butt weld
GMA-DU weld preparation
(Indexno. 2.7.7 DIN EN 29692)
narrow gap weld

GMA-NG weld preparation
(not standardised)
br-er6-09e.cdr
Comparison of the
Weld Groove Shape
or a two pass layer technique are applied. Dependent on the electrode diFigure 6.9
78
ameter and also on the type of welding powder, is the gap width between
12 and 13 mm.
Figure 6.9 shows a comparison of

groove shapes in relation to plate
thickness for SA welding (DIN 8551
part 4) with those for GMA welding
(EN 29692) and the unstandardised,
mainly used, narrow gap welding. Depending on the plate thickness, significant differences in the weld crosssectional dimensions occur which
may lead to substantial saving of mabr-er6-10e_sw.cdr
ISF 2002
terial and energy during welding. For

example, when welding thicknesses
of 120 mm to 200 mm with the narrow
Figure 6.10
gap welding technique, 66% up to
workpiece
wire guide
75% of the weld metal weight are

electrode
edge weld.
shielding gas
+
saved, compared to the SA square
arc
The practical application of SA narrow
weld pool
Cu-shoe
weld advance
gap welding for the production of a
weld metal
water
flanged calotte joint for a reactor pressure vessel cover is depicted in Figure 6.10. The inner diameter of the
pressure
vessel
is
more
than
5,000 mm with wall thicknesses of

400 mm
and
40,000 mm.
with
The
height
of
total
weight
is
designation:
gas-shielded metal arc welding (GMAW acc. DIN 1910 T.4)
position:
vertical (width deviations of up to 45)
plate thickness: 6 - 30 mm square-butt joint or V weld seam
30 mm double-V weld seam
materials:
unalloyed, lowalloy and highalloy steels
gap width:
8 - 20 mm
electrodes:
only 1 (flux-cored wire, for slag formation between
copper shoe and weld surface) 1.6 - 3.2 mm
amperage:
350 - 650 A
voltage:
28 - 45 V
weld speed:
2 - 12 m/h
shielding gas:
unalloyed and lowalloy steels
CO2 or mixed gas (Ar 60% and 40% Co2 )
highalloy steels: argon or helium
br-er6-11e.cdr
Electrogas Welding
3,000 tons. The weld depth at the joint

was 670 mm, so it had been necesFigure 6.11
79
sary to select a gap width of at least 35 mm and to work in the three pass layer technique.
Electrogas welding (EG) is characterised by a vertical groove which is bound by two

water-cooled copper shoes. In the groove, a filler wire electrode which is fed through
a copper nozzle, is melted by a shielded arc, Figure 6.11. During this process, are
groove edges fused. In relation with the ascending rate of the weld pool volume, the
welding nozzle and the copper shoes are pulled upwards. In order to avoid poor fusion at the beginning of the welding, the process has to be started on a run-up plate
which closes the bottom end of the groove. The shrinkholes forming at the weld end
are transferred onto the run-off plate. If possible, any interruptions of the welding
process should be avoided. Suitable power sources are rectifiers with a slightly dropping static characteristic. The electrode has a positive polarity.
The application of electrogas welding for low-alloyed steels is more often than not limited, as the toughness of the heat affected zone with the complex coarse grain
formation does not meet sophisticated
demands. Long-time exposure to temperatures of more than 1500C and
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
low crystallisation rates are responsible for this. The same applies to the
weld metal. For a more wide-spread
1. base metal
2. welding boom
3. filler metal
4. slag pool
5. metal pool
application of electrogas welding, the

High-Speed
Electrogas
6. copper shoe
7. water cooling
8. weld seam
9. Run-up plate
Welding
Method has been developed in the

ISF. In this process, the gap crosssection is reduced and additional
metal powder is added to increase the
deposition rate. By the increase of the
welding speed, the dwell times of
weld-adjacent regions above critical
designation:
position:
plate thickness:
gap width:
materials:
electrodes:
resistance fusion welding

vertical (and deviation of up to 45)
30 mm (up to 2,000 mm)
24 - 28 mm
unalloyed, lowalloy and highalloy steels
1 or more solid or cored wires 2.0 - 3.2 mm
plate thickness range per electrode: fixed 30 - 50 mm
oscillated: up to 150 mm
amperage:
550 - 800 A per electrode
voltage:
35 - 52 V
welding speed: 0.5 - 2 m/h
slag hight:
30 - 50 mm
br-er6-12e.cdr
temperatures and thus the brittleness
Electroslag Welding
effects are significantly reduced.

Figure 6.12
80
Figure 6.12 shows the process principle of Electroslag Welding. Heating and melting of the groove faces occurs in a slag bath. The temperature of the slag bath must
always exceed the melting temperature of the metal. The Joule effect, produced
when the current is transferred through the conducting bath, keeps the slag bath
temperature constant. The welding current is fed over one or more endless wire electrodes which melt in the highly heated slag bath. Molten pool and slag bath which
both form the weld pool are, sideways retained by the groove faces and, in general,
by water-cooled copper shoes which are, with the complete welding unit, and in relation with the welding speed, moved progressively upwards. To avoid the inevitable
welding defects at
the
beginning
of
the welding procpowder
ess
slag
penetration, incluignition with arc
powder fusion
sion of unmolten
powder) and at the
slag
end of the welding
molten pool
weld metal
start of welding
(insufficient
(shrinkholes,
welding
end of welding
slag
inclusions), run-up
ISF 2002
br-er6-13e.cdr
Process Phases During ES Welding
and run-off plates

are used.
Figure 6.13
The electroslag welding process can be divided into four process phases, Figure
6.13. At the beginning of the welding process, in the so-called ignition phase, the
arc is ignited for a short period and liquefies the non-conductive welding flux powder
into conductive slag. The arc is extinguished as the electrical conductivity of the arc
length exceeds that of the conductive slag. When the desired slag bath level is
reached, the lower ignition parameters (current and voltage) are, during the so-called
Data-Increase-Phase, raised to the values of the stationary welding process. This
occurs on the run-up plate. The subsequent actual welding process starts, the process phase. At the end of the weld, the switch-off phase is initiated in the run-off
plate. The solidifying slag bath is located on the run-off plate which is subsequently
removed.
81
The electroslag welding with consumable feed wire (channel-slot welding)

proved to be very useful for shorter welds.
The copper sliding shoes are replaced by fixed Cu cooling bars and the welding nozzle by a steel tube, Figure 6.14. The length of the sheathed steel tube, in general,
corresponds with the weld seam length (mainly shorter than 2.500 mm) and the steel
tube melts during welding in the ascending slag bath. Dependent on the plate thickness, welding can be carried out with one single or with several wire and strip electrodes. A feature of this process variation is the handiness of the welding device and
the easier welding
drive motor
wire or strip
electrode
Electroslag fusing
nozzle process (channel welding)
welding cable
run-off plate
workpiece
workpiece
position: vertical
plate thickness:
15 mm
materials: unalloyed, lowalloy
and highalloy steels
area
preparation.
Also curved seams

can be welded with
a bent consumable
=
~
welding consumables:
fusing
feed nozzle
run-up plate
workpiece cable
copper shoes
workpiece
workpiece
wire electrodes: 2.5 - 4 mm

strip electrodes: 60 x 0.5 mm
plate electrodes: 80 x60 up to
10 x 120 mm
fusing
feed nozzle:
10 - 15 mm
welding powder: slag formation
with high electrical
conductivity
electrode. As the
groove width can
be
significantly
reduced
when
comparing
copper shoes
with
br-er 6-14e.cdr
conventional proc-
Electroslag Welding with

Fusing Wire Feed Nozzle
esses, and a strip

shaped filler mate-
Figure 6.14
rial with a consumable

technological measures
post weld heat
treatment
decrease of peak temperature

and dwell times at high
temperatures
metallurgical measures
increase of
purity
addition of suitable alloy

and micro-alloy elements
(nucleus formation)
increase of welding speed

reduction of energy per
unit length
continuous
normalisation
furnace
normalisation
increase of
deposit rate
decrease of
groove volume
application of
several wire
electrodes,
metal powder
addition
V, double-V butt
joints, multi-pass
technique
application of suitable
base and filler metals
reduction of
S-, P-, H2-, N2 and O2 - contents
and other
unfavourable
trace elements
guide
piece is used, this

welding process is
rightly placed under the group of
narrow gap weld-
C-content limits
Mn, Si, Mo, Cr, Ni,
Cu, Nb, V, Zr, Ti
ing techniques.
Likewise in elec-
br-er 6-15e.cdr
Possibilities to Improve
Weld Seam Properties
Figure 6.15
trogas welding, the

electroslag welding
82
process is also characterised by a large molten pool with a simultaneously - low

heating and cooling rate. Due to the low cooling rate good degassing and thus almost
porefree hardening of the slag bath is possible. Disadvantageous, however, is the
formation of a coarse-grain structure. There are, however, possibilities to improve
the weld properties, Figure 6.15.
To avoid postweld heat treatment the electroslag welding process with local continuous normalisation has been developed for plate thicknesses of up to approx. 60
mm, Figure 6.16. The welding temperature in the weld region drops below the Ar1temperature and is subsequently heated to the normalising temperature (>Ac3). The
specially designed
torches follow the
copper
temperature C
1. filler wire
2. copper shoes
3. slag pool
4. metal pool
5. water cooling
6. slag layer
7. weld seam
8. distance plate
9. postheating torch
10. side plate
11. heat treated zone
2
2000
1500
900
7
8
9
500
10
950
11
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
along
shoes
the
weld
seam. By reason of
the residual heat in
the workpiece the
necessary
perature
temcan
be
reached in a short
br-er 6-16e.cdr
ES Welding with Local

Continuous Normalisation
time.
Figure 6.16
In order to circumvent an expensive postheat weld treatment which is often unrealistic for use on-site, the electroslag high-speed welding process with multilayer
technique has been developed. Similar to electrogas welding, the weld cross-section
is reduced and, by application of a twin-wire electrode in tandem arrangement and
addition of metal powder, the weld speed is increased, as in contrast to the conventional technique. In the heat affected zones toughness values are determined which
correspond with those of the unaffected base metal. The slag bath and the molten
pool of the first layer are retained by a sliding shoe, Figure 6.17. The weld preparation is a double-V butt weld with a gap of approx. 15 mm, so the carried along sliding
shoe seals the slag and the metal bath. Plate preparation is, as in conventional elec-
83
troslag welding, exclusively done by

flame cutting. Thus, the advantage of
easier weld preparation can be main1
tained.
2
3
4
For larger plate thicknesses (70 to
9
5
100 mm), the three passes layer
6
7
technique
When welding the first pass with a
10
br-er6-17e.cdr
1 magnetic screening
2 metal powder addition
3 tandem electrode
4 water cooling
5 copper shoe (water cooled)
6 slag pool
7 molten pool
8 solidified slag
9 welding powder addition
10 weld seam
ES-welding in 2 passes with sliding shoe
ISF 2002
has
double-V-groove
been
developed.
preparation
(root
width: 20 to 30 mm; gap width:

approx. 15 mm) two sliding shoes
which are adjusted to the weld groove
are used. The first layer is welded
using the conventional technique, with
one wire electrode without metal
powder addition.
Figure 6.17
12
When welding the outer passes flat
11
Cu shoes are again used, Figure 6.18.

1
Three wire electrodes, arranged in a
triangular formation, are used. Thus,
3
4
one electrode is positioned close to
the root and on the plate outer sides
5
6
two electrodes in parallel arrangement
are fed into the bath. The single as
8
4
well as the parallel wire electrodes are

fed with different metal powder quantities which as outcome permit a welding speed 5 times higher than the
10
speed of the single layer conventional

technique and also leads to strong
br-er6-18e.cdr
1 magnetic screening
2 metal powder supply
3 three-wire electrode
4 water cooling
5 copper shoe (water cooled)
6 slag pool
7 molten pool
8 solidified slag
9 welding powder supply
10 weld seam
11 first pass
12 second pass
ES-welding of the outer passes
increase of toughness in all zones of

the welded joint.
Figure 6.18
ISF 2002
84
If wall thicknesses of more than 100 mm are to be welded, several twin-wire electrodes with metal powder addition have to be used to reach deposition rates of
approx. 200 kg/h. The electroslag welding process is limited by the possible crack
formation in the centre of the weld metal. Reasons for this are the concentration of
elements such as sulphur and phosphor in the weld centre as well as too fast a cooling of the molten pool in the proximity of the weld seam edges.
7.
Pressure Welding
2003
7. Pressure Welding
85
Figure 7.1 shows a survey of the pressure welding processes for joining of metals
in accordance with
DIN 1910.
welding
pressure welding
In
fusion welding
gas
pressure
welding a distincgas pressure

welding
resistance pressure
welding
induction pressure
welding
conductive pressure
welding
resistance spot
welding
projection
welding
roll seam
welding
friction welding
tion is made between
pressure butt
welding
flash butt
welding
open
square
and
closed
square
gas
pressure
br-er7-01e.cdr
welding,
Classification of Welding
Processes acc. to DIN 1910
Fig-
ure 7.2.
Figure 7.1
Both methods use efficient gas torches to bring the workpiece ends up to the welding
temperature. When the welding temperature is reached, both joining members are
butt-welded by the application of axial force when a flash edge forms. The long preheating time leads to the formation of a coarse-grained structure in the joining area,
therefore the welds are of low toughness values. As the process is operated mainsindependently and
initial state: gap closed
initial state: gap opened
the process equip-
(for special cases)
gas flame torch in the open gap

stationary
ment
weight
mobile
is
low
and
in
also
easy to handle, the

workpiece
closed gap
ring-shaped burner
(sectional view)
pressure
1. heating
main
application
areas of gas pres-
2. torch positioning
3. welding by rapid pressing
completed weld seam

working cycles: 1. heating
2. welding by pressing
sure welding are

the welding of reinforcement
steels
br-er7-02e.cdr
Open Square and Closed Square

Gas Pressure Welding
Figure 7.2
and of pipes in the

building trade.
7. Pressure Welding
86
In pressure butt welding, the input of the necessary welding heat is produced by
resistance heating. The necessary axial force is applied by copper clamping jaws
which also receive the current supply, Figure 7.3. The current circuit is closed over
the abutting surfaces of the two joining members where, by the increased interface
resistance, the highest heat generation is obtained. After the welding temperature which is lower than the melting temperature of the weld metal is reached, upset
pressure is applied and the current circuit is opened. This produces a thick flash-free
upset seam which is typical for this method. In order to guarantee the uniform heating
of
the
abutting
faces, they must be

conformable in their
before upset force

has been applied
upset force
cross-sectional
sizes and shapes
water-cooled clamping
chucks (Cu electrodes)
with each other and

they
must
have
bulging at the end
of the weld
parallel faces.
_
~
As no molten metal
br-er7-03e.cdr
develops
during
Process Principle of
Pressure Butt Welding
pressure upset butt

welding, the joining
Figure 7.3
surfaces must be
free from contaminations
and
from
fixed clamping chuck
mobile clamping chuck
a+b
b
2
oxides. Suitable for
clamping force
steel chuck
welding are unalloyed and low-alloy

steels. The welding
of aluminium and
copper shoe
secondary side
copper material is,

because of the tendency towards oxidation
and
primary side
welding transformer
br-er7-04e.cdr
Schematic Structure of a Flash

Butt Welding Equipment
good
conductivity, possiFigure 7.4
a = flashing length
b = upset loss
7. Pressure Welding
87
ble only up to a point. For the most

part, smaller cross-sections with surfaces of up to 100 mm are welded.
Areas of applications are chain manufacturing and also extensions of wires
in a wire drawing shop.
A flash butt welding equipment is, in

its principal structure, similar to the
pressure butt welding device, Figure 7.4.
While in pressure upset butt welding

the
joining
members
are
always
strongly pressed together, in flash butt
br-er7-05e.cdr
ISF 2002
welding only fusing contact is made

during the heating phase. During the
welding process, the workpiece ends
Figure 7.5
are progressively advanced towards each other until they make contact at several
points and the current circuit is over these contact bridges closed. As the local current density at these points is high, the heating also develops very fast. The metal is
liquified and, partly, evaporated. The metal vapour pressure causes the liquified
metal to be thrown out of the gap. At the same time, the metal vapour is generating a
shielding gas atmosphere; that is to say, with the exception of pipe welds, welding
can be carried out without the use of shielding gas. The constant creation and destruction of the contact bridges causes the abutting faces to burn, starting from
the contact points, with heavy spray-type ejection. Along with the occurrence of
material loss, the parts are progressively advanced towards each other again. New
contact bridges are created again and again. When the entire abutting face is uniformly fused, the two workpiece ends are, through a high axial force, abruptly
pressed together and the welding current is switched off. This way, a narrow, sharp
and, in contrast to friction welding, irregular weld edge is produced during the upsetting progress, which, if necessary, can be easy mechanically removed while the weld
is still warm, Figure 7.5.
7. Pressure Welding
88
In flash butt welding, a fundamental distinction is made between two different working techniques. During hot flash butt welding a preheating operation precedes the
actual flashing process, Figure 7.6. The preceding resistance heating is carried out
by reversing, i.e., by the changing short-circuiting and pressing of the joining surfaces and by the mechanical separation in the reversed motion. When the joint ends
are sufficiently heated, is the flashing process is initialised automatically and the
following process is similar to cold flash butt welding. In contrast to cold flash butt
welding, the advantage of hot flash butt welding is that, on one hand, sections of 20
times the size can be welded with the same machine efficiency and, on the other
hand, a smaller temperature drop and with that a lower cooling rate in the workpiece
can be obtained. This is of importance, especially with steels which because of their
chemical composition have a tendency to harden. The cooling rate may also be reduced by conductive reheating inside the machine. A smooth and clean surface is
not necessary with
hot flash butt weld-
upset travel
ing. If the abutting
flashing travel
faces differ greatly

from
the
desired
plane-parallelism,
upset force
an additional flashing process (a short
preheating
flashing
flashing
amperage
flashing period with

time
low speed and high
hot flash welding
time
cold flash welding
br-er7-06e.cdr
energy) may be car-
Flashing Travel, Upset Travel, Upset Force

and Welding Current in Timely Order
ried out first.

Figure 7.6
The welding area of the structure of a flash butt weld shows a zone which is reduced in carbon and other alloying elements, Figure 7.7. Moreover, all flash butt
welded joints have a pronounced coarse grain zone, whereby the toughness properties of the welded joint are lower than of the base metal. By the impact normalizing
effect in the machine successive to the actual welding process, can the toughness
properties be considerably increased. By one or several current impulses the weld
7. Pressure Welding
89
temperatures are increased by up to approximately 50 over the austeniting temperature of the metal.
Steels, aluminium, nickel and copper alloys can be welded economically with the
flash butt welding
process. Supported
heat affected zone
by the axial force,
10 mm
shrinkage in flash
material: C60 E
butt welding is so
insignificant
that
0,1 mm
only very low residual stresses occur.

It is, therefore, posweld
coarse grain zone
fine grain zone
soft-annealing zone
base metal
sible to weld also

br-er7-07e.cdr
steels with a higher
Secondary Structure
Along a Flash Butt Weld
carbon content.
Figure 7.7
Profiles of all kind are butt welded

with this method. The method is used
n
for large-scale manufacture and with

components of equal dimensions. The
weldable cross-sections may reach
dimensions of up to 120,000 mm.
Areas of application are the welding of
n
rails, the manufacture of car axles,

F1 friction force
wheel rims and shafts, the welding of

chain links and also the manufacture
of tools and endless strips for pipe
F2 upset force
production.
Friction welding is a pressure welding method where the necessary heat
br-er7-08e.cdr
ISF 2002
for joining is produced by mechanical

friction. The friction is, as a rule, generated by a relative motion between a
Figure 7.8
7. Pressure Welding
90
rotating and a stationary workpiece

while axial force is being applied at
the same time, Figure 7.8.
After the joint surfaces are adequately

heated, the relative motion is discontinued and the friction force is increased to upsetting force.
An even, lip-shaped bead is produced
which may be removed in the welding
machine by an additional accessory
unit. The bead is often considered as
the first quality criterion.
Figure 7.9 shows all phases of the
br-er7-09e_sw.cdr
Phases of Friction Welding Process
friction welding process. In most

cases this method is used for rota-
Figure 7.9
tion-symmetrical parts. It is, nowabrake
days, also possible to accurately join

rectangular
and
polygonal
clamping tool
clamping tool
workpiece
clutch
pressure element
for axial pressure
cross-
sections.
The most common variant of friction
conventional friction welding
welding is friction welding with a con-
driving motor
tinuous drive and friction welding with

a flywheel drive, Figure 7.10. In fric-
flywheel
clamping tool
clamping tool
workpiece
pressure element
for axial pressure
tion welding with continuous drive,

the clamped-on part to be joined is
kept at a constant nominal speed by a
drive, while the workpiece in the sliding chuck is pressed with a defined
flywheel friction welding
br-er7-10e.cdr
friction force. The nominal speed is

maintained until the demanded temFigure 7.10
ISF 2002
7. Pressure Welding
91
perature profile has been achieved. Then the motor is declutched and the relative
motion is neutralised by external braking. In general, the friction force is raised to upsetting force after the rotation movement has been discontinued. During flywheel
friction welding, the inertia mass is raised to nominal speed, the drive motor is declutched and the stationary workpiece is, with a defined axial force, pressed against
the rotating workpiece. Welding is finished when the total kinetic energy - stored in
the flywheel has been consumed by the friction processes. This is the so-called
self-breaking effect of the system. The method is used when, based on metallurgical
processes, extremely short welding times may be realised. Further process variants
are radial friction welding, orbital friction welding, oscillation friction welding and friction
surfacing.
However,
process
friction welding time

1...100s
these
variants
braking
0,1...0,5s
1800...
number of
revolutions
5400 min
friction welding time

0,125...2s
900...
-1
-1
5400min
are until today still
time
in the experimental
stage.
Recently,
axial
pressure
40...280
20...100 Nmm
-2
40...280
-2
-2
Nmm
Nmm
new developments
in the field of friction
stud
welding
studs on plates
torque
conventional friction welding
flywheel friction welding
br-er7-11e.cdr
have
been
intro-
Comparison of the Welding Processes for

Conventional and Flywheel Friction Welding
duced.
Figure 7.11
Figure 7.11 depicts the variation in time of the most important process parameters in friction welding with continuous drive and flywheel friction welding. The occuring moments maxima may be interpreted as follows: The first maximum, at the start
of the frictional contact, is explained by the formation of local fusion zones and their
shearing off in the lower temperature range.
The torque decreases as a result of the risen temperature - which again is a consequence of the increased plasticity - and of the lowered deformation resistance. The
second maximum is generated during the braking phase which precedes the spindle
standstill. The second maximum is explained by the increased deformation resistance at dropping temperatures. The temperature drop in the joining zone is ex-
7. Pressure Welding
92
plained by the lowered energy input due to the rotation-speed decrease and
also by the augmented radial displacement of the highly heated material into the weld
upset.
In friction welding
number of revolutions
with a continuous
upset force
drive, the process

variation
bined
friction force
comfriction
welding
allows
the free and independent from each

other selection of
reduction
time
the
braking
and
ISF 2002
br-er7-12e.cdr
upsetting
Combined Friction Welding
mo-
ments, Fig. 7.12.

Figure 7.12
In this case, the rotation-energy which has been stored in the drive motor, the spindle and also in the clamping chuck, may be totally or partially converted by selfbreaking. Here, the breaking phase matches the breaking phase in flywheel welding.
The use of this process variant allows the welding structures to influence each other
in a positive way when many welding tasks are to be carried out. Moreover, the
torque range may
a)
b)
be accurately pre-
determined by the
microcontroller
c)
the braking initiator
d)
of
which prevents the

slip-through of the
e)
f)
workpieces in the
clamping chuck.
ISF 2002
br-er7-13e.cdr
Types of Friction Welding Processes
The universal friction welding ma-
Figure 7.13
7. Pressure Welding
93
chine is in its structure similar to a turning lathe, however, for the transmission of the
high axial forces, the machine structure must be considerably more rigid.
Basically, there are three types of friction welding: a) friction welding with a rotating
workpiece and a translational motion of the other workpiece; b) friction welding with
rotation and translational motion of one workpiece facing a stationary other workpiece, c) rotation and translation of two workpieces against a stationary intermediate
piece. The remaining variations, shown in Figure 7.13, also find applications when
both workpieces have to rotate in opposite direction to each other. For example,
when a low diameter and, in connection with this, the low relative speeds demand the
necessary heat quantity.
A survey of possible joint shapes achievable with friction welding is given in Figure 7.14. The specimen preparation of the joining members should, if possible, be
carried out in a way that the heat input and the heat dissipation is equal for both
members. Dependbefore
welding
ing on the combina1. a)round stock with

round stock
abutting
surfaces
b) round stock with

round stock
(different cross-sections,
bevelled)
should be smooth,
angular
equal
and
of
3.
6. pipe with plate
0,75d
7. round material with

plate, without
preparation
d=0,75D
round stock with pipe
dimensions.
8. pipe with plate,

without preparation
(1/6)d
ISF 2002
br-er7-14e.cdr
A simple saw cut is,
Joint Types Obtained

by Friction Welding
for many applications, sufficient.
The
5. round material
with plate
g/d 0,25...0,3
d 0,6D
2. a)round stock with

round stock
(different cross-sections,
partially machined)
considerably.
after
welding
tate the joining task
1..2
b) round stock with round

stock, chamfered
this provision facili-
before
welding
4. pipe with pipe
tion of materials can
after
welding
Figure 7.14
The method of heat generation causes a comparatively low joining temperature

lower than the melting temperature of the metals. This is the main reason why friction
welding is the suitable method for metals and material combinations which are difficult to weld. It is also possible to weld material combinations (e.g. Cu/Al or Al/steel)
which cannot be joined using other welding processes otherwise only with increased
expenditure. Figure 7.15 shows a survey of possible material combinations. Many
7. Pressure Welding
94
combinations have, however, not yet been tested on their suitability to friction welding. Metallurgical reasons which may reduce the friction weldability are:
cirkon
tungsten
vanadium
titanium
tantalum
stellite
free cutting steel
cast steel
steel, austentic
steel, high alloyed
steel, alloyed
steel, unalloyed
silver
niobium
nickel alloys
nickel
molybdenum
brass
magnesium
copper
cobalt
hard metal, sintered
cast iron (GGG, GT)
lead
aluminium, sintered
aluminium alloys
aluminium
1. the quantity and distribution of
aluminium
aluminium alloys
aluminium, sintered
lead
cast iron (GGG, GT)
hard metal, sintered
cobalt
copper
magnesium
brass
molybdenum
nickel
nickel alloys
niobium
silver
steel, unalloyed
steel, alloyed
steel, high alloyed
steel, austentic
cast steel
free cutting steel
stellite
tantalum
titanium
vanadium
tungsten
cirkon
non-metal inclusions,
2. formation of low-melting or intermetallic phases,
3. embrittlement by gas absorption (as a rule, the costly, inert
gas shielding can be dispensed with, even when welding titanium),
4. softening of hardened or pre-
friction weldable
cipitataly-hardened
restricted friction weldable

not friction weldable
materials
and
not tested
5. hardening caused by too high

br-er7-15e.cdr
a cooling rate.
ISF 2002
By the adjustment of the welding paFigure 7.15
rameters in respect toweld joints, can
in most cases joints with good mechano-technological properties be obtained.

The secondary structure along the friction-welded joint is depicted in Figure 7.16. An
extremely
grained
(forge
finestructure
structure)
metal: S235JR
develops in the join10 mm
ing
zone
p = 30 N/mm2
t =6s
2
tSt = 250 N/mm
n = 1500 U/min
region.
This structure which

1 mm
is typical of a fric-
structures on parallels with a 5 mm distance from the sample axis
tion-welded joint is
characterised
by
high strength and
base metal
heat affected zone
transition heat affected

zone - weld metal
br-er7-16e.cdr
toughness
proper-
Secondary Structure
Along a Friction Weld
ties.
Figure 7.16
weld metal
10 m
7. Pressure Welding
95
Figure 7.17 shows a comparison between a flash butt-welded and a frictionwelded cardan shaft. The two welds are distinguished by the size of their heat affected zone and the development of the weld upset. While in friction welding a regular, lip-shaped upset is produced, the weld flash formation in flash butt welding is narrower and sharper and also considerably more irregular. Besides, the heat affected
zone during friction welding is substantially smaller than during flash butt welding.
Friction welding machines are fully mechanized and may well be integrated into
production lines. Loading and unloading equipment, turning attachments for the
preparation of the abutting surfaces and for upset removal and also storage units for
complete welding programs make these machines well adaptable to automation. The
machines
may
furthermore
be
equipped with parameter supervisory

systems. During welding are parameters: welding path, pressure, rotational
speed, and time are governed by the
desired value/actual value comparison. This allows an indirect quality
flash butt welding
control. A further complement to the

retension of parameters is the torque
control, however this method is costly
and it cannot be used for all applications because of its structural dimensions.
friction welding
br-er7-17e.cdr
ISF 2002
Friction welding machines are mainly

used in the series production and
industrial mass production.
Figure 7.17
Nevertheless, these machines are also always applied when metals and material
combinations which are difficult to weld have to be joined in a reliable and costeffective way. With the machines that are presently used in Germany, it is possible to
weld massive workpieces in the diameter range of 0.6 up to 250 mm For steel pipes,
the maximum weldable diameter is at present approximately 900 mm, the wall thicknesses are approx. 6 mm.
7. Pressure Welding
96
1 cardan shaft, AIZn 4,5 Mg 1

2 cardan shaft, retracted tube
1,2 joint ring
3 loading device
material combination:
Cf53/ Ck45
4 unloading grippers
br-er7-18e_sw.cdr
3 cardan shaft, flattening test specimen

4 crown wheel, 16MnCr5/ 42Cr4
5 bimetal valve, X45CrSi9-3/ NiCr20 TiAl
ISF 2002
Figure 7.18
br-er7-19e_sw.cdr
ISF 2002
Figure 7.19
Figures 7.18 to 7.20 show a selection of

examples for the application of friction
welding.
Figure 7.21 shows a comparison of the

cost expenditure for the manufacture
of a cardan shaft, carried out by forging and by friction welding, respectively.
It shows that the application of the fric-
1 pump shaft
2 shaft C22E/ E295
3 press cylinder S185/9S 20K
4 hydraulic cylinder S235J3G2/ C60E or S235JR/ C15
5 cylinder case S235JR/ S355J2G3
6 piston rod 42Cr4
7 connecting rod 100Cr6/ S235JR
8 stud S235J2G3/ X5CrNi18-10
9 knotter hook 15CrNi6
br-er7-20e_sw.cdr
tion welding method may save approx.

20% of the production costs. This comparison is, however, not an universally
ISF 2002
valid statement as for each component a

profitability evaluation must be carried out
Figure 7.20
7. Pressure Welding
97
separately. The comparison is just to show that, in many applications, considerable

savings can be made if the matter of the joining technology by friction welding could
be circulated to a wider audience of design and production engineers.
Figure 7.22 shows

friction welds
in brief the impor-
160 mm
40 mm
30 mm
tant
advantages
and
disadvan-
tages of friction
940 mm
welding in comforged piece

motor shaft
friction-welded piece
20,-
flange,forged
material costs shaft
30 und 40 mm
2x friction welds
incl. upset removal
20,-
7,50
4,25
3,-
14,75
parison
with
the
competitive
method
of
flash
butt welding.
br-er7-21e.cdr
Cost Comparison of Forging/ Friction

Welding in a Case of a Cardan Shaft
Figure 7.21
Pressure welding with magnetically
impelled arc, Magnetarc Welding,
is an arc pressure welding method for
the joining of closed structural tubular shapes, Figure 7.23. The weldable wall thickness range is between
0.7 and 5 mm, the weldable diameter
range between 5 and 300 mm. In
Magnetarc Welding an arc burns between the joining surfaces and is rotated by external magnetic forces. This
is achieved by a magnet coil system
that produces a magnetic field.
The combined action of this magnetic
Advantages and disadvantages of friction welding

in comparison with the competitive flash butt welding
advantages:
- clean and well controllable bulging
- low heat influence on joining members
- better control of heat input
- low phase seperation phenomena in the bond zone
- hot forming causes permanent recovery and
recrystallisation processes in the welding area thus
forming a very fine-grained structure with good
toughness and strength properties (forged structure)
- low susceptibility to defects, extremely good
reproducibility within a wide parameter range
- frequently shorter welding times
- more choice in the selection of weldable materials
and material combinations
disadvantages:
- torque-safe clamping necessary
- machine-determined smaller maximum weldable
cross-sections
- susceptibility to non-metal inclusions
- high expenditure requested because of high
manufacturing tolerances
- high capital investment for the machine
br-er7-22e.cdr
field and the arcs own magnetic field

Figure 7.22
ISF 2002
7. Pressure Welding
98
effects a tangential force to act upon the arc. The rotation of the arc heats and melts
the joint surfaces. After an adequate heating operation, the two workpiece members
are pressed and fused together. A regular weld upset develops which is normally not
removed. The welding operation takes place under shielding gas (mainly CO2).
1. starting position
The shielding gas
a) both workpieces are brought into contact

b) welding current and magnetic field are
switched on
function is not the
2. starting of welding
protection
a) both workpieces are seperated until a

defined gap width is reached
(retracting movement) - the arc ignites
weld from the sur-
of
rounding
3. heating
the
atmos-
phere but rather a
a) the arc rotates

b) the joint surfaces are melting
contribution
to-
4. completion of welding
wards the stabilisa-
a) both workpieces are broght into contact

again and upset
b) welding current and magnetic field are
switched off
tion of the arc. The
br-er7-23e.cdr
reproducibility
Diagrammatic Representation
of Magnetic Arc Welding
of
the arc ignition and
Figure 7.23
malleable
The prerequisite for the application of
cast steel
materials
free cutting steel
the weld bead are therefore improved.
steel, lowalloyed
steel, unalloyed
motion behaviour and the regularity of
a material in Magnetarc Welding is its

steel, unalloyed
electrical conductivity and melting

behaviour. Figure 7.24 gives a survey
steel, lowalloyed
of the material combinations which are
free cutting steel
nowadays already weldable under in-
cast steel
dustrial conditions.
As reason is the symmetric heat input,
malleable
the subsequent upsetting of the liquid
suitable for
magnetic arc
welding
phase and the cooling off under pres-
not tested
sure. The cracking sensitivity of the

br-er7-24e.cdr
welds is, in general, relatively low.

This has a positive effect, particulary
Figure 7.24
ISF 2002
7. Pressure Welding
99
when steels with a high carbon content or machining steels are welded. The joining
faces of the workpieces must be free from contamination, such as rust or scale.
To obtain a defect-free weld, normally a simple saw cut is a sufficient preparation of
the abutting surfaces.
If
special
demands are put

on the dimensional
accuracy
of
the
joints, the prefabrication

have
tolerances
to
be
ad-
justed accordingly.
This applies also to
ISF 2002
br-er7-25e_sw.cdr
friction welding.
Applications for Magnetic Arc Welding
Figure 7.25
Figures 7.25 and 7.26 show several

application
examples
of
pressure
welding with magnetically impelled arc.
Figure 7.27 shows a summary of the

most important advantages and disadvantages of this method in comparison with the competitive methods
of friction welding and flash butt welding.
In friction-stir welding a cylindrical,

mandrel-like tool carries out rotating
self-movements between two plates
which are knocked and clamped onto
br-er7-26e_sw.cdr
a fixed backing. The resulting friction

heat softens the base metal, although
Figure 7.26
ISF 2002
7. Pressure Welding
100
the melting point is not reached. The

plastified material is displaced by the
Advantages and disadvantages of magnetic arc welding in
comparison with flash butt welding and/ or friction welding
mandrel and transported behind the

tool where a longitudinal seam devel-
advantages:
ops.
- lower energy demands

- material savings through lower loss of length
- better dimensional accuracy in joining especially for small
The advantages of this method which
wall thicknesses
- in comparison with friction welding less moving parts
(only axial movement of one joining member during upsetting)
is mainly used for welding of aluminium alloys is the low thermal stress of
- no restrictions to the free clamping length

- smaller and more regular welding edge
the component which allows joining
- no spatter formation
with a minimum of distortion and
disadvantages:
- suitable for small wall thicknesses only
shrinkage. Welding fumes do not de-
(maximum wall thickness: 4 - 5 mm)
velop and the addition of filler metal or
- welding parameters must be kept within narrow limits

- only magnetizing steels are weldable without any difficulties
shielding gases is not required.

br-er7-27e.cdr
ISF 2002
Figure 7.27
workpiece
tool collar
fixed backing
contoured pin
br-er7-28e.cdr
Friction-Stir Welding
Figure 7.28
8.
Resistance Spot Welding,
Resistance Projection Welding
and Resistance Seam Welding
2003
8. Resistance Spot-, Resistance Projection- and Resistance Seam Welding
101
Figure 8.1 shows an extract from the classification of the welding methods according
to DIN 1910 with a detailed account of the conductive resistance pressure welding.
In the case of resistance pressure welding, the heating occurs at the welding point as
a consequence of Joule resistance heating caused by current flow through an electrical conductor, Figure 8.2. In spot and projection welding, the plates to be welded in
overlap. Current supply is carried out through spherical or flat electrodes, respectively. In roller seam welding, two driven roller electrodes are applied. The plates to
be
welded
are
mainly overlapped.
welding
The heat input rate

pressure
welding
fusion
welding
Qinput is generated
by resistance heat-
cold pressure
welding
resistance pressure
welding
induction pressure
welding
Conduction pressure
welding
resistance spot
welding
projection
welding
roller seam
welding
friction welding
ing in a currentcarrying conductor,

Figure 8.3. How-
resistance butt
welding
flash butt
welding
ever, only the effective heat quan-
ISF 2002
br-er8-01e.cdr
tity Qeff is instru-
Classification of Welding
According to DIN 1910
mental in the formation of the weld
Figure 8.1
nugget. Qeff is comspot welding
roller seam welding
projection welding
l workpieces overlap
l electrode
l weld nugget
l workpiece usually in general

overlap
l driven roller electrode
l spot rows (stitch weld,
roller spots)
l workpieces with elevations

(concentration of electicity)
l workpieces overlap
l pad electrode
l several joints in a single weld
l weld nugget joint
posed of the input
heat minus the dissipation heat. The

heat
loss
arises
from
the
heat
dissipation into the

4
5
plates
1 electrode force
2 elektrodes
3 production part
br-er8-02e.cdr
Figure 8.2
4 loaded area
electrodes and the
5 projection
and
also
from thermal radiation.
102
The resistance during resistance heating is composed of the contact resistances on

the two plates and of their material resistance. The reduction of the electrode force
down to 90% increases the heat
electrode force
effective heat
total heat input
current (time dependence)
heat losses
losses into the electrodes
losses into the sheet metal
losses by heat radiation
total resistance
material resistance
contact resistance
Q4
Q2
rate
by
105%, the reduc-
Q4
tion of the welding

Q3
Qeff = Qinput - Q1l
Qeff
Q3
Q4
t=tS
Qinput = C
input
Fel
Q4
down
to
90%
decreases
Q2
the heat rate to
Fel
80% and a welding
I (t) R(t) dt
t=0
current
Q1 = Q2 + Q3 + Q4
time reduction to
R(t) = Rmaterial(t) + Rc (t)

br-er8-03e.cdr
90%
decreases
the heat rate to

92%.
Figure 8.3
The time progression of the resistance is shown in Figure 8.4. The contact resistance
is composed of the interface resistances between the electrode and the plate (electrode/plate) and between the plates (plate/plate). The resistance height is greatly dependent on the applied electrode force. The higher this force is set, the larger are the
conductive
cross-
theoretical contact area

100% metallic conduction contact
sections
proportion at room temperature
contact points and
at
the
mOhm
resistance
total resistance
low electrode force

high resistance
tances. The con-
sum of material resistance
high electrode force

low resistance
proportion after first
milliseconds welding time
sum of contact resistances
10
welding time
smaller the resis-
periods
surface resistance is
collapsed,
a3 is highly extended
A1: area out-of-contact
A2: contact area with high resistance
A3: contact area completely conductive
tact
surfaces,
which are rapidly

increasing at the
start
of
welding,
effect a rapid re-
br-er8-04e.cdr
duction of interface
resistances.
Figure 8.4
103
With the formation of the weld nugget the interface resistances between the plates
disappear. During the progress of the weld the material resistance increases from a
low value (surrounding temperatures) to a maximum value above the melting temperature.
Figure 8.5 shows diagrammatically the different resistances during the spot welding
process with acting electrode force, but without welding current. Weld nugget formation must therefore start in the joining zone because of the existing high contact resistance there.
electrode force
resistance rate
Figure 8.6 shows

R1
directly cooled elec-
R3
R3
trodes
for
resis-
R6
R6
_
~
tance welding. The
R7
R4
coolant is normally
R5
the
R7
R2
water. In the cooling

tube,
R5
R4
0
cooling
100
200
R [Ohm]
water is transported
to
the
electrode
br-er8-05e.cdr
base. The diagram

shows the temperature distribution in
Figure 8.5
the electrodes and

cooling tube
in the plates. The

6-8
maximum tempera-
cooling drill-hole
2-5
10 - 20
slope
ture is reached in
the centre of the
weld
nugget
and
decreases strongly
in the electrode di-
rection.
ISF 2002
br-er8-06e.cdr
Electrode Cooling
Figure 8.6
104
Sequence of a resistance spot welding process, Figure 8.7:

1 ->2 Lowering of the top electrode
2->3 Application of the adjusted electrode force Set-up time tpre, sequence
3->4 Switching-on of the adjusted welding current for the period of the welding time
tw. Formation of the weld nugget in the joining zone of both workpieces.
An example shows the macrosection of a weld nugget after the welding time
has ended.
4->5 Maintaining the electrode force for the period of the set post-weld holding
time th.
5->6 Switching-off the force generating system and lifting the electrodes off the
workpiece.
The functions of the set-up time and the post-weld holding time are listed in Figure
8.8. Dependent on the welding task different force and current programs can be
set in the welding machines, Figure 8.9. In the top the simplest possible welding
program sequence is shown: The application of the electrode force, the set-up time
sequence tpre, the switching-on of the welding current and the sequence of the weldFel
Iw
set-up time
electrode force Fel
- compressing the workpiece

- build-up of electrode force to preset
value
- setting-up of reproducible resistance
before welding
- electrode resting after bounce
- preventing resting of electrode on
workpiece under electricle voltage
welding current Iw
time t
tpre
tw
th
top electrode
postweld-holding time
- holding time of workpiece during
cooling of molten metal
- prevention of pore formation in the
welding nugget
- prevention of lifting the electrode
under voltage
workpiece
lower electrode
insufficiently melted weld nugget
weld nugget
The postweld-holding time has

influence on the weld point hardening
within certain limits.
totally melted weld nugget
br-er8-07e.cdr
ISF 2002
br-er8-08e.cdr
Time Sequence of
Resistance Spot Welding
Figure 8.7
ISF 2002
Functions of Pre- and Postwelding
Figure 8.8
105
welding current
electrode force
ing time tw, the sequence of the postFel
tw
tpres
th
time
Fel
welding current
electrode force
electrode force
tpre = pre-weld time

tw = welding time
th = holding time
tpres = pressure time
weld holding time th and the switchingoff of the force generating system. The
diagram in the centre is almost identi-
tpre
welding current
Iw
cal to the one just described.
Merely in the welding current range,
Iw
5
7
welding is carried out using an adjust-
able current rise (7) and current decay
1
2
5
7
Fel
3
Iw
6
time
(8). The diagram below depicts a more
1 - initial force
2 - welding pressure
force
3 - post pressure force
4 - preheating current
5 - welding current
6 - postheating current
7 - ascending current
8 - descending current
sophisticated current program. In addi-
time
br-er8-09e.cdr
tion, welding is carried out with a variable electrode force (2) and with preheating (4) and post-heating current
(6). Dependent on the control system,
Course of Force and Current
the process can be influenced by adjustment.
Figure 8.9
A controlled variable may be, for in1
stance, the electrode path, the resistance progress, the welding current or
the welding voltage.
10
2
3
Figure 8.10 shows the principle struc-
11
12
4
ture of a resistance spot welding
machine. The main components are:
5
8
the machine frame, the welding transformer with secondary lines, the elec-
1 electrode force cylinder

2 pneumatic equipment
3 machine tool frame
4 welding transformer
5 power control unit
6 current conductor
7 lower arm
8 foot switch
9 top arm
10 electrical power supply cable
11 water cooled electrode holder
12 electrode
trode pressure system and the control

system. This principle design applies to
spot, projection and roller seam welding machines. Differences are to be
br-er8-10e.cdr
found merely in the type of electrode
ISF 2002
Schematic Assembly of
Spot Welding Machine
fittings and in the electrode shapes.

Figure 8.10
106
Figure 8.11 depicts the possible process variations of resistance spot welding.
These are distinguished by the number of plates to be welded and by the arrangement of the electrodes or, respectively, of the transformers. It has to be noted that
with a corresponding arrangement also plates can be welded where one of the two
plates has a non-conductive surface (as, for example, plastics).
Figure 8.12 shows the current types which are normally used for resistance welding.
Alternating current has the simplest structure (Figure 8.13) and is most price effective, unavoidable are, however, the disadvantages of current zeros and weld nugget
cooling. In relation
to the average cur-
rent values, peak

~
loads
occur
and,
with that, increased

electrode
These
wear.
two-sided single-shear
single-spot welding
two-sided two-shear
spot welding (stack welding)
one-sided single-spot welding

with contact electrode
extreme
+
peak loads do not

with
direct
occur
current.
two-sided duplex spot

welding
one-sided duplex spot welding

with conductive base
one-sided multi-spot welding

with conductive base
ISF 2002
br-er8-11e.cdr
The structural de-
Variants of Spot Welding
sign of a d.c. supply

unit
is,
more
however,
Figur 8.11
complicated
alternating current
medium frequency direct current
expensive
than an a.c. supply
12
[kA]
15
10
5
0
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.07 0.09 0.11 0.13 0.16
-5
current
more
therefore,
current
and,
[kA]
20
-10
-15
-20
6
4
2
0.00 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12 0.14 0.16
welding time [s]
supply, the welding
[kA]
operate with a 50
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0.00
0.02 0.04
0.06 0.08 0.10 0.12
welding time
0.14 0.16
45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0.00
Figur 8.12
0.06 0.08 0.10
0.12 0.14 0.16
[s]
ISF 2002
Current Types
trolled only in 20 ms
0.02 0.04
welding time
[s]
br-er8-12e.cdr
current can be con-
[s]
impulse capacitor current
current
machines
[kA]
conventional
Hz primary current
welding time
"conventional" direct current
current
welding
unit.
As
10
units
single-phase
alternating current
static-inverter direct current
107
(1
period).
When the inverterdirect current technique or, respectively, the medium-
3-phase direct current
frequency
capacitor impulse discharge
tech-
nique is used, a
finer setting of the
current-on
period
and a more precise

br-er8-13e.cdr
control of the welding current is posFigure 8.13
sible.
In order to realise higher currents and shorter welding times, the impulse capacitor
resistance welding technique is applied. The rectified primary current is stored in capacitors and, through a high-voltage transformer, converted to high welding currents.
The advantages of this technique are
low heat input and high reproducibility.
Because of the high energy density,
materials with good conductivity can
be welded and also multiple-projection
welds can be carried out. A disadvan-
electrodes
form A
form B
form C
form E
form F
form G
form D
tage of this method is, apart from the

high equipment costs, the difficult
regulation of the welding current.
electrode caps
Electrodes for spot resistance welding

have the property of transferring the
electrode force and the welding current. They are wearing parts and,
therefore, easily replaceable. Depend-
electrode holders
br-er8-14e.cdr
ing on the shape and type of elec-
ISF 2002
Electrodes,
Electrode Caps and Holders
trode, solid electrodes or electrode

Figure 8.14
108
caps, must be either remachined or

recycled. Figure 8.14 depicts various
requirements
- good electrical conductivity
- good thermal conductivity
- high high-temperature strength
- high temperature stability
- high softening temperature
- little tendency to alloying with workpiece material
- easy options in machining
ISO 5182
Group
Type
1
2
Group Type
No.
1
Cu - ETP
Cu Cdl
Cu Crl
Cu Crl Zr
Cu CO2 Be
Cu Ni2 Si
Cu Ni1 P
Cu Be2 Co Ni
Cu Ag6
CuAl10NiFe5Ni5
and holders.
Dependent upon the electrode application, different alloyed electrode ma-
ISO 5182
Key
types of electrodes, electrode caps
Key
terials are used, Figure 8.15. The
No.
10
W75 Cu
11
W78 Cu
12
WC70 Cu
red hardness, the tempering resis-
13
Mo
tance, the conductivity, the fusion
14
15
W65 Ag
added alloying elements influence the
temperature, the electrode alloying

tendency, and, finally, the machinability of the electrode material. When
br-er8-15e.cdr
beryllium is used as an alloying eleElectrode Materials
ment, the admissible MAC values
Figure 8.15
poor
good
must be strictly adhered to during

remachining or dressing of the electrodes.
Already during the design phase of

the components to be welded, importance must be attached to a good accessibility of the welding point. Moreover, the electrode force which is imperative to the process must be applied in a way that no damage is done
to the workpiece. In the ideal case, the
welding point is accessible from the top
and from below, Figure 8.16.
br-er8-16e.cdr
ISF 2002
Accessibility for Spot

Welding Electrode
Figure 8.16
poor
109
In order to avoid the displacement of
good
the electrodes, the electrode working surface must be flat. Also during
the design phase space must be provided for an adequately large clearing
zone around the working point, in order to guarantee the unimpeded electrode approach to the working point,
Figure 8.17.
Dependent on the joining job, the

process variation, or the resistance
welding method, a so-called shunt
current/effect may be noticed. This
br-er8-17e.cdr
ISF 2002
Contact Area for

Spot Welding Electrodes
current component, as a rule, does

not contribute to the formation of the
Figure 8.17
weld nugget; under certain circumstances it might even prevent a reliable welding process. In the example,
shown in Figure 8.18, the shunt cur-
spot welding
rent leads to undesired fusing contacts
and, because of the lacking electrode
shunt connection current
force at this point, also to damages to

the plate surface.
copper
current path
indirect welding
one side
If unsuitable welding parameters have

been set, weld spatter formation may
occur, Figure 8.19. Liquid molten
metal forms on the plate surface or in
roller seam welding
the joining zone. The reasons for this
br-er8-18e.cdr
kind of process disturbance are, for
Shunting
Figure 8.18
110
example, too low an electrode force

Welding spatter:
Discharge of molten material between two steel
sheets or from the surface of steel sheets.
with regard to the set welding current

or welding time, too high an energy
input with regard to the plate thickness or too small an edge distance of
the welding point.
fig. 1
Figure 8.20 shows a list of a large
fig. 2
number of possible disturbances in
Reason here is high welding current, (fig. 1) or

too-small edge distance (fig. 2)
resistance spot welding. Welding

current changes are caused by:
shunt, electrode wear, cable wear,
mains voltage variations, secondary
porosity in the joint caused

by welding spatter
discharge of molten
material at the joint plane
impedance.
br-er8-19e.cdr
Welding Spatter
Figure 8.19
Different welding conditions are caused by welding machine wear, different heat
dissipation. Non-uniform conditions by alterations to components are: different plate
plate
quality, number of
plate
sur-
faces,
edge
dis-
tances.
Electrode
force changes are

caused
sure
by:
pres-
shunt
connection
alteration to force
plates,
welding current changes
alteration
of
pressure
wear of
electrodes
wear of
cable
mains voltage
fluctuation
secondary
electrical
impedance
Qeff = Qinput - Qlosses
wear
Qeff
diversion
heat
plate
fluctuations
and -changes, plate
plate
thickness
bouncing.
quality
of plates
number
of plates
plate
surface
modification of the unit

br-er8-20e.cdr
Figure 8.20
edge
distance
welding equipment
thicknesses,
111
The resistance spot welding method

allows welding of a large number of
weldability
materials
aluminium
alloying
elements
good
weldability
sufficient
weldability
satisfactory
maximum content [%]
iron
very good
gold
satisfactory
0,25
0,40
C + Cr
0,35
1,60
C + Mo
0,50
0,70
C+V
0,40
0,60
C + Mn
1,40
1,60
molybdenum satisfactory
C + Ni
3,00
4,00
nickel
very good
Si
0,40
1,00
platinum
very good
Cu
0,60
0,60
P+S
0,10
0,10
C+Cr+Mo+V
0,60
1,60
cobalt
very good
copper
poor
magnesium
good
silver
very good
tantalum
very good
titanium
very good
tungsten
satisfactory
materials. A list of the various materials is shown in Figure 8.21. The alloying elements which are used for
steels have a varying influence on the
suitability for resistance spot welding.
The values which are indicated in the
table are valid only when the stated
element is the sole alloying constituent of the steel material.
influence of
alloying elements
(steel materials)
weldable materials
br-er8-21e.cdr
Figure 8.22 shows a comparison

between resistance spot and resistance projection welding. The fun-
Weldable Materials
damental difference between the two

methods lies in the definition of the
Figure 8.21
current transition point.
The differences between both methods are illustrated in Figure 8.23. The short life of
the electrodes used for resistance spot welding is explained by the higher thermal
load and the larger pressing area caused by the smaller electrode contact areas. The
term electrode life
stands for the num-
after welding
before welding
ber of welds that

can be carried out
with
one
pair
electrodes
of
without
follow-up
distance
further rework and

without
exceeding
elektrode
the tolerances for

quality criteria of the
projection
br-er8-22e.cdr
weld.
Figure 8.22
spot
welding
projection
welding
up to 20 mm
> 20 mm
embossed
projection shape
elektrodes:
diameter
tip face
pressed
mould pressed
convex
flat
electrode life
less
longer
place where
the nugget
originates
elektrodes
projections
one
several
small
big
current distribution
no
yes
force distribution
no
yes
number of
welding nuggets
circular
longitudinal
annular
solid
projection shape
112
natural
projection shape
struck
machined
cut
pushed
circular
longitudinal
annular
interrupted annular
spot
contact
line
contact
Circular
follow-up distance
weld nut
problems:
br-er8-23e.cdr
ISF 2002
Longitudinal
cut
Annular
pushed
crossed wires
wire-plate
bolt-pipe
br-er8-24e.cdr
Differences Between Resistance

Spot and Projection Welding
Customary Projection Shapes
Figure 8.23
Figure 8.24
die
die
plate
Depending on the demands on the joint

strength or on the projection rigidity, dif-
plate
ferent projection shapes are applied.

These are annular, circular or longitudid1
mould plate
mould plate
counter-die
nal projections. The welding projections
d1
are, according to their size, adapted to

ring projection
embossed projection
the used plate thickness and may, therefore, appear as different types in the
die
workpiece: embossed projections, solid
l
mould plate
plate
projections and natural projections. The

survey is shown in Figure 8.24.
longitudinal projection
br-er8-25e.cdr
ISF 2002
Production of
Embossed Projection Shapes
Figure 8.25
In Figure 8.25 the production of embossed projections in different shapes is

shown. The shape is embossed onto the
113
plate surface by appropriate die plates, dies and, if necessary, counter dies.
alternating current distribution

intensity of current increases from the center to
the outer area caused by current displacement
force distribution of a C-frame projection press

welder during bending of machine tool frame
direct current distribution

intensity of current decreases from the center to
the outer area caused by the longer current path
force distribution of a C-frame projection press

welder with non-parallel positioning tables
br-er8-26e.cdr
ISF 2002
br-er8-27e.cdr
ISF 2002
Problem of Current Distribution

During Projection Welding
Figure 8.26
Problems of Force Distribution

During Projection Welding
Figure 8.27
Various problems occur in projection welding caused by the welding of several

joints in a single working cycle. Due to different current paths - when using direct current - and a current
displacement - when
lap joint
using alternating cur-
lap joint with

wire electrode
lap joint
with foil
squash seam
weld
butt weld
with foil
rent -, welding nuggets
with
qualities
differing
are
pro-
before
welding
duced when no preventive remedies are

taken, Figure 8.26.
after
welding
A varying force distri ISF 2002
br-er8-28e.cdr
bution, as shown by
Roller Seam Welding
the example in Figure

Figure 8.28
114
8.27, also leads to differing qualities

of the produced weld nuggets.
In Figure 8.28 several examples of

application using projection welding
interrupted-current roller seam weld
are depicted. In this example, the

shapes are of the embossed type.
Figures 8.29 and 8.30 show several

overlap seal weld
process variations of roller seam

welding. Seam welding is actually a
continuous spot welding process, but
with the application of roller electrodes. In contrast to resistance spot
continuous D.C. seal weld

br-er8-29e.cdr
ISF 2002
Weld Types for Roller Seam Welding
welding the electrodes remain in contact and turn continuously after the
first weld spot has been produced. At
Figure 8.29
the points where a welding spot is to
be produced again
current flow is initiated. Dependent on
the electrode feed
rate
and
on
the
welding current frequency, spot welds

or seal welds with
overlapping
weld
nuggets
pro-
are
duced. The applica-
br-er8-30e_sw.cdr
tion of d.c. current

also produces seal
welds.
ISF 2002
Application Examples of Projection Welding
Figure 8.30
9.
2003
9. Electron Beam Welding
115
The application of highly accelerated electrons as a tool for material processing in the
fusion, drilling and welding process
and also for surface treatment has
high voltage supply
been known since the Fifties. Ever

control elektrode
since, the electron beam welding
anode
process has been developed from the
adjustment coil
laboratory stage for particular applica-
to vacuum pump
valve
viewing optics
working chamber
beam forming and guidance
beam generation
cathode
stigmator
tions. In this cases, this materials

could not have been joined by any
focussing coil
defelction coil
industrially
applied
high-production
joining method.
The electron beam welding machine
workpiece
workpiece
handling
to vacuum pump
is made up of three main components:

beam generation, beam manipulation
chamber door
br-er9-01e.cdr
ISF 2002
Schematic Representation of an
Electron Beam Welding Machine
and forming and working chamber.

These components may also have
separate vacuum systems, Figure 9.1.
Figure 9.1
power supply
A tungsten cathode which has been

heated under vacuum emits electrons
by thermal emission. The heating of
chamber evacuation
system
valve
evacuation
system for gun
control cabinet
EB-gun
the tungsten cathode may be carried

out directly - by filament current - or
indirectly - as, for example, by coiled
filaments. The electrons are accelerated by high voltage between the
cathode and the pierced anode. A
modulating electrode, the so-called
Wehnelt cylinder, which is positioned
working chamber
workpiece
receiving platform
workpiece handling
between anode and cathode, regulates the electron flow. Dependent on
control panel
control desk
br-er9-02e_f.cdr
ISF 2002
All-Purpose EBW
Machine and Equipment
the height of the cut-off voltage beFigure 9.2
116
tween the cathode and the modulating electrode, is a barrier field which may pass
only a certain quantity of electrons. This happens during an electron excess in front
of the cathode where it culminates in form of an electron cloud. Due to its particular
shape which can be compared to a concave mirror as used in light optic, the Wehnelt
cylinder also effects, besides the beam current adjustment, the electrostatic focussing of the electron beam. The electron beam which diverges after having passed the
pierced anode, however, obtains the power density which is necessary for welding
only after having passed the adjacent alignment and focussing system. One or several electromagnetic focussing lenses bundle the beam onto the workpiece inside the
vacuum chamber. A deflection coil assists in maintaining the electron beam oscillating motion. An additional stigmator coil may help to correct aberrations of the lenses.
A viewing optic or a video system allows the exact positioning of the electron beam
onto the weld groove.
The core piece of the electron beam welding machine is the electron beam gun
where the electron beam is generated under high vacuum. The tightly focussed electron beam diverges rapidly under atmospheric pressure caused by scattering and
ionisation development with air. As it would, here, loose power density and efficiency,
the welding process is, as a rule, carried out under medium or high vacuum. The
necessary vacuum is generated in separate vacuum pumps for working chamber and
beam gun. A shut-off valve which is positioned between electron gun and working
chamber serves to maintain the gun vacuum while the working chamber is flooded. In
universal machines,
Figure
9.2,
the
back-scattered electrons
x-ray
workpiece maniputhermal radiation
lator assembly inside
the
secondary electrons
vacuum
chamber is a slide
x
convection
with working table

positioned over NCcontrolled
stepper
heat conduction
motors. For work-
z
ISF 2002
br-er9-03e.cdr
piece removal, the

Energy Transformation Inside Workpiece
slide is moved from

Figure 9.3
117
the vacuum chamber onto the workpiece platform. A distinction is made between
electron beam machines with vertical and horizontal beam manipulation systems.
The energy conversion in the workpiece, which is schematically shown in Figure 9.3,
indicates that the kinetic energy of the highly accelerated electrons is, at the operational point, not only converted into the heat necessary for welding, but is also released by heat radiation and heat dissipation. Furthermore, a part of the incident
electrons (primary electrons) is subject to backscatter and by secondary processes
the secondary electrons are emitted from the workpiece thus generating X-rays.
The impact of the electrons, which are tightly focussed into a corpuscular beam, onto
the workpiece surface stops the electrons; their penetration depth into the workpiece
is very low, just a few m. Most of the kinetic energy is released in the form of heat.
The high energy density at the impact point causes the metal to evaporate thus
allowing the following electrons a deeper penetration. This finally leads to a metal
vapour
pour
cavity
cavity
which
which
is is surrounded by a shell of fluid metal, covering the entire weld
surrounded
by
shell of fluid metal,

covering the entire
weld depth, Figure
9.4. This deep-weld
effect allows nowadays
penetration
depths
into
steel
a)
b)
c)
d)
materials of up to
300
mm,
when
Principle of Deep Penetration Welding
modern high vacuum-high
voltage
ISF 2002
br-er9-04e.cdr
Figure 9.4
machines are used.
The diameter of the cavity corresponds approximately with the beam diameter. By a
relative motion in the direction of the weld groove between workpiece and electron
beam the cavity penetrates through the material, Figure 9.5. At the front side of the
cavity new material is molten which, to some extent, evaporates, but for the most part
118
flows around the cavity and rapidly solidifies at the backside. In order to maintain the
welding cavity open, the vapour pressure must press the molten metal round the vapour column against the cavity walls, by counteracting its hydrostatic pressure and
the surface tension.
However, this equilibrium of forces is unstable. The transient pressure and temperature conditions inside the cavity as well as their respective, momentary diameters are
subject to dynamic changes. Under the influence of the resulting, dynamically changing geometry of the
vapour cavity and
electron beam
motion of the molten metal

groove
groove
front side
keyhole
melting pool
molten
zone
welding direction
vapour capillary
with an unfavourable
selection
the
welding
rameters,
F1
of
pa-
metal
fume bubbles may

F2
solidified
zone
be included which
F3
on cooling turn into
F1
F1 : force resulting from vapour pressure

F2 : force resulting from surface tension
F3 : force resulting from hydrostatic pressure
shrinkholes, Figure
ISF 2002
br-er9-05e.cdr
9.6.
The unstable pres-
Condition in Capillary
sure exposes the

Figure 9.5
molten backside of
the vapour cavity to
strong and irregular
changes in shape
(case II). Pressure
variations interfere
with
II
III
the
regular
flow at the cavity

backside, act upon
the molten metal
workpiece movement
ISF 2002
br-er9-06e.cdr
Model of Shrinkage Cavity Formation
and, in the most

unfavourable case,
press the unevenly
Figure 9.6
119
distributed
groove
metal into different
g
len
fs
ho
zones of the mol-
m
ea
len
o
gth
ea
fs
ten
blind bead
back-
the so-called vapour pockets. The
molten area
cavities
unapproachable gap
lower bead
cavity
side, thus forming
weld
thickness
weld
penetration
depth
width of seam
Nahtdicke
weld reinforcement
upper bead
root reinforcement
molten
end crater
are
not
always filling with
root weld
molten metal, they

ISF 2002
br-er9-07e.cdr
collapse
Basic Definitions
sporadi-
cally and remain as

Figure 9.7
hollow spaces after
solidification (case Ill). The angle (case I) increases with the rising weld speed and
this is defined as a turbulent process. Flaws such as a constantly open vapour cavity
and subsequent continuous weld solidification could be avoided by selection of jobsuitable welding parameter combination and in particular of beam oscillation characteristics, it has to be seen
to a constantly of the molten metal, in
by accelerating voltage:
l high voltage machine (UB=150 kV)
l low voltage machine (UB=60 kV)
order to avoid the above-mentioned

defects. Customary beam oscillation
types are: circular, sine, double parab-
by pressure:
l high vacuum machine
l fine vacuum machine
l atmospheric machine (NV-EB welding)
ola or triangular functions.
Thick plate welding accentuates the

process-specific
advantage
of
the
by machine concept:
l conveyor machine
l clock system
l all-purpose EBW machine
l local vacuum machine
l mobile vacuum machine
l micro and fine welding machine
deep-weld effect and, with that, the

possibility to join in a single working
cycle with high weld speed and low
heat input quantity. A comparison with
br-er9-20e.cdr
the submerged-arc and the gas metalClassification of EBW Machines
arc welding processes illustrates the

depth-to-width ratio which is obtainFigure 9.8
120
able with the electron beam technology, Figure 9.7. Electron beam welding of thick
plates offers thereby decisive advantages. With modern equipment, wall thicknesses
of up to 300 mm with length-to-width ratios of up to 50 : 1 and consisting of low and
high-alloy materials can be welded fast and precisely in one pass and without adding
any filler metal. A corresponding quantification shows the advantage in regard of the
applied filler metal and of the primary energy demand.
Compared with the gas-shielded narrow gap welding process, the production time
can be reduced by the factor of approx. 20 to 50.
Numerous specific advantages speak in favour of the increased application of this

high productivity process in the manufacturing practice, Figure 9.8. Pointing to series
production, the high profitability of this
process is dominant. This process depends on highly energetic efficiency
-6
< 1 x 10 mbar
together with a sparing use of resources during fabrication.
< 5 x 10-4 mbar
Considering the above-mentioned advantages, there are also disadvantages which emerge from the process.
These are, in particular, the high cooling rate, the high equipment costs and
the size of the chamber, Figure 9.9.
In accordance with DIN 32511 (terms

for methods and equipment applied in
electron and laser beam welding), the
br-er9-09e_f.cdr
specific designations, shown in Figure
EB-Welding in High Vacuum
9.10, have been standardised for electron beam welding.
Figure 9.9
Electron beam units are not only distinguished by their working vacuum quality or the
unit concept but also by the acceleration voltage level, Figure 9.11. The latter exerts
a considerable influence onto the obtainable welding results. With the increasing acceleration voltage, the achievable weld depth and the depth-to-width ratio of the weld
121
geometry are also increasing. A disadvantage of the increasing accelerating voltage is, however, the exponential increase of X-rays and, also, the
< 1 x 10-6 mbar
likewise increased sensitivity to flashover voltages. In correspondence with
-2
< 5 x 10 mbar
the size of the workpiece to be welded

and the size of the chamber volume,
high-voltage beam generators (150 200 kV) with powers of up to 200 kW
are applied in industrial production,
while
the
low-voltage
technology
(max. 60 kV) is a good alternative for

smaller units and weld thicknesses.
br-er9-10e_f.cdr
The design of the unit for the lowEB-Welding in Fine Vacuum
voltage technique is simpler as, due
Figure 9.10
to the lower acceleration voltage, a
separate complete lead covering of the
unit is not necessary.
While during the beam generation, the
vacuum (p = 10-5 mbar) for the insula-
-4
< 1x 10 mbar
tion of the beam generation compart-1
~ 10 mbar
ment and the prevention of cathode
~ 1 mbar
oxidation is imperative, the possible

working pressures inside the vacuum
chamber vary between a high vacuum
(p = 10-4 mbar) and atmospheric pressure. A collision of the electrodes with
the residual gas molecules and the
scattering of the electron beam which
is connected to this is, naturally, lowest
br-er9-11e_f.cdr
Atmospheric Welding (NV-EBW)
in high vacuum.
Figure 9.11
122
The beam diameter is minimal in high
vacuum and the beam power density
in vacuum
is maximum in high vacuum, Figure
thin and thick plate welding (0,1 mm bis 300 mm)
extremely narrow seams (t:b = 50:1)
low overall heat input => low distortion =>

welding of completely processed components
high welding speed possible
no shielding gas required
(narrow, deep welds with a minimum
high process and plant efficiency
energy input) or the choice of the ma-
material dependence, often the only welding method
terials to be welded (materials with a
9.12. The reasons for the application

of a high vacuum unit are, among
others, special demands on the weld
high oxygen affinity). The application
at atmosphere
r
very high welding velocity
of the electron beam welding process
good gap bridging
also entails advantages as far as the
no problems with reflection during

energy entry into workpiece
structural design of the components is

concerned.
br-er9-12e.cdr
ISF 2002
Advantages of EBW
With a low risk of oxidation and reduced demands on the welds, the so-
Figure 9.12
called medium-vacuum units (p = 102
mbar) are applied. This is mainly be-
in vacuum
r
electrical conductivity of materials is required
high cooling rates => hardening => cracks
for instance, the reduction of cycle
high precision of seam preparation
times, Figure 9.13. Areas of applica-
beam may be deflected by magnetism
tion are in the automotive industry (pis-
X-ray formation
tons, valves, torque converters, gear
size of workpiece limited by chamber size
high investment
cause of economic considerations, as,
parts) and also in the metal-working

industry (fittings, gauge heads, accu-
at atmosphere
mulators).
X-ray formation
limited sheet thickness (max. 10 mm)
high investment
Under extreme demands on the weld-
r small working distance
ing time, reduced requirements to the

weld geometry, distortion and in case
br-er9-13e.cdr
ISF 2002
Disadvantages of EBW
of full material compatibility with air or

shielding gas, out-of-vacuum welding
Figure 9.13
123
units are applied, Figure 9.14. Their
advantages are the continuous welding time and/or short cycle times. Areas of application are in the metalworking industry (precision tubes, bimetal strips) and in the automotive
industry (converters, pinion cages,
socket joints and module holders).
A further distinction criterion is the

adjustment of the vacuum chambers
to the different joining tasks. Universal
machines are characterised by their
simply designed working chamber,
br-er9-14e_f.cdr
Figure 9.15. They are equipped with

Machine Concept - Conventional Plant
vertically or horizontally positioned

and, in most cases, travelling beam
Figure 9.14
generators. Here, several workpieces
can be welded in subsequence during
an evacuation cycle. The largest, presently existing working chamber has a
volume of 265 m.
Clock system machines, in contrast,

are equipped with several small vacuum chambers which are adapted to
the workpiece shape and they are,
therefore,
characterised
by
short
evacuation times, Figure 9.16. Just

immediately before the welding starts,
is the beam gun coupled to the vac-
br-er9-15e_f.cdr
uum chamber which has been evacu-
EBW Clock System Machine
ated during the preceding evacuation

Figure 9.15
124
cycle, while, at the same time, the next
vacuum chamber may be flooded and
charged/loaded.
Conveyor machines allow the continuous production of welded joints, as, for
example, bimetal semi finished products such as saw blades or thermostatic bimetals, Figure 9.17. In the main
chamber of these units is a gradually
raising pressure system as partial vacsemi-finished material
endproduct
uum pre and post activated, to serve as

a vacuum lock.
Systems which are operating with a
br-er9-16e_f.cdr
mobile and local vacuum are characterEBW Conveyor Machine
Figure 9.16
ised by shorter evacuation times with a

simultaneous maintenance of the vac-
uum by decreasing the pumping volume. In the local vacuum systems,
butt weld
with the use of suitable sealing, is the

vacuum produced only in the welding
area. In mobile vacuum systems
T-joint/ fillet weld
welding is carried out in a small vacuum chamber which is restricted to the

welding area but is travelling along the
a)
b)
welded seam. In this case, a sufficient

sealing between workpiece and vac-
T-joint butt welded
lap weld
uum chamber is more difficult.

With these types of machine design,
electron beam welding may be carried
out with components which, due to
br-er9-17e.cdr
their sizes, can not be loaded into a
ISF 2002
Seam Appearance
for EB-Welding in Vacuum
stationary vacuum chamber (e.g. vesFigure 9.17
125
sel skins, components for particle accelerators and nuclear fusion plants).
In general the workpiece is moved

during electron beam welding, while
the beam remains stationary and is
directed onto the workpiece in the
horizontal or the vertical position. Depending on the control systems of the
working table and similar to conventional welding are different welding
positions possible. The weld type preferred in electron beam welding is the
plain butt weld. Frequently, also cenbr-er9-18e.cdr
ISF 2002
Seam Appearence at Atmospheric

Welding (NV-EBW)
tring allowance for centralising tasks

and machining is made. For the execution of axial welds, slightly over-
Figure 9.18
sized parts (press fit) should be selected during weld preparation, as a
transverse shrinkage sets in at the
150
beginning of the weld and may lead to

a considerable
increase of the gap width in the opposite groove area. In some cases also
EBW MSG
UP
(narrow gap)(narrow gap)
T-welds may be carried out; the T-joint
EBW
with a plain butt weld should, however,

be chosen only when the demands on
the strength of the joints are low, Figure 9.18. As the beam spread is large
welding current
0,27 A
welding voltage
groove area
150.000 V
UP
(conventional)
MSG
(narrow gap)
260 A
UP
(narrow gap)
650 A
30 V
510 A
30 V
2
UP
(conventional)
28 V
number of passes
896 mm
1
2098 mm
35
filler metal
melting efficiency
7,7 kg/h
energy input
6410 kJ
12810 kJ
29310 kJ
37710 kJ
welding time
27 min
4 h 35 min
4 h 11 min
7 h 20 min
4905 mm
81
5966 mm
143
23 kg
54 kg
66 kg
5 kg/h
13 kg/h
3
9 kg/h
3
under atmosphere, odd seam formations have to be considered during

Non-Vacuum Electron Beam Welding,
br-er9-19e.cdr
ISF 2002
Comparison of EB, GMAW and SAWNarrow Gap and Conventional SAW
Figure 9.19.
Figure 9.19
126
In order to receive uniform and reproducible results with electron beam welding, an
exact knowledge about the beam geometry is necessary and a prerequisite for:
- tests on the interactions between

beam and substance
- applicability of welding parameters to
other welding machines
- development of beam generation
systems.
The objective of many tests is therefore the exact measurement of the beam and the
investigation of the effects of different beam geometries on the welding result.
For the exact measurement of the electron beam, a microprocessor-controlled measuring system has been developed in the ISF. The electron beam is linearly scanned
at a high speed by means of a point probe, which, with a diameter of 20 m is much
smaller than the beam diameter in the focus, Figure 9.20. When the electron beam is
deflected through the aperture diaphragm located inside the sensor, the electrons
flowing through the diaphragm are
picked up by a Faraday shield and
industrial areas:
l automotive industries
l aircraft and space industries
l mechanical engineering
l tool construction
l nuclear power industries
l power plants
l fine mechanics and electrical
industries
l job shop
diverted over a precision resistor. The

time progression of the signal, intercepted at the resistor, corresponds
with the intensity distribution of the
electron beam in the scanning path. In
order to receive an overall picture of
material:
l almost all steels
l aluminium and its alloys
l magnesium alloys
l copper and its alloys
l titanium
l tungsten
l gold
l material combinations
(e.g. Cu-steel, bronze-steel)
l ceramics (electrically conductive)
br-er9-20e.cdr
the electron beam, the beam is line

scanned over the slit sensor (60
lines). An evaluation program creates
a perspective view of the power density distribution in the beam and also
a two-dimensional representation of
EBW Fields of Application
Figure 9.20
the power density distribution inside
lines with the same power density.
127
An example for a measured electron
hole sensor
hole with aperture
diaphragm Faraday
cup (20 m)
beam is shown in Figure 9.21. It can

track of
the beam
cross section
of the beam
measurement
field
be seen clearly that the cathode had

not
been
heated
up
sufficiently.
Therefore, the electrons are sucked

off directly from the cathode surface
during saturation and unsaturated
beams, which may lead to impaired
slit sensor
welding results, develop. During the

slit with
Faraday cup
space charge mode of a generator,
cross section
of the beam
the electron cloud is sufficiently large,
voltage
i.e., there are always enough electrons which can be sucked off. In the
ideal case, the developed power denbeam deflection
br-er9-21e.cdr
sity is rotationally symmetrical and in

Two Principles of
Electron Beam Measuring
accordance with the Gaussian distribution curve.
Figure 9.21
The electron signals are used for the
automatic seam tracking. These may
be either primary or secondary electrons or passing-through current or the
developing X-rays. When backscattered primary electrons are used, the
electron beam is scanned transversely
to the groove. A computer may determine the position of the groove relative
FILENAME: R I N G S T R
Accel. voltage:
150 kV
Beam current:
600 mA
Prefocus current:
700 mA
Main focus current: 1500 mA
Cath. heat current:
500 mm
Max. Density:
26,456 kW/mm2
2
Ref. Density:
26,456 kW/mm
to the beam by the signals from the

reflected electrons. In correspondence
with the deflection the beam is guided
by electromagnetic deflection coils or
by moving the working table.
br-er9-22e_f.cdr
ISF 2002
Energy Concentration and

Development in Electron Beam
This kind of seam tracking system

may be used either on-line or off-line.
Figure 9.22
128
The broad variation range of the weldable materials and also material thicknesses
offer this joining method a large range of application, Figure 9.22. Besides the fine
and micro welding carried out by the electronics industry where in particular the low
heat input and the precisely programmable control is of importance, electron beam
welding is also particularly suited for the joining of large cross-sections.
10.
Laser Beam Welding
2003
10. Laser Beam Welding
129
The term laser is the abbreviation for
1917 postulate of stimulated emission by Einstein
,,Light Amplification by Stimulated
1950 work out of physical basics and realisation of a

maser (Microwave Amplification by Stimulated
Emission of Radiation) by Towens, Prokhorov, Basov
Emission of Radiation. The laser is

the further development of the maser
1954 construction of the first maser
(m=microwave),
1960 construction of the first ruby laser (Light Amplification

by Stimulated Emission of Radiation)
Figure
10.1.
Al-
1961 manufacturing of the first HeNe lasers and Nd: glass lasers
though the principle of the stimulated
1962 development of the first semiconductor lasers
emission
1964 nobel price for Towens, Prokhorov and Basov for their
works in the field of masers
construction of the first Nd:YAG solid state lasers and
CO2 gas lasers
mechanical fundamentals have al-
1966 established laser emission on organic dyes
the beginning of the 20th century, the
and
the
quantum-
ready been postulated by Einstein in
since increased application of CO2 and solid state laser

1970 technologies in industry
first laser - a ruby laser - was not
1975 first applications of laser beam cutting in sheet

fabrication industry
implemented until 1960 in the Hughes
1983 introduction into the market of 1-kW-CO2 lasers
Research Laboratories. Until then
1984 first applications of laser beam welding in industrial

serial production
numerous tests on materials had to
br-er10-01e.cdr
be carried out in order to gain a more

History of the Laser
precise knowledge about the atomic

structure. The following years had
Figure 10.1
been characterised by a fast devel-
opment of the laser technology. Already since the beginning of the Seventies and,
increasingly since the Eighties when the first high-performance lasers were available,
CO2 and solid state lasers have been used for production metal working.
The number of the
annual sales of la-
ser beam sources
10
has constantly in-
creased
the
1.5
course of the last
few
in
years,
Figure
0.5
10.2.
0
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
Japan and South East Asia

North America
West Europe
The application arbr-er10-02e.cdr
eas for the laser

beam sources sold
Figure 10.2
1996
1998
2000
130
in 1994 are shown in Figure 10.3. The main application areas of the laser in the field
of production metal working are joining and cutting jobs.
The availability of
more efficient laser
drilling
1,8%
welding
18,7%
beam
opens up new ap-
inscribe
20,5%
others
9,3%
sources
plication
possibili-
ties and - guided

by
financial
con-
siderations - makes
cutting
44,3%
micro
electronics
5,4%
the use of the laser

also more attrac-
br-er10-03e.cdr
tive, Figure 10.4.

Figure 10.3
Figure 10.5 shows the characteristic properties of the laser beam. By reason of the
induced or stimu40
lated emission the
kW
laser power
radiation is coher-
CO2
20
10
ent
chromatic. As the
divergence is only
1/10
Nd:YAG
mrad,
mono-
long
transmission paths
1
2000
1995
1990
1985
1980
1975
1970
diode laser
0
and
without
significant
beam divergences
br-er10-04e.cdr
are possible.
Figure 10.4
131
Inside the resonator, Figure 10.6, the laser-active medium (gas molecules, ions) is
excited to a higher energy level (pumping) by energy input (electrical gas discharge, flash lamps).
During retreat to a lower level, the energy is released in the form of a light quantum
(photon). The wave length depends on the energy difference between both excited
states and is thus a characteristic for the respective laser-active medium.
A distinction is made between spontaneous and induced transition. While the spontaneous emission is non-directional and in coherent (e.g. in fluorescent tubes) is a
laser beam generated
by
induced
emission
when
particle
with
light bulb
Laser
induced emission
E2
higher energy level
0,46"
is hit by a photon.
exited
state
monochromatic
polychromatic
ton has the same
(multiple wave length)
coherent
incoherent
(fre-
(in phase)
(not in phase)
small divergence
large divergence
quency,
ground
state
0,9
4"
The resulting pho-
properties
E1
direction,
ISF 2002
br-er10-05e.cdr
phase) as the excitCharacteristics of Laser Beams
ing photon (coherence). In order to
Figure 10.5
maintain the ratio of

resonator
the desired induced
energy source
emission I spontaneous emission as

as
possible,
the upper energy
laser beam
high
active laser medium
level must be constantly
over-
crowded, in comparison
with
the
fully reflecting
mirror
R = 100%
energy source
ISF 2002
br-er10-06e.cdr
lower one, the socalled
Laser Principle
laserFigure 10.6
partially reflecting
mirror
R < 100%
132
inversion. As result, a stationary light wave is formed between the mirrors of the
resonator (one of which is semi-reflecting) causing parts of the excited laser-active
medium to emit light.
In the field of production metal working, and particularly in welding, especially CO2
and Nd:YAG lasers are applied for their high power outputs. At present, the development of diode lasers is so far advanced that their sporadic use in the field of material processing is also possible. The industrial standard powers for CO2 lasers are,
nowadays, approximately 5 - 20 kW, lasers with powers of up to 40 kW are available.
In the field of solid state lasers average output powers of up to 4 kW are nowadays
obtainable.
In the case of the

0,6
thrust of second type

2
energy
CO2 laser, Figure
002
eV
transmission of
vibration energy
0,4
transition without
emission
10.7,
where
the
resonator is filled
0,3 0,288 eV
thrust of first type

1
001
E = 0,002 eV
0,290 eV
0,2
100
0,1
discharge through
thrust with helium
with a N2-C02-He
LASER = 10,6 m
gas mixture, pumping is carried out
000
N2
over the vibrational
CO2
ISF 2002
br-er10-07e.cdr
Energy Diagram of CO2 Laser
excitation of nitrogen
molecules
which again, with
Figure 10.7
thrusts of the second type, transfer
radio frequency high voltage exitaion
their
laser beam
vibrational
energy to the carbon dioxide. During
cooling water
cooling water
the transition to the

laser gas
lower energy level,

CO2
laser gas:
CO2: 5 l/h
He: 100 l/h
N2 : 45 l/h
vakuum pump
gas circulation pump
emit
molecules
a
radiation
with a wavelength
br-er10-08e.cdr
of 10.6 m. The
helium atoms, fiFigure 10.8
133
nally, lead the CO2
Cooling water
molecules back to
laser gas:
CO2: 11 l/h
He: 142 l/h
N2: 130 l/h
turning
mirrors
their energy level.
gas circulation
pump
laser beam
The efficiency of up
mirror
to 15%, which is
(partially reflecting)
achievable
gas discharge
with
CO2 high performlaser gas
end mirror
br-er10-09e.cdr
ance lasers, is, in
cooling water
comparison
with
other
sys-
laser
tems,
Figure 10.9
relatively
high. The high dissipation component
is the heat which must be discharged from the resonator. This is achieved by means
of the constant gas mixture circulation and cooling by heat exchangers. In
dependence of the type of gas transport, laser systems are classified into longitudinal-flow and transverse-flow laser systems, Figures 10.8 and 10.9.
With transverse-flow laser systems of a compact design can the multiple folding
ability of the beam reach higher output powers than those achievable with longitudinal-flow systems, the beam quality, however, is worse. In d.c.-excited systems
(high voltage), the
f2,57"
electrodes are po-
d0
sitioned inside the

unfocussed beam
focussed beam
resonator. The indF
teraction
between
the electrode material and the gas

2 1
K=
d.
molecules
0<K<1
with d.= d.00= dF. F =c.
causes
electrode burn-off.
In addition to the
ISF 2002
br-er10-10e.cdr
wear of the elecLaser Beam Qualitiy
Figure 10.10
trodes, the burn-off
134
also entails a contamination of the laser gas. Parts of the gas mixture must be therefore exchanged permanently. In high-frequency a.c.-excited systems the electrodes
are positioned outside the gas discharge tube where the electrical energy is
capacitively coupled. High electrode lives and high achievable pulse frequencies
characterise
kind
of
this
resonator
excitation
principle. In diffusion-cooled
end
mirror
CO2
partially
reflecting
mirror
absorber
beam divergence mirror
shutter
beam transmission
tube
LASER
systems beams of
a high quality are
generated
in
beam creation
focussing system
minimum of space.
work piece
Moreover, gas exchange
is
work piece manipulator
hardly
br-er10-11e.cdr
ever necessary.
Figure 10.11
The intensity distribution is not constant across the laser beam. The intensity distribution in the case of the ideal beam is described by TEM modes (transversal electronic-magnetic). In the Gaussian or basic mode TEM00 is the peak energy in the
centre of the beam weakening towards its periphery, similar to the Gaussian normal
distribution. In practice, the quality of a laser beam is, in accordance with DIN EN
11146, distinguished
by
the
dimensional
quality
nonbeam
factor
(or
propagation factor)
K
(0...1),
10.10.
The
Figure
factor
describes the ratio of

the
distance
divergence
field
of
ISF 2002
br-er10-12e_f.cdr
beam in the basic

CO2 Laser Beam Welding Station
Figure 10.12
mode to that of a
135
real beam and is
reflective
90-mirror optic
therefore a measure of a beam fo-
cus
strength.
By
means of the beam

quality factor, different
beam
sources
may
compared
be
objec-
tively and quanti ISF 2002
br-er10-13e.cdr
taively.
Focussing Optics
Figure 10.13
The CO2 laser beam is guided from the resonator over a beam reflection mirror system to one or several processing stations, Figures 10.11 and 10.12. The low divergence allows long transmission paths. At the processing station is the beam, with the
help of the focussing optics, formed according to the working task. The relative motion between beam and workpiece may be realised in different ways:
-
moving workpiece, fixed optics
moving (flying) optics
moving workpiece and moving optics (two handling facilities).
In the case of the

CO2
laser,
beam
focussing is normally
flash lamps
carried out with mir-
laser rod
laser beam
ror optics, Figure

10.13. Lenses may
heat up, due to ab-
partially reflecting
mirror (R < 100%)
sorption,
end mirror (r = 100%)
especially
with high powers or

ISF 2002
br-er10-14e.cdr
Principle Layout of Solid State Laser
Figure 10.14
contaminations.
As
the heat may be dis-
136
sipated only over the holders, there is a risk of deformation (alteration of the focal
length) or destruction through thermal overloading.
In the case of solid state laser, the normally cylindrical rod serves only the purpose
to pick up the laser-active ions (in the case of the Nd:YAG laser with yttriumaluminium-garnet crystals dosed with Nd3+ ions), Figure 10.14. The excitation is, for
the most part, carried out using flash or arc lamps, which for the optimal utilisation of
the excitation energy are arranged as a double ellipsoid; the rod is positioned in their
common focal point. The achieved efficiency is below 4%. In the meantime, also diode-pumped
solid
state lasers have

been introduced to
the
market.
The
possibility to guide
the solid-state laser
beam over flexible
fibre optics makes
these systems destined for the robot
ISF 2002
br-er10-15e_f.cdr
application,
Nd:YAG Laser Beam Welding Station
whereas the CO2

laser application is
restricted,
as
Figure 10.15
its
necessary complex
mirror systems may
cause
losses,
radiation
Figure
10.15.
Some types of optical fibres allow, with
fibre diameters of
1 mm bending radii
ISF 2002
br-er10-16e_f.cdr
of up to 100 mm.
Diode Laser
With
optical
Figure 10.16
137
switches a multiple utilisation of the solid state laser source is possible; with beam
splitters
(mostly
with a fixed splitting
Nd:YAGlaser
0,30
CO2laser
proportion) simulta0,25
neous
welding
at
0,20
absorption A
several processing
stations is possible.
The
disadvantage
Cu
Al
Stahl
Ag
0,15
Fe
0,10
of this type of beam

0,05
projection
is
impaired
Mo
the
0
beam
0,1
0,2 0,3
0,5 0,8 1
wave lenght
8 10
m 20
br-er10-17e.cdr
quality on account
of multiple reflection.
Figure 10.17
The semiconductor or diode lasers are characterised by their mechanical robustness, high efficiency and compact design, Figure 10.16. High performance diode lasers allow the welding of metals, although no deep penetration effect is achieved. In
material processing they are therefore particularly suitable for welding thin sheets.
Energy input into the workpiece is carried out over the absorption of the laser
beam. The absorption coefficient is, apart from the surface quality, also dependent
on the wave length
1010
en
106 erg
y
W/cm
shock hardening
and the material.

de
ns
ity
10
power density
10
10
10
glaz
10
The problem is that

[J
/c
m
]
a large part of the
drilling
radiation
e
0
10
remelting
coating
example,
105
ma
rten
sitic
103
-8
10
br-er10-18e.cdr
-6
10
-4
10
acting time
-2
10
re-
flected and that, for
welding
cutting
10
is
steel
which is exposed
har
den
ing
0
10
to wave lengths of
10.6
reflects
only 10% of the

impinging
Figure 10.18
radia-
138
tion, Figure 10.17. As copper is a highly reflective metal with also a good heat conductivity, it is frequently used as mirror material.
Intensity
ment at the work-
deep penetration
welding
heat conducting
welding
adjust-
ing surface by the

metal vapour
blowing away
laser beam
laser beam
molten pool
laser-induced
plasma
soldified
weld metal
keyhole
(vapour-/
plasma cavity)
focal position with

a
simultaneous
molten pool
variation
soldified
weld metal
working
of
the
speed
make the laser a

flexible and contactless tool, Fig ISF 2002
br-er10-19e.cdr
ure
Principle of Laser Beam Welding
10.18.
The
methods of welding
Figure 10.19
and
cutting
de-
mand high intensities in the focal point, which means the

100
distance between focussing optics and
within close tolerances. At the same

time, highest accuracy and quality
reflection R
workpiece surface must be maintained
60
40
demands are set on all machine com-
20
ponents (handling, optics, resonator,
beam manipulation, etc.).
reflect the laser beam to a degree of

up to 95%, Figures 10.19 - 10.22.
penetration depth t
Steel materials with treated surfaces
mm
just the workpiece surfaces and/or
1
0 5
10
When metals are welded with a lowintensity laser beam (I 105 W/cm2),
10
W/cm
10
laser intesity I
br-er10-20e.cdr
ISF 2002
Reflection and Penetration Depth

in Dependence on Intensity
edges are melted and thus thermalFigure 10.20
139
conduction welding with a low deeppenetration effect is possible. Above
1010
the threshold intensity value (I 106
steel
rF = 100 m
= 10.6 m
W/cm2) a phase transition occurs and
W/cm
laser-induced plasma develops. The

plasma, whose absorption character-
laser intensity I
10
istics depend on the beam intensity

plasma shielding
and the vapour density, absorbs an
working zone
increased quantity of radiation.
107
A vapour cavity forms and allows the
plasma threshold
6
10
laser beam to penetrate deep into the
A = 0,1
material (energy input deep beyond

5
10
A=1
-10
-8
10
-6
10
10
the workpiece surface); this effect is

-2
10
radiation time t
br-er10-21e.cdr
ISF 2002
Calculated Intensity Threshold for

Producing a Laser-Induced Plasma
called the deep penetration effect.

The cavity which is moved though the
joining zone and is prevented to close
due to the vapour pressure is sur-
Figure 10.21
rounded by the largest part of the mol-
ten metal. The residual material vaporises and condenses either on the cavity side
walls or flows off in an ionised form. With suitable parameter selection, an almost
complete energy input into the workpiece can be obtained.
However,
in
de-
pendence
of
the
electron density in
the plasma and of
the radiated beam
intensity,
may
plasma
detach
from
the workpiece sur-
Transformation of electromagnetic energy into thermal energy

within nm range at the surface of the work piece by
stimulation of atoms to resonant oscillations
"normal" absorption:
"abormal" absorption:
depandent on laser beam intensity:
dependent on laser intesity:
I < 10 W/cm
dependent on wave length
dependent on temperature
dependent on material
absorption at solid or liquid surface:
A < 30%
formation of a molten bath with low

penetration depth
I 106 W/cm
heating up to temperature of evaporation

and formation of a metal
vapour plasma
almost complete energy entry through
absorption by plasma:
A > 90%
formation of a vapour cavity
face and screen off

the working zone.
heat conducting welding

br-er10-22e.cdr
The
plasma
deep penetration welding

ISF 2002
is
Interaction Between Laser Beam and Material
heated to such a
Figure 10.22
140
high degree that only a fraction of the beam radiation reaches the workpiece. This is
the reason why, in laser beam welding, gases are applied for plasma control. The
gases ionisation potential should be as high as possible, since also the formation of
shielding gas plasmas is possible
which again decreases the energy in-
beam energy
put.
diagnostics
0-2,5%
beam transmission
focussing system
2,5-12,5%
Only a part of the beam energy from
work piece
85-95%
the resonator is used up for the actual

ca. 5%
reflection
welding process, Figure 10.23. Another
ca. 10%
transmission
part is absorbed by the optics in the

beam manipulation system, another
ca. 40%
heat convection
heat conduction
metal vapour
plasma
part is lost by reflection or transmission

(beam penetration through the vapour
cavity). Other parts flow over thermal
ca. 30%
10-15%
conductance into the workpiece.
recombination
fusion energy
Figure 10.24 shows the most important
br-er10-23e.cdr
advantages and disadvantages of the
Scheme of Energy Flow
laser beam welding method.

Figure 10.23
Penetration
depths in depend-
advantages
ence of the beam

power and welding
speed
which
process
- high reflection at metallic surfaces

- restricted penetration depth ( 25 mm)
are
achievable in laser
work piece
- minimum thermal stress

- little distortion
- completely processed components
- welding at positions difficult to access
- different materials weldable
installation
- short cycle times

- operation at several stations possible
- installation availability > 90%
- well suitable to automatic function
beam welding are

depicted in Figure
10.25. Further relevant
- high power density

- small beam diameter
- high welding speed
- non-contact tool
- atmosphere welding possible
disadvantages
influential
- expensive edge preparation

- exact positioning required
- danger of increased hardness
- danger of cracks
- Al, Cu difficult to weld
- expensive beam transmission and forming
- power losses at optical devices
- laser radiation protection required
- high investment cost
- low efficency
(CO2-Laser: < 20%, Nd:YAG: < 5%)
ISF 2002
br-er10-24e.cdr
factors are, among
Advantages and Disadvantages

of Laser Beam Welding
others, the material

Figure 10.24
141
(thermal conductivity), the design of
28
penetration depth
the resonator (beam quality), the
0,2% C-steel
CO2-laser
mm
(cross flow)
focal position and the applied optics
20
(focal length; focus diameter).
laser power:
16
15 kW
12
10 kW
8 kW
6 kW
4 kW
8
4
Figure 10.26 shows several joint
1,5 kW
0
0
0,6
1,2
1,8
m/min
shapes which are typical for car body
3,0
welding speed
production and which can be welded
penetration depth
15
by laser beam application.
X 5 CrNi 18 10
CO2-laser
(axial flow)
mm
laser power:
6 kW
4 kW
2 kW
1 kW
m/min
welding speed
br-er10-25e.cdr
Penetration Depths
Figure 10.25
The high cooling rate during laser beam welding leads, when transforming steel
materials are used, to significantly increased hardness values in comparison with
other
welding
methods,
Figure
butt weld
fillet weld at overlap joint
10.27. These are a

sign
for
the
in-
creased strength at
a lower toughness
and they are particularly
critical
circumstances
in
lap weld at
overlap joint
of
dynamic loads.
br-er10-26e.cdr
Figure 10.26
flanged weld at
overlap joint
142
The small beam diameter demands the very precise manipulation and positioning of
the workpiece or of
500
HV 0,4
the beam and an
WMA
MAZ
MAZ
laser beam weld
hardness
exact weld preparation,
Figure
10.28.
Otherwise,
as result, lack of
MAZ
MAZ
12
distance from the weld centre
submerged arc weld
weld
fusion,
sagged
welds or concave
root surfaces are
possible weld de-
submerged arc weld

br-er10-27e_f.cdr
fects.
Figure 10.27
Caused by the high cooling rate and, in connection with this, the insufficient degassing of the molten metal, pore formation may occur during laser beam welding
of, in particular, thick plates (very deep welds) or while carrying out welding-in works
(insufficient degassing over the root), Figure 10.29.
However, too low a weld speed may also cause pore formation when the molten
metal picks up gases from the root side.
The materials that
misalignment
edge preparation
may
be
welded
with the laser reach

from unalloyed and
low-alloy steels up
(e 0,1 x plate thickness)
to high quality titagap
beam
mispositioning
nium
and
nickel
based alloys. The

high carbon con(a 0,1 x plate thickness)
tent of the trans ISF 2002
br-er10-28e.cdr
forming steel mateWelding Defects
Figure 10.28
rials is, due to the
143
high cooling rate, to be considered a critical influential factor where contents of C >
0.22% may be stipulated as the limiting reference value. Aluminium and copper
properties cause problems during energy input and process stability. Highly reactive
materials demand, also during laser beam welding, sufficient gas shielding beyond
the solidification of the weld seam. The sole application of working gases is, as a
rule, not adequate.
vw = 0,7 m/min
vw = 0,9 m/min
vw = 1,5 m/min
material: P460N (StE460), s = 20 mm, P = 15 kw

ISF 2002
br-er10-29e.cdr
Porosity
Figure 10.29
The application of laser beam welding may be extended by process variants. One is
laser beam welding with filler wire, Figures 10.30 and 10.31 which offers the following
advantages:
- influence on the mechanic-technological properties of the weld and fusion zone
(e.g. strength, toughness, corrosion, wear resistance) over the metallurgical composition of the filler wire
- reduction of the demands on the accuracy of the weld preparation in regard to edge
misalignment, edge preparation and beam misalignment, due to larger molten pools
- filling of non-ideal, for example, V-shaped groove geometries
- a realisation of a defined weld reinforcement on the beam entry and beam exit side.
144
The exact positioning of the filler wire is a prerequisite for a high weld quality and a
sufficient dilution of the molten pool through which filler wire of different composition
as the base can reach right to the root. Therefore, the use of sensor systems is indispensable for industrial application, Figure 10.32. The sensor systems are to take over
the tasks of
- process control,
- weld quality as surance
- beam positioning and joint tracking, respectively.
welding direction
filler wire
laser beam
filler wire
laser beam
gas
gas
plasma
weld metal
molten pool
plasma
work piece
molten pool
keyhole
forward wire feeding
work piece
weld metal
keyhole
backward wire feeding
br-er10-30e.cdr
Figure 10.30
without filler wire
with filler wire
increase of gap
bridging ability
material: S380N (StE 380)
gap:
0,5 mm
PL = 8,3 kW
VW = 3 m/min
ES = 166 J/min
s = 4 mm
filler wire: Sg2

dw = 0,8 mm
weld zone
Possibility of
metallurgical influence
weld zone
material combination:
10CrMo9-10/ X6CrNiTi18-10
PL = 5,0 kW
br-er10-31e.cdr
Figure 10.31
gap: 0 mm
vw = 1,6 m/min
gap: 0,5 mm
wire: SG-Ni Cr21 Fe18 Mo
vw = 1,0 m/min
dw = 1,2 mm
145
The present state-of-the-art is the further development of systems for industrial applications which until now have been tested in the laboratory.
Welding by means of solid state lasers has, in the past, mainly been applied by
manufacturers from the fields of precision mechanics and microelectronics. Ever
since solid state lasers with higher powers are available on the market, they are applied in the car industry to an ever increasing degree. This is due to their more variable beam manipulation possibilities when comparing with CO2 lasers. The CO2 laser
is mostly used by
the car industry and
with sensing device; fill factor 120 %
by
their
ancillary
KB 4620/9
20:1
10/92
industry for welding
KB 4620/6
20:1
10/92
KB 4620/4
20:1
10/92
KB 4620/0
20:1
10/92
KB 4620/41
20:1
10/92
KB 4620/38
20:1
10/92
Probe MS1-6C Probe MS1-5A Probe MS1-4C Probe MS1-3A Probe MS1-2B Probe MS1-1C
rotation-
0.1 mm
0.2 mm
0.3 mm
0.4 mm
0.5 mm
0.6 mm
KB 4620/12
20:1
10/92
KB 4620/17
20:1
10/92
KB 4621/15
20:1
10/92
KB 4621/12
20:1
10/92
KB 4621/9
20:1
10/92
KB 4621/7
20:1
10/92
symmetrical massproduced parts or

sheets.
Figure
10.33 shows some

typical
Probe OS1-6A Probe OS1-5C Probe OS1-4C Probe OS1-3B Probe OS1-2B Probe OS1-1B
1 mm
without sensing device; wire speed vD = 4 m/min constant
application
br-er10-32e.cdr
examples for laser

beam welding.
Figure 10.32
aerospace industry
automotive industry
- engine components
- instrument cases
- gear parts
steel industry
- pipe production
- vehicle superstructures
- continuous metal strips
- tins
(cog-wheels, planet gears)
- body-making
(bottom plates, skins)
- engine components
(tappet housings, diesel engine
precombustion chambers)
electronic industry
medical industry
- heart pacemaker cases
- artificial hip joints
plant and apparatus

engineering
- PCBs
- accumulator cases
- transformer plates
- CRTs
- seal welds at housings

- measurement probes
ISF 2002
br-er10-33e.cdr
Practical Application Fields
Figure 10.33
11.
Surfacing
and Shape Welding
2003
11. Surfacing and Shape Welding
146
DIN 1910 (Welding) classifies the
welding
base metal/ surfacing metal
according
process
to
its
applications: weld-
similar
dissimilar
l for repair welding
l hardfacing (wear protection)
ing of joints and
l cladding (corrosion prevention)
surfacing. Accord-
l buffering (production of an
appropriate-to-the-type-of-duty
joint of dissimilar materials)
ing to DIN 1910

surfacing
is
the
coating of a workbr-er11-01e.cdr
piece by means of
welding.
Figure 11.1
Dependent on the
applied filler material a further classification may be made: deposition repair welding
and surfacing for the production of a composite material with certain functions. Surfacing carried out with wear-resistant materials in preference to the base metal material is called hardfacing; but when mainly chemically stable filler materials are
used, the method is called cladding. In
the case of buffering, surfacing layers
are produced which allow the appropriate-to-the-type-of-duty joining of dis-
wear caused by very high impact and

compressive stress
similar materials and/or of materials
wear by friction (metal against metal)

during high impact and compression stress
strong sanding or grinding wear
very strong wear caused by grinding during

low impact stress
cold forming tools
hot forming tools
cavitation
strongly differing thermal expansion
wear parts (plastics industry)
coefficients.
corrosion
Figure 11.2 shows different kinds of
temperature stresses
with differing properties, Figure 11.1.
A buffering, for instance, is an intermediate layer made from a relatively

tough material between two layers with
stresses which demand the surfacing

of components. Furthermore surfacing
br-er11-02e.cdr
Components Kinds of Stress
may be used for primary forming as

well as for joining by primary forming.
Figure 11.2
147
In case of surfacing - as for all fabrication processes - certain limiting conditions have to be observed. For ex-
component
(material)
ample, hard and wear-resistant weld

filler metals cannot be drawn into solid
wires. Here, another form has to be
coating
stress
compatibility
selected (filler wire, continuously cast

manufacturing
conditions
availability
rods, powder). Process materials, as

for example SA welding flux demand
a certain welding position which in
terms limits the method of welding.
coating
material
(filler)
consumable
surfacing
method
The coating material must be selected

with view to the type of duty and,
br-er11-03e.cdr
moreover, must be compatible with

Boundary Conditions in Surfacing
the base metal, Figure 11.3.
Figure 11.3
For all surfacing tasks a large product
line of welding filler metals is available. In dependence on the welding
method as well as on the selected ma-
wearing protection (armouring)

hard facing on
terials, filler metals in the form of wires,
q cobalt base
filler wires, strips, cored strips, rods or
q nickel base
powder are applied, Figure 11.4.
q iron base
The filler/base metal dilution is rather

important, as the desired high-quality
corrosion prevention
properties of the surfacing layer dete-
q ferritic to martensitic chromium steel alloys
riorate with the increasing degree of
q soft martensitic chromium-nickel steel alloys
dilution.
q austenitic-ferritic chromium-nickel steel alloys

q austenitic chromium-nickel steel alloys
A weld parameter optimisation has the

br-er11-04e.cdr
objective to optimise the degree of dilu-
Materials for Surfacing
tion in order to guarantee a sufficient

Figure 11.4
148
adherence of the layer with the minimum metal dissimilation. A planimetric determination of the surfacing and penetration areas will roughly assess the proportion of
filler to base metal.
When the analysis
surface built up by welding FB
of base and filler

metal is known, a
penetration area FP
more precise calcubase metal
lation is possible by
the determination of
FP
FP + FB
AD=
the content of a cer-
(X-contentsurfacing layer - X-contentFM ) [% in weight]

(X-contentbase metal - X-contentFM ) [% in weight]
AD =
tain element in the

surfacing layer as
x 100%
FM: weld filler metal
x 100%
AD: dilution
ISF 2002
br-er11-05e.cdr
well as in the base

Definition of Dilution
metal, Figure 11.5.

Figure 11.5
Figure 11.6 shows record charts of an electron beam microprobe analysis for the
elements nickel and chromium. It is
Cr percentages by mass
30
evident that - after passing a narrow
transition zone between base metal
20
and layer the analysis inside the

layer is quasi constant.
10
0
0
100
200
300
As depicted in Figure 11.7 almost all

500
arc welding methods are not only suit-
distance
Ni percentages by mass
30
able for joining but also for surfacing.
%
20
In the case of the strip-electrode

submerged-arc surfacing process
10
normally strips (widths: 20 - 120mm)

0
are used. These strips allow high clad0
100
br-er11-06e.cdr
200
300
distance
Microprobe Analyses
500
ding rates. Solid wire electrodes as well

as flux-cored strip electrodes are used.
The flux-cored strip electrodes contain
Figure 11.6
149
certain alloying elements. The strip is continuously fed into the process via feed rollers. Current contact is normally carried out via copper contact jaws which in some
cases are protected
against
wear
by
metal-arc welding
hard metal inserts.

The
- stick electrode
- filler wire
slag-forming
arc welding with self-shielded

cored wire electrode
flux is supplied onto

the
workpiece
- filler wire
in
inert gas-shielded arc welding
submerged arc welding
- MIG / MAG
- MIG cold wire
- filler wire
- wire electrode
- strip electrode
TIG welding
electroslag welding
- wire electrode
- TIG cold wire
front of the strip

arc spraying
plasma welding
electrode by means
- powder
- wire
of a flux support.
The non-molten flux
- plasma powder
- plasma hot wire
plasma spraying
br-er11-07e.cdr
can
be
extracted
and returned to the

flux circuit.
Figure 11.7
Should the slag developed on top of the welding bead not detach itself, it will have to
be removed mechanically in order to avoid slag inclusions during overwelding. The
arc wanders along the lower edge of the strip. Thus the strip is melted consistently,
Figure 11.8.
power source
drive rolls
filler metal
flux support
flux application
slag
surfacing bead
base metal
br-er11-08e.cdr
Figure 11.8
150
Figure 11.9 shows the cladding of a roll barrel. The coating is deposited helically
while the workpiece is rotating. The weld head is moved axially over the workpiece.
br-er11-09e.cdr
Figure 11.9
The macro-section and possible weld defects of a strip-electrode submerged-arc surfacing process are depicted in Figure 11.10.
coarse grain zone
lack of fusion
mirco slag inclusions
sagged weld
base metal
crack formation
in these areas of
the coarse grain zone
br-er11-10e.cdr
Figure 11.10
gusset
undercuts
151
Electroslag surfacing using a strip electrode is similar to strip-electrode SA surfacing, Figure 11.11. The difference is that the weld filler metal is not melted in the
arc but in liquefied welding flux the liquid slag as a result of Joule resistance
heating. The slag is
held by a slight
inclination
of
the
plate and the flux

mound to prevent it
from running off.
molten pool
TIG weld surfacing is a suitable

surfacing
method
br-er11-11e.cdr
for small and complicated

Figure 11.11
contours
and/or low quantities
(e.g.
repair
work) with normally relatively low

deposition rates. The process principle has already been shown when the
TIG joint welding process was ex-
rod/ wire-shaped
filler metal
plained, Figure 11.12. The arc is

arc
burning between a gas-backed nonconsumable tungsten electrode and

the workpiece. The arc melts the base
metal and the wire or rod-shaped
weld filler metal which is fed either
continuously or intermittently. Thus a
fusion welded joint develops between
base metal and surfacing bead.
In the case of MIG/MAG surfacing
base metal
(+ / ~)
tungsten electrode
(- / ~)
surfacing bead
br-er11-12e.cdr
ISF 2002
Process Principle of
TIG Weld Surfacing
processes the arc burns between a

consumable wire electrode and the
Figure 11.12
152
workpiece.
This
method
allows
higher
contact tube
rates. Filler as well
wire feed device
shielding gas
deposition
as solid wires are
+
-
weld filler metal
power source
used.
arc
The
electrode
shielding gas
wire
has
positive, while the
surfacing bead
workpiece
workpiece
oscillation
feed direction
br-er11-13e.cdr
to
be
surfaced
has
negative
polarity,
Figure 11.13.
Figure 11.13
A further development of the TIG welding process is plasma welding. While the TIG
arc develops freely, the plasma welding arc is mechanically and thermally constricted
by a water-cooled copper nozzle. Thus the arc obtains a higher energy density.
In the case of plasma arc powder surfacing this constricting nozzle has a positive,
the tungsten electrode has a negative polarity, Figure 11.14. Through a pilot arc
power supply a non-transferred arc (pilot arc) develops inside the torch. A second,
separate power source feeds the transferred arc between electrode and workpiece.
The non-transferred
arc ionises the centrally
fed
plasma
gas
(inert
gases,
tungsten electrode
filler metal
plasma gas
HIG
as, e.g., Ar or He)
UNTA
conveying gas
power sources
thus
causing
shielding gas
pilot arc
welding arc
plasma jet of high

energy to emerge
from
the
This
plasma
surfacing bead
nozzle.
jet
serves to produce
workpiece
br-er11-14e.cdr
and to stabilise the

Figure 11.14
oscillation
UTA
153
arc striking ability of the transferred arc gap. The surfacing filler metal powder added
by a feeding gas flow is melted in the plasma jet. The partly liquefied weld filler metal
meets the by transferred arc molten base metal and forms the surfacing bead. A third
gas flow, the shielding
gas,
protects
the surfacing bead

and
the
section A
adjacent
ZW
high-temperature
zone from the surrounding influence.
The applied gases
are
mainly
GW
inert
gases, as, for exbr-er11-15e.cdr
ample, Ar and He
and/or Ar-/He mixFigure 11.15
tures.
The method is applied for surfacing small and medium-sized parts (car exhaust
valves, extruder spirals). Figure 11.15 shows a cross-section of armour plating of a
car exhaust valve seat. The fusion line, i.e., the region between surfacing and base
metal, is shown enlarged on the right side of Figure 11.15 (blow-up). It shows hardfacing with cobalt which is high-temperature and hot gas corrosion resistant.
shielding
gas
plasma power
source
plasma gas
tungsten
electrode
In plasma arc hot

wire surfacing the
base
metal
is
melted by an oscil-
arc
wires from spool
surfacing
bead
lating plasma torch,

Figure 11.16. The
~
workpiece
weld pool
hot wire power

source
weld filler metal in

the form of two
parallel
wires
is
br-er11-16e.cdr
added to the base

metal quite indeFigure 11.16
154
pendently. The arc between the tips of the two parallel wires is generated through the
application of a separate power source. The plasma arc with a length of approx. 20
mm is oscillating (oscillation width between 20 to 50 mm). The two wires are fed in a
V-formation at an angle of approx. 30 and melt in the high-temperature region in the
trailing zone of the plasma torch.
For surfacing purposes, besides the arc-welding methods, the beam welding methods laser beam and electron beam welding may also be applied. Figure 11.17 shows
the process principle of laser surfacing. The powder filler metal is added to the laser
beam via a powder
nozzle and the powshielding
gas nozzle
laser beam
powder nozzle
der gas flow is, in

addition, constricted
by
direction of
the oscillation
powder flow
surfacing bead
shielding gas
shielding
gas
flow.
Friction
surfacing
is, in principle, simi-
Werkstck
lar to friction welding

br-er11-17e.cdr
for the production of

joints which due to
the different materi-
Figure 11.17
als are difficult to

produce with fusion
electron beam
welding,
surface layer
11.18.
Figure
The filler metal is
base material
advanced over the

metal foil
workpiece with high
metal foil feeding
pressure and rota-
workpiece
tion. By the pressure
feed direction
and
ka11-18.cdr
Process Principle
Electron Beam Surface Welding
Figure 11.18
the
relative
movement
frictional
ISF 1998
heat develops and
155
puts the weld filler end into a pasty condition. The advance motion causes an adherent, spreaded layer on the base metal. This method is not applied frequently and is
mainly used for materials which show strong differences in their melting and oxidation
behaviours.
A comparison of the different surfacing methods shows that the application fields are
limited - dependent on the welding method. A specific method, for example, is the low
filler/base metal dilution. These methods are applied where high-quality filler metals
are welded. Another criterion for the selection of a surfacing method is the deposition
rate. In the case of cladding large surfaces a method with a high deposition rate is
chosen, this with regard to profitability.
In thermal spraying the filler metal is melted inside the torch and then, with a high
kinetic energy, discharged onto the unfused but preheated workpiece surface.
There is no fusion of base and filler metal but rather adhesive binding and mechanical interlocking of the spray deposit with the base material. These mechanisms are
effective only when the workpiece surface is coarse (pre-treatment by sandblasting)
and free of oxides. The filler and base materials are metallic and non-metallic. Plastics may be sprayed as well. The utilisation of filler metals in thermal spraying is relatively low.
The most important methods of thermal spraying are: plasma arc spraying, flame
spraying and arc
spraying.
force
filler metal
In powder flame
rotation
advance
spraying an oxyacetylene flame provides the heating

surfacing layer
bulge
source where the

centrally fed filler
base metal
metal
is
melted,
br-er11-18e.cdr
Figure 11.19. The

kinetic energy for
Figure 11.19
156
the acceleration and atomisation of the filler metal is produced by compressed gas
(air).
compressed
air
spraying material
In contrast to pow-
workpiece
der flame spraying,

is for flame spraying a wire filler
metal fed mechanically into the centre
cone, melted, at-
fuel gas-oxygen
mixture
flame cone
omised and accel-
spray deposit
erated in direction
br-er11-19e.cdr
of
the
substrate,
Figure 11.20.
Figure 11.20
In plasma arc spraying an internal, high-energy arc is ignited between the tungsten
cathode and the anode, Figure 11.21. This arc ionises the plasma gas (argon, 50 100 l/min). The plasma emerges from the torch with a high kinetic and thermal energy and carries the side-fed powder along with it which then meets the workpiece
surface in a semi-fluid state with the necessary kinetic energy. In the case of shape
welding, steel shapes with larger dimensions and higher weights are produced from
molten weld metal
only. In comparison
compressed air
spraying jet
to cast parts this

method
brings
about
essentially
more
favourable
non-binding
sprayed particles
(loss in spraying)
gas mixture
mechanotechnological mate-
adjustable wire
feed device
rial properties, especially
spraying wire
better
br-er11-20e.cdr
toughness
charac-
teristic. The reason

Figure 11.21
fusing
wire tip
spray deposit
157
for this lies mainly in the high purity and the homogeneity of the steel which is helped
by the repeated melting process and the resulting slag reactions. These properties
are also put down to the favourable fine-grained structure formation which is
achieved by the repeated subsequent thermal treatment with the multi-pass technique. Also in contrast with the shapes produced by forging, the workpieces produced by shape welding show quality advantages, especially in the isotropy and the
regularity of their toughness and strength properties as far as larger workpiece thicknesses
are
con-
cerned. In Europe,
powder injector
due to the lack of

expensive
forging
equipment,
high
back
frame
isolation
ring
gas
middle
distributor frame
anode
carrier
very
copper anode
individual
weights may not be

produced as forged
jet of particles
parts.
cooling
water
Therefore,
shape
plasma
gas
cooling water tungsten cathode
ISF 2002
br-er11-21e.cdr
Plasma Powder Spraying Unit
welding is, for certain applications, a

sensible
logical
nomical
Figure 11.22
technoand
eco-
alternative
primary forming
(casting)
to the methods of
primary
arc
forming,
forming or joining,
shape welding
Figure 11.22.
forming
(forging)
Figure 11.23 shows
joining
(welding)
an early application
which is related to
ISF 2002
br-er11-22e.cdr
Shape Welding - Integration
the field of arts.

Figure 11.23
158
Baumkuchenmethode
+ several weld heads possible

+ no interruption during weld
head failure
- core made of foreign material
necessary
applications:
shafts, large boiler shell rings, flanges
Tpfermethode
+ free rotationally-symmetrical shapes

+ several weld heads possible
+ weld head manipulation not
necessary
+ each head capable to weld a
specific layer
+ small diameters possible
- component movement must
correspond with the contour
- number of weld heads limited when
smaller diameters are welded
applications:
spherical caps, pipe bends, braces
Klammeraffe
+ transportable unit
- limited welding efficiency
applications:
welding-on of connection pieces
br-er11-25e.cdr
br-er11-23e.cdr
ISF 2002
Shape Welding Procedures
Shape Welded Goblet (1936)
Figure 11.24
Figure 11.25
The higher tooling costs in forging make the shape welding method less expensive;
this applies to parts with certain increasing complexity. This comparison is, however,
related to relatively low numbers of pieces, where the tooling costs per part are accordingly
higher,
Figure 11.24.
Figure 11.25 shows

the principal procedure for the production
of
typical
shape-welded
parts.
phase 7
phase 4
phase 2
joist
Cylindrical
containers are probr-er11-26e.cdr
duced
with
phase 5
phase 6
the
BaumkuchenmeFigure 11.26
phase 3
traction
mechanism
phase 1
turntable
159
thode method: the filler metal is welded by submerged-arc with helical
ti
tes
ng
1. welding of the
half-torus
2. stress relief
annealing
3. mechanical
treatment
4. seperating/
halving
5. folding
6. welding togehter
7. stress relief
annealing
8. testing
movement in multiple passes into a

tube which has the function of a traction mechanism (for the most part
mechanically removed later). This
brings about the possibility to produce
seamless containers with bottom and
flange in one working cycle.
Elbows are mainly manufactured with

the Tpfer method. On the traction
mechanism a rotationally symmetrical
part with a semicircle cross-section is
br-er11-27e.cdr
produced which is later separated and

Production of a Pipe Bend
by Shape Welding
welded to an elbow, Figures 11.26

and 11.27. The Klammeraffe method
Figure 11.27
serves the purpose to weld external
connection pieces onto pipes. A portable unit which is connected with the pipe welds
the connection pipe in a similar manner to the Tpfer method.
In the case of electron beam surfac-
forged products
/kg
ing the filler metal

is
added
to
the
process in the form
shape-welded
products
pipe bends
braces
boiler shell rings
shafts
11.28.
spherical caps
of a film, Figure
complexity of the parts

br-er11-24e.cdr
Figure 11.28
12.
Thermal Cutting
2003
12. Thermal Cutting
160
Thermal cutting processes are applied in different fields of mechanical engineering,

shipbuilding
and
process technology
for the production
Classification of thermal cutting processes
- physics of the cutting process
- degree of mechanisation
of components and
for the preparation
of welding edges.
The thermal cut-
- type of energy source

- arrangement of water bath
ting
processes
are classified into

different categories
br-er12-01e.cdr
Classification of Thermal Cutting

Processes acc. to DIN 2310-6
according to DIN
2310, Figure 12.1.
Figure 12.1
Figure 12.2 shows the classification according to the physics of the cutting process:
- flame cutting the material is mainly oxidised (burnt)
- fusion cutting the material is mainly fused
- sublimation cutting the material is mainly evaporat
The gas jet and/or evaporation expansion is in all processes responsible for the ejection of molten material or emerging reaction products such as slag.
The different enFlame cutting

The material is mainly oxidised;the products
are blown out by an oxygen jet.
the thermal cut-
Fusion cutting
The material is mainly fused and blown out
by a high-speed gas jet.
ting are depicted in
Sublimation cutting
The material is mainly evaporated.
It is transported out of the cutting groove by
the created expansion or by additional gas.
- gas,
Figure 12.3:
electrical
gas
discharge and
- beams.
br-er12-02e.cdr
Classification of Processes by
the Physics of Cutting
Figure 12.2
ergy carriers for
Electron
beams
for thermal cutting
12. Thermal Cutting
161
are listed in the DIN-Standard, they produce, however, only very small boreholes.
Cutting is impossible.
Figure 12.4 depicts the different methods of thermal cutting with gas according to
DIN 8580. These are:
- flame cutting
- metal powder
flame cutting
- metal powder
thermal cutting by:
fusion cutting
- gas
- electrical gas discharge
- sparks
- arc
- plasma
- flame planing
-oxygen-lance cut-
- beams
- laser beam (light)
- electron beam
- ion beam
ting
- flame gouging or
scarfing
br-er12-03e.cdr
-flame cleaning
Classification of Thermal Cutting Processes

acc. to DIN 2310-6
Figure 1.3
In flame cutting (principle is depicted in Figure 12.5) the material is brought to the
ignition temperature by a heating flame and is then burnt in the oxygen stream. During the process the ignition temperature is maintained on the plate top side by the
heating flame and
below the plate top
thermal cutting processes using gas:
side
by
thermal
conduction
and
l
convection.
oxygen cutting
metal powder
flame cutting
fusion cutting
metal powder
However, this process
is
suited
for
flame planing
automation and is,

also easy to apply
oxygen-lance cutting
flame gouging
flame cleaning
scarfing
br-er12-04e.cdr
on site. Figure 12.6.
Thermal Cutting Processes Using Gas
shows a commerFigure 1.4
12. Thermal Cutting
162
cial torch which combines a welding with a cutting torch. By means of different nozzle shapes the process may be adapted to varying materials and plate thicknesses.
Hand-held
or
torches
cutting oxygen
heating oxygen
gas fuel
machine-type
torches
are
equipped with difheating flame
ferent cutting nozzles: Standard or

block-type nozzles
(cutting-oxygen
pressure 5 bar) are
cutting jet
used for hand-held

torches
and
workpiece
br-er12-05e.cdr
for
Principle of Oxygen Cutting
torches which are

fixed to guide car-
Figure 12.5
riages.
The high-speed cutting nozzle (cutting-oxygen pressure 8 bar) allows higher cutting speeds with increased cutting-oxygen pressure. The heavy-duty cutting nozzle
(cutting-oxygen pressure 11 bar) is mainly applied for economic cutting with flamecutting machines. A further development of the heavy-duty nozzle is the oxygenshrouded nozzle which allows even faster and more economic cutting of plates
within
certain
thickness
cutting oxygen
ranges.
Gas mixing is ei-
heating oxygen
ther carried out in
gas fuel
mixing chamber
the torch handle,

the cutting attachment,
manual cutting equipment

as a cutting and welding
torch combination
the
torch
head or in the nozzle

gas mixing
nozzle
block-type
nozze
(gas
mixing
nozzle); in special
br-er12-06e.cdr
Cutting Torch and Nozzle Shapes
cases also outside

the torch in front
Figure 12.6
12. Thermal Cutting
163
of the nozzle. As the design of cutting torches is not yet subject to standardisation,
many types and systems exist on the market.
The selection of a
heating and cutting nozzle
torch
nozzle-to-work
distance
torch
kerf width
cutting jet
kerf
or
nozzles
important and depends mainly on
start
the cutting thick-
cut thickness
ness, the desired
cutting le
cut lengt
h
ngth
cutting
quality,
and/or the geometry of the cutting
end of the cut
br-er12-07e.cdr
Flame Cutting Terms
edge. Figure 12.7

gives a survey of
the definitions of
Figure 12.7
flame-cutting.
In flame cutting, the thermal conductivity of the material must be low enough to constantly maintain the ignition temperature, Figure 12.8. Moreover, the material
must neither melt during the oxidation nor form high-melting oxides, as these
would produce difficult cutting surfaces. In accordance, only steel or titanium materials fulfill the conditions for oxygen cutting., Figure 12.9
The heating flame has to perform the following tasks:
Steel materials with

a C-content of up
- rapid heating of the material (about 1200C)

- substitution of losses due to heat conduction
in order to maintain a positive heat balance
to approx. 0.45%
may be flame-cut
- preheating of cutting oxygen
without preheating,
- stabilisation of the cutting oxygen jet; formation
with a C-content of
of a cylindrical geometry over a extensive length

and protection against nitrogen of the surrounding air
approx.
1.6%
flame-cutting
carried
br-er12-08e.cdr
Function of the Flame During Flame Cutting
out
preheating,
is
with
be-
cause an increased
Figure 12.8
12. Thermal Cutting
164
C-content demands more heat. Carbon accumulates at the cutting surface, so a very
high degree of hardness is to be expected. Should the carbon content exceed 0.45%
and should the material not have been subject to prior heat treatment, hardening
cracks on the cutting
surface
are
regarded as likely.
The material has to fulfill the following requirements:
Some
- the ignition temperature has to be lower than the
alloying
elements
melting temperature
- the melting temperature of the oxides has to be lower
high-melting
than the melting temperature of the material itself
form
ox-
- the ignition temperature has to be permanently maintained;
ides which impair
i. e. the sum of the supplied energy and heat losses due to
the slag expulsion
heat conduction has to result in a positive heat balance
and influence the

thermal conductiv-
br-er12-09e.cdr
ity.
Conditions of Flame Cutting
Figure 12.9
The iron-carbon equilibrium diagram illustrates the carbon content-temperature interrelation, Figure 12.10. As the carbon content increases, the melting temperature
is lowered. That means: from a certain carbon content upwards, the ignition temperature is higher than the melting temperature, i.e., this would be the first violation to
the basic requirement in flame cutting.
Steel compositions
steel
temperature [C]
may influence flame

cuttability
substan-
tially - the individual

alloying
cast iron
1500
elements
may show recipro1000
liquid
pasty
solid
Liquidus
rve
n cu
o
i
t
i
ign
Solidus
solid
cate effects (reinforcing/weakening),

2,0
Figure 12.11. The
carbon content [%]
br-er12-10e.cdr
content limits of the

alloying
Ignition Temperature in the

Iron-Carbon-Equilibrium Diagram
constituFigure 12.10
12. Thermal Cutting
165
ents are therefore

only reference values for the evalua-
Maximum allowable contents of alloy-elements:
tion of the flame
carbon:
cuttability of steels,
silicon:
up to 2,5 % with max. 0,2 %C
manganese:
up to 13 % and 1,3 % C
chromium:
up to 1,5 %
tungsten:
up to 10 % and 5 % Cr, 0,2 % Ni, 0,8 % C
nickel:
up to 7,0 % and/or up to 35 % with min. 0,3 % C
deteriorating, as a
copper:
up to 0,7 %
rule
molybdenum: up to 0,8 %, with higher proportions of W, Cr and C
as the cutting quality is substantially
already
with
alloy
con-
up to 1,6 %
not suitable for cutting
lower
br-er12-11e.cdr
tents.
Flame Cutting Suitability in Dependance

of Alloy-Elements
Figure 12.11
By an arrangement
of one or several
nozzles already during the cutting phase a weld preparation may be carried out and
certain welding grooves be produced. Figure 12.12 shows torch arrangements for
- the square butt weld,
- the single V butt weld,
- the single V butt weld with root face,
- the double V butt weld and
-
the double V butt weld with root face.
It has to be considered that, particularly in cases where

flame cutting is applied
for
weld
square butt weld
single-V butt weld
single-V butt weld

with rootface
preparations, flame
cutting-related
de-
fects may lead to

increased
weld
dressing
work.
double-V butt weld
double-V butt weld

with root face
br-er12-12e.cdr
Slag adhesion or
Weld-Groove Preparation by Oxygen Cutting
chains of molten
Figure 12.12
12. Thermal Cutting
166
globules have
to be removed
in
cratering:
sporadic craterings
connected craterings
cratering areas
edge defect:
edge rounding
chain of fused globules
edge overhang
order
to
guarantee
process safety
adherent slag:
slag adhearing to bottom cut edge
cut face defects:
kerf constriction or extension
angular deviation
step at lower edge of the cut
excessive depth of cutting grooves
and part accuracy
cracks:
face cracks
cracks below the cut face
for
the
subsequent
processes.
Figure
br-er12-13e.cdr
12.13
gives a survey
Possible Flame Cutting Defects
of
Figure 12.13
possible
defects
in
flame cutting.
In order to improve the flame-cutting capacity and/or cutting of materials which are
normally not to be flame-cut the powder flame cutting process may be applied.
Here, in addition to the cutting oxygen, iron powder is blown into the cutting gap. In
the flame, the iron powder oxidises very fast and adds further energy to the process.
Through the additional energy input
the
high-melting
oxides of the highalloy materials are

molten.
oxygen
water
seperator
compressed
air
acetylene
Figure
12.14 shows a diagrammatic
powder
dispenser
repre-
sentation of a metal
powder
cutting
br-er12-14e.cdr
arrangement.
Metal Powder Flame Cutting
Figure 12.14
12. Thermal Cutting
167
Figure 12.15 shows

the
principle
of
flame gouging
flame gouging and

scarfing.
Both
scarfing
gas-heat
oxygen mixture
methods are suited
gas-heat
oxygen mixture
gouging
oxygen
for the weld prepa-
scarfing
oxygen
ration; material is
removed
but
not
cut. This way, root

passes
may
be
br-er12-15e.cdr
grooved out or fil-
Flame Gouging and Scarfing
lets for welding may

be produced later.
Figure 12.15
Figure 12.16 shows the methods of thermal cutting processes by electrical gas
discharge:
-
plasma cutting with non-transferred arc
plasma cutting with transferred arc
plasma cutting with transferred arc and secondary gas flow
plasma cutting with transferred arc and water injection
arc air gouging (represented diagrammatically)
arc oxygen cutting (represented diagrammatically)

In plasma cutting
the entire workpiece
Thermal cutting processes by electrical gas discharge:
must be heated to
plasma cutting
- with non-transferred
arc
- with transferred arc
-with secondary
gas flow
-with water
injection
arc air gouging
arc oxygen cutting
the melting temperature by the plasma
carbon
electrode
compressed
air
cutting
oxygen
electrode
coating
jet. The nozzle forms

the plasma jet only
tube
arc
in a restricted way
and limits thus the
cutting
ability
of
br-er2-16e.cdr
Thermal Cutting Processes

by Electrical Gas Discharge
Figure 12.16
plate to a thickness
of approx. 150 mm,
12. Thermal Cutting
168
Figure 12.17. Characteristic for the plasma cut are the cone-shaped formation of
the kerf and the rounded edges in the plasma jet entry zone which were caused
by the hot gas shield that envelops the plasma jet. These process-specific disadvantages may be significantly reduced or limited to just one side of the plate (high quality
or scrap side), respectively, by the inclination of the torch and/or water addition. With
the plasma cutting
process, all electrically
conductive
materials may be
separated.
Non-
conductive
materi-
als, or similar mate-
plasma gas
electrode
cooling
water
power
source
HF
R
nozzle
rials, may be separated by the emergworkpiece
ing plasma flame,

br-er12-17e.cdr
but only with limited
Plasma Cutting
ability.
Figure 12.17
In order to cool and to reduce the emissions, plasma torches may be surrounded by
additional gas or water curtains which also serve as arc constriction, Figure 12.18.
In dry plasma cutting where Ar/H2, N2, or air are used, harmful substances always
develop which not
plasma gas
electrode
only have to be
sucked
off
very
carefully but which

water curtain
also must be discutting water

swirl chamber
nozzle
cone of water
posed of.
In
water-induced
plasma
water bath
workpiece
cutting
(plasma arc cutting

in water or under
br-er12-18e.cdr
Water Injection Plasma Cutting
water) gases, dust,

also the noise, and
Figure 12.18
12. Thermal Cutting
169
the UV radiation are, for the most part, held back by the water. A further, positive effect is the cooling of
the cutting surface,
Figure 12.18. Careful disposal of the
residues
is
here
cutting with water bath
water injection plasma cutting

with water curtain
plasma cutting with workpiece

on water surface
underwater plasma cutting
inevitable.
Figure 12.19 gives

a survey of the different cutting methods using a water
br-er12-19e.cdr
Types of Water Bath Plasma Cutting
bath.
Figure 12.19
Figure 12.20 shows a torch which is equipped with an additional gas supply, the socalled secondary gas. The secondary gas shields the plasma jet and increases the
transition resistance at the nozzle front. The so-called double and/or parasite arcs
are avoided and nozzle life is increased.
Thanks to new electrode materials, compressed air and even pure oxygen may be
applied as plasma gas therefore, in flame cutting, the burning of unalloyed steel
may be used for
increased capacity
and
quality.
plasma gas
The
selection
of
plasma
forming
electrode
the
gases depends on
secondary gas
the requirements of
nozzle
the cutting process.

Plasma
forming
workpiece
media are argon,

br-er12-20e.cdr
helium, hydrogen,
Plasma Cutting With Secondary Gas Flow
nitrogen, air, oxygen or water.
Figure 12.20
12. Thermal Cutting
170
The advantage of the use of oxygen as plasma gas is in the achievable cutting
speeds within the plate thickness range of approx. 3 12 mm (400 A, WIPC). In the
steel plate thickness range of approx. 1 10 mm the application of 40 A-compressed
air units is recomIn
com-
parison with 400 A

WIPC
systems,
these allow vertical

and
significantly
narrower
cutting
cutting speed [m/min]
mended.
machine type and plasma medium

1 WIPC, 400 A, O2
2 WIPC, 400 A, N2
3 200 A, s < 8 mm: N2
s > 8 mm: Ar/H2
4 40 A, compressed air
8
1
6
2
4
2
3
4
kerfs, but with lower

5
cutting speeds. Figure 12.21
shows
different
cutting
plate thickness [mm]
Cutting Speeds of Different Plasma

Cutting Equipment for Steel Plates
Figure 12.21
gases.
In the thermal cutting

with
Thermal cutting processes

by laser beam
processes
beams
only
- laser beam combustion cutting
the laser is used as

the jet generator for
cutting,
- laser beam fusion cutting
Figure
- laser beam sublimation cutting
12.22.
Variations
of
the
15
br-er12-21e.cdr
speeds for different

units and plasma
10
br-er12-22e.cdr
laser beam cutting
Thermal Cutting With Beams
process:
Figure 12.22
laser beam combustion cutting, Figure 12.25
laser beam fusion cutting, Figure 12.26
laser beam sublimation cutting, Figure 12.27.
20
12. Thermal Cutting
171
The process sequence in laser beam combustion cutting is comparable to oxygen cutting. The material is heated to the ignition temperature and subsequently
burnt in the oxygen stream, Figure 12.23. Due to the concentrated energy input
almost all metals in the plate thickness range of up to approx. 2 mm may be cut. In
addition, it is possible to achieve very good bur-free cutting qualities for stainless
steels (thickness of up to approx. 8 mm) and for structural steels (thickness of up to
12 mm). Very narrow and parallel cutting kerfs are characteristic for laser beam cutting of structural steels.
In laser beam cutlens
ting, either oxygen

(additional
energy
contribution for oxi-
cutting oxygen
dising materials) or
an inactive cutting
gas may be applied
laser focus
thin layer of cristallised
molten metal
workpiece
depending on the
slag jet
cutting job. Besides,

br-er12-23e.cdr
the very high beam

Laser Beam Cutting
powers
(pulsed/superpulse
Figure 12.23
d mode of operation) allow a direct

evaporation of the
80
ting
and
cutlaser
beam sublimation
20
cutting the reflexion
of
the
40
laser
evaporating
combustion
60
melting
tion). In laser beam
heating-up
(sublimaabsorption factor
material
r)
G-lase
(Nd:YA
6 m
er)
s
a
= 1,0
-l
(CO 2
,06 m
= 10
melting point Tm
boiling point Tb
temperature
beam of more than
br-er12-24e.cdr
Qualitative Temperature Dependency

on Absorption Ability
90 % on the workpiece surface deFigure 12.24
12. Thermal Cutting
172
creases unevenly when the process starts. In laser beam fusion cutting remains
the reflexion on the molten material, however, at more than 90%! Figure 12.24 shows
the absorption factor of the laser light in dependence on the temperature. This factor
mainly depends on
the wave length of
laser cutting (with oxygen jet)
- the laser beam is focused on the workpiece surface
and the material burns in the oxygen jet starting
from the heated surface
materials:
- steel aluminium alloys, titanium alloys
the
used
light.
laser
When
the
melting point of the

material has been
reached, the ab-
cutting gas:
- O2, N2, Ar
criteria:
- high cutting speed, cut faces with oxide skin
br-er12-25e.cdr
Characteristics of the Laser

Beam Cutting Processes I
sorption
factor
increases
un-
evenly
and
reaches values of
more than 80%.
Figure 12.25
During laser beam combustion cutting of structural steel high cutting speeds are
achieved due to the exothermal energy input and the low laser beam powers, Figure
12.25. In the above-mentioned case (dependent on beam quality, focussing, etc.),
above a beam power of approx. 3,3 kW, spontaneous evaporation of the material
takes place and allows sublimation cutting. Significantly higher laser powers are necessary to fuse the
laser fusion cutting:
- the laser beam melts the entire plate thickness
(optimum focus point 1/3 below plate surface)
- high reflection losses (>90%)
materials:
- metals, glasses, polymers
material and blow it

out with an inert
gas, as the reflexion loss remains
constant.
cutting gas:
- N2, Ar, He
criterions:
- cutting speed is only 10-15% in comparison to
cutting with oxygen jet, characteristics melting
drag lines
Important
ence
for
influ-
quantities
the
cutting
br-er12-26e.cdr

Beam Cutting Processes II
Figure 12.26
speed and quality

in laser beam cut-
12. Thermal Cutting
173
ting are the focus intensity, the position of the focus point in relation to the plate
surface and the formation of the cutting gas flow. A prerequisite for a high intensity
in the focus is the high beam quality (Gaussian intensity distribution in the beam) with
a high beam power and suitable focussing optics.
Laser beam cutting of contours, especially of pointed corners and narrow root faces,
requires adaptation of the beam power in order to avoid heat accumulation and
burning of the material. In such a case the beam power might be reduced in the continuous wave (CW) operating mode. With a decreasing beam efficiency decreases
the cuttable plate thickness as well. Better suited is the switching of the laser to
pulse mode (standard equipment of
laser evaporation cutting:

- spontaneous evaporation of the material starting from 105 W/cm2
with high absorption rate and deep-penetration effect
- metallic vapour is pressed from the cavity by own vapour
pressure and by a supporting gas flow
materials:
- metals, wood, paper, ceramic, polymer
HF-excited lasers)
where pulse height
can
right
be
selected
up
to
the
height of the con-
cutting gas:
- N2, Ar, He (lens protection)
tinuous
criteria:
- low cutting speed, smooth cut edges, minimum heat input
wave.
super
pulse
equipment
br-er12-27e.cdr
(in-
creased excitation)

Beam Cutting Processes III
allows significantly
higher pulse effi-
Figure 12.27
ciencies to be selected than those
laser
600 W
1500 W
600 W
1500 W
1500 W
steel
achieved with CW.
Cr-Ni-steel
Further
aluminium
of
application for the
plasma
50 A 5 kW
250 A 25 kW
500 A 150 kW
steel
Cr-Ni-steel
aluminium
pulse
pulse
Stahl
Cr-NiStahl
oxy-flame
and
super
operation
mode are punching

10
100
br-er12-28e.cdr
Fields of Application of Cutting Processes
Figure 12.28
fields
1000
and
laser
beam
sublimation cutting.
12. Thermal Cutting
174
Laser beam cutting of aluminium plates thicker than appx. 2 mm does not produce
bur-free results due to a high reflexion property, high heat conductivity and large
temperature
dif-
ferences between
CO2-laser
(1500 W)
Al and Al2O3. The

of
cuttig speeds [m/min]
addition
10
iron
powder allows the

flame
cutting
stainless
of
steels
plasma cutting
(WIPC, 300-600 A)
1
oxygen cutting
(Vadura 1210-A)
(energy input and

0,1
improvement of the
molten-metal
10
vis-
100

br-er12-29e.cdr
cosity). The cutting

quality,
Cutting Speeds of Thermal Cutting Processes
however,
does not meet high
Figure 12.29
standards.
Figure 12.28 shows a comparison of the different plate thicknesses which were cut
using different processes. For the plate thickness range of up to 12 mm (steel plate),
laser beam cutting is the approved precision cutting process. Plasma cutting of plates
> 3 mm allows higher cutting speeds, in comparison to laser beam cutting, the cutting
quality, however,
is
costs [DM/m cut length]
significantly
total costs
lower. Flame cut-
machine costs
ting is used for
cutting
laser
flame cutting
with 3 torches
plasma
> 3 mm, the cutting speeds are,
in comparison to
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
plasma

br-er12-30e.cdr
cutting,
significantly
lower.
Thermal Cutting Costs - Steal
Figure 12.30
plates
With
increasing
an
plate
thickness the dif-
12. Thermal Cutting
175
ference in the cutting speed is reduced. Plates with a thickness of more than 40 mm
may be cut even faster using the flame cutting process.
Figure 12.29 shows the cutting speeds of some thermal cutting processes.
Apart from technological aspects, financial considerations as well determine the application of a certain cutting method. Figures 12.30 and 12.31 show a comparison of
the costs of flame cutting, plasma arc and laser beam cutting the costs per
m/cutting
extract from a costing acc. to VDI 3258
length
and the costs per
flame cutting
(6-8 torches)
plasma cutting
(plasma 300A)
laser beam cutting

(laser 1500W)
170,000.00
220,000.00
500,000.00
investment total
(replacement value)
calculation for a 6-yearaccounting depreciation
/h
23.50
29.00
65.00
maintenance costs
/h
3.50
4.00
10.00
energy costs
/h
1.00
2.50
2.50
production cost unit rate

costs/1 operating hour
/h
65.00
75.00
130.00
operating
The
hour.
high
invest-
ment costs for a

laser beam cutting
equipment
might
be a deterrent to
1 shift, 1600h/year, 80% availability,
utilisation time 1280h/year
exploit
cutting
the
high
qualities
br-er12-31e.cdr
Cost Comparison of Cutting Processes
obtainable with this

process.
Figure 12.31
13.
Special Processes
2003
13. Special Processes
175
Apart from the welding processes explained earlier there is also a multitude of special
welding processes. One of them is stud welding. Figure 13.1 depicts different stud
shapes. Depending
on the application,
the
studs
are
equipped with either internal or external
screw
threads; also studs

with pointed tips or
with
corrugated
shanks are used.
Figure 13.1
In arc stud welding, a distinction is basically made between three process variations. Figure 13.2. depicts the three variations the differences lie in the kind of arc
ignition and in the cycle of motions during the welding process.
Figure 13.2
176
The switching arrangement of an arc stud welding unit is shown in Figure 13.3.
Besides a power source which produces high currents for a short-time, a control as
well as a lifting device are necessary.
Figure 13.3
In drawn-arc stud welding the stud is first mounted onto the plate, Figure 13.4. The
arc is ignited by lifting the stud and melts the entire stud diameter in a short time.
When
stud
and
base
plate
are
fused, the stud is

dipped
into
the
molten weld pool

while the ceramic
ferrule is forming
the weld. After the
solidification of the
liquid weld pool the
ceramic ferrule is
knocked off.
Figure 13.4
177
Figure 13.5 illustrates tip ignition stud welding. The tip melts away immediately
after touching the plate and allows the arc to be ignited. The lifting of the stud is dispensed with. When the stud base is
molten, the stud is positioned onto the
partly molten workpiece.
Studs with diameters of up to 22 mm

can be used. Welding currents of more
than 1000 A are necessary.
The arc stud welding process allows to

join
different
materials,
see
Fig-
ure 13.6. Problematic are the different

melting points and the heat dissipation
of the individual materials. Aluminium
studs, for example, may not be welded
onto steel.
The relatively high welding currents in

the arc stud welding process cause
the
somewhat
troublesome
Figure 13.5
sideeffects of the arc

blow. Figure 13.7
depicts
different
arrangements
current
of
contact
points and cable

runs and illustrates
the developing arc
deflection (B,C,E).
A, D and F show
possible
measures.
Figure 13.6
counter-
178
In high-frequency welding of pipes the energy input into the workpiece may be
carried out via sliding contacts, as shown in Figure 13.8, or via rollers, as shown in
Figure 13.9. Only the high-frequency technique allows a safe current transfer in spite
of the scale or oxide
layers.
Through the skin

effect the current
flows only conditionally at the surface. Therefore no
thorough fusion of
thick-wall
pipes
may be achieved.
Figure 13.7
Figure 13.8
Figure 13.9
179
Only welding of small wall thicknesses

is profitable as the weld speed must
be greatly reduced with increasing wall
thicknesses, Figure 13.10.
In induction welding a process

which is used frequently nowadays
the energy input is received contactless, Figure 13.11. Varying magnetic
fields produce eddy currents inside the
workpiece, which again cause resistance heating in the slotted tube. A
distinction is made between coil inductors (left) and line inductors
(right).
Figure 13.10
Also in case of induction welding flows the current flows only close to the surface areas of the pipe. Only the current part which reaches the joining zone and causes to
fill the gap may be
utilised.
Fig-
ure 13.12
illus-
trates two current

paths. On the left
side:
the
current
useful
path,
on
the right side: the

useless
current
path which does

not contribute to
the fusion of the
Figure 13.11
edges.
180
Figure 13.13 shows

the effective depth
during the inductive
heating for different
materials,
in
de-
pendence
on
the
frequency. As soon
as the Curie temperature
point
is
reached, the effective depth for ferritic

steels increases.
Figure 13.12
Figure 13.13
Figure 13.14
181
The application of
the induction welding method allows
high
welding
speeds
of
than
more
100m/min,
Figure 13.14.
Aluminothermic
fusion welding or
cast
welding
mainly
Figure 13.15
used
joining
is
for
railway
tracks on site. A
crucible is filled with a mixture consisting of aluminium powder and iron oxide. An
exothermal reaction is initiated by an igniter the aluminium oxidises and the iron
oxide is reduced to iron, Figure 13.15. The molten iron flows into a ceramic mould
which matches the
contour
track.
of
the
After
the
melt has cooled,

the
mould
is
knocked off. Figure 13.16

the
process
sembly.
Figure 13.16
shows
as-
182
Explosion welding or explosion

cladding
is
fre-
quently used for

joining dissimilar
materials, as, for
example,
unal-
loyed steel/alloyed
steel,
cop-
per/aluminium
or
steel/aluminium.
The
materials
which are to be
Figure 13.17
joined are pressed

together
by
shock
wave.
Wavy
transitions
develop
in
the
joining area, Figures 13.17
and
13.18.
Figure 13.18
The determined cladding speed must be strictly adhered to during the welding process. If the welding speed is too low, lack of fusion is the result. If the welding speed is
exceeded, the development of the waves in the joining zone is erratic. Figure 13.19
shows the critical cladding speeds for different material combinations.
Figure 13.19
183
Figure 13.20
Figure 13.20 shows a diagrammatic representation of a diffusion welding unit.

Diffusion welding, like ultrasonic welding, is welding in the solid state. The
surfaces which are to be joined are
cleaned, polished and then joined in a
vacuum with pressure and temperature.
After a certain time (minutes, right up to
several days) joining is achieved by diffusion processes.
The advantage of this costly welding

method lies in the possibility of joining
dissimilar materials without taking the risk
of structural transformation due to the
Figure 13.21

heat
input.
ure 13.21
184
Figshows
several
possible
material
combina-
tions. The joining of

two extremely different materials, as,
e.g. austenite and a
zirconium
alloy,
may be obtained by
several
intermedi-
ate layers.
Figure 13.22
Figure 13.22 shows the structure of a joint where nickel, copper and vanadium had
been used as intermediate layers. As the diffusion of the individual components takes
place only in the region close to the surface, very thin layers may be realised.
In cold pressure welding - in contrast to diffusion welding - a deformation is produced by the high contact pressure in the bonding plane, Figure 13.23. The joint
surfaces
are
moved very close

towards
each
other, i.e., to the

atomic
distance.
Through transposition processes as

well
as
through
adhesion
forces
can joining of similar and dissimilar

materials be realFigure 13.23
ised.
185
Ultrasonic welding is used as a microwelding method. The process principle is

shown in Figure 13.24. The surface layers of overlap arranged plates are destroyed
by applying mechanical vibrator energy. At this instance are joining surfaces deformed by very short localised
warming
up
and
point-
interspersed connected. The joining

members are welded under pressure,
where one part small amplitudes (up
to 50 m) relative to the other is
moved with with ultrasonic frequency.
As far as metals are concerned, the
vibratory vector is
in the joining zone, in contrast to ultrasonic welding of plastics. The ultrasonics which have been produced by
a magnetostrictive transducer and
transmitted by a sonotrode lie in the
Figure 13.24
frequency range of 20 up to 60 Hz.
Figure 13.25 shows

possible
material
combinations
ultrasonic
for
weld-
ing.
Further microwelding processes are
methods which are
also called heated
element
welding
methods,
as,
for
example,
nailhead
bonding and wedge
Figure 13.25
186
bonding. These methods are applied in the electronics industry for joining very fine
wires, as, for example, gold wires from microchips with aluminium strip conductors.
In wedge bonding
a wire is positioned
onto
the
contact
point via a feeding

nozzle. The welding
wedge is lowered
and
the
welded
wire
with
is
the
aluminium thin foil,

Figure 13.26.
The
wire is cut with a

cutting tool.
Figure 13.26
In nailhead bonding, the wire which emerges from the feeding nozzle may have diameters from 12 to 100 m. By a reducing hydrogen flame its end is molten to a
globule, Figure 13.27. The nozzle then presses this globule onto the part aimed at
and shapes it into a nail head.
Figure 13.28
de-
picts this type of

weld.
A further method
related to welding
is soldering. The
process
of
principle
soldering
is
briefly explained in
Figure 13.29.
Figure 13.27
187
The individual soldering methods are classified into different mechanisms depending on the type of heating, Figure 13.30. There are two basic distinctions: soft soldering (melting temperature of the solder is approx. up to 450C) and brazing (melting temperature of
the brazing solder is
approx.
up
to
1100C. For hightemperature
sol-
dering solders with

high melting points
(melting
tempera-
ture is approx. up to
1200C) are used.
This process is frequently subject to
automation.
Figure 13.29
Figure 13.28
Figure 13.30
14.
Mechanisation
and Welding Fixtures
2003
14. Mechanisation and Welding Fixtures
188
As the production costs of the metal-working industry are nowadays mainly determined by the costs of labour, many factories are compelled to rationalise their manufacturing methods
Designation
movement/ working cycles
examples
gas-shielded arc welding
TIG
GMAW
torch-/
workpiece
control
filler wire
feeding
workpiece
handling
manually
manually
manually
manually
mechanically
manually
mechanically mechanically
manually
fully
manual welding
m
v
automatic
welding
partially
and
mechanised
production
proc-
esses. In the field
partially
mechanised
welding
t
fully mechanised
welding
by
of
welding
neering
where
consistently
mechanically mechanically mechanically
engia
good
quality with a maximum productivity is
br-er14-01e.cdr
a must, automation
aspects are consequently taken into
Figure 14.1
account.
The levels of mechanisation in welding are stipulated in DIN 1910, part 1.

Distinctions are made with regard to
the type of torch control and to filler
addition and to the type of process sequence, as, e.g., the transport of parts
to the welding point. Figure 14.1 explains the four levels of mechanisation.
Figure 14.2. shows manual welding,

in this case: manual electrode welding. The control of the electrode
and/or the arc is carried out manu-ally.
The filler metal (the consumable elecbr-er14-02e.cdr
trode) is also fed manually to the weld-
ISF 2002
Manual Welding
(Manual Electrode Welding)
ing point.
Figure 14.2

In
189
partially
mechanised welding,
e.g.
gas-
shielded
metal-arc
welding,
the
arc
manipulation is carried out manually,

the filler metal addition, however, is
executed mechanibr-er14-03e.cdr
cally by means of a
wire
feed
Figure 14.3.
Partially Mechanised Welding

(Gas-Shielded Metal-Arc Welding)
motor,
Figure 14.3
In fully mechanised welding, Figure 14.4, an automatic equipment mechanism carries out the welding advance and
thus the torch control. Wire feeding
is
realised
by
means of wire feed

units.
The
pieces
work-
must
positioned
be
manu-
ally in accordance
br-er14-04e.cdr
Fully Mechanised Welding

(Gas-Shielded Metal-Arc Welding)
Figure 14.4
with the direction of

the
moving
ma-
chine support.
In automatic welding, besides the process sequences described above, the workpieces are mechanically positioned at the welding point and, after welding, automatically trans-ported to the next working station. Figure14. 5 shows an example of
automatic welding (assembly line in the car industry).
190
Apart from the actual
welding
de-
vice, that is, the

welding
source,
power
the
filler
metal feeding unit

and
the
simple
torch control units,

there is a variety of
auxiliary
devices
available
which
br-er14-05e.cdr
Automatic Welding (Assembly Line)
facilitate or make
Figure 14.5
the welding process at all possible.

Figure 14.6 shows
assembly line
a survey of the
welding robot
most
important
machine carrier
assisting devices.
linear travelling mechanism

track-mounted welding robots
Before
spindle / sliding head turntable

turn-/ tilt table
welding,
the parts are nor-
dollies
mally aligned and
assembly devices
then tack-welded.
br-er14-06e.cdr
Figure 14.7 depicts

a
simple
welding
Figure 14.6
tackjig
for
pipe clamping. The
lower part of the device has the shape of a prism. This allows to clamp pipes with
different diameters.
Devices, however, may be significantly more complex. Figure 14.8 shows an example of an assembly equipment used in car body manufacturing. This type of device
allows to fix complex parts at several points. Thus a defined position of any weld
seam is reproducible.
191
In apparatus engineering
and
tank
construction it is often
necessary
to
rotate the components,
e.g.,
when
welding circumferential
seams.
The
equipment should be
as versatile as posbr-er14-07e.cdr
Simple Tack Welding Jig for

Welding Circumferential Welds
sible and suit several tank diameters.

Figure 14.9
Figure 14.7
shows
three types of turning rolls which fulfil

the demands. Figure
1 portal with 2 industrial
robots IR 400, equipped
with tool change system
2 resting transformer
welding tongs
3 depot of welding tongs
4 clamping tool
5 copper back-up bar for
car roof welding
6 transformer welding tongs
for car roof welding
7 driverless transport system
8 component support frame
9 swivelled support for
component support frames
10 resting transformer welding
tongs for car boot
br-er14-08e.cdr
top: the rollers are

adjustable;
middle: the rollers

automatically adapt
to the tank diameter;
Figure bottom: the
roller spacing may
be varied by a scissor-like
Figure 17.8
Figure
arrange-
ment.
In general, dollies are motor-driven. This provides also an effortless movement of

heavy components, Figure 14.10.
192
set of rollers 2
set of rollers 1
br-er14-09e.cdr
br-er14-10e.cdr
Turning Rolls
Turning Rolls
Figure 14.9
Figure 14.10
A work piece positioner, e.g. a turn-tilt-table, is part of the standard equipment of a

robot working station. Figure 14.11 shows a diagrammatic representation of a turntilt-table. Rotations
table top
rotational axis
gear segment
table support
tilting axis
around the tilting

axis
of
approx.
135 are possible
support
while the turn-table

can be turned by
365. Those types
of turn-tables are
designed for working
parts
with
br-er14-11e.cdr
weights of just a
few kilograms right
Figure 14.11
up to several hundred tons.
193
A turn-tilt table with

hydraulic adjustment
of the tilting and vertical motion as well
as chucking grooves
for the part fixture is
depicted
in
Fig-
ure 14.12.
br-er14-12e.cdr
Turn-Tilt-Table With Hydraulic Adjustment
Figure 14.12
In robot technology the types of turn-tilt-tables - as shown in Figure 14.13 - are gaining importance. Positioners with orbital design have a decisive advantage because the component, when turning around the tilting axis, remains approx. equally
distant to the welding robot.
single-column turn-tilt-table
table top
table support
orbital turn-tilt-table
table top
tilting axis
support
tilting axis
support
rotational axis
rotational axis
ISF 2002
br-er14-13e.cdr
Turn-Tilt-Tables
Figure 14.13
table support
194
Other types of workpiece positioners are shown in Figure 14.14 the double column turn-tilt-table and the spindle and sliding holder turn-tilt-table. Those types
of positioners are used for special component geometries and allow welding of any
seam in the flat and in the horizontal position.
tilting axis
rotational axis
table top
table support
support
ISF 2002
br-er14-14e.cdr
Double-Column Turn-Tilt-Table
Figure 14.14
table tops
spindle holder
sliding holder
bed way
ISF 2002
br-er14-15e.cdr
Spindle / Sliding Holder Turntable
Figure 14.15
In the field of welding, special units are designed for special tasks. Figure 14.16
shows a pipe-flange-welding machine. This machine allows the welding of flanges
to a pipe. The weld head has to be guided to follow the seam contour.
195
br-er14-16e.cdr
Figure 14.16
Plain plates or rounded tanks are clamped by means of longitudinal jigs for the
welding of a longitudinal seam, Figure 14.17. The design and the gripping power are
very dependent of the thickness of the plates to be welded.
br-er14-17e.cdr
Figure 14.17
A simple example of a special welding machine is the tractor travelling carriage for
submerged-arc welding, Figure 14.18. This device is designed for the application
196
on-site and provides, besides the supply of the filler metal, also the welding
speed as well as the feeding and
suction of the welding flux.
For the guidance of a welding head

and/or welding device, machine supports may be used. Figure 14.19
shows different types of machine
supports for welding and cutting.
Apart from the translatory and rotary
principal axes they are often also
equipped with additional axes to allow
precise positioning.
br-er14-18e.cdr
Tractor for Submerged-Arc Welding
To increase levels of mechanisation

of welding processes robots are fre-
Figure 14.18
quently
applied.
Robots are handling
boom
main piloting system case
devices which are
pillar
equipped with more
travelling mechanism
than
three
axes. Figure 14.20
auxiliary piloting system case
kine-
auxiliary piloting system case
matic chains which

can be realised by
different
cross piloting
system case
user-
programmable
describes
br-er14-19e.cdr
combina-
tions of translatory
and rotary axes.
Figure 14.19
designation
cartesian
robot
cylinder
coordinated
robot
197
spherical
coordinated
robot
horizontal
knuckle arm
robot
vertical
knuckle arm
robot
arrangement
kinematic
schedule
z
y
z
C
C
z
operating
space
ISF 2002
br-er14-20e.cdr
Kinematic Chains
Figure 14.20
The most common design of a trackmounted welding robot is shown in

Figure 14.21. The robot depicted here
is a hinged-arm robot with six axes.
The axes are divided into three principal and three additional axes or hand
axes. The wire feed unit and the spool
carriers for the wire electrodes are
often fixed on the robot. This allows a
compact welding design.
br-er14-21e.cdr
Robot Motions
Figure 14.21
198
Varying lever lengths permit the design of robots with different operating ranges.
Figure 14.22 shows the operating range of a robot. In the unrestricted operating
range the component may be reached with the torch in any position. The restricted
operating
range
allows the torch to

reach the component
only
certain
positions.
In
the
case
sus-
of
pended
arrange-
ment
the
robot
fixing
device
is
shortened thus albr-er14-22e.cdr
lowing a compact
design.
Figure 14.22
For the completion of a robot welding station workpiece positioners are necessary.
Figure 14.23 shows positioner devices where also several axes may be combined.
These axes may either turn to certain defined positions or be guided by the robot
control and moved
synchronically with
the internal axes.
The complexity and
versatility
of
the
axis positions increases
with
number
of
the
axes
which participate in
the movement.
br-er14-23e.cdr
Figure 14.23
199
Movement by means of a linear travelling mechanism increases the operating

range of the robot, Figure 14.24. This may be done in ease of stationary as well as
suspended arrangement, where there is a possibility to move to fixed end positions or
to stay in a synchronised motion with the other movement axes.
br-er14-24e.cdr
Figure 14.24
15.
Welding Robots
2003
15. Welding Robots
200
Increased quality requirements for products and the trend to automate production
processes along with increased profitability result in the use of industrial robots in
modern
manufac-
turing, Figures 15.1

15.2. Since robots
have
been
introduced
in
in-
dustry in the 70s,

their
most
quently
fre-
fields
of
application ranged
from
installation
jobs up to spot
welding, and seam
Figure 15.1
welding.
The definition says that an industrial robot for gas welding is an universal movement
automaton with more than three axes which are user-programmable and may be
sensor-controlled. It is equipped with a welding torch and carries out welding jobs.
Core of a modern robot welding cell are one or more seam welding robots of swan
neck type. Normally, they have six user-programmable axes; so they can access any
point
within
the
working range at
any orientation of
the welding torch.
To
extend
working
their
range,
robots may be installed in overhead

position. A further
extension
of
the
working range can

be
Figure 15.2
achieved
by
15. Welding Robots
201
installation of the robot onto a linear carriage with Cartesian axes. Such 'external'
axes are also user-programmable, Figure 15.3.
To turn the workpiece in the welding-favourable downhand position and to ensure

accessibility to any joints, workpiece positioners are used as external axes which are
steered by the robot control. Multistation cycle tables
are often used to
increase profitability of the complete
system installation.
The operator feeds
and removes the
welded workpiece
on one side, while
the robot is welding
on the other side.
Figure 15.3
The robot control is the centre of an industrial robot system for arc welding, Figure
15.4. It provides and processes all information for robot mechanics, positioner, welding unit, safety equipment, and external sensors. The robot program transforms information into signals for control of
robot-
and
posi-
tioner-mechanics as
well
as
power
welding
source.
Communication
with external systems is possible by
a host or master
computer.
Figure 15.4
15. Welding Robots
202
Modern industrial robot controls are build as multi-processor controls due to the multitude of parallel calculations and control functions. Figure 15.5 shows the internal
structure of such a control. Individual assemblies which are designed for special jobs
and equipped with an own micro-processor are linked with the host computer via the
system bus. The host controls and coordinates the actions of the components based
on the operating system and the robot program. Examples of such assemblies, which
are mostly installed on individual printed boards, are e.g. the axes computers. They
are responsible for
calculation
of
movement and for

control of power
units of the individual
axes.
To
control the drive

motors, two interconnected control
loops per axis are
available
which
control speed and

position of each
Figure 15.5
axis.
Further
assemblies
control the display

screen, the manual
programming
unit
(PHG);
these
as-
are
re-
semblies
sponsible
for
communication with
the welding power
source,
external
sensors, and peripheral units via digital

Figure 15.6
15. Welding Robots
203
and analogue in- and outputs and field bus systems. Or they complete the data
transmission with external control systems. To reduce downtimes in the case of malfunction, some robot controls can be connected via internet with telediagnosis systems of the robot manufacturer to support service personnel during troubleshooting
and commissioning.
Programming of welding robots can be carried out in different ways which are distinguished in On-Line (programming at the robot) and Off-Line (programming out of the
robot cell), Figure 15.6.
The robot is manually guided along the later track with decoupled drives during PlayBack programming. The path of the track is recorded and transformed into a corresponding robot control program. This procedure is preferably used for painting jobs.
A common technique to program a robot is the Teach-In procedure. During Teach-In

programming, with the help of the manual programming unit, the welding torch is
moved to notable points of the groove to be welded which are stored with information
about position and orientation. In addition, track parameters must be entered, like
e.g. type of movement and speed or welding parameter sets.
During sensor supported Teach-In programming, the path progress through some
typical points is only roughly indicated. Then the accurate path is picked-up by sensors
and
auto-
matically
calcu-
lated in the robot

steering
control.
Afterwards
the
movement
pro-
gram is supplemented
by
additional information
about
e.g.
welding parameter
sets.
Figure 15.7
15. Welding Robots
204
Textual programming belongs to mixed procedures. The sequence program in form

of a text file is created on an external computer and is then transmitted to the robot
steering control, Figure 15.7. The recording of the position of points is carried out in
the same way as with Teach-In programming: moving into position and recording.
Macro-programming is also regarded as a mixed method which shortens programming time at the robot, Figure 15.8. Macros are structured processing sequences
which are created online to fulfil working functions and which can be repeated for further similar working functions. Geometry macros contain information about torch
guidance to produce certain joints
or joint sections.
Welding
technol-
ogy parameters for

individual
welding
situations
are
summarised
welding
This
Figure 15.8
in
macros.
applies
for
torch
positioning,
torch
inclination,
relative position of
beads to root and
welding
parame-
ters.
Using a collection
(can
be
created
online or offline) of
such macros, the
programming time
can be shortened
for workpieces with
often
Figure 15.9
repeated
15. Welding Robots
205
welding jobs, e.g. steel construction when welding stiffeners and head plates
Using offline programming practice, the programming work is shifted out from the
producing robot cell. This avoids unproductive stoppages and allows for economicviable, limited number of pieces to be reduced.
During textual programming, the 3-dimensional point coordinates and torch orientations are entered into an external computer in a manufacturer-specific program language. To achieve a complete program sequence, each instruction must be entered
individually.
The graphical offline programming uses CAD data for modelling the complete robot
working cell and parts to be welded. Planning of the path is carried out with CAD
functions directly at the workpiece which is displayed on a screen. In most cases, the
programming systems provide a graphical simulation of the movement, e.g. to check
for collisions between
torch
workpiece,
and
Figure
15.9. For the following transformation of the program

into the robot control, a calibration
between
model
and physical robot

working cell is required.
Figure 15.10
In the case of knowledge-based offline programming, the operator is supported by

integrated expert systems when it comes to creation of robot welding programs, e.g.
for determination of job-specific welding parameters. However, checking and adapting the program must be carried out by the operator.
Modern robot controls provide the programmer with some functions for movement
control and for modification of program sequence, Figure 15.10. PTP movement
(point to point) serves to move the robot in the space. All axes are controlled in such
15. Welding Robots
206
a way that they reach their set-point at the same time. Thereby the actual path of the
torch depends on kinematics of the robot and on current position of the axes.
A linear interpolation (CP procedure, continuous Path), Figure 15.11, is used for accurate movement along a straight line, e.g. movement to weld start point or welding.
The active point of
the tool 'arc' (ToolCentre-Point, TCP)
is moved along a
straight
tween
line
be-
two
grammed
propoints,
adapting torch angle and torch inclination between the

two points.
Figure 15.11
Circles and graduated circles are entered by means of circle interpolation programs,
Figure 15.12. Then the orientation of the torch can be adapted through turning the
knuckle axis or 6th axis of the robot and the value of spill-weld at the end of the seam
can be indicated.
Speed of the torch

is
user-
programmable and,
if required, can be
superimposed
by
an
To
oscillation.
control the program

run, commands are
available
for:
re-
peated loops, conFigure 15.12
15. Welding Robots
207
ditional and unconditional program jumps, waiting periods, waiting for inputs, and
working with sub-programs.
The software of modern seam welding robots contains as special functions 3dimansional transfor-mations and mirroring of programs and partial programs, palletising
functions,
processing sensor
data
and
com-
mands for communication with other

robot
controls
(Master/Slave
op-
eration) as well as
with external computers,
15.13.
Figure 15.13
Figure
16.
Sensors
2003
16. Sensors
208
The welding process is exposed to disturbances like misalignment of workpiece, inaccurate preparation, machine and device tolerances, and proess disturbances,
Figure 16.1.
The manual welder notices them by eyesight and corrects them manually according
to strategies learned and gained by experience. To record process irregularities and
path deviations, a fully mechanised welding plant requires sensors providing control
signals which are then used in accordance with implemented rules. Using corresponding control elements, the control loop is closed for the welding process.
Scopes of duty of
the sensors is finding the weld start
point
and
seam
tracking. In addition,
with the help of information
joint
about
geometry,
process parameters
can
be
adapted
online and offline.

The ideal sensor for
Figure 16.1
a robot application
should measure the
welding
point
(avoidance of tracking
misalignment),
detect in advance
(finding
the
start
point of the seam,

recognising
ners,
collisions)
coravoiding
and
should be as small
Figure 16.2
16. Sensors
209
as possible (no restriction in accessibility). The ideal sensor which combines all three
requirements, does not yet exist, therefore one must select a sensor which is suitable
for
the
welding
individual
job.
Fig-
ure 16.2
shows
different
sensor
principles used in
welding
ing.
engineer-
The
most
frequently used systems in practice are

tactile, optical, and
arc based sensor
systems with mechanical
arc
Figure 16.3
adjustment.
With tactile scanning systems, the

simplest type of scanning is a mechanical sensor. Pins, rollers, balls, or
similar devices may be used as sensors.
Such scanning systems show a long

distance between sensor and torch,
the application range is limited. Only
grooves with large dimensions and
relatively straight seam path can be
scanned with these systems. Figure 16.3 shows some examples of
different groove geometries.
Tactile sensors can recognise 3dimensional offsets of the workpiece.

Figure 16.4
16. Sensors
210
Through scanning of three levels the 3-dimensional point of intersection can be calculated and the robot program for correcting the deviation can be shifted accordingly
thus finding the start point of the weld. In this case, the gas nozzle of the torch serves
as a sensor, Figure 16.4, which is charged with electrical tension. As soon as the
torch touches the workpiece, a current flows, which is then taken by the robot control
as a signal for obtaining the level to be scanned.
Inductive sensors are graded as non-contact measurement systems. Due to their

function principle, they can be applied for metallic and electrically conductive materials. The simplest type is a ring coil. If alternating current flows though the coil, ,a
magnetic field is generated close to the workpiece.
When the coil approaches the workpiece surface, the magnetic field weakens. Figure 16.5 shows the
distancedependent electrical
signal.
Such
simple sensors are

used to recognise
the workpiece position.
Using
several
distance
sensors,
also
welding
groove
can be scanned.
Figure 16.5
With multi-coil arrangements in one sensor, the position of the welding groove, the
angle between sensor and workpiece surface and the distance can be recorded. Figure 16.6 shows a principle arrangement. A transmitter coil generates an magnetically
alternating field which induces
alternating currents in the two receiver coils. In the undisturbed case, these currents
are phase-shifted by 180 and neutralise each other. If the sensor is moved crosswise to the groove, magnetical asymmetries will occur in the scanning area, which
16. Sensors
211
will show in the presented signal shape. The output signal will be zero, if the coils are
positioned exactly above the centre of the groove.
The radar sensor in Figure 16.6 uses Doppler's effect to generate a signal. Here the
phase difference between transmitter signal and receiving signal is evaluated.
A mathematical process transforms such signals into distance values. To record the
position and the depth of the groove, the sensor must be continuously moved along
the seam. Radar sensors form a so called radar baton, which is focussed onto a
measurement spot of about 0,7 mm diameter for this application. Figure 16.6 shows
the sensor signal,
which
represents
the relative movement
along
the
workpiece. At the
moment, the characteristic values of
the
weld
groove
can be determined
with a resolution in
the range of 1/10
mm.
Figure 16.6
Arc sensors evaluate the continuous
change
welding
of
the
current
with a change of
the contact tip-towork distance, Figure 16.7. A signal
for side control of
the torch is determined
by
measurement and
Figure 16.7
16. Sensors
212
subtraction of the currents on the flanks of a groove. A comparison between actual

welding current and programmed rated current provides a signal for distance control
of the welding torch.
To let this sensor method work, a divergence of the arc or the use of a second arc is
required.
To realise this principle, there are numerous possibili-ties. Figure 16.8 shows some
variants of signal recording. The most frequently used method is a mechanical oscillation of the welding torch, which is carried out by a rotor movement with an
oscillation frequency
up to 5 Hz.
The second method
is mainly used with
submerged
arc
welding. Both wires

are aligned crossways
to
direction
welding
and
the
difference of the two

currents
is
evalu-
ated.
Figure 16.8
Magnetic fields can diverge only the arc itself. The advantage of this method is a high
divergence frequency of about 15 Hz. A disadvantage is the size of the electromagnets and the limited accessibility to the workpiece.
The last variant of an arc sensor incorporates a mechanical rotation of the welding
wire. In this case, the divergence frequency of the arc can reach up to 30 Hz.
The signal recording is continuous during the movement. In this way, information
about orientation of the torch and groove width is also provided. The arc sensor principle is limited to groove shapes with clear flanks. Together with the tactile torch gas
nozzle sensor, it provides a frequently used combination for seam finding and seam
tracking during robot welding.
16. Sensors
213
Optical sensors can be used for a great number of jobs. The easiest method is the
recognition
of
the
radiation
intensity,
which
reflected
is
during welding.
E.g. with laser beam
welding, this is carried
out
recording
flected
through
the
relaser
radiation with simple

sensors for control
of
penetration
depth, Figure 16.9.
Figure 16.9
The procedure is based on the line-up between the degree of reflection and shaft
relation (penetration depth/focus position) of the capillary. The amount of backreflection of the laser beam power is measured, which due to multi-reflection is not
absorbed by the workpiece. Changes of penetration depth due to modified laser
power or a shifted focus position can be identified by the signal of reflected laser
power and can be used for control of the penetration depth.
However, optical sensors can also be used for measuring geometrical values. Such
information may be used for finding the start point of a seam, for seam tracking, and
for identification of groove profile. The two last mentioned functions provide the possibility to use the information for filling rate control and/or quality control.
Geometry-measuring optical sensors are normally external systems, which are positioned in front of the torch as a leading element. It is practical to equip the sensor with
additional axes, because both, torch and sensor, must be moved along the groove.
Without additional axes, a robot would be limited in its accessibility to the workpiece
and in its working range. Another problem is the tremendous effort to introduce the
control-technical integration into the robot control. Among other things, information
must be exchanged in real time.
16. Sensors
214
Most of geometry-measuring sensors

use the triangulation principle or a
variant of this measurement procedure. The triangulation measurement
procedure provides information about
the distance to the workpiece surface.
A light spot is projected onto the
workpiece surface and displayed to a
line-type receiver element under a
certain angle. With distance changes
emerge corresponding positions on
the receiver element, Figure 16.10.
Sensors which use this triangulation
principle are applied for recognition of
workpiece position and for offline
seam finding.
Figure 16.10
Both, the laser scanner and the light-section procedure are based on the triangulation measurement principle. With the laser scanner, Figure 16.11, this principle is
complemen-ted by an oscillating axis in parallel to the groove axis. The measurement
of a sequence of
distances along a
line becomes possible and provides a
2-dimensional
re-
cord and evaluation

of the groove contours.
Sensors as part of
the
light-section
procedure,
also
Figure 16.11
16. Sensors
215
provide information about the 2-dimensional position of the groove. As a function of

this system, one or more light lines are projected onto the workpiece surface and displayed to a CCD matrix under a certain angle, Figure 16.12. In contrast to scanning,
information about the groove profile is provided by taking a picture scene. Using sensors, it is pssible to obtain additional 3-dimensional information through evaluation of
more, in succession taken, while the camera moves over the grooves. Systems,
which generate their information through a projection of several light lines, provide
additional information about the path of the seam and the orientation of the sensor
related to the workpiece surface.
Both,
scanning
systems and sensors based on the

light section procedure, can be used
for recognition of
the welded seam to
make
an
automised
quality
control of the outer

weld
characteris-
tics possible.
Figure 16.12
Another
optical
measurement
prin-
ciple uses, similar to

human
sight,
the
stereo procedure to
record
geometry
information
the
weld
Two
optics
the
across
groove.
independent
photograph
interesting
Figure 16.13
16. Sensors
216
groove area and displays them onto two image converter elements (CCD-lines or
CCD-matrix). Based on the corresponding image points in both picture scenes, the 3dimensional position of object points is evaluated. Figure 16.13 shows the measurement principle, which uses CCD lines as image converter elements, and idealised
signals for generating information. The grey scale drop in the signal is ideally used as
corresponding image area, which occurs with butt welds due to different reflection
intensity between workpiece surface and gap. Both, the lateral position of the groove
and the distance to the sensor can be determined by evaluating the centre positions
of both signal drops. The width of the groove is taken from the width of the signal
drop.
Optical sensors may also be used for geometrical recognition of the weld pool, to
adapt process parame-ters in the case of possible deviations. Figure 16.14 depicts
such a system for use with laser beam welding. The welding process is monitored by
a CCD camera through a filter system. An optical filter allows to observe the weld
pool surface without disturbing effects of the plasma in the near infrared spectrum.
Picture data are transferred to an image processing computer which measures the
geometry of the weld pool. Geometry data contain information which is used online
for control of the
welding
process.
Among
others,
penetration
depth
and focus position

can be controlled.
The
system
also
provides the recognition of protrusionwelded joints and

welding defects like
e.g.
molten
ejections.
pool
Figure 16.14
16. Sensors
217
During electron beam welding, the beam is in combination with a detector used for
both, to carry out a seam tracking and a monitoring of the welded seam. For this, the
beam can be diverged as well as bent, Figure 16.15. Backscattered electrons are
recognised by a special detector and converted into grey values. The line or area
surface scanning by the spotted electron beam provides a progressive series of
greys across the scanned line or area. During electron beam welding, these signals
can be used for
seam tracking by
scanning an edge
which is parallel to
the
groove.
The
area-type scanning
provides the possibility
for
observing
the
welded
seam
or
the focus position.

Figure 16.15
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Schweien und Schneiden 37, 1985, Heft 2
Draugelates, U. u. J. Krohn
Plasma-Heidraht-Auftragschwei8en von Hartlegierungen
DVS-Bericht Band 81
DVS-Merkbltter, Widerstandsschweitechnik, Fachbuchreihe Schwei8technik Band 68/III
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DVS-Verlag GmbH, Dsseldorf Mai 1991
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ISF Welding Institute

RWTH Aachen University

Prof. Dr.Ing. U. Dilthey

Manual Metal Arc Welding

Submerged Arc Welding

TIG Welding and

Gas Shielded Metal Arc Welding

Narrow Gap Welding,

Resistance Spot Welding,

Electron Beam Welding

Laser Beam Welding

Surfacing and Shape Welding

Mechanisation and Welding Fixtures

Production Processes acc. to DIN 8580

Welding: permanent, positive joining

especially in the case of dynamic

Joining by Welding acc. to DIN 1910

Joining by Welding acc. to DIN 1910

is still applied for its flexibility and mo4

bility. Equipment for oxyacetylene

oxygen cylinder with pressure reducer

density in normal state [kg/m ]

ignition temperature [OC]

ral gas; here C3H8 has the highest

calorific value. The highest flame in-

tensity from point of view of calorific

value and flame propagation speed is,

flame temperature with O2

C2H2, lighting gas, H2, C3H8 and natu-

however, obtained with C2H2.

1.2. Suitable combustible gases are

oxygen and a combustible gas, Figure

exothermal chemical reaction between

Process energy is obtained from the

generators by the exothermal transformation of calcium carbide with wa-

ter, Figure 1.3. Carbide is obtained

C2H2 tends to decompose already at

commercial quantities can be stored

when C2H2 is dissolved in acetone

more than 1.8 MPa, i.e., with a filling

der (40 l). For gas exchange (storage

a larger surface is necessary, therefore

the gas cylinders are filled with a po-

rous mass (diatomite). Gas consump-

tion during welding can be observed

of liquid air and

with a filling pres-

For higher oxygen

age in a liquid state

Principle of Oxygen Extraction

and cold gasification is more profit-

The standard cylinder (40 l) contains,

at a filling pressure of 15 MPa, 6m of

O2 (pressureless state), Figure 1.6.

Moreover, cylinders with contents of

p = cylinder pressure : 200 bar

10 or 20 l (15 MPa) as well as 50 l at

20 MPa are common. Gas consumpcontent control

tion can be calculated from the pres-

sure difference by means of the gen-

eral gas equation.

different designs. Oxygen cylinder connections

valves are equipped

with screw clamp