EDN509 Inclusive Education: Contemporary Perspectives and Practices

Final Assignment Literature Review

Keeley OGrady

32549854

Topic 4: Learning difficulties and Learning disorders

Strategies to assist pre-service teachers identifying

learning difficulties, with particular emphasis on the
impact of undiagnosed difficulties on the science
classroom/laboratory.
Introduction:
Learning Difficulties and Disabilities have a large impact on student learning in schools
world-wide. They affect a large number of students and negatively impact their academic,
behavioural, emotional and social lives in a number of ways. Learning difficulties may persist
into adulthood, hindering employment and personal achievement and becoming more
difficult to diagnose and treat. And yet diagnosis remains a complicated and ill-defined minefield. Definitions and policies vary between locations and over time, and largely rely on
parents or teachers recognising indicators that are also symptomatic for a vast range of issues.
There is no simple test, nor a blanket assessment that all students are tested against.
Diagnosis is a multistep process that involves parents, teachers, students, school staff,
psychologists and other professionals detecting symptoms, evaluating student performance
and eliminating other possibilities. Treatment is equally complex, with long-term, regular and
varied treatments needed for effective results. In this paper I hope to explore some of the
barriers to effective diagnosis and simple strategies to assist inexperienced teachers navigate
it.

Defining Learning Difficulties and Learning Disabilities:

Definitions of learning difficulties and learning disabilities vary enormously. Tariq 2010 for
example defines learning difficulties as students with an IQ greater than 80 and deficits in at
least one area of academic achievement associated with specific cognitive impairments such
as short term memory problems, poor auditory discrimination ability, visio-perceptual
problem and the like (Tariq 2010). This is similar to the discrepancy model that was
previously utilised in America. In contrast, Learning Difficulties Australia defines learning
difficulties as students who experience significant difficulties in learning and making
progress in school, but who do not have a documented disability, while only defining
learning disabilities as more severe and long lasting learning difficulties (Learning
Difficulties Australia 2013). Westwood states that it is common in Australia to combine the
two, using the umbrella phrase learning difficulties to include all learning problems including
both general learning difficulties and specific learning disabilities (Westwood 2008). The
Australian Psychological society defines Specific Learning Disabilities differently again, as
issues with learning that affect how people take in, remember, understand or express

information, and that affect achievement or daily life skills (Australian Psychological Society
2015). In America specific learning disabilities are defined for the purposes of funding under
the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) as neurologically-based processing
problems that interfere with basic or higher level skills, are life-long, inconsistent with the
students average or above average intelligence, and present in the absence of other
medical/environmental handicaps (Learning Disabilities Association of America 2015).
While definitions do vary, and there is no consensus around a particular disorder, many
definitions include similar criteria. As such, for this research I will use the term learning
disorder to include both general learning difficulties and specific learning disabilities, as they
are defined here:
Specific Learning Disability: specific, severe and persistent difficulties in learning
that occur despite proper instruction and in the absence of
physical/intellectual/emotional/cultural/economic factors and handicaps (Karande et
al 2005 as cited in Westwood 2008), (Learning Difficulties Australia 2011), (Klotz &
Canter 2007), (Wren & Segal 1998).
General Learning Difficulties: persistent lack of success that may be general across
many academic fields that occur in the absence of physical/sensory or intellectual
Impairment or other disabilities. Students may have below average intelligence or
emotional/cultural/economic factors affecting them (Banner 2015a).

General Learning difficulties include a vast range of learning difficulties including issues
with reading, mathematics, auditory processing, organisational skills, sequencing, abstraction,
short term memory, language or motor skills (Banner 2015a). Generally this may manifest
with issues with recognition and correct usage of language, sounds and symbols; with types
of thinking such as abstract concepts, ordering or organising ideas, or seeing the big picture;
with fluency, memory and timing; or with detecting and understanding subtle signals such as
body language or sarcasm (Banner 2015a).
Learning disabilities compose a range of problems which can be generally divided into four
groups: problems with written expression (dysgraphia), with processing language (dyslexia),
with mathematical skills and concepts (dyscalculia) and with gross and/or fine motor skills
(dyspraxia). Each of these groups is an umbrella term for a range of problems, although
issues with reading and spelling are most common (Australian Psychological Society 2015).
It is possible that this is due to easier diagnosis and more keen observation of these skills
rather than more frequent occurrence. Disabilities may present in only one subject area or
across many subjects (Australian Psychological Society 2015). Even within these groups,
students are not homogenous. There are subgroups based on similar sets of symptoms, such
as dysphonesia and dyseidesia within dyslexia (Dyslexia Australia 2013). Additionally, just as
all students learn in different ways, they may experience learning disorders in different ways,
with different sets of symptoms and strengths (Dyslexia Australia 2013). Please refer to
Appendix A, Learning Disorders Indicators for a comprehensive list of possible symptoms.
Learning Difficulties and Learning disabilities may be very difficult to differentiate, as they
often manifest in very similar symptoms. However it is generally not necessary to do so, as
they also share similar treatments. In some countries a diagnosis differentiating between the
two is necessary to access funding and resources, however in Australia that is not the case.

Students with learning difficulties and learning disabilities can both access the same
resources and support (Westwood 2008). However, under the student-centred funding model
funding is provided based on the needs of the student, so a proper evaluation is essential to
get the most effective help for a particular student (Department of Education 2015). There
remains confusion and inconsistency across Australia as to whether a formal diagnosis is
required for addressing Learning Difficulties and Disabilities (ACT Government Education
and Training 2013).

Causes of Learning Disorders:

General learning difficulties can result from many causes, generally those factors that make
students underprepared for learning in a typical classroom. This may include: a poor grasp of
English, cultural differences, poor attitudes to learning, poor attitudes to self (self-esteem and
attributional beliefs in particular) inappropriate curriculum and/or teaching (both current and
in the past), emotional disorders such as depression or anxiety, poor metacognition and
learning skills, bullying or harassment, disruptive family life, irregular access to schooling,
socioeconomic disadvantage or lack of positive supports (Wren & Segal, 1998), (Westwood
2008), (Banner 2015b). The increased frequency of difficulties with reading and writing may
also be related to a decline in literacy linked to increasing technology dependence and lower
rates of reading amongst youth. Reading and mathematics, areas of common difficulty, are
more influenced by teaching methods than other subjects (Westwood 2007). Specific learning
disabilities, in contrast, are thought to be due to neurological processing disorders, where
students have the physical capability to do something (e.g. they do not have leg
injuries/deafness etc.) but are unable to (NIH National Institute of neurological disorders and
stroke 2015). One theory is that there is a deficit in collecting, interpreting, storing,
modifying and/or retrieving information within the brain, such as an inability to access
previously learnt knowledge or strategies while learning (Westwood 2008). There is no
definite cause, but a genetic component is one possibility (Australian Psychological Society
2015).

Effects on students:
Learning disorders have many negative consequences on students, academically, socially and
emotionally. Academically the effects vary depending on the particular difficulty or disability,
but generally involve slower progress and poor or variable performance.
The emotional effects are often not considered by others but can be just as disruptive. The
chronic failure and struggle can have serious effects on their morale and self perception, and
are often worse if the students does not know they have a learning disorder. They may be
unable to separate failure in their work from failure as a person (Westwood 2007). Students
often develop low motivation, low self-esteem, poor attitudes to their own abilities and to
learning, frustration and anger at themselves/others or the work itself, depression, stress,
anxiety, confusion, embarrassment, reduced confidence, disengagement and learned
helplessness (Banner 2015a), (Wren & Segal 1998), (Tariq 2010), (Westwood 2007). Students
often find work difficult and thus must work harder than everyone else, often developing
perfectionist or workaholic tendencies or unusual study techniques (Wren & Segal 1998).

Alternately they may avoid difficult tasks, not apply for courses/classes, or quit education all
together (Wren & Segal 1998), (Tariq 2010) as a defence against being seen to fail, by others
and by themselves (Westwood 2007). Emotional disturbances such as anxiety and depression
are both cause and effect of learning disorders. They can hinder learning, which in turn makes
students feel less competent and exacerbates emotional disturbances further, which in turn
hinders learning further, forming a vicious cycle (Westwood 2007). The longer the difficulty
goes undiagnosed, the further behind in their learning students become (Australian
Psychological Society 2015). Students miss out on foundational skills and thus increasingly
struggle to keep up, and early failure negatively impacts self-belief and attitudes to learning,
reducing their ability to learn (Westwood 2007). Studies show that failure in early years is
strongly correlated with failure later on in one study 50% of students with literacy problems
at 7 demonstrated the same problems at 15 (Hay et al 2005, as cited in Westwood 2007). As
adults these effects continue and affect them in the workplace. Workplaces are increasingly
requiring written and other assessments. These can be difficult for adults with learning
disorders, resulting in poor performance reviews, failing requirements for tasks, reduced
earnings and missed promotions (Dyslexia Australia 2013).
As well as academic and emotional effects, students with learning disorders also have
disruptions to behaviour and social skills. Students often become socially inept, shy, nervous,
annoying, needy, aggressive or provocative, hindering their ability to form social
relationships (Westwood 2007). They are often bullied, shunned, teased or neglected by peers
(Westwood 2007). Students may be less capable of: advocating for themselves, inferring
meaning from communication, solving social problems, adapting to new social situations and
expressing themselves (Banner 2015a).

The particular difficulties posed by Learning Disorders in higher science classes:

As students progress from primary school into high school, academic demands upon them
increase. Not only is there more content across more different subject areas, it is taught at a
faster pace and in more difficult ways: there is often more demand for calculation, abstraction
and assessment and less time for discovery or active learning. Science is particularly difficult
in this respect, as it requires more factual information that may at first seem disconnected,
and yet students also need to be able to link concepts, summarise the big picture and think
abstractly. There are numerous sub-fields within science such as ecology, genetics, chemistry,
physics, each of which requires a foundational base of factual knowledge before concepts can
be properly understood. Science also poses particular risks through experiments and
laboratory classes. Chemicals, sharp instruments, open flames, and other dangers are
managed carefully. If students struggle with motor skills, perception, hearing/reading
warnings or with following instructions, there is a real risk of harm. Additionally, it is
especially important to be able to follow detailed instructions in a laboratory, as failing to do
so can be unsafe or invalidate students results. Due to restrictive time, supervision and
resources, and the fact that the whole class is generally involved, experiments usually cannot
be repeated if a student misses or fails to correctly complete one. All of these factors make
struggling with a learning difficulty or disability particularly difficult in a high school science
class. The situation worsens further once students leave school for university or the
workplace. University or the workplace often require much higher levels of basic skills
(Wren & Segal 1998) and success is largely up to the student. There is minimal observation

of skills, few resources available to the undiagnosed, and the environment is almost entirely
student-directed; it is up to the students to complete tasks in whatever way they choose, up to
them to seek help or recognise there is a problem.

Perspectives on learning disabilities

While identification is essential for students to access assistance, it also identifies students as
different to others, which can have many negative effects (Westwood 2007). People generally
view Learning difficulties and disabilities in one of three ways (Westwood 2008):
1. The deficit model, whereby there is something inherently wrong with the student
2. The inefficient learner model, where the student has ineffective learning strategies
3. The environmental model, where factors in the learning environment such as
inappropriate teaching style are negatively influencing the students learning
Students were more likely to be unsupported and criticised by teachers, rejected by peers,
judged negatively by adults and receive less affection (Banner 2015a). They may also be
treated differently to students with visible disabilities. As others cannot see their problems,
they may refuse to accept there is anything wrong with them.
Teacher perceptions:
The reactions and perceptions of teachers are particularly important to students with Learning
Disorders, as they are around the student often, are in a position of authority and power over
the student, and can influence other students perceptions. Teachers are generally very
compassionate and understanding towards students with diagnosed learning difficulties
(Wren & Segal 1998) and want to assist them. However they tend to view students with
learning disorders as one homogenous group (Westwood 2007), and their eagerness to help
can itself lead to othering, patronising or stereotyping. There is also a perception that students
with learning disorders will have written verification and specialist help, which is not always
the case (Wren & Segal 1998). Without specialist help, many teachers may feel uncertain in
their ability to teach students with learning disorders, creating extra stress that may become
resentment against the student (Westwood 2007). Unfortunately it is most common for
teachers to assume the deficit model, and thus are reluctant to review their teaching methods,
instead turning to classroom management and having lowered expectations of students with
learning disorders (Westwood 2007). There is also a common perception amongst teachers
that motivation (often low in students with learning disorders) is an innate trait, entirely due
to the student and unchangeable, when in reality it is largely influenced by external factors
(Westwood 2007).
Students who go undiagnosed may also face issues resulting from other peoples negative
perspectives. Regardless of training and good intentions, teachers are human and possess
their own unconscious biases and areas of unfamiliarity. When encountering students
struggling with learning, they often default to the deficit model, assuming there is something
inherently wrong with the student and therefore nothing that can be done (Westwood 2008).
Teachers may see only the behavioural disruptions caused by living with a learning difficulty,
and punish/discipline them, so that the issue goes undealt with and the student feels worse
(Tariq 2010).

Perceptions and attitudes are difficult to change and can have severe negative consequences,
especially for adolescents. Students, especially in high school, want discrete assistance within
mainstream classes (Klassen & Lynch as cited in Westwood 2007). This poses a challenge to
which we do not currently have an answer: How to provide intensive, regular assistance
without being seen to do so (Westwood 2007).

The problems associated with obtaining accurate data for frequency of learning disorders:
Students with learning difficulties or disabilities make up the largest group of students with
special educational needs (Westwood 2008). Studies estimate that between 10 20% of
students have general learning difficulties while 3 5% have specific learning disabilities
(Westwood 2008), (Dyslexia Speld Foundation, 2014a). Accurate figures are difficult to
obtain for several reasons. General Learning Difficulties and Specific learning Disabilities
compose a number of separate but similar conditions which may be prevalent or diagnosed at
different rates. For example, dyscalculia is estimated to affect approximately 3% of the
American population, but almost 40% have difficulties with mathematics, far beyond the
estimated 10-20% rate (Westwood 2008). They are also easily misdiagnosed with other
conditions such as ADHD or factors such as English as a Second Language or inappropriate
instruction, a likely factor contributing to the high rate of difficulty with mathematics
(Westwood 2008), (Kavale, Holdnack & Mostert 2005). In some cases co-morbidity further
confuses diagnosis, where students may have learning difficulties or disabilities as well as
other issues such as ADHD (Kavale et al. 2005) In other cases students may not be aware that
they have learning issues (Wren & Segal 1998). They may simply believe they are stupid, or
having a bad month, or that they are bad at a particular subject (Wren & Segal 1998). It can
be difficult for an otherwise intelligent student to consider the possibility that they may have
a learning disability, or it may simply never occur to them. Similar perceptions may also
effect teachers. They may have expectations of students or preconceptions of them as below
average and thus not consider other possibilities. Likewise, they may consider a student very
bright and thus refuse to acknowledge their difficulties in another area (Wren & Segal 1998).
In addition, students may be both gifted and learning disabled, further confusing diagnosis
(Westwood 2008). Definitions and diagnosis methods vary. For example in the 1950s in
America the primary diagnostic criteria changed to become discrepancy between potential
and achievement, resulting in a 150% increase in diagnoses (Kavale et al. 2005). More
recently the criteria has changed again, from discrepancy to non-responsiveness, a term
poorly defined (Kavale et al 2005). Even today there is great confusion regarding what a
learning difficulty or learning disability is. Another issue that makes diagnosis difficult is
how dependant on context it is. Discrepancy is one factor which is somewhat easily
identifiable, however it can also be clouded by other factors. For example, in a class with
normal performance, an exceptionally bright student who is performing at an average level
may not be noticed despite the large discrepancy, while an average intelligence student
slightly underperforming may be despite only a small discrepancy (Kavale et al. 2005). In
some cases where diagnosis is required for funding, teachers and parents may over diagnose
in order to gain resources for their students or children (Kavale et al. 2005). In other cases,
parents and others may avoid diagnosis because it is emotionally unpalatable (Kavale et al.
2005). Learning difficulties and disabilities are not physically visible, and students
themselves may deliberately avoid diagnosis or hide their symptoms so as not to be seen

differently by others (Australian Psychological Society 2015). Diagnosis is a field that

continues to develop and change.

The purposes of diagnosis:

Diagnosis is primarily conducted for verification of a learning disorder, but it also provides
other benefits. It also involves detailed evaluations of strengths and weaknesses, or creation
of a learning profile (Wren & Segal 1998). These can assist in tailoring programs to
individuals and help the students themselves utilise new learning strategies that may work
more effectively for them (Wren & Segal 1998). In some countries such as Pakistan a lack of
diagnosis contributes to low literacy rates, as students do not get appropriate treatment (Tariq
2010). A lack of diagnosis may also contribute to wasted resources applied trying to solve the
wrong problem (Tariq 2010)

Perspectives of diagnosis:
Diagnosis and assessments provoke many different reactions. Some students may be relieved
to find there is a reason behind their struggles, they feel validated that there is a genuine
problem (Wren & Segal 1998). Others may react more negatively, refusing to do the tests at
all, claiming they arent capable (although this can itself be useful in diagnosis) (Wren &
Segal 1998). Students may find the tests tiring, difficult, scary, degrading, shocking or a
waste of time (Wren & Segal 1998). They may be in disbelief that it is happening to them,
anxious to receive their results, or they may put it off, worried they will no longer have an
excuse (Wren & Segal 1998). However students feel about diagnostic assessments, it requires
a period of adjustment to their new situation. Students need to take in information, understand
what to expect of treatment and of themselves (Wren & Segal 1998). Parents, carers, teachers
and others involved may also need time and information to fully understand what their
situation is.

Current and Future Diagnostic procedures:

There are numerous different cognitive tests to assess student ability in specific areas.
Maquarie University researchers have developed an online database of cognitive tests that are
free for teachers or parents to utilise, as well as normative data to better understand them,
however they are mostly tests of reading and spelling (Castles & McArthur n.d.). There is
however, no blanket test to identify students with learning disorders. Kavale et al (2005)
have proposed a framework for identification based on five criteria (See figure 2).

Figure 2. An example diagnostic framework (Kavale et al. 2005)

Scruggs & Mastropieri (2002, as cited in Kavale et al 2005) have proposed some criteria that
should apply to any new identification technique. It should:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Apply to all ages.

Be able to be applied with measures demonstrating technical adequacy
Reduce over identification of Learning disorders
More effective than current techniques
Reduce variability in diagnosis rates across locations

I would add to that a need to reduce misdiagnosis with similar and often comorbid disorders
such as ADHD, and being able to be accurately applied to different groups of students such as
socioeconomic/ethnic minorities.
In the current diagnostic procedure, students who are struggling are usually identified after
they reach school age (Australian Psychological Society 2015), when such difficulties would
become apparent as skills that are affected by learning disorders must be used regularly and
thus are more easily spotted. Some children may be diagnosed even earlier, on the basis of
missed or delayed developmental markers such as early speech, attention span or difficulties
following directions (Australian Psychological Society 2015). However as all children
develop differently, and because of the emotional aspects involved, diagnosis this early is
rare. Parents or teachers are most likely to identify students with learning difficulties or
disabilities (Australian Psychological Society 2015) as they spend the most time with
students in a learning context. In some schools teachers of early childhood or primary
students use an observation checklist to screen classes for students with learning disorders
(Westwood 2008). Many such checklists and screening procedures are available, although
most focus on reading and writing skills, such as vocabulary, speech, copying, auditory skills,

naming and matching items, writing, attention and short term memory (Westwood 2007).
Early childhood and primary teachers are particularly well placed to identify issues (Banner
2015b), as they spend large amounts of time with the same students in a learning context and
see how they perform across several subjects and compared to other students. The importance
of early diagnosis and intervention has been emphasised across the globe, from Western
Australian state government to America and the United Kingdom (Westwood 2007). Teachers
can be successfully trained to recognise indicators of learning disorders, which results in
earlier diagnosis and better results (ACT Government Education and Training 2013).
Learning disorders often do go unnoticed into high school, university or even adulthood. As
students progress through the education system regular contact with the same teachers
diminishes, making it harder to identify issues. It becomes yet more difficult to diagnose
learning disorders in adults, as they are no longer regularly observed, no longer in a learning
environment, and have often developed strategies to hide their disorder (Australian
Psychological Society 2015). Once into adulthood, diagnosis generally comes after a
language assessment of some kind, often for work purposes, as they rarely seek help
(Australian Psychological Society 2015). Students in University are now being diagnosed in
increasing numbers (Westwood 2008). Whether this is a positive thing, due to improved
diagnosis, or a symptom of poor schooling/environment or increasing prevalence is uncertain.
Once a concerned party suspects there may be a learning disorder, referral to a specialist
assessment is needed. Anybody can notice symptoms that may be indicative of a learning
disorder, but only a formal evaluation can provide a diagnosis. These assessments usually
consist of standardised psychological tests, conducted by a qualified psychologist, which
compare student ability with the benchmark for that age and intelligence (Australian
Psychological Society 2015). Some organisations offer their own assessments, including
Dyslexia Australia and the Dyslexia Speld Foundation (Dyslexia Australia 2013), (Dyslexia
Speld Foundation 2015b). Assessments also eliminate other possible causes (Australian
Psychological Society 2015). Once a learning disorder has been diagnosed, further testing is
conducted to develop a profile and identify their specific strengths and weaknesses
(Australian Psychological Society 2015). A specialist will speak to the student and/or their
parents, explain the tests and how results can be used to plan for achieving success (Wren &
Segal 1998). Resources and plans will then be instigated to assist the student.

Figure 1. An example learner profile (Wren & Segal 1998).

Treatment models:
There is no cure for learning difficulties or disabilities, however there are several treatments
that can help students cope with their disorder or develop other ways of learning to work
around them. Treatments are generally non-medical, involving long term and extensive
assistance in learning how to learn. Remedial learning of basic skills is often required even in
adulthood. Because the negative consequences are exacerbated the longer they continue, and
because treatment is more likely to be successful early on, early intervention is crucial to the
best outcome (Banner 2015b), (Westwood 2008), (Bergert 2000). This is one focus of no
child left behind policies in Australia and abroad (Klotz & Canter 2007). Policies are
trending towards interventions that utilise high-quality empirically-supported scientific
research and holding schools accountable for their students development (Klotz & Canter
2007). There are a variety of treatment programs and resources available as students
difficulties and their responses to treatment vary enormously (Banner 2015a), however most
successful treatments share some similar criteria (Banner 2015b), (Westwood 2008),
(Dsylexia Australia 2013), (Wren & Segal 1998):
-

they respond to the environment as well as the student,

frequency and regularity in instruction and practice
Frequent review and summarisation of completed work

many small successes to build self-esteem, often through repetitive and predictable tasks
practice and success in varied settings (e.g. group work and individual)
high quality instruction
attending to emotional and behavioural aspects as well as academic
includes specific teaching of metacognitive skills
content broken down into simple, easy pieces
tasks planned around student strengths and weaknesses, e.g. using other senses
involvement of others such as tutors and parents
Clear, structured and transparent instruction and desired outcomes
Utilise multimodal strategies
Make learning relevant, interesting and important to students

One program currently in use in the U.S.A is the Response to Intervention program, a multistep approach that provides support for students with learning disabilities and difficulties
through increasing intensity early intervention. (Klotz & canter 2007). Response to
Intervention programs typically involve whole-school screening of academic results and
behaviour early in the year to identify students who may require further monitoring (Klotz &
Canter 2007). If students continue to fail to meet standards further action is taken, such as
more intensive teaching, parent involvement and frequent assessment (Klotz & Canter 2007).
A three-wave model of Response to intervention is currently favoured in Australia
(Department of Education 2015). The three waves or tiers of intervention include firstly
prevention, then early intervention in the form of small-group tuition, then intensive one-onone support for those who fail to respond to tiers one or two (Westwood 2007). This final tier
is estimated to be required for the ~5% of students with more severe learning issues and
would indicate students may have a learning disability (Westwood 2007). In this way,
response to Intervention programs can be used as diagnostic tools if non-responsiveness to
instruction is considered the defining criteria (Kavale et al 2005). Response to Intervention
programs have been praised as reducing the number of children in special education and
avoiding the wait to fail situation prominent with using discrepancy between ability and
achievement as an identifier (Klotz & Canter 2007). However they have also been criticised
as producing only moderate improvements and relying on a factor (non-responsiveness)
which is ill-defined, based on subjective judgements by people, open to bias, and influenced
by other factors such as cultural differences (Kavale et al 2005). It has also been suggested
that the classification of non-responsiveness within RTI programs is ill-concieved, as small to
moderate improvements are often insufficient to change the label of a for example poor
student to a moderate student, and thus even with this improvement they may still be
classed as non-responsive (Kavale et al 2005). However there are advantages and
disadvantages proposed for the older discrepancy model of diagnosis as well, where students
achievement is compared to what would be expected for someone of their IQ. IQ tests have
received significant backlash from those claiming it it labelled people based on intelligence
and thus fostered negative views of people (Kavale et al 2005). It has also been the case in
the past that IQ tests focused on only one type of intelligence and were presented in such a
way as to automatically disadvantage some groups of people (Kavale et al 2005). This has
since been improved, with IQ tests now measuring multiple and complex abilities, but the
stigma against them has remained (Kavale et al 2005).

Resources available in Western Australia:

While there are many resources offered by the public education system in Western Australia,
it is largely up to parents to request and/or find services (Department of Education 2015).
They must alert the school of their childs needs, and maintain contact (Department of
Education 2015). Regular contact between parents and teachers is essential to provide correct
treatment and services and provide a more complete picture (Department of Education 2015).
Resources vary from school to school (Westwood 2008). Strategies range from less intensive,
inclusive option to more intensive but exclusionary options. In class support, where a support
person (teacher, aide, volunteer, specialist or peer tutor) provides assistance within
mainstream classes is an option that allows students to participate in mainstream education
but doesnt provide the intensive resources that may be required by some students (Westwood
2008). Students may have support teams including teachers, parents, specialists and
psychologists, which work out tailored programs, supply services or modify the school
environment (Department of Education 2015). Another inclusive option is Individual
Education Plans which are generally used for students who require extensive changes to the
standard education (Department of Education 2015), usually those with Specific Learning
Disabilities (Westwood 2007). Individual Education plans provide teachers and parents with a
clear plan and options for regular monitoring (Westwood 2007). Some schools may have
specialised resources centres or education support centres. These are options that provide
access to some specialist services such as disability teachers, referrals to external service
providers, or intervention programs while still maintaining a connection with mainstream
schooling (Department of Education 2015). In some schools these may be specialised
services such as language development centres, or they may be more general, dealing with all
learning difficulties and disabilities (Department of Education 2015). A more intense option
is attending an Education support school. These have multidisciplinary staff such as disability
teachers, nurses, therapy staff, psychologists, as well as specialist facilities such as accessible
playgrounds, multi-sensory environments, training organisations and strong links to external
services such as the disability services commission (Department of Education 2015). There
are several such centres in the public education sector in W.A. including the three government
schools of special education needs - Disability, Medical and Mental Health, and Sensory
(Vision and Hearing) (Department of Education 2015). Other supports include the State-wide
Speech and Language Service, the School Psychology Service, the Disability Services
Commission and non-government organisations such as the Kalparrin Centre (Department of
Education 2015). All options include some amount of differentiation, which is recommended
to be effective but also places a burden on classroom teachers and increases a sense of
otherness for students (Westwood 2007).

Suggestions for beginning teachers:

Identification and diagnosis of learning disorders can be very difficult, especially for
inexperienced teachers. There are some strategies that can assist:
-

Knowing what is normal achievement and what is not, (Banner 2015a) and in context
(e.g. rural Africa would not have the same achievement standards as urban Japan) (Tariq
2010).
Knowing how students learn, so that what is simply a different style of learning is not
misidentified.
Know your schools policies, as they vary between locations

Ask for assistance Diagnosis is rarely done effectively by a single person. The best
person to speak to will usually be a student support worker, school psychologist or
principal.
Actively and regularly observing, rather than waiting to see students fail. This may
involve developing a class specific checklist as demonstrated in Figure 3.
Watch for behavioural and emotional indicators as well as academic ones
Record observations so that a pattern may be established and normal fluctuation
discounted
Know your students. This assists in eliminating other possible causes such as family
disruption

Behaviour
Mixes up
letters
Depends on
pictures for
meaning
Confusion of
similar words

Observation
1
Student A,
date, English
novel study
Student B,
date, English
film study

Observation
2
Student A,
date, English
novel study

Observation
3

Observation
4

Observation
5

Figure 3. Suggested example checklist for actively observing students for indicators
of learning disorders.
Teachers should assign behaviours appropriate for their class/context. Each time a
behaviour is observed the teacher should make a note of it, including the students
name, the date, and the context (e.g. which subject/topic/class). Teachers should
regularly observe students behaviours against the checklist.

Conclusion:
Learning disorders are debilitating and lifelong issues that affect people of all ages. Learning
disorders can be divided into general learning difficulties, caused by a range of factors, and
more severe specific learning disabilities, caused by neurological processing disorders. Both
reduce students ability to learn effectively in typical classrooms that can also result in
escalating emotional/behavioural and social problems. Learning disorders are particularly
debilitating in science, due to the knowledge and skills required and the dangers posed by a
subject dependant on practical experimentation. Diagnosis is a difficult and sensitive topic
that can be confusing, especially for new teachers. It is plagued by location and contextspecific variations, vague definitions, ineffective diagnosis methods, and a fragile balance
between the help available to people diagnosed with learning disorders and the stigma they
may suffer for it. Increased teacher training, better diagnosis methods, and ways to counter
the negative perceptions of learning disorders would benefit all involved in education.

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