CHAPTER 4 USE OF REMOTELY SENSED DATA, REFLECTIVITY 41 OVERVIEW OF HYDROLOGIC APPLICATIONS OF REMOTE SENSING £11 Introduction 4s this chapter we concentrate on the use of spectral sa generated by earth observation satellites, such as the sent Landsat MSS and Thematic Mapper, SPOT and ‘Se Indian IRS. This is because aerospace imagery (aerial biography and satellite imagery) contains spatial ‘Sormation about the surface and near surface features, ‘ef the earth, which influences the processes of the land of the hydrologic cycle. This source of thematic sal information is merged with other data using GIS erations We lay emphasis on the areal measurement capability the imaging systems, The landcover maps derived by “sole sensing are the basis of hydrologic response ss. The multispectral classification of land covers was of the first well established remote sensing plications for water resources (Rango, 1990). Using fall and evaporation information from data stations, ral aspects can be added by applying relatively ple established methods such as the Thornthwaite and fther (1957) soil water budget scheme and the crop requirement methods developed by the FAO “oorendos and Kassam 1977, Doorenbos and Pruitt 884) For an understanding of the hydrology of areas with available data, a better insight into the distribution ‘the physical characteristics of the catchments is eéed. By image processing techniques, images can be duced which depict some of the characteristics, eably the cover types such as areas with dense station, water bodies and areas with bare soils or ps. The vegetation pattern influences runoff and fon. In some areas the vegetation density can Svide information on the seasonal spatial rainfall e.g, {sohyet-form mapping in northern Kenya given inthis pier. The matter is further discussed in the chapter on Sepolation. ‘When considering the scale problem in distributed Zrological modelling and the application of such DOMAIN ‘modelling in GIS, Grayson et al. (1993) recommend alternative approaches to assist the ‘catchment manager’: "These require a fundamental shift in thinking away from quantitative answers and toward a greater reliance on simple spatial modelling combined with qualitative reasoning. This approach is consistent with the availability of data and with our current ability to represent the system". This point of view is reflected in ‘ur text, After the introductory sections, we concentrate on introducing techniques of bringing out the spatial pattetns in the land and the nature of the relationships between hydrologic variables and the spectral patterns. Remote sensing could contribute to hydrologic information provided the matter is handled by hydrologists experienced in qualitative hydrological reasoning based on knowledge of the field conditions of a particular catchment Rodier (1975) offers a good illustration of this. The basic statistical hydrologic data of the “representative” catchments in West Africa have been grouped according to size, Frequency graphs of runoff and rainfall of each catchment are shown, The interesting point is that for each small catchment an aerial photograph is included, A study of this image effectively replaces a considerable amount of alphanumerics and provides the extrapolation iimits. Limited attention is_given here to the physical ‘measurement of hydrologic variables by remote sensing, which is considered by many to be the yardstick - or challenge - of the operational application of remote sensing in hydrology. Klemes (1986), in commenting on problems wit variables for hydrologic modelling, states "It also seems that the search for new measurement ‘methods that would yield ateal distributions, or at least reliable areal totals or averages of hydrologic variables such as precipitation, evapotranspiration and soil moisture would be a much better investment for hydrology than the continuous pursuit of a perfect “massage” that would squeeze the nonexistent information out of the few poor anaemic point measurements”. The direct measurement of hydrological variables is possible in very limited cases, but requires, a great deal of effort and specialist knowledge. The 49progress made in the determination of spatial rainfall over limited periods of time (decades) by using remotely sensed data for certain parts of the world is a step forward in the measurement of a variable. However, it is beyond the means of most practitioners to prepare such products from raw satellite data and convert ‘hem to a spatial time series. ‘The recent strides in the use of remote sensing for spatial evaporation are only been briefly mentioned kere, for the same reasons. Certainly, promising research results have been obtained but much more work fs needed before the applications become operational at a reasonable cost, The satellite observations in the thermal domain are considered essential information. However, according Rango (1990) * We have expended a let of resources putting thermal infrared sensors onto remote sensing platforms and a great deal of effort to analyze the subsequent data with relatively little return," Even an introductory treatment of the physical approaches would take up much space if it is to be of use for application while doing justice o the state 0° the art of the methods. It involves sensor calibration and comparison and the application of models for atmospheric corrections, which may require calibration ‘measurements in the field. A number of aspects are ‘mentioned here to indicate some of the complexities. However, they are not required for common app\ica- tions. The brief overview in the first sections and references to the literature may assist those interested in these aspects. In Part Il, case studies are included in which remately sensed information is merged with other spatial data in Gs. 4.1.2 Main hydrological application fields of remote sensing 4.1.2.1 Rainfall Spatial rainfall patterns can be obtained from satelite data in two ways: (@) the estimation of rainfall depth on a daily basis using the data from weather satellites, (b) the interpretation of vegetation patterns associated with the accumulated relative rairfall over longer periods. (a) Weather satellites and rainfall depth In regions with convective rainfall the gauge density is insufficient to obtain areal rainfall estimates of short periods, such as daily rainfall. This is apparent from the low correlation coefficients between the daily rainfall of stations only, say, 10 kilometres apart. The spatial resolution of the geostationary METEOSAT js in the order of 6 to 10 km, adequate for estimating rainfall 50 over larger catchments. The advantage of this satel system is the high temporal resolution required convective rainfall. Imaging in the visible (VIS) part of the spectrum & used for determining cloud development and aspects of cloud thickness. Imaging in the ther infrared (TIR) band gives cloud top temperatures. Lo temperatures are associated with high and thick clouds implying a higher probability of rain, although there is considerable variation (Milford et al. 1990) Manual and interactive rainfall monitoring techniques have been developed, which depend on visual interpretation for cloud type and areal extent, topographic factors and synoptic factors. Local regressions are used to arrive at rainfall depth. The’ Bristol method has fulfilled a pioneering function and has led to its extension, the BIAS method (Barett et al., 1981; Moses and Barrett, 1986; Barrett, 1989). ‘The: ‘method has been particularly successful when used as an interpolation scheme between rain gauges when applied: to large scale synoptic rainfall events. By regressing TIR data against local rainfall, Schulz: (1988) demonstrated that the estimate of the spatial rainfall in the Tano catchment in West Africa could be improved when compared with mere interpolation of station data, A model developed by Papadakis er al (1992) relates short-term runoff data to simultaneous information of weather satellite data providing spatial rainfall estimates, aftr calibration with data from rainfall stations. The model was applied to the Tano river. Objective rainfall monitoring techniques are particularly suited to the monitoring of convective rainfall arising from convective cloud systems with lifetimes much shorter than stratiform clouds (Bonifécio 1991). Convective clouds yield most of their precipitation in their growth stage. A large number of satellite images are therefore required and manual) interaction has to be reduced, if not eliminated. Examples of the objective methods are CIST (Griffith, et al., 1982), NESDIS (Scofield er al., 1985), PERMIT (Moses ef al, 1986). The Cold Cloud Duration (CCD) method has been’ used by Hardy et al. (1989) to improve the streamflow simulation of the river Bafing in West Africa. In this ‘method one compiles the CCD statistics over periods (e.g,, 10 days) using a large number of images from the geostationary METEOSAT. This is because the rainfall in this region develops along squall lines which have a lifetime of only a few hours. One accumulates information on the duration of cloud tops with a temperature less than a threshold value, The index thus derived is regressed with station rainfall. The method is described by Milford (1990) and by Bonificio (1991) Huygen (1990) attempted estimation of rainfall in Zambia using METEOSAT. He found that the coeffi- cients of simple linear relationships between CCDs andective with ifécio their ver of anual rffith _MIT been nflow n this riods ‘éekadic rainfall changed from dekad to dekad as does the ‘eptimum threshold level. He suggests that a much longer ‘period of observation is requited before the estimates can Be used. ‘Qperationatization Ttshould be noted that a relatively low cost system has been developed comprising a dish antenna linked 10 a ‘main receiver and a PC level computer (Hyatt et al 1988). This system puts satellite data within the reach of multitude of users (¢.g., Mulenga et al, 1993) and ‘infall data can be merged in the GIS. The system ‘processes on line all the available daily thermal infra red ‘mages, building up the CCD image Another operational system in near real time is the ARTEMIS system of the FAO (Rome), delivering products in digital format of regional rainfall estimates, Ghiefly Africa), number of rainy days and vegetation ‘indices (Ingen, et al., 1988). Schulz and Barrett (1989) and Schulz (1988) in seviewing RS applications in hydrology, recommend adjusting the distributed modelling to the type of ‘parameters that can be derived by remote sensing, in ‘particular the rainfall. Ottchilo (1993) discusses the status and applications of the remote sensing component of the early warning system in east African countries on. ‘Schalf ofthe Inter-Governmental Authority on Drought snd Development (IGADD). Many present and future satellites have been designed fo measure features of hydrologic interest. An overview fs given by the NASA Earth Science Committee (1988). Jn particular the non-polar orbiting Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission (to be launched 1994) is of great fnterest. The satellite lights system is designed for ‘ainfall measurements over tropical areas. It will be a ‘multi-sensor system with active radar, passive ‘microwave, TIR and VIS, Most use of the weather satellites however, is still ‘made not by the hydrologists but by the meteorologists, who use the imagery for visual interpretation of cloud pattems in the context of conventionally gathered synoptic data, (©) Seasonal and annual relative rainfall and RS Updating isohyetal maps In regions with annual rainfall of less than 1500 mm. for so, and with strong rainfall gradients, the vegetation patterns as observed on the multispectral imagery of the higher spatial resolution sensors, e.g., Landsat, may be related to the spatial rainfall patterns. The method requires interpretation of the areas on the image where the semi-natural and natural vegetation have responded to the past rainfall. Responses due to the presence of shallow groundwater or intensive land use should be ignored. We refer in particular to areas under irrigation, as well as to areas affected by overgrazing around deep tubewells, fenced areas or other imposed boundaries. ‘The rainfall stations are added to the image and the isohyets are drawn (van der Laan, 1986). The method can be very effective in some data-scarce areas, such as the Samburu district in northern Kenya, where in the northern divisions there is one raingauge per several thousand square kilometres. The idea of isohyetal form tines is illustrated by a simple example of a large part of the north western part of the district (Figure 4.1). The dark area on the left side is due to voleanie rocks. The one on the centre is related to rainfall Figure 4.1 Satellite image transformed for ‘vegetation density’ (NDVI) to be used for drawing isobyet form lines. ‘ter eliminating the geologic and the geomorphologie aspects, a much denser vegetation in a certain area is ‘most probably due to higher rainfall, as was noted earlier by ecologists (pers. comm.). After interpretation of the false colour composite image (FCC) and field observations, a NDVI transform (discussed in a later section) was made using the digital data. This simple transform yields a product in which the dark tones have been made to correspond with relatively dense vegetation and the light tones to lower vegetation densities. Based on this image isohyetal form lines can bbe drawn (Figure 4.1) Generally a more complex situation is encountered. Plate 4.1 shows an FCC of a part of the district. The red areas in the plate correspond to the forest in the areas with higher elevation, responding to orographic rainfall and reduced evaporation. Agro-ecological studies (Kenya Soil Survey, 1980) indicate that this forest is associated with an annual rainfall of 1100 mm or more. In fact these areas are the only parts in the district with a water surplus (rainfall-evaporation) for one or two months. The areas with whitish tones relate to regions with predominantly bare soil and rock outcrops. There stare vegetation differences between terrain consisting of basement rocks with deep soils on old, litle dissected planation levels with moisture storage and the parts ‘which have been denuded by younger erosion cycle, not due to rainfall. The interpreted isohyetal form lines should take care of such effects. Figure 4.2 shows three isohyetal maps (UNESCO/ITC GIS demo, de Brouwer et al. 1992): a. Map based on conventional interpolation of station data, Because there are no stations on the hills, the conventional method results in ‘missing the areas with the highest rainfal b. Map based on a regression between annual rainfall and altitude. A DTM at small scale was used to convert the elevation into estinated annual rainfall. The matter is actually more complex, since there are different seasonal relations because of the two climatic types in the area (See also Hellden et al, 1988, for altitude-rainfall relationships in Ethiopia). Furthermore there are insufficient stations to study the leeward and windward effects. Finally, the use of regression causes smocthing and an non-exact fit at the rainfall stations. A map based on interpreted isohyetal form lines ‘with rainfall stations added. Al three maps are contained in a GIS. The latter two ‘maps can be merged, for example by giving equal weight to each map. To ensure an exact fit, a distance zoning around the stations may be included in the merging operations. The resulting isohyetal map is an improved estimate of the spatial rainfall 4.1.2.2 Evaporation and soil moisture Since satellite remote sensing has become available, many researchers have been interested in the possisility of measuring albedos and surface temperatures in a truly distributed manner. However, apart from clouds, the variable surface factors have hampered the application of the models developed. Bailey (1990) reviews the attempts made and concludes "to date, the present author (Bailey) has identified no truly operational scheme in the available literature". ‘The work of Lagouarde (1991) suggest the possibility of near operational use. He found a good consistency between the results of an agrometereological model and satellite derived data. Lagouarde et al. (1993) proposed simple algorithm and only one unique value of an ‘empirical constant, for estimating the upward longwave component of the surface radiation balance from only one surface measurement derived from NOAA AVARR (Advanced Very High Resolution Radiometer). They validated the result over a wide range of surface and the climate conditions. Bryceson (1993) discussed methods using NOAA AVHRR data for obtaining an estimate of 52 < 400 mm = 400-800 mm 500 - 600 mm | 600-700 mm [4 700 - 800 mm 800 - 800 mm [= 900 - 1000 mm > 1000 mm. Figure 42 Isohyetal maps made by three different methods; (A) conventional linear interpolation of gauge data, (B) using a rainfall-altitude relationship, (C) vegetation response to rainfall and gauge data, rainfall surface and of a moisture index, in conjunction with field data in Australia. It can be expected that the work going on in the International Satellite Land Surface Climatology project, the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme and the Hydrological Atmosphere Pilot Project (HAPEX) will eventually provide methods which can be applied outside the research domain, Because of the importance of soil moisture for both agriculture and hydrology we should consider the use of remotely sensed data in the visible, thermal and ‘microwave (radar) parts of the spectrum. A large body of literature exists. The applicability of relationships between moisture content in the upper part of the soil or in the vegetation and the sensed electromagnetic properties is confounded by variations of surface roughness, vegetation densities and composition and also by the spatially and temporally highly variable soil moisture levels, which make calibration difficult (e.g., Smugge 1990). ‘The spatial distribution of soil water content was not well predicted by simple topographic attributes or microwave (radar) remote sensing in a study by Ladson er al, (1992). In addition, registration problems were encountered. Models for the soil-plant-atmosphere processes have been combined with remotely sensed data for fairly small areas for which high quality data and good soil maps have been available. Such calculations are possible in aerent near using © ction a the ject, and ) will side oth se of GIS (e.g., Mauser 1990, Nieuwenhuis 1990). In a simplified form, this approach may give some ‘accurate results in the estimation of water yields from ‘ungauged subcatchments using the discharge data from the main catchment. A very simple illustration of this approach is given in section 4.1.3, example 2. The role fof the aerospace imagery is often limited to providing areal data on vegetation and surrogate -crude- soil data. 4.1.2.3 Snow cover extent ‘The extent of the snow cover can be mapped using satellite imagery, although tall vegetation and the presence of ill shadows can complicate matters. Various types of snow covers can be classified, but the sssociation with the water equivalents requires, considerable groundtruth. The snow cover data extracted by satellite remote sensing is immediately uscable in a snowmelt runotf ‘model, such as the SRM of Martinec eal. (1983) for both simulation (Martinec and Rango, 1986) and forecasting (Rango et al, 1990) Regression models have been developed to relate the snow cover extent obiained from NOAA AVHRR of Himalayan catchments with river discharges. For a four year forecasting period, an average estimation error of only 10% was observed (Ramamoorthi, 1987). 4.1.2.4 Groundwater In groundwater studies much use has been made of aerospace imagery, chiefly through visual interpretations requiring photogeological experience. Waters et al (1990) review the applications of remote sensing to groundwater hycrology and, as may be expected, they ‘conclude that imagery has to be used in conjunction with other avaiable ancillary information Apart from updating or refining geological maps, vegetation covers canbe mapped and use of the vegetation can be estimated for water budgets. In particular the clear response of crops to icrgation from groundwater forms a valuable means of rapidly assessing the location and extent of areas with groundwater drafis (Figure 4.6) Lineaments (fractures, faults, broken-upflexures) play san important role in groundwater studies particularly in hard rock regions, For such studies the RS imagery has to be transformed to optimally enhance the surface features of interest (see the section on filters). The difference between a standard image of the near infrared band (A) and images processed for mapping lineaments (B, C) of a granite area in South India is shown in Figure 4.3. The dark lines are dolerite dykes A 3x3 gradient filter in x-direction was used for B, and the same in y-direction for C. The interpreter has 10 decide which of the lineaments relate to tensional fracturing, since these are the most promising for ‘groundwater occurrences in this region. Probabilistic modelling with a GIS to localize high yielding wells in a hard rock region in Sri Lanka is discussed by Hansmann et al. (1992). The geographic features used have been derived from aerospace images. This approach, although requiring a considerable number of wells, provides an objective method for overlaying. Aerospace data forms an essential component in the expert system for groundwater in west Africa by Detay et al. (1990) and van der Sommen et al. (1990) who demonstrate the improvements in hydrogeological mapping by using satellite image interpretation of volcanic terrain. They used 2-D groundwater modelling to localize intake, transient and outflow areas. Contaminated groundwater flow can only be detected by RS where there is a response at the surface, caused by vegetational changes or differing spectral properties of the soil. 4.1.2.5 Mapping of hydrologically relevant features Topographic data, Topographic maps have been made by photogrammetry using the stereomodels of aerial photographs, allowing the direct measurement of height sand distances. The principles of photogrammetry have been discussed by Lillesand and Kiefer (1987). Stereo aerial photography contains the most detailed topographic information, but geometric corrections are time consuming and require special instruments to rectify relief displacements in mountainous terrain. By the 'monoplot’ procedure available in some GISs, rectification for relief displacement is possible. This procedure and the derivation of a DEM from stereo satellite imagery (SPOT) is discussed in a separate chapter. Map updating ‘An obvious application of the high resolution imagery is map updating. The panchromatic imagery of the SPOT system with a spatial resolution of 10 m is best suited for this task, in conjunction with colour coded multispectral imagery for discrimination of features which may not be So apparent on the panchromatic imagery, e.g., muddy ‘water/wet soil boundaries. The operation consists ofthe delineation of boundaries and determination of surfaces of individual features, such as permanent water bodies, shifted rivers, recent water training constructions and so on. The’ sequence of ‘operations is: image enhancement techniques (see sections on colour coding, filters), geometric corrections of the image using the map coordinates, visual interpretation followed by digitizing. The extraction of topographic details from satellite imagery depends on the spectral contrast between the 3A granitic area in central India (RS LIS-1), (A) Near Infrared band, (B) Gradient fielter in x direction (© Gradient filter in y Lineaments on the filtered image have to be interpreted for their revelance to groundwater exploration in conjunction with the infra-red image, colour composites and ancillary data 54febject and its surroundings. Seasonal changes may therefore be used to extract specific information. An example is given in Figure 4.4, which shows the ‘averaged results of four interpreters who mapped canals {in NW India from Landsat MSS. In general the multispectral imagery cannot replace a ‘topographic map, but for some features the remotely ‘sensed information may be adequate. For example, wide ‘ephemeral dry river beds can be mapped and this ‘information could be used for calculating transmission Josses. Other examples are the extensions of roads and settlements (which drastically change the hydrological jprocesses in small catchments) or the presence of fresh Jahars on active stratovotcanoes (such as the G. Kelud in ‘east Java, affecting the bed load and flooding of the Brantas river) Mapping of dynamic water bodies Expansion and contraction of lakes, marshy areas, and ‘undations can be assessed quite accurately from the Sigh resolution imagery. See Sabins (1986) for examples ‘of flood mapping and Imhoff (1987) for a discussion of Sifficultes encountered in identifying inundated and ‘ther floodplain areas. However, floods generally occur when there are clouds, although on many occasions loud free images have been obtained some time after the ‘flood (see Part II), The remotely sensed inundation limits provide an unique way of checking the predictions of a fnydraulic flood model, as was demonstrated by Moll 1990). The high resolution weather satellites (NOAA, Interpreted length of irrigation canals, jin NW India, MSS, 4 Bands, and 6 dates, The variation is caused by differing contrast between the canals and their embankments, with surrounding crop lands at the various dates. AVHRR) may be used if a temperature contrast between the inundation water and surrounding non-flooded areas ‘exists on the night time images from the thermal band(s) (Berg et al. 1979), ‘The imagery has also proved its worth in observing the extent of riverine rice growing areas in Africa (Berg et al., 1982) and in monitoring developments of water logging in backswamps (Meijerink et al., 1988). Satellite imagery has been used in a court of law to provide evidence of the origin of flood waters, damaging irrigated lands. Vegetation ‘The rainfall-runoff process is influenced by the status of the vegetation. The indicator for this status may be the simple normalized difference vegetation index (NDVI), discussed in a later section, and it may be used to estimate different hydrological model parameters (Schulz, 1993) or be used in water management, e.2., Walklet and Hitchkock (1991). The multispectral dara makes it possible 10 differentiate various cover types, Most of the image processing techniques are directed t0 such classifications, (sce Section 4.4 and 4.5). However, the cover types provide only surrogate hydrologi information. For studies in the larger basins, the monitoring of the vegetation using the satellites with low spatial resolution ‘but with frequent imaging, such as METEOSAT, the NOAA AVHRR system, are increasingly used. However there are Limitations fo the use of this method (Section 43.4.4) ‘The Landsat imagery from the early 1970's (then ERTS) are unique documents to inventory the forest covers of those days, The deforestation process can be determined from the subsequent satellite imagery and it would be interesting to study the deforestation and streamflow records in a number of regions. 4.1.3, Mapping units and assignment of hydrologic variables. ‘A mapping unit may be defined as a grouping of a set of attributes within a defined area (polygon). One or ‘more attributes have to be transformed into hydrologic variables. Two examples illustrate this approach. Example 1. Amboseli Park in southern Kenya is known by the herds of large herbivores, which depend on permanent ‘marshes. The marshes are fed by springs with good quality groundwater originating from recharge on the lower slopes of the large Kilimanjaro volcano. The spring waters flow into impermeable lacustrine deposits, where soils and groundwater are saline, The dark red areas of the FCC of Plate 4.2, correspond to the swamp 58areas. During 1989 one of the marshes suddenly expanded in the downstream direction. A Take was formed and it caused damage to the tourist infrastructure in the form of water logging and subsequent salinization. Furthermore, since the 1950°s an important groundwater rise tas ‘occurred in the lacustrine plain. There was concer as to the future developments of the swamps. ‘The first discharge measurements were carried out in 1992. It can be estimated that the reduction of the discharge in the downstream direction is equal to the potential evapotranspiration rate multiplied by the swamp surface (Meijerink, in press), Thus the size ofthe swamp areas can be taken as a measure for the spring discharges and this enables one to estimate past discharges from the swamp areas, based on aerospace imagery. In fact, the remotely sensed data is the only source of hydrologic information used to study the trends. The extensions of the swamps could be traced back from interpretations of vegetation in the area using cld aerial photographs (by D. Wester, unpubl.), and frcm satellite images. The results are shown in Figure 4.5. Although the data has imperfections, it seems that the recent changes are within the range of variation observ2d earlier. This example illustrates that, in this particular ‘ase, simple conversion of the mapping unit "swamp", based on spectral data into discharge data is possible: Q spring = Swamp area + PET where PET is the (Penman) potential evaporation rete (values taken from Kalders, 1988). ‘An early remote sensing study of the large Okavango ‘swamps in Botswana by Hatton ef al. (1979) also related discharge to the size of wet areas, as shown by the vegetation response, Example 2. Groundwater management Tn many hard rock areas supplementary irigation from groundwater is common, notably in India, The practice is age-old but withthe replacement of animal lift traction by diesel or electric pumps and easy loan schemes, the number of wells has increased drastically in some areas, resulting in overdrafts. A map showing the ateas under inrigation would be useful for (a) restricting permits or loans for additional wells, (b) directing the funds for simple recharge schemes to where they are most urgently needed The inventory of the areas under irrigation can be rapidly made by using multispectral satellite images objained at atime when there is a large contrast between, the reflectance from the irrigated crops and from the surrounding areas. Figure 4.6 shows a hard rock region, consisting of gneiss and granite traversed by dolorite dykes and a few quartz veins of semi-arid Anantapur district in India, By simple image processing, the irrigated areas can be identified and their acreage determined, because there is much spectral contrast, between the irrigated areas and the remainder of the terra From this data, the total groundwater draft during the growing season can be estimated by compiling the cropping calendar and making a field enquiry as to the water use for land preparation and the frequency of et 2 So size of swamp aa precipitation Figure 4.5 36 Example of the use of aerospace imagery for reconstructing past spring discharges, as estimated from he size of the swamp. Amboseti National park, Kenya.vango elated y the Figure 4.6 ‘Areas irrigated from open wide-diameter wells are shown in white, aller the resulls of Image Classification techniques have been superimposed on near infrared image of a hard rock catchment in central India (IRS-LIS 11). Data is used for assessing water budget and priority for artificial recharge ‘water application. The consumptive water use or the ‘erop water requirement of the irrigated crops may be estimated by the methods of Doorenbos et al. (FAO, 1977) taking into account the effective precipitation (Pes) during the various crop stages. The conveyance losses ‘and the return flow must be estimated in the field. The ‘aggregated groundwater draft for one cropping cycle is: De = Se + br - Pes) + Le y where: Dg Groundwater draft (mm) Re = Crop water requirement (mm) Lr Return flow (mm) Pes Effective rainfall (mm) Le = Conveyance losses (mm) 5 Crop stage Multiplication of Dg with the number of pixels classified as irrigated and the size of a pixel yields the {otal volume. This amount, when related to effective rainfall and area (subeatchment or administrative unit) could be used as an index for indicating critical groundwater situations, if the total draft equals or exceeds the recharge, which varies from 8 - 12 % of the rainfall 4.1.3.1. Discussion: Surrogate hydrologic data, transfer functions, Beyond the mapping domain, many hydrologists have viewed the use of remote sensing with some suspicion, possibly because of the indirect way hydrologic information is obtained, often involving subjeative procedures. Clark (1993) writes: " The notion of using surrogate data instead of direct measures of the hydrologic variables of interest is commonplace in remote sensing, where in effect all raw data are surrogates for surface and near-surface properties” ‘The example from Amboseli uses the extent of the marshes as a surrogate for the discharge. In this case the tansfer function is simple and acceptable. It has to be admitted that the example describes a rather special case. In the second example the groundwater drafts may be estimated with the aid of remote sensing because an existing procedure was available based on ancillary data. ‘The real hydrologic value of remotely sensed data in the domain of mapping or inventory depends on the availability of methods to transform reflectivity data into hydrologic variables, i.e., water depths per time unit ‘The well known Thornthwaite and Mather (1957) soil moisture budget method could be taken as one of the few existing practical methods. If there are no soil maps, a ‘geomorphological interpretation may be made from the imagery, serving as a substitute soil map to obtain areal values for the water holding capacity. The parameter “rooting depth’ required in the T&M method may be estimated from a supervised (spectral) vegetation Classification. The application of the method when applied to small catchments tas a variable degree of accuracy. Often adjustments are needed, but at least it provides an objective transfer procedure. Cover classifications, i.e., land use types, natural vegetation types, percentage of bare soil, rock and so on, 7as derived by RS are widely used for hydrologic models which require such input. Examples include the ones using the curve number method of the USDA SCS, (eg., Zevenbergen ef al., 1988; Sharma et al., 1992), (Gee Part II, Chapter 3). The applicability of the table values of the Curve Number method to regions outside the area of development has been questioned by Lin Hengzhang (1985) who, after using remote sensing for cover classifications, compared actual streamflow measurements of a catchment in China with calculated values. In many cases our knowledge of the hydrological transformation of terrain data in common thematic form is poor. The situation may be further aggravated when the terrain data is obtained by remote sensing, Interception losses are a good example. They may be estimated by first making a cover classification using image processing of satellite imagery. After that, an average value for the interception loss will have to be assigned to each class, based on estimation, using published data of interception. The matter is complicated by the fact that different vegetation types, with their corresponding variation in spectral properties, may ave similar interception characteristics (Figure 4.7a), ot different cover types may have similar spectral properties but different interception (Figure 4.7b). It will be evident that the parameter values based on such multistep procedures may be quite different from the direct ‘measurement of interception in the field. However, in view of the spatial variability and the laborious field determination of many hydrologic variables, the required number of measurements is too great to be feasible in practice. The surrogate nature of data is not limited to remote sensing data. The units of geologic or soil maps ave also been delineated based on interpretation of acrial Photographs and field observations. By assigning a hydrologic variable, such as permeability, o a geologic unit or to a soil unit, the mapping unit with the corresponding attribute value forms a surrogate for field determinations, 4.1.3.2 Spectral classification and the nature of ground classes ‘Mathematical methods for multispectral classificaton, statistical analysis and structural texture analysis are well covered in the literature, ‘The methods can be of appreciable complexity and finesse, but the hydrologist does well to keep in mind the following observations: ~ A desired hydrological classification in terms of ground properties may or may not be associated ‘with spectrally separable classes. The degres of association has to be assessed empirically in most cases. 38 Figure 4.7___(A) Three vegetation covers with similar interception but different reflectance (1); (B) Three vegetation covers with similar reflectance but 4 m2), their density (depends on age, composition, and climate) composition of species (non-plantation forests need specialist knowledge) and possibly the internal forest structure (spatial variances in height and density). For hydrological studies, the undergrowth in one or more stages, the litter and roots at and below the il surface should be included. In fact, the classification is a complex taxonomic problem. Therefore it will be difficult 10 judge the performance of any spectral classifier for such classes as ‘open mixed forest” or “forest gardens’ because the class properties are difficult to define. Simple, transparent methods for spectral Classification may be adopted for such cases. 4.1.4 GISs and image processing packages ‘There are GIS systems which include integrated image processing software, allowing ancillary information to be added to information obtained by remote sensing. If the image processing software is not integrated, separate image processing software may be used and the raster files have to be imported by the GIS. In the case of a vector GIS, manual interpretations may have (o be made of hard copy imagery, followed by digitizing. An alternative way is to perform classi- fications with an image processing system and applywith ferent tation e but ay be jefine g the class trees ition, tation y the ¢ and Ah in w the ation ll be zctral ° or ficult ctral mage tobe f the arate aster tions operations (¢.g., @ majority filter and the like) which the contiguity of units are enhanced to ify the patterns. After that a raster to vector may be applied and the vector data d 10 the vector GIS, but by doing so sation is lost. 5 Overview of aerospace imaging systems ‘The four main types of imaging systems currently lable are described below. Photographic systems ‘Acrial photography is the oldest source of aerospace ‘Seecery, and as yet unsurpassed in terms of spatial ‘Solution in the x, y and z'directions. The spatial ‘solution of the panchromatic photographic film varies ‘Gon 50 lines/mm to 112 lines/mm, The resolution of ‘Sehuman eye is about 0.1 mm and thus the photographs 2 be enlarged 5 times before there is loss of ‘formation. Generally panchromatic photographs are ‘saffcient for most purposes, but if water bodies and wet sil are of interest ‘infrared’ photography may be ‘Sseful. The emulsion is sensitive for a part of the near ‘affared (imaging in the 0.58 - 0.91 jm range), and @ “iter may exclude the lower part of the range. Water Sodies absorb the light with wavelengths in the upper pat of the range, hence they appear in black tones on ‘Sephotos. Vegetation on the infrared photographs shows ‘uch contrast and this may not be desirable for photo- -scological, photo-geomorphologicalorphysiographicsoil Seterpreations, where the details of the landform are ‘sudied. For standard interpretations, the use of colour "photography docs not warrant the additional costs, as ‘most features can be observed equally well on the panchromatic photography. The height resolution Gepends on the ratio between flying height and focal Jength of the acrial camera (see section 6.3.2) The photographs can be scanned to transform them {nto digital products for use in a GIS or for merging with ‘ther imagery. It may be noted that the aerial photography is often ‘used as "groundtruth” for deriving multispectral sample sets in the so-called "supervised classifications” discussed below. In general, acrial photography is used for the analysis ‘of geology, soils, and land use, requiring experience in these subjects. They are not suitable for quantitative spectral correlations, except in specifi situations. The principles of analytical photo- interpretation were eveloped in the 1960's and 1970s. The methods and the applications are treated in various publications Including, for example, photogeology (Ray, 1960; Miller, 1961; Allum,- 1966); geomorphology (Verstappen, 1977), physiography and soils interpretation (Buringh er al., 1962; Goossen 1967); forestry (Thorley, 1975); vegetation (Zonneveld, 1988); terrain analysis (Way, 1973; Van Zuidam 1979; Townshend, 1981). The French periodical Photo Interpréation documents a rich collection of stereo models and multispectral imagery with explanatory texts and interpretations, covering a wide range of subjects. Systems sensing the reflected radiation the earth These systems operate at daytime and record the reflectance in digital format, generally in more than one band or different spectral range. They comprise the high resolution earth monitoring satellites such as Landsat MSS, TM, SPOT, IRS, as well as sensors of meteorological satellites, e.g., the *visual” channels of Meteosat, NOAA. There are also multispectral recording systems operated from aircraft. ‘Systems sensing the emitted radiation (thermal infrared). ‘The long wave radiation of the earth’s surface and the atmosphere is continuously imaged. The common satellites are the METEOSAT and the NOAA AVHRR as well as band 6 of TM, which has the highest spatial resolution. The signals are digitally recorded. The thermal scanners on aircrafts have a high spatial resolution, but images have bad geometry, requiring complex geometric rectification. Active radar systems ‘The backscatter of strong pulses emitted from an aircraft or satellite platform is recorded and transformed to images. The aircraft systems have been widely used in tropical countries because of the cloud penetration capability (Central and South America, e.g., the RADAM project for Amazonia; other systematic coverage have been made in Nigeria, Indonesia, Papua ‘New Guinea, and so on). The imagery has proved to be of great value for qualitative interpretations, made by (hydro) geologists or by vegetation specialists. ‘The equipment processes the backscater signals into photographie products and also digital products can be made available, e.g., from the ERS satellite. The emission in the microwave range (passive radar) is also recorded by satellite and has some promise for hydrology, because theoretically the backscatter signal is related to soil moisture, Foran introduction to the radar systems and the use of. the imagery, see De Loor (ed) (1983), Lillesand eal (2987) and. Churchill et al. (1991) and for a. more extensive treatment Ulaby et al (1986) and Smugge (1990). Current systems ‘The main characteristics of current satellite imaging, systems are shown in Table 4.1, (Figure 4.8). ‘Three types of resolution may be distinguished: 39