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If such services are required, the assistance of an appropriate professional should be sought. ‘Typeset at The Composers, 260, C.A. Apt. Paschim Vinar, New Delhi 110 063 and printed at Rajkamal Electric Press, Plot No.2, Phase IV, HSHDC, Kundli, Haryana Cover Design: K Anoop Cover Printed at: Rajkamal Electric Press, Plot No.2, Phase IV, HSIIDC, Kundli, Sonepat, Haryana 131 028 RYDXRRXCRZZQL es Tae“How do we stay alive? Control in the living, Reproduction in the living Heredity and evolution 4. Moving Things, People and Ideas 5. How things work Electric Circuits Why do roots grow towards the ground? Can ] we make them grow upwards? Why do stems grow upwards? Do plants and animals, have similar Feproductive cycles? }Can we decide how many children are born in a family? Why are we like our parents? Did similar plants and animals exist in the past? Did life always exist? in which direction does [current flow inside a How is potential difference across [conductor related to [current through the [conductar? Syllabus _ix [Define ‘living® things; Basic concept of ‘triton, respiration, tuansport and excretion in plants aad animal, ‘Tropic movements in plants; Introduction to plant hormones, Control ‘and coordination in ‘animals: voluntary, involuntary and reflex action, nervous system; ‘chemical coordination: animal hormones. Reproduction in plants and animals. Need for ‘and methods of family planning Safe sex vs, HIV/AIDS, (Childbearing and /women’s health, Heredity: Origin of tite: brief introduction; Basic concepts of evolution. Potential difference, potential, Ohm's law disposal indifferent ‘pars of the country. Models and chars of various systems ia animals, and parts in ‘Young plants for ‘experiments, seeds; Kit materials; Pavlov's ‘experiment on conditioned reflex. Permanent slide LS. grain; chartsspecimens of embryos, egg. Ctarts and other ‘materials on family planning. [Newspaper reports on HIVIAIDS. ‘Data and worksheet from Mendel’s experiments, specimen of fossil. ‘Battery, conductor voltmeter, ammeter, ‘connecting wire, key. to" ‘And rheostais ‘Study various things around to decide whether they are living/ hon living. Experiments on tropic ‘movements in plants ~ geotropism, hydrotropism, phototropism, interaction of factors; experiment on apical dominance; demonstration of reflex action, ‘Study pollen tube growth and pollen tubes (on a stigmatic mount, ‘mount soaked seeds to see embryonal axis, cotyledons etc, seed ‘germination ~ epigeal ‘and hypogeal; structure of the hen’s egg. Discussion on family planning and responsible parenting. Phenotypic ratio 3:1, 2:1, 9:3:3:1 Using a simple electric circuit, show that [charges flow from higher potential to lower potential. Use the analogy of flow of water from higher (potential to highest energy) lower height lower potential enemy). ‘Using a circuit consisting of a ‘conductor, battery, key, ‘voltmeter and ammeter, establish a relationshipX_Syllabus Magnets How can you arrange a given set of resistors so that the same current ‘lows through all? How are appliances ‘connected in a house? How much heatis generated when a current Tows through a resistor? How does the needle of a compass change direction when placed at different points near a ‘magnet? ‘Does a current carrying ‘condustor produce & ‘magnetic field? What kappens to a ‘current carrying ‘conductor when it is phced in a magnetic ‘eld? Hoow does the above effect help as to design ‘machines to do work? ‘What do you observe ‘when » magnet is moved towards a wire connected to a galvanometer? How can the phenomenon of elecuomagnetic induction be used to | Series combination of Parallel combination of resistances Power dissipated due t» ‘current. Inter relation between P, V1 and R Magnetic field Field lines Field dus to a current ccanying wire, Field due to curteat carrying coil or solensi Force on current carrying conductor Fleming's left hang rule Electric motes. Electromagnetic induction Induced poteotial differences, induced current. Electric generator. principle and working. | Direct current. -do and given set of resistors do and given set of resistors. Appliances based on heating effect of current in daily lie. ‘A magnet, compass, white sheet, drawing board, drawing pins. A battery, a conductor, compass, key, A coil, A solenoid, A small red, stand and two wires for suspe- ding the rod, «strong horseshoe magnet. Appliances using motors, Two coils of wire, a ‘magnet, a galvanometer. Iron nats, batery, switch, A simple model of electric generator. Model of electric ‘between povential difference and current and hence Ohm's law. Using the Ohm’s law cicuit, establishing the properties of series Combination and the rule for resstance, Establishing the rule for parallel combination of | Kdentifcation of appliances in daily life base on heating effect of current, Calculation ‘of power in daily life simations, Drawing magnetic field lines in viemsity of a bar magnet Demonstrating that 9 ‘current carrying, ‘conductor produces & smugneti field Demonstrating the magnetic field produced by a current carying cil or solenci Demonstrating that a current carrying. ‘conductor when placed ina magnetic field ‘experiences foree, Demonstrating the working of a motor. Identifying the agpliances based on electric mowors, Demonstrating the phenomenon of electromagnetic induction Demonstrating that ‘curent is induced in a coil kept near a col in ‘which eurrent changes. Demonstrating the principle and working ofa generatorSyllabus xi design a device 1 generate electicity? Does the current produced by « generator have the same direction all the time? How are the bulbs ete. comnected to the AC | source in our homes? Why is paper burst when light passing through a lens strikes it? Does a spherical mirror also exhibit similar phenomenon’? Can we see a fall image of a tall building using a ‘small micror? ‘Why does a spoon partly immersed in water in a ‘transparent glass appear Droken atthe level of | water when viewed from | the sides? ‘What do lenses do? How do they correct defects in vision? Why does the path of light change on extering a different median? ‘Why or bow does t prism disperse light? Alternating current; frequency of AC. Advantage of AC over De. Domestic electic Convergence and divergence of light Images formed by a concave mirror, related concepts centie of curvature, principal axis. Optical centre, focus, focal length Refraction; laws of refraction, Images formed by a convex lens; functioning of lens in human eye; problems of vision and remedies Application of spherical mirors and Tenses. Appreciation of coacept of refraction; velocity of light; refactive index: twinkling of stars; dispersion of light Dispersion of ight generator, Demonstration board for domestic electri circuit. Experience. Double convex lens Accandle, stand to hold a ‘mirror, meter scale, Glass slab, pins. ‘Conver lens. Concepts learnt earlier Piism, pins Familiarising with voltage ond frequency or AC inour homes. | Explaining the working of domestic electric siteuits, Demonstating the ase of a fuse in domestic cireait, Observation of ‘convergence and divergence with lenses, Exploring and recording feaures of images formed by a concave mirror, by placing an object beyond ec. tween ce. and focus, and between pole and focus: ray diagrams. Activity to explore laws of refraction Activity exploring and recording features of | images formed by convex lens. Ray diagrams. Studying the lasses used by human, beings to correct different vision detects, Acavities studying refraction, Oervanion af objets through prisms; woeine | rays reftactes though a prism; discussionxii_ Syllabus ‘Why isthe sky blue? | Scatering of light. ‘Observations and Activity showing experience. scattering of light in ‘emulsion ete. 7. Natural Resources Conservation of Natural| How can we contribute | Management of natural | Articlesstories on Case studies with focus Resources to protect environment | resources. Conservation | conservation; Posters on | on commercial in our locality? [and judicious use of | environmental activities exploiting ‘What are the major | stural resources. Forest | awareness. natural resources, Effect global environmental nd wild life, coal and | Case studies.on Chipko | of these on varies eycles issues of direct relevance {Petroleum conservation. } movement; CNG use, | in natures tous? People’s partsipat Making postersslogans ‘What arethe stens [Chipko movement. for creating awareness. expected om the part of | Legal perspectives in local administration to [conservation and maintain balances in | intematicnal scenario, nature in your region? How can wehelp? ‘The regional How does the Big dams: advantages | Case study materialon-- | Case studies with focus ‘environment construction of big dams | and limitations; ‘dams, Resource material] on issues of Sources ofenewy | allectibeMfe ofthe |altematives ifany. Water jon water bervewing. | Construction of dams ‘people and the regional harvesting. and related phenomera environment? Sustainability of natural {actual probable) ‘Are fiver, lakes, forests | eeOUTEes. Debates om issues and wildlife safe in your involved. area? What are the various: {Different forms of sourcesof energy we | energy, leading to use? Are any of these | different sources for Discussion, Making models and charts in groups. Making a solar sourceslimited? Are [human ws: fosil facls, heater/cooker. ‘there reasoms to prefer | solar energy; biogas; some ofthem over | wind, water and tidal others? leneray: nuclear energy Renewable versus non- renewable sourcesCONTENTS Preface Syllabus Summative Assesment I 1. Life Processes 2. Control and Coordination Model Question Paper—First Term (SA-I) Summative Assesment II 3. How do Organisms Reproduce? 4, Heredity and Evolution 5. Our Environment 6. Management of Natural Resources Model Question Paper—Second Term (SA-II) Questions from CBSE Sample Papers 1 97 132 173 199 221SuUMMATIVE Iaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.4 Biology for Class X ‘Movement is one of the most obvious characteristics of living things. The movements of many animals are speedy and efficient e.g. a dog running, a cow chewing cud or aman shouting loudly. In contrast most plants and some animals lead a stationary life and show relatively slow movements involving only part of the organism. They occur in response to an environmental stimulus. Using visible movement as the defi ing characteristic of life is not enough as a plant that is not visibly growing is still alive and some animals can breathe without showing visible movements. Molecular movements are invisible to naked eye, but are needed for life. The well organized structures such as tissues, organs and organsystems present in living organisms keep breaking down because of the effects of the environment. So the living organisms keep repairing and maintaining their structures which are made up of molecules and they move molecules around all the time. 5. Reproduction Reproduction refers to the formation of a new person, the birth of a baby. In this way, life is transmitted from one generation to the next through reproduction of the organism. In a broader sense, reproduction also refers to the formation of new cells for the replacement and repair of old cells as well as for growth. This is cellular reproduction, Both are essential for the survival of the human race. 6. Growth Growth refers to an increase in size either through an increase in the number of cells or through an increase in the size of each individual cell. In order for growth to occur, anabolic processes must occur at a faster rate than catabolic processes. 7. Differentiation Differentiation is a developmental process by which unspecialised cells change into specialised cells with tinctive structural and functional characteristics. Through differentiation, cells develop into tissues and organs. 8. Nutrition An organism either takes in food, as animals do or makes its own food from raw materials, as green plants do. The process of obtaining food and then using it for activities such as respiration and growth is called nutrition 9. Respiration Respiration refers to all the processes involved in the exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide between the cells and the external environment, It includes ventilation, the diffusion of oxygen and carbon dioxide, and the transport of the gases in the blood, Cellular respiration deals with the cell’s utilisation of oxygen and release of carbon dioxide and energy. 10. Excretion Excretion is the process that removes the waste products of digestion and metabolism from the body. It gets rid of by-products that the body is unable to use, many of which are toxic and incompatible with life. The life processes described above are not enough to ensure the survival of the individual. In addition to these processes, life depends on certain physical factors of the environment. These include water, oxygen, nutrients, heat, and pressure.Life Processes 5 NUuTRITION Nutrition is the process by which organism obtains its food materials and prepares them for use in growth, replacement, repair and respiration. An organism is formed and maintained by the food it eats Food supplies the materials needed for growth, replacement, repair and respiration. Thus food we eat is also the source of energy and materials required to maintain a state of order in our body even when we are not doing any apparent activi (GENERAL Pornts OF NUTRITION Organisms obiain their food materials in different ways. Some organisms synthesise their food from simple inorganic materials in the form of carbon dioxide and water, e.g. green plants and some bacteria Other organisms utilise complex substances. These complex substances are then broken down to their basic molecules to build up carbohydrates, lipids and proteins. Nutritional processes take place in steps and each step is controlled by biocatalysts called enzymes. Different methods of nutrition are summarised below: Nutrition Autotrophi Holophytic Methods used by Bacteria Holozoic Saprophyti Most of the organisms store surplus food materials in some form, so that a supply of food is available at the time of intense activity and scarcity. Food is usually stored in an insoluble form and converted into soluble form at the time of need. E.g. (i) Green plants store carbohydrates as starch (potato tubers and maize grains), (ii) animals and fungi store carbohydrates as glycogen (in mammal livers). AvrorropHic NuTRITION Autotrophic organisms synthesise their organic food materials from inorganic substances such as carbon dioxide, water and minerals. The type of autotrophic nutrition based on photosynthesis, which is typical of plants is also known as holophytic nutrition (other forms of autotrophic nutrition occur in certain bacteria), PHOTOSYNTHESIS Photosynthesis is the process by which green plants synthesise organic substances from carbon dioxide and water, using energy absorbed from sunlight by chlorophyll6 Biology for Class X Photosynthesis can be represented by the following equation: 6CO, + 12H;0 FEE CeHy20¢ + 60; + 6H,0 (elucose) ‘The events that occur during this process are: (a) Absorption of light energy by chlorophyll. (b) Conversion of light energy to chemical energy and splitting of water molecules into hydrogen and oxygen. (c) Reduction of carbon dioxide to carbohydrate. Carbohydrates are utilised for providing energy to the plant and the carbohydrates that are not used immediately are stored in the form of starch, which serves as the internal energy reserve to be used as and when required by the plant. These steps need not take place one after the other immediately. For example, in desert plants carbon dioxide is taken up at night and an intermediate (malic acid) is prepared, which is acted upon by the chlorophyll during the day. ‘THE MECHANISM OF PHOTOSYNTHESIS Photosynthesis consists of two main stages, known as the ‘light reaction’ and the ‘dark reaction’ respectively. They are summarised in Fig. 1.1. ‘Light reaction ae 7 WATER ‘4 Tight energy (Chlorophy!ty === == oxygen + water >| (Hl + [OH] Dark reaction CARBON DIOXIDE + [H] Series of enzyme | controtted steps + GLUCOSE Fig. 1.1 A simple summary of the stages of photosynthesis. The brackets around ‘H’ and ‘OH indicate that they do not exist as such but are temporarily attached to other compounds in the chloroplast. ® Light Reaction In the lighi reaction most of the light energy absorbed by chlorophyll is used to split water into its hydrogen (H) and hydroxyl (OH) components. The hydrogen is used in the dark reaction.Life Processes_7 ‘The hydroxy! units react with each other to form water and oxygen. This is the oxygen which is given off as a by-product of photosynthesis, ® Dark Reaction In the dark reaction, carbon dioxide and hydrogen from the light reaction, are used to build up organic compounds. This is done in a complex series of small steps. Each step is controlled by a specific enzyme. Sunlight is needed only for the light reaction. The dark reaction takes place in both light and darkness. (itis called the ‘dark reaction’ because it is not light-dependent.) The leaf and photosynthesis All plant parts with chlorophyll and stomata photosynthesise. Example: leaves, the green stems of many herbs etc. In most flowering plants photosynthesis mainly takes place in the mesophyll cells of the foliage leaves. A typical mesophyll cell may contain a hundred or more chloroplasts, and most leaves contain many thousands of mesophyll cells. A foliage leaf is well-adapted for photosynthesis. It is typically broad and flat, which means that a large surface area is exposed to sunlight and air. is thin, so gases can easily reach the photosynthesising tissues. Carbon dioxide from the air enters the leaf by diffusion through the stomata. It first enters the air spaces of the mesophyll, and from there diffuses into the mesophyll cells. A: Surface of complete leat 8: Transverse section of aloat Vein Vein (conducting tissue) Lamina: Mid-rit SS Lower epidermis Mid-rib Mesophyll Upper epidermis Potiole Upper epidermis { Cuticle S Chloroplast Xylem vessel Mesophyll Airspace Lower epidermis! (C5) g Guard cell Fig. 1.2 Cross-section of a typical foliage leaf Water is carried to the leaf in the xylem vessels of the veins, and passes into the mesophyll cells by osmosis.8 Biology jor Class X Chloroplast are plentiful in cells of the mesophyli, which are in the best position to receive maximum sunlight. ACTIVITY 1 Testing a green leaf for starch @ A leaf is detached from a healthy green plant that has been exposed to full light for several hours. 1 The leaf is dipped into very hot water for 5 seconds; this kills the cells, making them fully permeable. @ The leafis rolled and inserted into a test tube of boiling ethanol solution and kept immersed for 5 minutes; this dissolves out the chlorophyll. @ The leaf is withdrawn and dipped into hot water; this softens the leaf tissue. © The leaf is spread out on a white tile and iodine solution is applied over its surface; a blue- black colour develops where starch is present. Provided the leaf was initially free from starch, the presence of starch at the end of the experiment is acceptable evidence that photosynthesis has occurred. Inflammable vapour —soting ethanol Hot water ledine sotution applied ~ Bunsen Cc burner \ A < ~~ (©) The need for light during photosynthesis 1 The plant is kept in the dark for 48 hours; this is called ‘destarching’. @ A leaf is detached and tested for starch; this establishes that “destarching’ has taken place._Life Processes 9 A lightproof stencil is fixed to one leaf and the plant is exposed to full light for 6 hours; part of the leaf is illuminated and part is in the dark. | The leaf with the stencil is detached, the stencil is removed and the leaf is tested for starch. © The result, known as a starch print, shows that starch is present only in the part of the leaf that has been exposed to the light. Blue black colour after the starch Se test (2) ) Fig. 14 The need for light during Photosynthesis cage ACTIVITY 3 The need for chlorophyll during photosynthesis @ A potted plant with variegated leaves is held in the dark for 48 hours to destarch the leaves. @ A leaf from the plant is detached and tested for starch. @ The plant is exposed to full light for 8-12 hours. 1B Another variegated leaf is detached; the outline of the leaf is drawn, and the areas of chlorophyll- free tissue are drawn on the diagram. @ The leaf is tested for starch. @ The blue-black colour due to starch appears only in the tissue that had contained chlorophyll. ® Variegated leat Light proot stencil Position of chlorophyl- Containing cells, Blue-black colour from starch test, here Chlorophyll tree tissue Fig. 1.5 Need for chlorophyll during photosynthesis10 _ Biology for Class X ae ACTIVITY 4 The need for carbon dioxide during photosynthesis 1 Two potted plants are held in the dark for 48 hours in order to destarch the leaves. @ A leaf from each plant is detached and tested for starch. @ Plant A is enclosed with an open dish of potassium hydroxide; this absorbs carbon dioxide from the air around the plant. Plant B is also covered by a bell jar. @ Both plants are placed in full sunlight for 2 hours. @ The bell jars are removed, and a leaf from each plant is detached and tested for starch. @ The results: | Leaf from plant B (supplied with carbon dioxide) gives a positive test for starch. Leaf from plant A (without an external carbon dioxide supply) gives a negative test for starch. Polythene bag Potassium. Saturated sodium éroxide hydrogen carbonate mt solution Elastic band Fig.1.6 The need for carbon dioxide during photosynthesis STOMATA Stomata (sing. stoma) are tiny pores in the epidermis. ‘The opening and closing of stomata is controlled by a pair of guard cells Guard cells are the only epidermal cells which have chloroplasts and can photosynthesise. ‘The walls of guard cells are so shaped that stomata open when the guard cells are turgid, i.e. eaters into them and stomata close when guard cells are flaccid, i.e. water flows out of them.Life Processes 1 Chloroplast Vacuole: Stomata pore Nucleus oy Fig.1.8 (a) Stomata open and (b) Stomata closed FUNCTIONS OF STOMATA M1 Help in exchange of gases between a plant and the atmosphere during photosynthesis and respiration. 4 Transpiration—loss of water in the form of vapour. ROLE OF MINERAL SALTS IN PLANT NUTRITION In addition to a bulk supply of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen from carbon dioxide and water, a plant needs smaller amount of about 12-15 other elements. This includes: (a) Metals such as potassium, magnesium and iron. (6) Non-metals such as nitrogen, phosphorus and sulphur. In plants these raw materials needed for building their body are taken up from the soil by the roots in terresuial plants. Nitrogen an essential element of proteins and other compounds is taken up in the form of nitrites and nitrates or as organic compounds.12 Biology jor Class X Role of some of the important minerals is given in the table given below S.No| Element Functions 1. | Potassium Certain respiratory and photosynthetic ‘cuzymes act only in its presence 2._|/ Magnesium ‘A constituent of chlorophyll 3. | Iron Needed for chlorophyll formation 4. [Nitrogen ‘A constituent of proteins 5.__|_ Phosphorus ‘A constituent of DNA and several enzymes 6. | Sulphur ‘A constituent of some proteins PRACTISE TEST I QU. Define life processes. Q2. Name two phases of metabolism. Q3. In order of growth to occur, rate of ________ processes is faster than rate of Q4. Green plants store carbohydrates as Q5. Complete the following equation: 6CO, +? 4 +60, Q6. In photosynthesis water molecule splits into ____ and QZ. Cell organelle which contain chlorophyll are : Q8. Name the cells responsible for closing and opening of stomata. Q9. Guard cells are _ when water enters into them. QUO. Define transpiration. Al. The basic processes that are essential to sustain life are known as life processes. A2. Anabolism and catabolism. A3. Anabolic, catabolic. Ad. Starch. AS. 6H,0 ES CH1,0, AG. (HI, [OH] AZ. Chloroplasts A8, Guard cells AQ. Turgid A10, Transpiration is loss of water in the form of vapours.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.14_ Biology for Class X Pseudopodia A: Amoeba Contractile vacuole Foad vacuole B: Amoebateeding Pseucopodia Food vacuole Food vacuole P ee (ood a oH toes Good is digested) Food particle C: Paramoecium 2Foodvacuole Gullet | Oral groove 1 Cilia lining the oral groove beat water current contairing the food (mainly bacteria) into the gullet. 2 Food vacuoles are formed at the base ofthe gullet. 3 The vacuoles circulate alongaa set route in he cytoplasm, while digestion occurs. 4 Undigested remains are egested through a temporary opening — the anal pore, Fig. 1.9 Nutrition in amoeba and paramoecium NUTRITION IN HuMAN BEINGS THE ALIMENTARY CANAL IN MAN The alimentary canal or gut is a tube passing from the head right through the trunk where it becomes coiled. It has two openings, the mouth and the anus. It is between 7.5 and 9.0 metres long in an adult when straightened out. Itenables us to — take food into our bodies (ingestion) — break down food into smaller pieces with a large surface area for enzymes to act on (physical digestion) — break down large molecules into smaller soluble molecules (chemical digestion) — absorb small, soluble molecules (absorption) — get rid of the undigested remains of food (egestion or defecation)Life Processes 15 - Nasal vty {Leads tome nose to he seus ‘ Sia on (doseage no \ Pant wa rm ras the natal avy rom Pusha oosto th back ot tremoun) " tethea) oes too (Chewing breaks up food __— Epiglottis: ie sma poss) —— ff at totes be oping {ote wpe when you swalow, reverting feed trom entaringthe ings ‘and preventing you rom choking) ‘Oesophagu Gabe earring food trom {themout to fe stomach, tis about Soret Chest cavity \ Diaphragm Liver {Shaet otmuscie separating he ch {hemos on ‘avi em the abdominal at) ieee) Cardiac sphincter (Qtuscle whieh relanes toatlow Gallbladder food to enter the stomach) (Stores bile) duct (Carros bile juice) lorie sphincter ~ stomach (Crouar muscle whic oaxos (Here food is mixedwith gastric juice) ‘tw llow food to pass intotne |S Paneraas ‘duoderum) (Produces pancreatic juice) SS puedenim (Here foods mixed with juice. pansreate| Pancreatic duct (Cartes pancreatic juco) ‘Coton: ‘Smatt (Absorts water trom Intestine Lndigested food) ‘Absorbed intothe Bod) ‘cascum rectum a 1 — (rere unaigesieg food is ‘Append formed into fasces) ‘eTresenaveno ‘Ans known function (Exittortasces) nomen) ~ Anal sphincter (Muscle which relaxes toalion theegesion a fasces) Fig. 1.10 The human alimentary canalIngestion: taking in of usually complex foods, e.g. starch, fat, protein via the mouth Digestion: the large molecules are broken dowa by enzymes into smaller molecules Absorption: as the molecules Assimilation: are small they can be absorbed used by the bod}’s cells, e.g. glucose is into the blood stream and respired, amino acids are re-joined to lymph form new proteins (NB: any waste products from assimilation are removed from the body by excretion.) Fig. 1.11 Diagrammatic version of the alimentary canal showing key terms. Egestion (defecation): removal of the undigested material ‘The alimentary canal in man and associated organs are as follows. 1. The mouth Ingestion and mastication, or chewing, take place in the mouth (buccal cavity). Salivary amylase in saliva begins the digestion of starch, by hydrolysing it to maltose. Saliva moistens and lubricates the food, and chewing breaks it into smaller pieces. This increases the surface area on which enzymes can act. The tongue helps to work the food into a ball or bolus so that it can be swallowed. When food is swallowed the soft palate closes the opening to the nasal cavity and the e closes the opening to the trachea. ‘Teeth and diseases Dental caries (tooth decay) Periodontal disease (gum disease) Dental caries occurs when the dentine and enamel are broken down by acids released by bacteria, The bacteria and other debris become fixed to the teeth and are collectively known as dental plaque. Periodontal disease is a gum disease in which teeth eventually become loose as the gums recede, The oesophagus Afier swallowing, a food bolus travels down the oesophagus by: (a) Gravity if you are standing or sitting vertically and (b) Peristalsis, a wave like contraction and relaxation of the circular muscles in the oesophagus that pushes the bolus along in one direction. These peristaltic movements occur all along the alimentary canal.Life Processes 17 Bolus Bolus is moved along the gut ==> — \ 7 Circut Reb miiecles. Circular contract muscles relax Fig. 1.12 Peristalsis 3. The stomach The stomach is highly muscular bag with sphincter muscles surrounding both the openings. Due to the churning action food is made into a semi-solid mass known as chyme. Glands present in the stomach wall secretes gastric juice hydrochloric acid, protein digesting enzymes, and mucus. Gastric juice HCl Protein digesting enzymes Mucus (a) Pepsin (b) Rennin (in infants) (i Thehydrochloric acid not only inactivates salivary analyse but also provides an acidic medium for the action of enzyme pepsin. Hydrochloric acid also kills most of the bacteria present in food. (ii) The enzyme pepsin, active only in acidic medium begins digestion of proteins. The second enzyme rennin (in infants) curdles milk. In this process milk proteins are converted into a form for the action of pepsin. The mucus helps to protect the stomach wall from its own secretions of hydrochloric acid and pepsin. Some absorption of small molecules takes place in the stomach, e.g. glucose, salt, alcohol. ‘The food which is temporarily stored in stomach passes on gradually to the small intestine. The exit of food from the stomach is regulated by sphincter muscles. 4. The small intestine ‘The first slightly wider part of the small intestine is called the duodenum. Itis about 25 cm long. The rest called ilewn about 6.5 metres long in adult man is the longest part of the alimentary canal. Depending on the food they eat, length of the small intestine differs in various animals. (i) The herbivores have longer smaller intestine as cellulose takes time to get digested. (ii) The carnivores have shorter small intestine as meat is easier to digest. The complete digestion of carbohydrates, fats and proteins takes place in small intestine.18 Biology for Class X Gall bladder Stomach Bile duct Pyloric sphincter muscles ‘Duodenum. Pancreas Pancreatic duct Fig.1.13 The relationship between the stomach, the duodenum, the liver and the pancreas. ‘The duodenum receives three secretions Bile Panerai Tae Tita Joe oe Sica nerds (i) Bile is a greenish fluid made in the liver and stored in the gall bladder. Function of Bile @ The food coming from the stomach is acidic. Bile changes it into alkaline medium by the action of pancreatic enzymes. ® Itcontains salts which help to emulsify fats, ic. break down large globules of fats into small globules thereby increasing the efficiency of enzyme action. @ Ca) @ © © => oe é ee ® e@®® @ Alarge globule ‘Small globules of fat of fats. Fig. 1.14 Emulsification of fats (ii) Pancreatie juice: Made in the pancreas contains following enzymes — Trypsin: for digesting proteins — Lipase: for breaking down emulsified fats. (iii) Intestinal juice or Suecus entericus: Itis alkaline and activates the protein digesting enzymes. @ The ileum: The digestive processes of the duodenum continue for a time in the ileum, The wall of ileum produces intestinal juice or succus entericus, which has three types of enzymes i.e. carbohydrases, proteases and lipases. These enzymes complete the digestion of the food: Starch "5 sugarLife Processes 19 Proteins "= peptides and amino acids Fats "5 fatty acids and glycerol Nearly all the absorption of digested food materials takes place through the wall of the ileum. The surface area of its inner wall is vastly increased by being raised into finger like projections called villi, The epithelium or lining of the villi is very thin, allowing substances to pass through easily. ‘The villi are well supplied with blood capillaries for transport of the absorbed food to each and every ceil of the body. Absorbed food is utilised for: (a) obtaining energy (b) building up new tissues. (©) repair of old tissues A ring of contraction passes along the small intestine sweeping the contents towards large intestine. \\ Amino acids, sugars, fatty acids and glycerol Nie vel igor, _ molecules are absorbed one cel through the thin villus | wallinto the blood | capillary Blood capillary — __ Fatty acids and glycerol Blood coming to villus to pick up food molecules - Lymph fluid carries tovillus fatty acids and glycerol away to rest of the body Fig. 1.15 Structure and function of a villus Lymph coming — 5. The large intestine ‘The human large intestine consists of the caecum appendix, colon and rectum, and is about 1.5 m long. Caecum and appendix have no function in the human. In humans the appendix sometimes. get infected with harmful bacteria which multiply there that may cause inflammation leading to appendicitis. As the indigestible food material moves along the colon, water is absorbed from it. ‘The walls of large intestine absorb water from the contents of the ileum. ‘The semi-solids which remain are called faeces. ‘The faeces are stored in the large intestine in rectum and passed out at intervals by anal sphincter.20_ Biology for Class X (sBujeq uewiny uy uoyseBip 4o Arewuns) 2pooy yse6ip om MOH 9}"1 ‘Bis u 0} sdjay Yyorym @}eU 1d) ujoqoud pur (sosed) Ip yolUm sowsAzue jul po1se6ip eq 0} 3n8 @y) ul YBnous Guo} sheys 1 OF AIL SIOIO © morey ussjoid jouonsebpp oy seis + sujsdeg aires uy ul oselAwe owAZUD @y) Jo uoNDE oy sdoyS © oo} ayy UO BHE}9eq SII} + ursded yo uono® oy 10) Hd sjqvune Bulpinoid ‘sjuayuoo YoeWO}S au) JO Hd OY 818MO} » "PIOW TTOTOOTDAA AS -ujuuas pue ujsded sewzue yy pue poe 9u0}4D0IDAy SUIEIUOD YOIYM ‘@91Nf 911886 BoNpold j}eM YORWOIS OI UI Sid @ ™ “yyMOW ayy Ut ‘ese/Aure ewAZU9 Oy} SUI2IUCD I Burmoirens ‘se0 10} Ksadds poo} ave eines pue "yinow ey) Buruy seueiquisus Aq peonpoid “snonyy 1S96ip 0} 191889 axe Luoium seed jreuis oui dn oo} ou) syeeiq BuIMayD @ —— 81p aun suiboq yorum 00) aur sUarsioW BESLife Processes 21 PRACTISE TEST II QL. Assimilation, ingestion, absorption, digestion, egestion Put the above terms in the correct order to describe the sequence in which an animal converts food into a form which its body can use. Q2. How is food moved along the gut? Q3. What is egestion? Qé. The presence of ____ in small intestine aid absorption? QS. The churning action of stomach changes food into Q6. Write two functions of hydrochloric acid in stomach. QZ. What is extra cellular digestion? Q8. How does ingestion take place in amoeba? Q9. _____ medium is required for action of pepsin on proteins. QUO. Define emulsification. AL. ingestion -> digestion — absorption — assimilation — egestion. A2. Wave like contraction and relaxation of the circular muscles called peristalsis in the gut pushes food along in one direction. ‘A3. Removal of undigested food remains from the body. Ad, Villi, AS. Chyme. A6. (i) inactivates salivary amylase. ii) kills most of the bacteria in food. A7. Digestion takes place outside the body of the organism. A8. Ingestion in amoeba takes place with the help of pseudopodia. A9. Acidic. A10. Conversion of large globules of fats into small globules of fats. RESPIRATION Living beings require energy forthe activities of life. Energy isreleased cells by breakdown and oxidation of sugars and other substances by the process known as respiration (sometimes called cellular respiration), ‘As a consequence of respiration gases are exchanged between respiring cells and the environment, the process of gaseous exchange. © Respiration is the process by which an organism releases energy for its own use. It consists of the breakdown of a food material, often a carbohydrate, into simpler compounds. ™ Gaseous exchange is the exchange of gases between an organism and its surroundings. © Breathing is any process which speeds up the rate of gascous exchange between an animal and its surroundings. | The terms ‘breathing’ and ‘respiration’ are not interchangeable. Breathing is a form of gaseous exchange. Respiration is a chemical process which takes place within the cells of an organism.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Life Processes 25 A:Water enters MT B:Water leaves Mouth e Mouth }<—Operculum closed closed ‘Opercutum open \Water ~ Floor raised as Floorlowered Fig.1.18 Breathing movements in a fish. In B: as the water leaves, it passes over the gill slits and oxygen is absorbed © Compare the breathing rate of fish with your breathing rate and record your observations in the given table: ‘S.No. No. of times fish opens and No. of times you breathe closes its mouth in a minute in and out in a minute 1 2. 3. Gaseous EXCHANGE IN PLANTS ‘The main gaseous exchanges between green plants and their surroundings are as follows: Gas Inday light In the dark Plants Plants Carbon dioxide take in CO, = give out CO; Oxygen sive out O» € take in O, ‘Vapour = give out = give out. ‘These exchanges are the results of: (a) photosynthesis during day light (b) respiration which goes on all the time but is masked by photosynthesis during the day (©) transpiration which goes on all the time. Carbon dioxide diffuses into a green plant during the day because it is constantly being used up during photosynthesis. Oxygen diffuses out of the plant during the day because more is produced during photosynthesis than is used in respiration. At night oxygen tends to diffuse into the plant as it is used up in respiration. ‘Water is constantly transpired as water vapour. Cuticle and cork are impermeable, so gaseous exchanges take place through stomata and lenticels. Large intercellular spaces ensure that all cells are in contact with air, Plants require much less energy than most animals, and respire much more slowly. They do not breathe, diffusion provides sufficient oxygen for their respiratory needs.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.34_ Biology for Class X 4. It carries hormones from endocrine glands (ductless glands) to the tissues they affect. . It helps in regulation of body temperature. 6. It helps to defend the body against diseases because phagocytes and other leucocytes make antibodies. (Antibodies are proteins made by the blood which inactivate foreign bodies such as bacteria). 7. It protects the body by forming a clot around the wound. Clot prevents infection and loss of blood. a a Know Tus SCIENTIST William Harvey (1578-1657) The English scientist who discovered the circulation of blood in 1628. Before this, it was thought that the liver supplied the body with blood. CircuLatory SysTEM I. THE HEART The heart is muscular pump roughly of the size of our ‘clenched fist’ that pushes blood around the body. Itcontracts about 70-72 times a minute to pump the blood. The size of the heart is closely related to the organisms body size. Generally the heart weighs 0.59% of the total body weight. STRUCTURE ‘The heart in mammals is four chambered. The right atrium, right ventricle, left atrium and left ventricle. The left and right side are separated by a muscular wall or partition, the septum. The right side of the heart has deoxygenated blood and left side has oxygenated blood. The upper two chambers, the thin walled atria (auricles) receive blood from all parts of the body through the veins. The lower two chambers, the thick walled ventricles, pump the blood away around the body through arteries. The direction of flow of blood in the heart is maintained by a system of valves. — The bicuspid valve or mitral valve between the left auricle and left ventricle.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.40 Biology for Class X PRACTISE TEST IV QI. What is the mode of transportation in animals who do not have a transport system? Q2. The percentage of plasma is ___ and blood cells is ___in humans. Q3. Which are fewer in number, red blood cells or white blood cells? QU. Give two advantages of blood clotting. QS. Why are ventricles thick walled? Q6. The backward flow of blood in the body is maintained by a system of Q1. How a highly efficient supply of oxygen is maintained in animals with high energy needs? Q8. Why do you feel faint or dizzy whenever you stand up very quickly? QV. Name the exceptional blood vessels in your body. QO, ____ and ____ do not squeeze into the tissue fluid. Al. Diffusion A2, 55%, 45% A3. white blood cells A4. (i) Prevents excessive loss of blood. (ii) Prevents eniry of pathogens, AS. The ventricles are thick walled because they have to pump blood away to the distant organs through arteries AG. Valves. 7. Due to complete separation of the right side and left side of the heart. A8. This happens because there is a rapid change in posture which alters the body’s blood distribution. ‘There is a temporary lack of blood to the brain, but fortunately body mechanisms quickly bring the blood flow back to normal, A9, Pulmonary artery, pulmonary veins. A10. Exythocytes and large proteins molecules. TRANSPORTATION IN PLANTS In small aquatic animals and plants, substances can move into cells by diffusion e.g. in spirogyra a filamentous algae, all the cells photosynthesise and all take nutrients from the surrounding water. So it does not aced a transport system. Larger land plants cannot rely on diffusion alone: they need a transport system to transport substances, over huge distances. Water, nitrogen, phosphorous and other minerals needed for building plant bodies are absorbed from the soil by the roots, which are in contact with the soil. ‘These raw materials are transported from the soil to the leaves by the xylem. Organic materials, e.g. sugars and amino acids, are transported from the leaves and storage organs to the parts which need them by the phloem.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.72_Biology for Class X There are two types of growth movements in plants. ™ Nastic movements 1 Tropic movements (Tropisms) In nastic movements responses to stimuli come from all directions, e.g. temperature change is the stimulus for flowers to open and close. They open when the temperature rises and close when it falls down. All living plant cells respond directly to changes in the world around them, however plants generally do not respond to all of the stimuli as animals do. Plants respond slowly to the stimuli. Plants respond by growing in a particular direction. Plants respond to four kinds of stimuli: light, gravity, water and touch. These growth responses either towards or away from the stimuli are called tropisms or tropic movements. If the response by plants is towards a stimulus it is said to be positive response and if it is away from a stimulus it is said to be a negative response. Plants are sensitive to light, gravity and moisture, @) Shoots grow towards the light increasing efficiency of photosynthesis (Positive phototropism) ii) Roots grow away from light (Negative phototropism) (iii) Shoots grow against gravity (Negative geotropism) (iv) Roots grow towards gravity and moisture increasing efficiency of the root hair to collect water (Positive geotropism) WW, \ (Stems grow towards light) (Stems grow away from the pull of gravity) })\ ff Positive geotropism \ If (Roots grow towards the pull of gravity) Oh Positive hydrotropism (Roots grow towards water) ae Fig. 2.8 Different tropisms RESPONSE OF A PLANTS TowarDs LIGHT: PHOTOTROPISM The investigation of plant responses to light as an external stimulus led to the discovery of plant hormones also known as growth regulators namely auxins, gibberellines, cytokinins, abscisic acid and ethene. They are more correctly called growth regulators as they are different from animal hormones for the reasons listed in the table given on page 71.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.98 Biology for Class X a KNOW THESE SCIENTISTS James Watson Francis Crick ‘Structure of DNA. © The structure of DNA was discovered by James Watson and Francis Crick at the Cavendish Laboratory at the University of Cambridge in 1953. 4 They won the Nobel prize for their work, which they published in the joumal Nature. THE STRUCTURE OF DNA double helix. A DNA molecule is a macro molecule made up of smaller molecules of compounds called nucleotides. A nucleotide Deoxy Y—jBase| consists of three substances combined together: cans 1, a nitrogenous base; either adenine, guanine, cytosine and thymine. Fig. 3.2 A Nucleotide in DNA 2. @ pentose sugar; deoxyribose 3. a phosphate molecule The DNA of all organisms seems to be identical structurally, but at the same time DNA of every. ~ species is unique. The work of DNA in the cell nucleus is to initiate and control the synthesis of proteins. If the DNA is changed, different proteins will be made which will lead to altered body designs. ‘Thus creation of a DNA copy is a basic event in reproduction, which takes place inside the nucleus. The process is called replication as each chromosome makes an exact copy—a ‘replica of itself’. Nucleotides condense together to form huge molecules—the nucleic acids, also known as polynucleotides. The DNA molecule consists of two polynucleotide strands, that take the shape of a double helix— two inter twisted spiral strands. ‘The structure of DNA molecule resembles a twisted ladder or a)How do Organisms Reproduce? _99 The sequence of a nitrogencous bases in DNA is a ‘code’ of instructions for synthesising prote The chemical reactions taking place in a cell are catalysed by enzymes and enzymes are proteins. DNA controls enzyme production and therefore the structure and all the functions of the cell as a whole. ‘The sequence of events that take place during DNA replication are shown in Fig. 3.3 given below. fa) Fig. 3.3 (a) The DNA double helix unwinding (b) Two new molecules of DNA form as a new strand of DNA builds up along each of the original strands. The horizontal shapes Joining two strands represent the bases A, T, G or C tb) (2) The DNA double helix unwinds forming two single strands of DNA. (b) Anew strand of DNA builds up alongside each of the original strands of DNA to form two new molecules of DNA. Each new molecule is a replica of the original. Thus daughter cells formed during mitosis are identical to each other and their parent cell as each cell receives an identical copy of the parent cell’s DNA. Occasionally the new DNA formed is slightly different from the original, due to a wrong base that adds by mistake during the formation of new DNA. Most variations are harmful because the altered protein does not work as well as the original protein or may not work at all. If variations occur in sex cells (sperms and eggs) after fertilisation the embryo may not develop properly or may die at an early stage. Types OF REPRODUCTION Organisms reproduce either asexually or sexually; many reproduce by both. In asexual reproduction a single organism produces new individuals. The offsprings are identical to the parent because the parent cells divide by mitosis. During mitosis, the replication of DNA passes exact copies of the parent’s genetic material to the daughter cells which multiply and give rise to new genetically identical offspring. This can be represented in a flowchart.100 Biology for Class X Exact copies of parent's Replication ‘genetic material Daves SEO inherited ee PARENT CELLS| >| mrrosis DAUGHTER CELLS |}——>| _OFFSPRINGS Asexual reproduction takes place in several ways. The most common methods include the following: Fission Fission means splitting. It occurs in unicellular organisms. The parent organism splits into two or more equal parts. Each part then develops as a separate individual. Depending on the number of individuals formed after splitting of the parent organism, fission is of two types: BINARY FISSION It means ‘splitting into two’. It takes place when conditions are favourable and the organism is fully mature. E.g. Amoeba reproduces asexually by binary fission normally after a period of growth sustained by assimilation of nutrients. Binary fission in Amoeba takes place in steps in transverse plane explained in Fig. 3.4. 1. Amoeba becomes ‘mature and roundoff, Ce 1M. Cytoplasm divides into equal parts each witha nucleus IV. Two daughter individuals are formed Fig.3.4 Binary Fission in AmoebaHow do Organisms Reproduce? 101 Other examples of binary fission: (a) Paramoecium also reproduces by binary fission in the same manner as explained in Amoeba in transverse plane (b) Euglena and Leishmania (the protozoan causing Kalazar) reproduce by binary fission in longitudinal plane. To study permanent slide of amoeba @ Focus the slide under a microscope and observe, Also observe another slide showing structure of Amoeba. @ Compare the observations of both the slides made by you. MULTIPLE FISSION E.g. Plasmodium (malaria causing organism) infects red blood cells. Nucleus divides by mitosis to form many nuclei. Cytoplasm divides around them to form new cells. New cells are released into the blood ‘stream that infect fresh blood cells. Plasmodium Ce Foor © O oodeets New cells formed Fig. 3.5 Multiple fission FRAGMENTATION E.g. Spirogyra (an unbranched filamentous alga found in ponds, lakes and slow flowing streams). The strands grow until they break thus forming more individuals. This only takes place under favourable conditions of moisture, temperature, light and nutrient availability.102 Biology for Class X A: Part of a filament J9220228 aansene OILASA Fs B: Detail of one cell Cellwall Vacuole ~—=Gytoplasm Chloroplast Pyrenoid Nucleus Mucilage (slimy secretion) Fig. 3.6 A: Spirogyra grows in length but not in thickness. It therefore develops as a filament, one cell thick B: Each cell is identical in appearance. Itcontains one or more ribbon-shaped chloroplasts, each with pyrenoids (colourless patches of protein) at intervals along it. ACTIVITY 2 To study the structure of a spirogyra cell and identify different tissues. 1 Cover one or two filaments of spirogyra with a cover slip and observe the filaments first under low power and then under high power of microscope. Observations (@__Unbranched filamentous alga with spiral chloroplast ii) Cylindrical cells (iii) Large vacoules (iv) Nucleus suspended near the centre of the cell. REGENERATION ‘Many echinoderms such as the starfish, some flatworms (e.g. Planaria, Hydra and annelids) reproduce successfully by regeneration. If their bodies are broken into fragments, each one can develop into a new individual. Regeneration is carried out by specialised cells which divide and make large number of cells. Different cells from these large number of cells undergo changes and differentiate to become various tissues.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.104 Biology for Class X 1B Place a drop of yeast culture on a slide and add a drop of methylene blue. 1 Examine the yeast cells under the microscope with the low power objective lens first and then with high power objective lens to look for the cell wall, cytoplasm and nucleus. BUDDING IN HYDRA ‘An asexually produced hydra first appears as a bulge or bud in the body wall of the parent. When the foodis plentiful, more than one may develop at the same time. The body cavity of the ‘bud’ is continuous with that of the parent until the new individual has developed tentacles and a mouth, after which the bud becomes cut off at its base from the parent hydra and forms an independent organism. EF, Y4 Fig.3.9 Budding in Hydra PRACTISE TEST I QI. Name two nucleic acids that make genetic material of organisms. Q2. Structure of DNA molecule resembles Q3. What is the role of DNA in the cell? Q4. Name two types of fission occuring in unicellular organisms. QS. What is the mode of reproduction in Leishmania? Q6. Mention any two unfavourable conditions responsible for fragmentation in spirogyra. QJ. Other than planaria, ___and___ also reproduce by regeneration. Al. DNA—Deoxyribo nucleic acid. RNA—Ribo nucleic acid. ‘A2. Twisted ladder or double helix. A3. Initiates and controls protein synthesis. ‘Ad. Binary fission, multiple fission.How do Organisms Reproduce? 108 AS. Binary fission in longitudinal plane. A6. Moisture, temperature, A7. Hydra, annelids, VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION Many flowering plants can also reproduce asexually. The root, leaf or more often the stem may grow into new plants. These parts are called vegetative parts and ascxual reproduction in flowering plants in which a new plant grows out from part of the parent plant is called vegetative propagation. This property of vegetative propagation is used for agricultural purposes by the following methods: 1. Layering: e.g. Jasmine, grapes In this method leaves from one of the branches are removed from a small portion. This small portion of the branch without leaves called layer is given a small cut and covered with soil. After two days the layer develops roots and it can be separated from the parent plant and planted separately. 2. Grafting: Grafting is used to reproduce fruit tree eile Swok anid and roses. ‘Scion taped 1 Inthis method a twig (called the scion) Spoon: is cut from the plant to be increased. It is then joined to the stem (called the giacy stock) of a rooted plant. The cut surfaces are taped together. The graft heals on the rooted plant to give a new plant. Grafting is useful if plants are difficult to grow from seeds. Some more examples of vegetative propagation have been explained in Fig. 3.11 given on next page: Fig. 3.10 A Simple grafting technique ADVANTAGES OF VEGETATIVE PROPAGATION 1. Plants raised by vegetative propagation bear fruits and flowers earlier as compared to those produced from seeds. 2. All plants produced are genetically identical to the parent plant. The genetically identical individuals are called clones. 3. Makes possible propagation of such plants which have lost capacity to produce the seeds.106 Biology for Class X Strawberiies have side branchescalled runners. ‘They grow over the soil and form buds. Each bud grows into a new plant. Acomisa short ‘underground stem. ‘New corns form on the side of the old one. They break off and become new plants. ol Apotato isa swollen Fares : underground stem calleca tuber. ‘Now shoots grow New pataie from the buds or oe out Rhizomes are ‘Stored foodis used underground stems for growth by now that grow sideways inthe soil. shoots in spring pate ce gives the new plants: ‘astart.in the spring. ti) old thizomes Corns, tubers and thizomes are all storage organs. They fill up with f00d, like starch, in summer. Over the winter they remain alive in the soil. The next epring, the new plants use the stored food to grow until their new leaves develop. Fig. 3.11(a) Examples of vegetative propagation Adventitious leat buds inthe leat notches Young plantiet developed trom adventitious bud produced in the Fotches of tn ‘of Bryophylum fall on the soll and develop into new plants, Lea! eage. Fig. 3.11(b) Leaf of Bryophyllum with budsHow do Organisms Reproduce? _107 Spore FORMATION In fungi, e.g. Rhizopus (bread mould). Fungi are made up of siender tube called hyphae. The mass of hyphae form mat like mycelium, Bread mould hyphae spread over and into uncovered food, spoiling it. Hyphae poke up into the air, each carrying a capsule shaped fruiting body called sporangium at the tips. The contents of sporangium divide into spores, which are released and transported to new food surfaces where they may grow and eventually release spores themselves. Spores sits <<— Sporangium Hypha ag }.— Upright filament Horizontal filament Root like hyphae (a) The structure of a fungus (b) A developing spore Fig. 3.12 Spore formation in Rhizopus ACTIVITY 4 To study spore formation in rhizopus (bread mould). © Moisten a slice of bread and put it in a jar and cover it "Place the jar in a warm place. © Observe the jar after 6-7 days. Sexuat REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS In angiosperms (i.e. flowering plants) reproductive parts are located in flower. A flower is a part of shoot modified for sexual reproduction. Flower parts are often arranged in rings or circles also called whorls. Starting from outside they are as follows: (a) Sepals are a bit like small leaves. They protect the flower in the bud. (b) Petals are often coloured and scented. Many have a nectary at the base. The nectary makes sugar nectar. The insects land on the petals.108 Biology for Class X ‘Stigma Anther Stamen Filament CARPEL 2 Potal Ovule Fig. 3.13 Longitudinal (c) Stamens are the male reproductive organs. Each one is made up of two parts: (i) the anther, where yellowish powder called pollen is made. Pollen grains produce male germ cells. (ii) the filament, a little stalk which holds the anther. In this flower there are four staments. (d) Carpels are the female reproductive organs present in the centre of a flower, Each carpel is made up of three parts: stigma, style and ovary. Carpel Stigma Style Ovary ‘Terminal part, which Middle clongated Swollen bottom part, Each may be sticky part ovary contain one or more ovules. enclosed in two integument or coats. The embryo s several nuclei including the ovum or female nucleus. Most flowers are hermaphrodites or bisexual, i.e. when it contains both stamens and carpels, e.g. Mustard, Hibiscus. Some flowers are unisexual, ic. when it contains either stamens or carpels, e.g. papaya, watermelon. ¢ contains POLLINATION Pollination is the transfer of pollen grains from the anthers of stamens to the stigma of a carpel. There are two main methods of pollination, i.e. by insects and by the wind.How do Organisms Reproduce? 109 ross pollination sell pollination Fig. 3.14 Pollination Some times the pollen is transferred from the anther to stigma of the same flower or another flower on the same plant. This is called self pollination. Cross pollination is where pollen is transferred from the anther of a flower on one plant to the stigma of a flower on another plant. Cross pollination is more common than self pollination and results in more variation as compared to self pollination, FERTILISATION ‘The main events leading to fertilisation are as follows: (a) Aripe stigma secretes a substance which induces the pollen grains on it to germinate by sending ut pollen tubes into the tissues of the carpel. ©) )<— Pollen grain ——— Stigma 7 Tip of pollen tube opens. to release nuciei Pollan tube —_ ~ style Integuments Female nucleus Embryosac Male — nucleus Micropyle Fig. 3.15 A mature carpel showing fertlisationaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.How do Organisms Reproduce? 115 Different parts of the body increases in size during the first twenty years of a person’s life. Different parts of the body grow at different rates because cell division occurs more quickly in some parts than in other. Changes in the relative proportion of head, trunk and limbs are shown in Fig. 3.17. Fig.3.17 The growth pattern of a human. Notice that growth is slow at first, then speeds up, and then slows down again. This is typical of most animals. Human Mate Rerropuctive System ‘SIDE VIEW Seminal vesicie FRONT VIEW Tube from bladder (Ureter) ‘Seminal vesicle Prostate gland ‘Vas deferens (Sperm duct) Urethra Penis Head ot penis Foreskin Testis Serotal sac (Scrotum) Fig. 3.18 Male reproductive system The main organs of human male reproductive system are as follows: @ Testes: The testes are male sex organs or male gonad. They produce male gametes: the sperms, the testes are contained in a bag like scrotum outside the abdominal cavity. Thisaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.The artery in the umbilical cord brings deoxygenated biood carrying carbon dioxide and ‘ther wastes from the foetus to the placenta ‘The veln inthe wbilical cord ‘carries oxygenated blood containing oxygen and food {rom the plecenta to the foetus ‘The blood systems of mother and foetus Capillary inplacenta How do Organisms Reproduce? 19 > Directon of blood flow [5 Orygenated blood TS Beoxygenated boos Carbon dioxide and wastes dittuse {rom the foetus blood. across the placenta, info the mother's blood ‘Oxygen andfood diffuse from the matners blood, 2cross he placenta into the fostus’s blood inthe uterus jal by cits exchenge materia byefusion aces athe uterus Fig. 3.23 The blood systems of mother and foetus exchange material by diffusion across the placenta INSIDE THE UTERUS Figure shows an embryo inside the uterus present in a sac caled amnion. Amnion contains amnictic fluid which protects the baby from jolts and bumps. ‘The baby itself makes amniotic fluid by urinating into the amnion. iacenta is large disc shaped organ which is able to absorb food and oxygen from the mother's blood stream. ‘The embryo is connected to the placenta by the umblical cord. ‘The carbon dioxide is produced by the empryo during respiration whi Placenta also protects the embryo from harmful substances. passed to the mother's blood steam. Fig. 3.24 The relationships between the embryo, placenta, and uterus ~120 _ Biology for Class X An artery and a vein run through the umblical cord and connect the foetus “blood system’ to the placenta. The foetus blood system and blood system of the mother are not directly connected. The exchange of oxygen, food and wastes between the mother and foetus, depends on diffusion across the thin wall of the placenta. The placenta protects the baby from some harmful substances and microbes. The child is bor as a result of rhythmic contractions of the muscles in the uterus. Pregnancy: last from fertilisation to birth for about 9 months. The foetus becomes surrounded by a membrane called the amnion, It contains a fluid in which the foetus floats. This cushions the foetus and stops it from being bumped, | What happens when the egg is not fertilised? Ifthe egg is not fertilised, the production of hormones estrogen and progesterone decreases and the thick lining of uterus begin to breakdown. The release of blood and mucous through vagina is called menstruation and takes place roughly every month. It lasts for about two to eight days. ‘The human female usually produces one mature egg each month from the onset of puberty age (11—14 yrs) to the beginning of the menopause (age about 45-50 yrs). This monthly cycle is called menstrual cycle. MENSTRUAL CYCLE The uterus tning continues to thicken in proparation fora ferilised egg The menstrual cycle is controlied by a complex series of hormones changes . inside the body. Egg dies it ‘These hormones contol the release of an not fertilised 9g irom one of the ovaries every month. The uterus prepares itself to receive a fertilised ogg. If the egg is fertilised then any further release for next nine months is stopped. 1 the egg is not fertilised then the uterus lining breaks down (which causes blood loss) and leaves the body together with 4 ‘he untertlised egg through vagina. This is known as menstruation (the period) which lasts between 4 and 7 days, After the period the uterus ining starts to rebuild itselt-The whole cycie takes around 28 days.ddo Organisms Reproduce? Rerropuctive HEALTH Although the gradual process of sexual maturation takes place while general body growth is still going ‘on, it does not mean that body is ready for sexual acts or for having and bringing up children. Making choices becomes very difficult when one is under different kinds of pressures such as pressure from friends, from families to get married and start having children or there can be pressure from government agencies to avoid having children. Since sexual act is a very intimate connection of bodies. Many viruses or bacteria that cause some infectious disease can be passed from one person to another. These diseases are called sexually transmitted diseases (STDs) examples: (i) Gonorrhoea and Syphilis are bacterial infections (ii) Warts and HIV-AIDS are viral infections ‘These diseases can be prevented to some extent by the following methods (a) not being sexually active (b) having only one sexual partner-if neither has the disease, then they cannot pass infection to each other, (©) ensuring that a covering called a condom for the penis is used during sex, as bacteria cannot pass through this. @ The sexual act always has the potential to lead to pregnancy which can make major demands on the body and mind of woman. Her health will be adversely effected if she is not ready for it, Birth control or contraception lets people choose when they want children and how many children they want. This choice is called family planning. Birth control is important in keeping family sizes small and limiting increase in human population. 1 To prevent pregnancy, the method of contraception must either: i) stops sperm from reaching the egg, or (ii) stops eggs from being produced, or (iii). stops the fertilised egg from developing in the uterus. 1 Different methods of contraception or population control: (i) Mechanical methods: Work as a barrier by not letting sperms reach the egg, e.g, Condom on the penis and diaphragms or cenical cap, similar covering wom in the vagina. (ii) Hormonal methods:Use hormones to stop eggs being produced. These hormones are like those that a woman's body makes when she is pregnant, i.e. progesterone and estrogen. The woman takes a pill each day, having these hormones. ‘This is a very effective method, so long as the pills are taken at right time. However, some women do experience side effects.122 Biology for Class X (iii) J#trauterine device ({UD) appear to work by causing the migration of white blood cells from the blood stream into the uterus. Here the cells probably destroy the egg between the time of fertilisation and implantation. They can cause side effects due to irritation of uterus. e.g. copper T or the loop. (iv) Orat pill or contraceptive pill ig a combination of ovarian hormones, which prevent the release of the egg in the same way as ovulation is stopped during pregnancy. Since they change hormonal balances, they can cause side effects such as nausea. () Surgical methods are used to create blocks. ‘Vasectomy, in males the vas deferens is blocked and sperm transfer is prevented. ‘Tubectomy in females the fallopian tube is blocked and egg is not able to reach the uterus. These methods are safe in the long run but surgery can itself cause infections if not performed properly. Effective birth control cannot be achieved in a short period. Educational programs are necessary before cultural resistance and ignorance can be overcome. Both vasectomy and tubectomy are very effective; only needs to be done once but are usually irreversible. Surgical methods are also mis-used by people for removal of unwanted pregnancies, as in illegal sex selective aborption of female foetuses. Due to this child sex ratio is declining at an alarming rate in some sections of our society, inspite of prohibition of prenatal sex determination by law. Natality (birth) and mortality (death) rates determine the size of a given population. The expanding size of human population is relatively unimportant, if inequality is the main reason for poor standards of living for many people. Take AL @x. . \._ Reproduction means producing new living organisms. ‘There are two main ways of reproduction: — asexual reproduction — sexual reproduction A. Asexual reproduction involves only one parent organism and results in offsprings that are identical to the parent, A. Sexual reproduction involves two parent organisms and the production of sex cell or gametes. \ Many flowering plants can reproduce asexually using storage organs. This is calledvegetative propagation , Many flowering plants carry out sexual reproduction and make sex cells, organs of reproduction are flowers. The male sex cells or pollen grains are made inside the anthers while female sex | cells or egg cells are made inside the earpel. || \ Pollen grains are transferred from the anthers to the stigma of a flower of the same species.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.How do Organisms Reproduce? _129 MM: 20 marks SELF-ASSESSMENT TEST Time: 40 mins. 1. Name the type of fission carried out by Amocba. a 2. Give one example of each of the following: (ay (@) Plant which propagates by cutting. (b) Plant which propagates by layering. 3. What is the function of anthers? w 4. How does binary fission differ from multiple fission. (NCERT) (2) 5. Ifa woman is using copper-T, will it help in protecting her from sexually transmitted diseases? Explain. (based on HOTS) (NCERT) (2) 6. Show budding in hydra with the help of a well labelled diagram only. 2 7. Write three advantages of vegetative propagation. 3) 8. (a) Name the hormone produced by ovaries and testes during puberty. What changes do these hormones make in a girl's body and a boy's body, respectively? 2) (b) How does the baby in the uterus gets food and oxygen that it needs? wo 9. Look at the diagram showing male reproductive system: (based on HOTS) (5) (a) Name the parts labelled A to F. (b) Name the structures on the diagram responsible for the following: (@ Making sperms (ii) Making semen ii) Passing semen into the vagina (iv) Carrying sperms from the testis (v) Carrying both semen and urine at different times.130. Biology for Class X HOTS QUESTIONS Why is variation beneficial to the species but not necessary for the individual? What is the advantage of reproduction through spores in the case of Rhizopus? The simple animals such as planaria can be cut into number of pieces and each piece grows into a complex organism. What is this process known as? 4, Name the unicellular organism which caused the disease known as kala azar. Which process taking place in the nucleus of a cell leads to variation in the offspring during reproducing? What causes joining up of stock and scion in grafting technique of vegetive propagation in plants? Define the terms stock and scion, Name one positive trait each of the plant contributing scion and stock should have. 7. Which type of layering is done in Jasmine? 8. Where does fertilization takes place in human female? 9.. Why is it said that “sexual reproduction promotes diversity of characters in the offsprings”? 10. What happens if the fallopian tubes are partially blocked and the ovulated eggs are prevented from reaching the uterus? 1]. Name the causative organism of syphilis and gonorthoea. 12. Why are variation possible in progeny of sexually reproductive individuals? 1. A couple wants to space the birth of their second child, Suggest one preventive method which could be observed a (a) By the husband (b)_ By the wife for the same. 2. A girl attains her puberty at the age of 11 years and a boy at 13 years but, still they are asked to refrain from sex, why? Q) 3. A pregnant woman visits a doctor to determine the sex of her child. The doctor refused to perform the test. Why is she being denied’? Q 4. Blue prints of body design are stored in the DNA. Why? @ 5. Producing individuals by parents consume lot of energy. So, why should an individual organism waste energy in the process, it does not need to stay alive? 8 6. Protozoan reproduce by binary fission as well as by multiple fission. In your opinion which process is better and why’? Q QUESTION BANK FOR PRACTICE 1, Name those parts of the flower which serve the same fuention as the following do in the animals (1) Tests, (2) Ovary (3) Eggs (4) Sperms 2. ‘Malarial parasite’ divides into many daughter individuals simultaneously by multiple fission state an advantage the parasite gets because of this type of reproduction.HEREDITY AND EVOLUTION INTRODUCTION ‘You have seen that asexual reproduction produces offsprings which are exactly alike and identical to their parents. They all have the same genes. So asexual reproduction does not give rise to variety and it cannot improve the species. On the other hand, one of the great advantages of sexual reproduction is that offsprings differ from each other as they contain different genes. So sexual reproduction gives rise to variety. In this chapter you will study the mechanisms by which variations are created and passed on from the parents to their offsprings. The long term consequences of the accumulation of variations causes changes ice, evolution. Heredity is the transmission of characters or traits from parents to their ofisprings. Genetics is the science of heredity, i.e. the study of inheritance of characteristics in offsprings from their parents. Genetic is to help our understanding of the heredity by investigating how offsprings inherit characteristics from their parents. Itis always expected that every living organism will have offsprings just like itself, e.g. the members of one family are similar to each other, and to their parents in their specific characteristics. But we also recognise that the members of one family vary in small ways. These small differences constitute variations. Variations in living organisms may be due to (i) heredity or the genes, e.g. sex, growth etc. (ii) an effect of the environment on the individual, e.g. illness due to vitamin or mineral deficiency. (ii) interaction of both heredity and environment, e.g. weight of an organism.134 Biology for Class X (ii) Crossing over during meiosis exchanges a segment of one chromosome with corresponding segment of its homologous chromosome. As a result the sex cells produced by meiosis have a different combination of genes from the parent cell. Variation that arise from genetic causes are inherited from parents by offsprings and result in evolution. Variations that arise from environmental causes are not inherited because sex cells are not affected. Instead the characteristics are said to be acquired, e.g. weightlifter having well developed bulging muscles will not have children with same type of muscles unless they take up weightlifting, as well. To study two variants found in earlobes of human populations ie. free and attached earlobes and suggest a possible rule for inheritance of earlobe types. 1B Observe earlobes of all the students in the class and correlate their earlobe type with that of their parents. @ Record your findings in the table given below: ‘S.No. | Name of the student Type of earlobe Type of earlobe in Father Mother yeeee 1 From this activity you will understand that inherited traits can be influenced by both maternal and paternal DNA. a a 2 Know THIS SCIENTIST Gregor Mendel was born in 1822. He was the son of an Austrian farmer. Asa young man he entered the Augustinian monastery in the town of Brunn (now Brno in the Czech Republic) and was ordained as a priest at the age of 25. Mendel trained in mathematics and natural history at the university of ‘Vienna and then taught in the high school at Brann. Mendel started growing peas and studied the inheritence of traits peas.@ Before considering inheritance of characters or traits (trait is any recognizable feature) it is important to become familiar with some basic genetic terms, which have been summarised in the table given below: Copyrighted136 Biology for Class X (Conid.) Crossing over ‘an important event that occurs during meiosis. In this small] parts of DNA are exchanged between the homologous| chromosomes. is an important source of genetic variation. Contromere ‘Chiasma : (Point where {crossing over takes place) 15, | Homologous Chromosomes look exactly alike, one chromosome in the pair is inherited| from each parent. Russ oF INHERITANCE OF TRAITS: MENDEL’S CONTRIBUTION The basic laws of genetics were first developed by an Austrian Monk, Gregor Johan Mendel using garden pea (Pisum Sativum). He identified a no. of characteristics showing contrasting traits as follows: TRAIT PARENTS Dominant Recessive Seedshape| Round | G} Wrinkiod Sseedcotou| >) Yellow | @ Green [Ener | @D Vor! Gp wnte Pod shape | x77 1 Intiated| x Constrctos Pod colour | ty” Green |T+Vellow Pte | BA | AR rm Tall Short ret Fig.4.2 Mendel's pairs of contrasting traits in pe Mendel performed experiments on garden pea because (i) Pea plants are easy to cultivate and have large flowers which helps in cross pollination under controlled conditions. (ii) These plants are self pollinated in nature. (iii) These plants show discrete variations in characters or traits. (iv) There are no intermediate forms produced.138_ Biology for Class X ‘The first generation known as F; were all tall because tallness is dominant. The plants of F, generation were then self fertilized. F; generation, ic. all heterozygous plants formed gametes, half carried the dominant ‘T” allele and half the recessive ‘t’ allele. Genotypes phenotypes F, generation: Genotypes phenotypes generation Gametes phenotypes | tall > F; generation t ee) Srallplant 1 shor plant Ball plant 1 ehor plant Fig. 4.3 Inheritance of traits over generations The offspring of self fertilising heterozygous tall plants were in the ratio 3 tall:1 dwarf. This pattern of inheritance is explained with the help of a diagrammatic representation. _(@) Parent: Tal pants dart plants Inwhich the F, generation has been represented by using a device called a ‘PUNNET (ji) Gametes: SQUARE” named after the biologist who first discovered it. (ii) F; generation: Cra plans) (iv) F, generation: self-fertilised ju * nr (¥) Gametes: 6% OdHeredity and Evolution 139 F, gamot (i) Punnet Square: 8am © 7 2 Olran| tai & @ mY t i Oran | ta (vii) F, generation : Genotypes: ay Tt tt Phenotypes : Tall plants Tall plants dwarf plants Ratio : 1 2 2 — WY KNow THIS SCIENTIST ‘The Cambridge geneticist RC Punnett was the first to set out a cross between parents with contrasting characteristics as a table, Called a Punnett square, the alleles of the gametes of one parent are written along the top; the alleles of the gametes of the other parent down the side. The possible combinations of alleles are written in the appropriate boxes, avoiding the criss-cross of lines. Cross Trxu Parental | t t || Pure breeding Gametes recessive parent Pure breeding { Techs Tt } 5 Domiaant parent t/t Te] {Pueencanne Mendel performed experiments on a number of different characters and always found similar results and ratios. From such experiments he worked out his ‘principle of segregation’. Mendel’s first law, the law of segregation states: “An organism’s characteristics are determined by internal factors which occur in pairs, only one of a pair of factors can be present in a single gamete.” A monohybrid cross between a plant with homozygous purple flowers and a plant with homozygous white flowers is as follows: : AK x aa 9) Eaents Purple flowered White flowered plant plant Gi) Gametes 5 OQ 2 Gili) F, generation : mares rewatee plantHeredity and Evolution 141 Dihybrid inheritance of independent characters illustrated by the Mendel’s cross between the above mentioned pea plants is as follows: (i) Parents : RRYY x ny Round seeds virinkled seeds yellow cotyledons: green colyedons [Meiosis Gi) Gametes.—: @) d Gi) F, generation : Au Rey All round seeds yellow cotyledons (iv) F, generation : Rr * Reyy allowed to self pollinate [Mei i (v) Gametes (vi) Punnet square : © RRYY RRYy RrYyY RrYy Round, yellow | Round, yellow round, yellow Round, yellow RRYy Rryy Rrvy Rryy Round, yellow | Round, green_| Round, yellow ‘| Round, green @) RrYY RrYy nYY yy Round, yellow | Round, yellow | Wrinkled, yellow | Wrinkled, yellow @) Rryy Riyy wYy myy Round, yellow | Round, green | Wrinkled, yellow! Wrinkled, green (vii) Fy generation : Genotypes: RRYY RRyy nYY my RRYy,RrVY Ry myy RrYy Phenotypes: Round, yellow Round, green Wrinkled yellow — Wrinkled green Ratio 3 9 i 3 i 3 1 From this dihybrid cross we know there are four different phenotypes but these are produced by nine different genotypes.142 _ Biology for Class X ‘These outcomes are summarised in the table given below: ‘The conclusion of dihybrid is that “two or more pairs of alleles segregate independently of each other as a result of meiosis”. This is known as Mendel’s second law, the “law of independent assortment.” Similarly a cross between tall, round seeded plant (TTRR) and a dwarf wrinkled seeded plant (ttrr) can be worked out as follows: i) Parents 2 ran thr atone wart, wraked | Meiosis oD (iii) F, generation : ‘Atal round soode (iv) F, generation = hM Copyrighted material(vi) Punnet Square Heredity and Evolution 143 ®) ® @) : TTRR TTRr TRR | TiRr tall, round tall, round tall, round | tall, round @) TTRr The TR Ter tall, round | tal, wrinkled | tall, round | _ tall, wrinkled TRR TR tRR Rr tall, round tall, Round | dwarf, round_| dwarf, round @) TtRr Tor wRe tr tall, round tall, wrinkled dwarf, round dwarf, wrinkled F; generation : Genotypes TIRR Tir WRR ter TTRr Tur uRr TIRE TiRr Phenotypes tall round tall wrinkled dwarf round dwarf wrinkled Ratio : 9 3 3 I MECHANISM OF HEREDITY How do traits get expressed? Since Mendel’s time some properties of DNA have been discovered and now there is much evidence to support the mechanism of heredity. (i) Every eukaryotic cell contains chromosomes, which are long threads made up of DNA and protein. (ii) Each chromosome contains one long molecule of DNA. (iii) The DNA molecule carries a code that instructs the cell about which kinds of proteins it will make. (iv) Each chromosome carries instructions for making many different proteins. (v) A part of a DNA molecule coding for one protein is known as gene. (vi) There are many genes present on one chromosome, which control characteristics of an organism. (vii) In most of the cells in an adult organism the cells are not dividing and chromosomes are uncoiled. Active genes in these cells produce proteins which control the activities of the cells. All the genes are not active at the same time, so different cells carry out different functions.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Heredity and Evolution 148 Sex DETERMINATION ‘The mechanism by which the sex of an individual is determined is known as sex determination, Different mechanisms of sex determination are as follows: (a) XX-YY mechanism, e.g. human beings, many vertebrates and insects including Drosophila. (females are XX and males are XY) (b) XX-XO mechanism, e.g. grasshoppers and some other insects. (females are XO (where O = ‘absent’) (males are XX) (©) Role of environmental factors: In some animals the temperature at which eggs are incubated determines the sex of the organisms, e.g. Chrysemapicta, a species of turtles high incubation temperature results in females. —In Agama agama, a species of lizards high incubation temperature results in males. —In snails, individuals can change sex indicating that sex is not determined genetically. Sex DETERMINATION IN HUMAN BEINGS All human cells, contain 23 pairs of chromosomes, (except for gametes and red blood cells) i.e. 22 pairs of autosomes and 1 pair of sex chromosomes. Females have two X chromosomes, so they are said to be homogametic sex (XX). Males have one X chromosome and one smaller Y chromosome, so they are said to be heterogametic sex (XY). In females all egg cells receive an X chromosome during meiosis. In males however half of the sperms receive X chromosome and half receive Y chromosome. At fertilisation the egg cell may be fertilised by a sperm carrying an X chromosome, producing a zygote that has two X chromosomes and which will therefore develop into a female. On the other hand, if a Y sperm fertilises the egg, the zygote will contain an X and Y chromosome and will develop into a male, So the sex of the offspring in humans and in all mammals is determined by which sperm is it that fertilises the egg. We would expect equal numbers of male and female offsprings to be produced. Parental phenotype: Female Male Parental genotype: y Gametes: x x Y x XX XY x XX XY Offspring genotypes: XX XY Offspring Phenotypes: Female Maleaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Heredity and Evolution 147 Now there are millions of organisms ranging from bacteria and single celled fungi to complex flowering plants, insects and mammals. Toexplain the possible reasons of this revolutionary change Charles Darwin collected evidences for over 25 yrs and published them in the book “The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection” ‘The ideas contained in the book are referred to as “Darwin’s Theory of Evolution by Natural Selection”. The three main points of this theory can be summarised as follows: (a) For ability to survive and reproduce, the individual characteristics of an organism such as height, colour, or speed of movement are important (b) Within the given species organisms show variations in many characteristics. Organisms with certain advantageous characteristics are likely to produce more offsprings and live longer, e.g. ability to avoid a predator. (c) The characteristics which help the organisms to survive are inherited by their offsprings and these gradually increase generation after generation or in other words they are naturally selected. On the other hand, the number of organisms which are not adapted to the environment decreases. This is the basis of evolutionary change. Causes of an inbuilt tendency to produce variation during reproduction are: (i) Errors in DNA copying Gi) Sexual reproduction (ii) Environmental factors Variations in a population arc inherited can be understood by taking an example, illustrated in Fig. 4.5. Situation | : Appearance of favourable variations (green) ree ee OBS 666 )_, ( 666 oe SOS O66, 688 Groupofiwolve Colourvariaton Crows eairedbeetles Number ofgreen green beetes) Tedbootes ‘green oetles lncieanee ‘Situation It: Appearance of unfavourable variations (blue) 832), ($38 S66 ] | od > Rohedey SB Be Groupofiwolve Colour variation red veates ‘hi Situation I: 3 a plant Bey uation Il: Appearance of a plantdisease ls na aaa \S- Greendectes $30 \_, (88 $88 [Bu bets GOS] \ S&S } >| S86 || Be5 — C3 BS See 288. Group oftwotve Nonavalabily of redbenes ‘ood mater Fig.4.5 Variations in a population—inherited and otherwise148 Biology for Class X 1, Letus assume: (i) a group of twelve red beetles live in bushes with green leaves. They reproduce sexually and generate variations. (ji) Crows eat beetles and number of beetles available to reproduce decreases. Twelve red No. of beetiesliving | _Serual__,| Variations ae | Eatenby | 02, on greenionves reproduction produced crows reduced Let us consider three different situations that can develop in this population of beetles. Appearance of favourable variation Appearance of unfavourable variation Appearance of a plant disease. In the first situation there is a green coloured beetle instead of red due to variation during reproduction. The number of green beetles increase after reproduction. Crows eat red beetles and the green beetles are not visible to them, as a result the population of the green beetles, increases. ® In the second situation there is a blue coloured beetle. The number of blue beetles increases. Crows can see both red and blue beetles and eat both. Initially the number of red beetles is more than blue beetles. An elephant stamps on the bushes and kills most of the beetles. By chance the blue beetles survive and their population increases. In the third situation bushes suffer from a plant disease and the amount of leaf material for the beetles is reduced. Consequently, the weight of beetles. decreases due to non availability of leaves, but there is no genetic change. eFee CONCLUSIONS 1. Frequency of inherited traits changes over generations, i.e. the frequency of genes controlling traits changes over generations. 2. The variations which give survival advantage are naturally selected. In the first situation the survival of red beetles depends on the number of crows, i.e. more crows, more red beetles are eaten. Chances of survival of green beetles increases due to natural selection exerted by the crows. ‘Thus, natural selection directs evolution and results in adaptations in the population. 3. Accidents in small populations can change the frequency of some genes without giving survival advantage, In the second situation colour change gives no survival advantage, it is simply a matter of accidental survival of beetles of one colour. This is the concept of genetic drift, which provides diversity without any adaptations. 4, In the third situation, as there is no genetic change, after a few years when the plant disease is eliminated and there is a lot of food available for the beetles, the weight of the beetles again increases. 5. The weight of the beetle is reduced because of starvation and not due to genetic change. The reduced weight is an acquired trait and is not inherited over generations. The changes in nonaa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Heredity and Evolution 153 CAUSES OF SPECIATION 1. Geographic Isolation Speciation starts because populations are prevented from interbreeding by geographic isolation. Geographic isolation is a common way for the process of speciation to begin: — Rivers change course — Mountains rise — Continent drift — Organisms migrate A [ab - Greer bestios) Fig. 4.12 Geographic isolation As aresalt, a continuous population divides into two or more smaller populations, It doesn't even need to be a physical barrier like a river that separates two or more groups of organisms—it might just be unfavourable habitat between the two populations that keeps them from mating with one another. Il. Reduction of Gene flow Speciation might also happen in a population with no specific barrier to gene flow. — Imagine a situation in which a population extends over a broad geographic range. — Individuals in the far east would have zero chance of mating with individuals in the far eastern end of the range. So there is reduced gene flow, but no isolation. — This may or may not be sufficient to cause speciation. — Speciation would also require different selective pressures at opposite ends of the range. — This alters gene frequencies in groups at different ends of the range so much that they do not mate if reunited. Even in the absence of a geographic barrier, reduced gene flow across a species range can encourage speciation.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Qi. @. Q@. Qs. Q. Q10. AS. AS. Al. |. The first form of living organisms appeared about _ years ago. . What are the two different ways by which new species are formed’ . How are organisms grouped? ). The activities and development of all cells is controlled by |. Fossils. 4x 10°. . G@)_ Change in the chromosome number. . (a) Change in river course. Heredity and Evolution 163 PRACTICE TEST III The study of ___ helps us to estimate evolutionary relationships. Name the process by which human beings derive useful plant in horticulture from wild organisms. Kohirabi has been selected for ___ from ancestor, Brassica oleracea. What are the two causes of inbuilt tendency of variation during reproduction? ‘Mention four ways of geographic isolation. How are populations usually isolated? Artificial selection. Fat stem. Errors in DNA copying in sexual reproduction. }) Environmental factors. ) Introduction of a new variation, (b) Mountain rise. (©) Continent drift (@) Migration of organisms. Organisms are grouped according to how closely they are related to each other. DNA. Populations are usvally isolated by physical barriers. vue TAKE A L@x Genetic information is passed on in the genes which are found on the chromosomes. Chromosomes are long thin structure made from DNA that carry genes Genes are parts of chromosome that control individual characteristics. Two genes calledalleles code for a particular character.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.166 Biology for Class X B. Short Answer Questions 2 marks each 1. Complete the following table S.No. | Point of difference Homologous organs Analogous organs 1 Definition 2. ‘Example 2. Chromosomes occur in pairs in all cells except the gametes. (a) What are alleles? (b) Explain what is meant by dominant and recessive allele. 3. Explain how inheritance of traits depends upon the contribution of both mother and father. (based on HOTS) 4, ‘Variation occurring in a population can give survival advantage’, Explain with the help of an example given in the text, 5. Why wings of a butterfly and wings of a bat are not homologous organs? 6. Differentiate between acquired and inherited characters. 7. Who was Gregor Johan Mendel What are his contributions in the field of genetics? 8. Look at the following fossils: (based on HOTS) Which living things are they most like? Give reasons for your choice. C. Short Answer Questions 3 marks each 1. Give three reasons of variations in living organisms. Differentiate between continuous and discontinuous variations. Mention three causes of variations in sexual reproduction. “Pea plants are self pollinated in nature’. Give three more reasons for which Mendel selected garden pea for his experiments. ‘What is the role of environmental factors in sex determination? Give two examples. With the help of an example explain how natural selection works in nature? What is speciation? Name and differentiate between two methods of speciation. What are the structural dissimilarities in wings of birds, bats and insects? YN paras D. Long Answer Questions 5 marks each 1. With the help of diagrams explain sex determination in human beings. 2. What is a dihybrid cross? Give one example.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.172_Biology for Class X ). How will you conclude that birds are closely related to reptiled? . Where did the earliest members of human beings live? .. Which organ in man suggest that he is a descendent of herbivorous animals? .. Why is appendix in human considered as vestigial’ |. Why offsprings differ from parents in certain characters. . What is meant by expression TT and Tt in Mendelian terms? . How is sex determined in human beings? . Why are flippers of whales and wings of birds are considered as homologous organs? . On the basis of the possibilities of combination of the sex chromosomes, what percentage probability does a couple have of having a son or a daughter. Show the same by making a cross. .. Explain why evolution can’t be said to progress from lower forms to higher forms. |. How do Mendel’s experiments show that traits may be dominant or recessive? . Explain with an example how variation took place due to inheritance? . Explain Urey and Miller’s experiment showing evidence of the theory of origin of life. |. How does the study of fossils provide evidence in favour of organic evolution. . Can the wing of a butterfly and the wing of a bat be considered homologous organs? Why or why not? B 25. What do you understand by reproductive isolation? How is this mechanism responsible for speciation? . Though eyes are found in many organisms why can they not be grouped together? . Why can two sub populations of a species not reproduce with each other? State two reasons. What will be the outcome of such a situation?aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing 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or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.aa You have either reached a page that is unavailable for viewing or reached your viewing limit for this book.Based on the latest CBSE syllabus, this book will supplement the prescribed NCERT textbooks. It is comprehensive in nature and will enable the learners to strengthen and hone their grasp on the fundamental concepts of Biology. Salient Features Based on the latest CBSE syllabus as per the new CCE pattern Well-labeled and detailed illustrations Activity-based explanation of topics in each chapter Practice Tests after each topic Know this Scientist tells facts about famous scientists relevant to the chapter Summary at the end of the chapter Key Terms at the end of the chapter Exhaustive exercises based on the latest CCE pattern complying to the CBSE syllabus: + Very Short Answer Questions * Short Answer Questions + Long Answer Questions + Fill in the Blanks * State True or False * Match the Following * Multiple Choice Questions = Self-Assessment Papers (marked and timed) at the end of the chapter = Solved questions from CBSE Sample Papers based on the new CBSE marking scheme = MCQs as per new syllabus = Summative-wise division of the entire syllabus = Summative-wise question papers Visit us at = wywtatamegrawhil.com enone ISBN-13: 978-0-07-1074765 1SBN-10:0.07-107476-7 | 6 780071107. 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