3 The Final Neolithic to Early Minoan IIT Metallurgy Site at Chrysokamino, Crete Philip P. Betancourt Introduction Much new information has been discovered about the early history of eastern Crete in the past years. Before the 1990s, very little was known about this part of the island before the time of the founding of Myrtos in EM IIA (Warren 1972: Period 1). Scholars dealing with the history of the end of the Neolithic and the beginning of the Bronze Age had to depend primarily on central and western Crete for their data (Warren 1965; Hood 1990). A veritable explosion of knowledge about the area around the Gulf of Mirabello is now taking place. Since the beginning of the 1980s new excavations that have discovered Early Minoan evidence have taken place at Pseira (Betancourt and Davaras, (eds) 1995, 1998, 1999, 2002, 2003; Betancourt et al. 2004, 2004b; McEnroe 2001), Mochlos (Soles and Davaras 1996: 179-180), Kalo Chorio (Haggis 1996a), Aghios Antonios (Haggis 1993), and now Chrysokamino (Betancourt 2006). In addition, new information has also been provided by surface surveys in the regions of Kavousi (Haggis 1992; 2005) and Vrokastro (Hayden 1995; 2004, with earlier bibliography for the project) Not all of this recent scholarship is published yet, and some of the material is still under study, but we are now ina position to begin to say much more about the role of northeast Crete in the dynamic events that mark the beginning of the Minoan period. Eastern Crete was not only already inhabited in the Final Neolithic, it was well settled, with numerous small habitation sites spread across the landscape. It was clearly in the forefront of new developments, especially in metallurgy. Within this context, the excavations at Chrysokamino add con- siderably to our knowledge not only of early metallurgy in Crete but also to the history of metallurgy in the Aegean as a whole.58 Philip P. Betancourt | The Chrysokamino Project Lying on the coast of northeast Crete, Chrysokamino is situated near the modern | village of Kavousi. Although it is a coastal site, it is separated from the sea by | cliffs, and it does not have any adjacent harbour (Figure 3.1). On the other hand, the cliffs can be traversed easily, and several paths lead down to the water. In good weather, boats can anchor at the base of the cliff, and visitors can walk up to the metallurgical site. The area has several archaeological locations: 1. Adomestic complex with two surviving architectural phases (LM [and LM II) as well as sherds from the Final Neolithic and Early to Middle Bronze Ages. 2. Asite with metallurgical activity, ca. 600 m away from the domestic complex. a A burial cave used from the FN until at least EM II[-MM IA. 4. Extensive farmland, some of it terraced in later periods (excavation of one terrace yielded a date of construction in the Venetian or Ottoman period) 5. Over thirty small locations from Minoan and later periods, including terraces, | field houses, threshing floors, boundary walls, animal pens, wells, and other features. | Habitation Figure 3.1. Topographic plan of the Chrysokamino metallurgy and habitation sites and the surrounding area.The Final Neolithic to Early Minoan III Site at Chrysokamino 59 Chrysokamino has been known to archaeologists since the end of the nineteenth century (Hawes et al. 1908: 33). It has been mentioned many times in the literature on Minoan Crete, although it has never been excavated before (Mosso 1910: 289-292; Schachermeyr 1938; Faure 1966: 48; Branigan 1968: 50-51; Stos-Gale 1993: 124; Haggis 1992, 1996b: 380-381 and 401-403). Before the excavation it was a controversial site, with its metallurgical activity dated variously to the Minoan period (Mosso 1910; Nakou 1995: 17), to Medieval times (Branigan 1968), and as a relatively recent operation (Faure 1966). The metallurgical activity at Chrysokamino has been characterised as both smelting and re-melting of copper, and the site has even been considered a lime kiln (Zois 1993: 340-341). After nearly a century of theories drawn from surface survey, it was clear that only archaeological excavation could answer basic questions about this enigmatic site. Excavations at the Metallurgy Site Two seasons of excavations were conducted, in 1996 and 1997. The remains were uncovered in successive passes in 2 x 2 m trenches, following stratigraphy where possible and using arbitrary 10 cm deep passes where stratigraphy did not exist Excavation was slow and deliberate in order to recover as much information as possible. All soil was dry-sieved (except for soil samples for water-separation machine recovery and samples for other purposes). Many samples were water- sieved. All rounded or unusual stones, pottery, furnace fragments, and pieces of slag above the size of tiny bits were saved. After the material was screened, it was washed with fresh water to remove dust and facilitate visibility of important fragments, such as green ore and metal fragments. Even with this detailed examination, very little material was present aside from furnace chimney fragments and slag. Less than five pieces of ore were found and fewer than 25 stone tools. Many passes had no sherds from pottery vessels at all, and aside from the common clay furnace chimney fragments, only a few hundred sherds were found from the entire excavation. Chimney fragments and pieces of slag, however, numbered in the hundreds of thousands. Most of the area excavated consisted of pulverized slag and very small chimney fragments. Geology and Topography of the Metallurgy Site The geomorphology and geology of the area was studied by William Farrand and Carola Stearns. They mapped the region and examined the surface bedrock, with special attention to the environs of the archaeological sites. They specifically examined the geology of the region in terms of its mineralogical potential. No source of copper ore was discovered, and no well-mineralized formation was found that might once have contained ores. The metallurgy site is perched on the edge of a cliff overlooking the Aegean van} wi aah il nay60 Philip P. Betancourt Sea, at a height of 38m above sea level. Before excavation began, the location was covered with a deposit of slag and fragments of clay chimneys. Topography may have been an important consideration in the choice of a location for the metallurgical practices carried out there. The site is between two outcrops of bedrock with a lower area between them that forms a trough facing north and south, with both ends terminating at cliffs above the water. The north part of this trough acts as a funnel that intensifies the north wind to such an extent that this small location has the fiercest breeze on the hill. The deposit of slag and chimney fragments lies across the trough, and some of it has eroded off the cliff into the sea, so that its original size is unknown. If a natural draft was a consideration in the original placement of the installation, this spot is the best location for such a workshop in the immediate vicinity. The Apsidal Building One of the most interesting discoveries at the site was a small apsidal building, orientated north-south, with an apse at the north. With dimensions of 2.60 m east-west and 3.5 m north-south, the building had a floor of pale coloured soil and walls of perishable materials. At the south, three postholes could be distinguished, arranged in an east-west line with a wider spacing between the western hole and its neighbour to the east. This must have been the doorway, because the area was scuffed and worn, and soil from the interior was tracked out on to the darker slag deposit south of the building. Additional postholes were at the sides and back of the building. The edge of the building appears scalloped when seen from above, as if posts alternated position in a zigzag line, and the material for the walls, perhaps something that was slightly flexible, was woven in and out of the posts. The floor was of pale coloured phyllitic soil. Three successive levels were found in the structure. The lowest level was hard, firm and packed tightly, and had no finds associated with it. The next level, 3-4 cm higher, was less firmly packed and was associated with several sherds lying on it. The highest floor, found just under the modern surface, was too disturbed by grass roots for any conclusions about its nature. The floors were laid directly over the slag by bringing in soil from some other location. The soil included sherds of EM IlI-MM IA date, which became incorporated into the floors. In each of the levels, an informal burned area was at the north, inside the building, but not at the edge of the floor. These hearths had no stones outlining them; they were simple burned soil areas, distinguishable by their red colour. Two stones, large enough to act as seats to tend the fire, were nearby; neither one had any evidence of use as a platform or working surface. There is no evidence to indicate that metallurgical activities were carried out in this tiny structure. It appears more likely that it functioned asa kitchen. If the metallurgists worked in the autumn when the meltemi blows, as other evidenceThe Final Neolithic to Early Minoan III Site at Chrysokamino 61 suggests, a shelter would be essential for a cooking fire, to protect it from the fierce wind. The small hut is just large enough for up to three persons, sufficient for tending a fire and preparing a meal. Evidence of animal bones and marine \ shells from the site (being studied by David Reese) indicates that food was cooked and consumed near the spot. The Pottery | The earliest pottery recovered from the site comprises a small amount dating to the Final Neolithic period. Pottery from this phase includes bowls, cups, and jars, as well as a characteristic jar or jug with a horn on the top of the handle. The fabric for this pottery is coarse, and the vessels are thick-walled; the clay is heavily burnished and fired to a dark colour, with an unevenly coloured surface. Similar dark-surfaced burnished pottery comes from several other sites in the region, including Pseira (Betancourt and Davaras, (eds) 2003: 64-65), Vasilike (Geager 1904-5: 212), Mochlos (Soles and Davaras 1996: 179-180), Sphoungaras (Hall 1912: 46-48; Foster 1978: nos. 2-3) and elsewhere. From the successive EM I-II periods, a small number of sherds were recovered, including one from an EM IIIA pyxis and a sherd from an EM IIB Vasilike Ware goblet. We know that an additional Vasilike Ware sherd was collected from the site in the 1930s (Schachermeyr 1938). However, the vast majority of the pottery recovered dates to EM III-MM IA. It includes several pieces of East Cretan White-on-Dark Ware, the definitive ceramics for the period. In addition, sherds of coarse, undecorated vessels are also present. Shapes include cooking dishes (large, shallow vessels with thin Ht walls and thickened rims), jars, and shallow bowls. The fabric of these vessels is } the typical Mirabello Fabric used in the Gournia area. No pottery later than EM TI-MM IA is present. Other Finds In addition to this pottery, other discoveries in the workshop include a large a quantity of other ceramic material, including pot bellows and furnace chimney fragments, in addition to stone tools, pieces of copper ore and slag. A few animal bones and marine shells are also present. ‘ Slag ! The slag at Chrysokamino comprises a large deposit that covers the entire trough il that makes up the site. It is up to 60 cm deep in some places, but the deposit thins | at the edges of the location. It is approximately 10 m by 40 m in surface area. i Two types of slag can be identified by their visual characteristics. The first , type of slag is dark, vitreous, and ferrous. It contains small prills of copper i {62 Philip P. Betancourt included within it. It occurs as masses up to a few centimetres thick, and exhibits evidence of intense heat. Sometimes it has run, indicating it was completely molten. This slag comprises tiny fragments, from microscopic size to only a few cm across. Much of it appears to have been pulverized. The second type of slag is a dark, vitreous coating on the interior of the ceramic furnace chimney fragments. This deposit is very thin, and it appears to be a coating deposited by vapours that moved upward through the chimneys during the smelting operation. Furnace Chimney Fragments Furnace chimney fragments are present in large numbers (Figure 3.2). They consist of clay fragments made from a low-fired ceramic paste that includes numerous voids from burned-out pieces of organic matter. The fabric is markedly different from the Mirabello Fabric tempered with igneous rock in the diorite-granodiorite series, used for the EM III-MM IA pottery and in the bellows fragments (see below). Casts were made of the voids in the chimney fragments, and they have been studied by Glynis Jones at the University of Sheffield. They are mostly sections of ( tt Figure 3.2, Profile drawings of X 425 X323 ‘furnace fragments.pe Eee] The Final Neolithic to Early Minoan III Site at Chrysokamino 63 the stems from grain, probably to be identified as chaff. A few grain impressions can be seen, mostly identifiable as barley. One cast of a complete olive leaf is present. Porous clay fabrics tempered with vegetal matter are well-known from later Minoan sites because they are commonly used for clay objects intended to be used in metallurgy, such as moulds and crucibles. The chimney fragments from Chrysokamino are parts of cylindrical or upward tapering objects with open bases and tops. The pottery walls seem to indicate diameters of between 20 and 40 cm, while the height is not known. While the chimneys were not decorated, they have holes spaced every few centimetres apart and arranged in a seemingly random arrangement from base to rim. They can be reconstructed as free-standing cylindrical or truncated cone shapes that would have been placed above the small bowl furnaces constructed as hollows in the ground (Figure 3.3). Noel and Zofia Gale and colleagues have suggested that such furnaces would have been adequate for EBA copper smelting operations (Gale et al. 1985: 85-86). Recent experimental reconstructions at the University of Sheffield (Pryce et al. 2007) have demonstrated the effective design of these furnaces in creating the correct temperature and atmosphere for successful smelting. Pot Bellows The pot bellows used at Chrysokamino are of fired clay, specifically of a version of the Mirabello Fabric used for pottery vessels during the late Prepalatial period Figure 3.3. Reconstruction of furnace construction.64 Philip P. Betancourt in this part of Crete. They consist of drum-shaped cylinders with closed tops in which holes were cut before firing. The only preserved nozzle comes out of the vessel near the top. The interiors of the bellows are discoloured by fire, a confirmation of the use because this type of bellows employ a pumping action in which a little of the hot air ‘backs up’ by being sucked backward into the bellows. Stone Tools Stone tools are present, but they are not as numerous as one would expect, for example, from a mining and ore preparation site. They are mostly small, water- worn cobbles used in pounding and grinding actions. Ore Ore is present at the metallurgical site only in the form of a few, very small fragments. Minerals present include malachite, azurite, and chrysocolla. Except for microscopic traces in the slag, no sulphidic ore has been found at the site One additional piece of ore was found on a beach located 800 m north of the site, accessible easily by means of a ravine leading down to it. It is water-worn from tumbling on the beach. This piece indicates that at least some copper ore was brought to this region at some point in the past, and it is tempting to associate it with the metallurgy of the Bronze Age, but of course there is no direct association. Lacunae at Chrysokamino This site is also interesting for what is not present. No copper ore has been found in the vicinity. In addition, stone tools for breaking up ore are not present, and no waste rock from the trimming and sorting of ore is found on or near the site. One can only conclude that the smelting operation was performed on ore that was brought in ready to use, already beneficiated to remove waste rock. The site has no evidence for a permanent occupation. Not only are houses not present, but some classes of pottery, including cooking pots, are completely absent (the cooking dish, however, is present). It is probable that this is not where the metal-workers lived. There is no evidence for the usual activities at a metallurgical workshop. There are no moulds, no crucibles, and no hearths or forges. No finished products are present. It may be that this is a rather specialized location that is only one small step in a larger metallurgical production process: a process that perhaps took in other a number of other locations.The Final Neolithic to Early Minoan III Site at Chrysokamino 65 Comments ‘The metallurgical site is located in an area that is occupied from the Final Neolithic onwards. The large deposit of slag appears to not have obvious stratigraphy, and it may have been mixed when the posts for the hut were seated in the ground, but the Final Neolithic pottery is (except for one surface find) all from within the slag pile, while the larger quantity of EM III-MM IA ceramics is primarily from the hut and from the upper levels in the slag pile. The furnace chimney fragments and slag comprise the main evidence for reconstructing metallurgical activity at the site, which now have been subjected to detailed analysis (see Catapotis and Bassiakos this volume). Acknowledgements The Chrysokamino Project was directed by the author, with the assistance of co- directors James D. Muhly and Cheryl R. Floyd. We are thankful to Temple University, the University of Pennsylvania Museum of Archaeology and Anthropology, and the Institute for Aegean Prehistory for financial assistance. The primary sponsor of the excavation is the Department of Art History at Temple University. Water sieving was carried out by students of the University of Sheffield: Mark Hudson in 1996 and Ann Schofield in 1997. Bibliography Betancourt , P. P. 2006 The Chrysokamino Metallurgy Workshop and its Territory, Hesperia Supplement 76 (Princeton). Betancourt, P. P. and C. Davaras (eds) 1995 Peeira I. 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PAE 1990 (1993): 315-341 fai