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Citation

Morariu&Bruning.(1984).CognitiveProcessingbyPrelingualDeafStudents
asaFunctionOfLanguageContext.Vol.76,No.5,844856.WashingtonD.C.:Journalof
EducationalPsychology.
GlobalUnderstanding
Morariu&BruningresearchedintoDeafstudentsbasedontheirvisualprocessing
withtheirfocusingonprintconfigurationsandthemanuallycodedletters.Theywere
tryingtodiscovertheproblemrelatingtoteachingreadingtodeafreaders.Theywanted
tofindasolutionbyfindingtheirinformationprocessingcapabilities.Morariu&Bruning
cognitivedevelopmentsresearchdiscoveredthatdeafreadersislikelytoencodeprinted
informationvisually.
CoreConcepts&Interpretation
Twomainconceptsaboutthisarticlearefocusedondeafsreaderresponsebased
onrecallingandtheirencodingprintedinformationvisually.Morariu&Bruningsstudies
indicatedthatdeaflearnersthatwhoutilizesignlanguagewouldencodeprinted
informationvisually.Themajorityofencodingstudiessuggestthatencodingand
retrievalofinformationfromaprintmediumfordeafindividualsmayactuallybea
multiplestepprocessinwhichfirst,theytransformatypicallyverbalcode(printed
English)intovisualmode(signlanguage)forprocessing,andsecond,theymustrecode
thestoredvisualcodebackintoaverbalcodetocommunicateinwhatitisnormallya
spokenlanguagesystem(Morariu&Bruning,Page845).Theyrecognizedthatbyusing
signbasedencodingorientationofdeafchildrentofacilitateEnglishlanguage

acquisition.However,theyknewthatASLisavisualandconceptuallanguagesystem,
andsignedEnglishisbasedonauditory.Morariu&BruningstatedthatASLisbetter
suitedfordeafreadersinformationprocessingcapabilities.Visualprocessingamong
deafindividualshasbeendefinedandexaminedthroughtwodistinctperspectivesone
focusingonprintconfigurationsandtheotherfocusingonmanuallycodedlettersand
words,asinfingerspellingandAmericanSignLanguage.(Morariu&Bruning,p.845)
Basedonthatstatement,theydecidedtofurthertheirresearchintoacontextualist
perspectiveofinformationprocessingandanalyzetheirquestionofhowinformationis
processedbydeafreaders.ThecontextualistpointofviewaboutInformationprocessing
basedonPrelingualdeafindividualgeneratedsince1940s.Contextualismresearchinto
howanindividualfunctionsbyusinghisorherownactionsandcontext.Deafreaders
cognitivedevelopmentwithreadingabilityhastodowiththequalitywiththeir
interactionamongtheirpeers,parents,orthecommunity.AccordingtoMorariu&
Bruning,theywanttoconsiderthecontextualeffectswhendeafstudentsrecallor
comprehendthemeaningbywatchingsignedpassageorreadingprintedpassage.Their
experimentwasabouthowdeafreadersencodetheirmeaningbasedontheirvisual
processingmethod.Theyweretryingtofigureifthequalityofthepassagewouldconvey
themessagewell.WatkinsandTulving(1975)foundthatsubjectsoftenfailedto
recognizeasinglewordfrompreviouslylearnedlisteventhoughtheycouldrecallthe
wordifaskedtorecalltheentireoriginallist.(Morariu&Bruning,p.846).Watkinand
Tulvingsstatementisprovingtoprovethatdeafreaderstendnottorecallifitwasnot
exposedyet.However,thedeafreadersinthisarticlewereabletoshowthatthedeaf

readersareabletorecalliftheyseethebiggerpictureofthecontent.Morariu&Bruning
seethatdeafreadersneedtoknowthecontexttobeabletoencodingandrecallfromthe
memory.TheirevidenceshowsthatdeafreadersrecallASLbetterthanprintedEnglish
basedontheirvisualinformationprocessingmethod.Deafreaderswereabletorecode
intosignbasedcode.
PersonalConnection
Thearticlebroughtupsurfaceofvisualprocessingandhowitimpactsthedeaf
readerswithprintedEnglish.Visualcodingprocessinghasledmetodosomeofmy
reflectivethoughts.LookingbackasaDeafstudent,Igrewupseeingorlisteningto
hearingindividualssayingthatIwouldhavealanguagedelaybecauseIdonothave
abilitytounderstandEnglishwithoutauditory.Iwasraisedbyhearingparentsandused
SignedExactEnglish(MCE).Myparentsandthehearingteachersthoughtthatiswhat
makesmywritingorreadingabilityeffectivebecauseSEEissimilartoEnglish.Idid
notknowthatmanuallycodedsystem(SEE)isnotalanguage.IalwaysknewthatIdo
haveareadingstrategy.IdidnotacknowledgethatIamusingmyvisualcodingsystem
torecodetheprintedEnglish.Fortunately,Idohaveahearingmotherwhoislanguage
competenceandhasdecentASLperformance.Shetaughtmethedifferencebetweentwo
languages.Shewasabletoclarifythemeaningbehindofthesentenceandwhyisitsetup
thatway.SheneverimpliedtheideainmybrainsayingthatIcantreadorwrite.Ihada
uniquehearingparentthatpromotemyvisualinformationprocessingandsupportmy
languageacquisition.Mycognitivedevelopmentwaspickingupovertheyears.
AccordingLairdslecture,Irememberedabouthowallofuswereexplainingaboutour

schoolexperiences.SomeofclassmateswenttoamainstreamschoolorDeafresidential
school.OurASLproficiencywasdifferentfromeachother.Ourknowledgeofwritingor
readingstrategiesweredifferentbasedonwhomtaughtusandhowweutilizeourboth
languageintoASLandEnglish(EddyLaird,DED518,Fall2014).Thatmademe
realizedthatIdidnotlearnhowtowriteASLprobablyuntilIwasenrolledatFlorida
SchoolfortheDeafin2003.IonlyknewhowtowriteinStandardEnglish,andhadalot
ofstudyinghoursofreadingprintedEnglishassignments.AccordingtoLairdslecture,
heclaimedthatitisverycriticalforapersontohaveacompetenceandperformanceto
provideaccurateinformationormethods.Itisbecauseifonepersononlyhas
performanceintoASL,anddoesnothavecompetencethenthestudentwillbeunableto
understandbothlanguages.(E.Laird,DED518,Fall2014).Ifwedohaveboth
competenceinASLandEnglish,thenourcognitivedevelopmentwouldallowusto
encodeanddecodethroughourvisualcodeprocessing.
CriticalAnalysis
Morariu&Bruningfocusedmoreontheirlanguagedevelopment.Theydidnot
researchindepthofdeafreaderscognitivedevelopment.Theyfocusedmoreofhow
theydevelopedtheirlanguageacquisitionwiththeircognitionstatus.Owens(2008)
discussedabouthowwedohaveasocialsharedcode.Thesharedcodeisadevicethat
representsourpointofviewwiththeobjects,event,orothers.Closeyoureyesforafew
secondsandconcentrateonthewordocean.Whileyoureyeswereclosed,youmayhave
hadavisualimageofsurfandsand.Theconceptwastransmittedtoyouanddecode
automatically.(Owens,p.8).Thatevidenceshowsthatdeafreadersdohavevisual

informationprocessingtorecodewhatwearetryingtopicture.Owensdiscussedthatwe
dohavealinguisticencodertolinguisticdecoding.Adeafreadercouldpictureacat,then
he/sheisencodingtotransfertohis/herfriendaboutcat,thenhis/herfriendcould
decodewhatsheistryingtosaybyrecodetohervisualinformationprocessing.Morariu
&Bruningdidnotrealizethatdeafreadersactuallydohavereadingstrategybasedon
visualprocessing.Theymaymentioneditonce,buttheydidnotknowthatDeafreaders
actuallydocodingsystemregardingtotheirreadingabilitybyrecodingittoprinted
English.Alvarado(2008)mentionedthatfingerspellingisalsoanotherinformation
processingfordeafreaderstodecodeprintedEnglish.Theyconcludethatfingerspelling
canserveasavisualphonologicalbridge,asanaidindecodingEnglish.(Alvarado,p.
468)ThisevidencesupportsmyanalysisthatMorariu&Bruningdidnotanalyzedeaf
readersproperly.Theyweremakingassumptionsandhasalittleresearchwiththeir
cognitivedevelopmentbasedontheirvisualinformationprocessorcoding.Alvaradohas
broughtupakeytermVisualphonological.Visualphonologicalispartofdeafreaders
codingsystem.TheDeafandHardofHearingwillreadaprintedEnglishpassageand
encodewithfingerspellingthentorecodewithAmericanSignLanguagetoconveythe
messageeffectively.Alvaradowasabletodiscoverthatadeafreaderhastheabilityto
recallthesequences.Itispartoftheirrecallmemory.Theirmemoryispartofthe
cognitivedevelopment.IftheDeafandHardofHearingstudentscognitivedevelopment
isprocessingproperly,thentheyareabletoencodeordecodetheprintedEnglishwellto
recodeintoASL.Ourresultsareconsistentwiththesuppositionthatdeafindividuals
havesuperiorskillswithsomevisualprocessingtasksandtheyuseorthographiccoding

strategiesforreading.(Alvarado,p.476)Alvaradowasabletoseethatdeafreadersdo
havetheirownvisualcodingstrategyintotheircognitiveprocessing.Easterbrooksand
BakeragreewithAlvaradothattheydohavevisualinformationprocessingbyusing
visualenhancement.Manystudentsneedvisualenhancementstohelporganize
informationinawaythatitisunderstandable,codable,andretainable(Easterbrooks&
Baker,p.187)Easterbrooks&Bakerstatedthatteachersshouldteachwithrecasting.Itis
relatedtotheirpragmatictheory.Recastingmeanstherearemanywaystoexpressa
concept.Recastingdoeshelpwithdeafreaderscodingsystem.Thatiswhyitiscritical
forustounderstandthatourdeafchildrendohavetheirvisualinformationprocessing
anddohavemultiplepathwayofrecodingtoASLorprintedEnglish.Morariu&Bruning
wasnotabletorecognizeitfully.Morariu&Bruningdiscussedabouthowtheydecided
tousetwodifferenttypesofversiontogivetothedeafreaders.Theywantedtoseetheir
recallandcognitiveprocessingwiththeirreadingability.
EnglishVersion
PeoplestartedcallingmeMoowhenIwaselevenyearsold.Ilivedonafarmwithmy
familynearsomerailroadtracks.Irememberonecowwehadthatusedtowanderoffand
getintoalltypesoftrouble.Onedaythiscowwasstandingonthetrackseatingsome
grass.Shedidntmoveatallwhenaslowtraincamealongandstartedblowingits
whistleather.ThetrainhadtostopandIranovertoourcowtotryandpullheroffthe
tracks.NothingIdidworkeduntilIwhisperedthewordmooInherear.Thenshejust
steppedoverthetracksandwewatchedthetraingoby.(Morariu&Bruning,1984)
ASLVersion

WHENMEELEVENYEAROLD,HAPPENPEOPLEBEGINCALLMENAME
MOO.ME,MYFAMILYLIVEBEFOREONFARMNEARTRAINTRACK.ME
REMEMBERONECOWGIVEMUCHTROUBLESOMETIMEWALKAWAY,
DONTKNOWWHERE.HAPPENONEDAY,THATCOWSTANDONTRAIN
TRACK,EATGRASS.TRAINCOMESLOWANDBLOWWHISTLECOW
MOVE,NO,REFUSE!TRAINSTOP,MUST.MERUNTOCOWANDTRYPULL
OFFTHATTRACK.NOTHINGREFUSEMOVE.HAPPENMEIDEA,WHISPER
TOCOW,WORDMOO.COWSTEPOVERTRAINTRACKANDME,COW
BOTHSTANDWTACHTRAIN.
Morariu&Bruiningforgotthatnotallhearingchildrenofdeafadult(CODA)or
highlyqualifiedinterpreterhaveASLcompetencetobeabletoconveythemessage
accurately.Foranexample,intheirresearchMorariu&BruninghiredahearingCODA
towriteanEnglishandASLpassage.Materials:Asetof12oneparagraphstorieswas
developedbythefirstauthor,whoisahearingpersonraisedbydeafparentsandis
fluentinASL.(Morariu&Bruning,1984).Thatisourfirstredflagtorecognizethatis
notthebestwaytotranslateASLeffectivelyfromtheirEnglishpassage.Theyshould
havehiredASLLinguisticwhohasmorecompetenceinsteadofhiringahearingperson
whoclaimedtohaveASLperformanceabilitytowriteASLversion.Thisisoneof
strugglesthatdeafreaderscouldencounterwith.Itisbecauseoftheirvisualcoding
system.ASLandhearingsinterpreterskillarentalwaysonthesamelevel.This
approachcouldscrewupdeafreadersreadingabilityorvisualinformationprocessing.
Thatisprobablywhymanydeafreaderscouldnotreadwellbasedonoldresearchstating

thattheirreadinglevelisbelow3rdgrade.Morariu&Bruningalsostatedthatthereare
somedeafreadersdohavelackoflanguageacquisitionbecausetheyareunabletoapply
therulesofEnglish.Thatisonepossiblesignofshowingtheircognitionisnotthereor
doeshavelimitedcognitivedevelopment.AccordingtoLairdsLecture,hestatedthat
oftenwemisunderstoodDeafandHardofHearingstudentslanguagecompetence
becauseweassumedthattheydonothavealanguageaccess.Itisactuallyeithertheir
cognitionisntprocessingproperlyordohavealimitedcapacityoftheircognitive
development(E.Laird,DED541,Fall2014).
Throughmyrecentresearchbasedondeafreadersreadingability,Isuspected
thattherewasnotmanyprofessionalauthorscouldverifydeafandhardvisual
informationprocessingstrategy.Wedoneedmoreprofessionalauthorswhoarecapable
todevelopmoreresearchbasedonvisualcodingandinformationprocessingregardingto
theirlanguage/cognitivedevelopment.However,wedohaveAlvaradoandOwens
evidencethatshowsthatdeafreadersdohavetheirownvisualcoding/information
processing.Unfortunately,itisnotwidelyacceptableinoureducationyet.

Reference:
Easterbrooks,S.&Baker,S.(2001).LanguageLearninginChildrenWhoareDeafand
HardofHearing:MultiplePathways.Massachusetts:Pearson.
Morariu,J.&Bruning,R.(1984).CognitiveProcessingbyPrelingualDeafStudentsasa
FunctionofLanguageContext.Nebraska:JournalofEducationPsychology.
Owens,R.(2008).Languagedevelopment:Anintroduction97thed.).Boston:Pearson.

Alvarado,J.Puente,A.&Herrea,V.(2008).VisualandPhonologicalCodingin
WorkingMemoryandOrthographicSkillsofDeafChildrenUsingChileanSign
Language.Washington,DC:AmericanAnnalsoftheDeaf.