Dispersal of ash in the great Toba eruption, 75 ka W. |. Rose, C. A. Chesner Department of Geology and Geolagical Engineering, Michigan Technological University, Houghton, Michigan 49831 ABSTRACT One of Earth's largest known eruptions, the Toba eruption of 7S ka, erupted a minimum of 2800 km? of magma, of which at least £800 kim? was deposited as ash fll, This ash may be entirely of coig- ‘imbrite origin and dispersed widely because of high drag coefficients fn the predominantly bubble-wall shards. Shards of this shape are broken from the walls of spherical vesicles, which formed in high abundance in isotropic strain shadows near phenocrysts in this crystal-rch magma. INTRODUCTION ‘The Toba caldera, located in northern Sumatra (Fig 1), was the site ofthe largest Quaterary volcanic eruption on Earth Smith and Bailey, 1968), Voteanic erpions at Toba have let an elongate caldera measuring bout 100 by 30 kim. Extensive ignimbrite covering an area of over 20000 kan surround the calder; esimats of the magma volume eruped range between 2000 and 3000 km’ (Van Bemmelen, 1949; Adis and Ghazal, 1984) Niakovich etal. (19784) and Ninkovich (1979) have scribed an extensive hyolicash horizon found in dep-sea cores inthe Tian Ocean (Bay of Bengal) (Fig. 1) and have coreated it with an ruption fom Toba, Nnkovch et al. (1978, 19786) reported a biostrat- txaphic/oxygen isotope age forthe deepsea ash of 75 ka, a KA age of the ondandignimbce of 75 ka and estimated that the volume of ash is approximately 1000 km?, Futhermore, they calculated that the ash col- umm required to produce the sie and thickness characteris of the ash was 50 to 80 km high. Ledbeter and Sparks (1979) exited that the associated eruption had a duration of 910 14 day Rhyolitc ash occurs on land in Malaysia at many localities und has, Jong been attributed to the Tobe eruptions onthe bases of proximity, sminralogy, and relative age (Van Bemmeen, 1949; Staufer tal, 1980). “More reoely, Wilms and Royce (198) have discovered hyo ash in India and have sugested Toba asthe source. This extensive ash blanket, covering atleast 4000000 kim affords the opportunity to study and quantify the large-scale epha distribution of the largest volanic eropton of recent times. Description of such tephra dispersal is relevant when considering the effects onthe human population ofan eruption of this magnitude (Smith, 1985; Rampino ct al, 1986). ‘Comparison ofthe ashes with near-souce tephra was used to reconfirm Toba as the source of the ash, Mineralogy and wholerock and glass chemistry wete wed inthis comparison. Nex, a scanning lexr0a micro- scope (SEM) and microprobe study of shard morphology and chemisy was made on the ash at varying distances from the source. This study allows evaluation of the controling factors in the widespread tephra distribution, ERUPTIONS OF THE TOBA CALDERA ‘Taree major eruptions have occurred at Toba in the past 1 my. The ‘oldest unit was erupted about $40 ka (#°Ar/ Ar age) (Diehl etal, 1987), is present mostly around the southern part of Lake Tobs, and is almost everywhere densely welded. A smaller ignimbrite of undetermined age ‘crops out only around the northern part ofthe preset caldera and i also densely welded. The youngest unit erupted from Toba about 75 ka and GEOLOGY, v.18, p. 913-917, October 1987 ae ‘ASH LOCALITIES ‘© ASH SAMPLES STUDIED ey gees Bay of Benga! indian Ocean a oo Figure 1. Location map for Toba caldera, Toba ash localities, and ash ‘samples used in this study. deposited an extensive nonwelded outflow sheet that surrounds the cal- era. Locally, where deep stratigraphic sections are exposed and in the resurgent dome, this unit is incipiently to densely welded. The present shape and steep walls ofthe caldera are mestl attributed to eruption of the ‘youngest unit. We focus on this youngest unt from Toba because the ash horizons so far discovered appear to be correlated with it only. ‘The outflow shee from the 5 ka eruption covers a minimum area of 20000 km (Aldiss and Ghazali, 1984) and probably flowed into both the ‘Strait of Malaea tothe east and the Indian Ocean tothe west. Outflow sheet thicknesses are generaly less than 100 m but locally are up to 400 m (Kaight etl, 1986). Caldera fill exceeds 600 m, but its actual thickness is unknown because the base of the section i unexposed. This jgnimbrive is generally poorly sorted and masively bedded. A striking feature ofthis ‘ignimbrite isthe lack of Pinan ash-fall deposits at its bas, although this ‘observation is predicated on only a few proximal exposures. Absence ofa Pinan phase raises the question ofthe origin of the extensive ash fallout associated with this eruption. Could the ash be mainly of coignimbite origin? TOBA TEPHRA ‘When considering the nature and origin of ash partic, itis impor. tant to study pumices large enough to represent the bulk composition of the erupted magma because fine ash is typically subject to crystal/glass fractionation during atmospheric transport. Pumices erupted during the “75ka eruption are cal-alkalic quart ltt to rhyolite and range fom 68% {0 76% SiO. The Toba rocks contain quart, sanidine, plagioclase, bott, amphibole, onhopyroxene, allait, magnetite, mente, fayalite, pymho- tie, zircon, and apatite (Chesner, 1985). This diverse mineralogy has been especialy usefl for correlation. 134 6941 Pumice * 20A2 Purice Ash Samples 100 Seu Te Ye tw Figure 2. Chondrte normalized REE plot of two pumices and five ash samples. (OF 88 INOIVIDUAL, GLASS SHARDS wet pI Ady 12070 Fegoye 116 Meo os 0 im Neo 2071 Kyo 8.26 tho, 106. FAI Fe aa Fon stig value for subset of analyser fron a single ash Figure 3. SEM photomicrographs of Toba B: Crushed pumice irom Toba ig ‘about 500 km from Tobe. E is sample RC17- 128, 2000 km away; Fis sample'$-44,3100 km i2y. G: Polished mount of same Ri ‘Showing view analyzed by Image processor. ow ‘Textually, the pumices are dense and have a varity of vesicle types, ranging from e ongate to spherical. Many vesicle types commonly occur within the same pumice sample ‘Semples used in this study include three fresh pumice blocks from the nonwelded ign mbrite, which were chosen in order to compare the distal ash with tufls adjacent to the caldera. Five samples of ash recovered from ‘deep-sea cores located inthe Indian Ocean at distances of $00 102100 km from Toba were studied, A sample from India, which represen the most distal ash occurrence known from the Toba eruption (3100 km away) (MAJ. Williams, in prep), was also studied, as was another ash, which fell on land in Malaysia 350 km away. Figure 1 shows the locations ofthe samples studi ASH CORRELATION ‘Whole-ock and glass X-ray Quoresence (XRF) analyses, instrumen- tal neutron activation analysis (INAA), microprobe analyses of glass shards, and mineralogy were all used to confirm Toba as the origin ofthe ash, Analyses of ash samples were found to lie along the sme compos- ‘ional tend as whole-rock and glass analyses of individual pumices. A plot of rare earth clement (REE)-normalized chondritic abundances (Fig. 2) also shows the similarity between the ash deposits and pumices. Micro- GEOLOGY, Osber 1987probe analyses of glass shards from multiple ash samples and ignimbrite ‘matrix samples were made. Virtually no variation in glass composition exists, regardless of distance from the source. An average glass analysis is reported in Table 1. None ofthe analyzed samples had glass compositions that fll outside of the To ranges shown in the table except for Naz0. ‘Mineralogical, the ash also contains distinctive phases from the Tobe assemblage. We conclude thatthe ash erupted from Toba and its glass shards show no compositional variation with distance from the sour. SHARD SHAPES ‘An extensive SEM study was performed on the ash samples. First, pumice from the ignimbrite was disaggregated and examined. Figures 3A ‘and 3B show examples of thes fragments, which consist predominantly of pumice shard that contain many elongate vesicles. Platy or bubble-wall shards are much less common than the pumice shards. The distal ash was examined and was found 10 consist motly of bubble-wall. shards gs. 3C-3P). In order to quantity this observation, ash mounts were polished so that the three-dimensional ash particles could be viewed in two dimen- sions. The result of such polishing is thatthe platy shards now appear highly elongate in two dimensions and the more equant shards are not nearly as elongate (Fig. 3G). Next, an image analyzer found the geometvic center ofeach shard, measured 8 diameters, calculated an average diame- ter, and used the following equation to calculate a shape factor. Perimeter? ‘Area (4) ‘These calculations were performed on hundreds of shards per sample. ‘Table 2 gives some sample data for panicles of different shapes, a bubble- wall shard and an equant shard (crystal fragment). Although the average diameter, area, and perimeter are very similar fr these two particles, their ‘Shape Factor ® shape factors are quite diferent. The greater the shape factor, the more TABLE 2. EXCERPT OF RAW DATA FROM TMAGE ANALYSIS Tebble=walT Geyatat Shard Fragment, Teg. disaster Gay 32 Th Max: dtaneter (x) 11308 ssi Min. dtapeter Cm) 3.59 23125 ares Cunt) 638017 868.26 Perineter (va) 157.56 nar6t shape factor sian 12268 elongate the particle is; fr example, a shape facor of 2 hasan aspect ratio of about 5:1, whereas a shape factor of 3 hasan aspect ratio of about 10:1. Figure 4 depicts size and shape data for individual samples ploted against distance from Toba. Each sample represents the average of hundreds of measurements made on individual shards from that sample. Beyond 500 km fom Toba the greatest mean diameter i always about 60 tum, and average mean distance is about 30 ym. Thus, the size of ash is ‘constant over distances ranging from $00 to 3100 km. About 30% ofall, shards in each sample have shape factors greater than 3, and S0%-70% ‘have shape factors greater than 2. The ash particles inthe distal ash are very elongate in two dimensions, and conventional SEM examinetion (Fig. 3C-3F) shows they ate predominantly bubble-wall shards. In sum- ‘mary, the average size and shape of the distal (>500 km) Toba ash particles do not change significantly over 3100 km of dispersal. Some of the more proximal ste (<500 kr) from Toba have @ coarse ash horizon overlain by a finer horizon (Ninkovich etal, 19786). We interpret this observation to suggest that most ofthe larger ash particles have fallen out Within the frst 500 ken ERUPTION COLUMN HEIGHT Wilson and Huang (1979) have done seing velocity experiment in the laboratory on ash particles of various shapes. We have extracted some representative examples of their data to illustrate how particle shape affects sting velocity (Table 3). Their results show that equidimensional parti- es (low shape factors) such as feldspar crystals will hive much higher ‘TABLE. 5, RAW DATA SHOWING MEASURED TERMINAL VELOCTIY OF SELECTED PYROCLASTS Coals) afer ST 28516075 T0240 AST 2 225 1063810820135 301585922 4 10 75g) 2u 77 5 ng 40) 7) rie arene! ad ae 280 © 22019012530 2.65230 et re ee) 8 aS) 1s] 00] esas 2868 13 9 7925 kb56 26595 10 M375 1928308568 Note: a = longest diameter: © = internadiate dianeter: avg disneter. Prom Kitson and tang. (1279), ° 5 3 V8 g« \N g 4 é Es N E on \ 4 ee | § ae Bo WY ASG <5 gy LD une DISTANCE FROM TOBA (km) GEOLOGY, Ocaher 1957 DISTANCE FROM TOBA (km)setling velocities than glass particles that have very different dimensions (high shape factors). The particles that have very different dimensions correspond to bubble-wall shards, and pyroclasts 3, 4, and S are very similar tothe dominant shard shape ofthe distal ash of Tobe. Patces of this shape have very high drag coefficients and are thus likely 10 be dispersed great distances. Wilson and Huang (1979) showed thatthe dag coefficient is strongly influenced by particle shape by using a diferent shape factor, F, defined in terms ofthe three dimensional lengths a,b, and c of particles (2= longest, (e= shortest: Fe (bre)2a, ® Although this definition of shape factor s not well suited to predict drag for bubble-wall shards that have a ~ b >> c, the shape factors of distal ‘Toba ash particles are 0.5 or less, Using the drag coefficient (C) equation of Wilson and Huang, Cy = (24 FORK, + WTLOTA , @ where R= dimensionless Reynolds number, the change in Ffrom about 1 to <05 would be expected to increase C, by at least factor of 3, and probably by a factor of S or more. From this, we conclude that the terminal velocity at any level in the atmosphere of distal Toba shards is ‘probably ess than 20% of the terminal velocity of equdimensional part- les having similar average or maximum diameters Furthermore, because column-height estimates depend on reasonable estimates of terminal veloc- ty and are s direct mutilier in such calculations, we conclude tha the colunn-height estimates of Ninkovich etal. (19786) of 50 to 80 km may be to high by a factor of $ or more. Figure 5. Concentration ‘of spherical-ahaped ves- ‘shadow zones pphenocryat (A), unding a pheno: ORIGIN OF HIGH-ASPECT-RATIO BUBBLE-WALL SHARDS Because we have show that bubbleovall shards are dispersed widely because ofthe high dag cofiients, he next question, Where do these shards orginal? By examining thin sections of pumies, we fund that there was high concenation of spherical vesicles (which when disagare- gated produce bubble-wal shards) in shadow zones behind phenocrysis 2nd surrounding phenocrysts (Fig 8). Its posible thatthe erst caused isouopicsranee shadows on thei margins which facilitated growth of cquidimensional vesicles. Heiken and Wobletz (1985) suggested that ves- iculation may begin at phenocryst surfaces and develop pockets of ovoid vesicles radi to or surounding the phenocrysts. These pockets have higher visostis than the surounding melt and ray rest the low de formation tht causes the late-stage vesicles, which form outside the pockets to be sheared ino highly elongate rbelte forms, (Fr examples ‘of eter sic: pumices with spherical vesicles, refer to Heiken and Wob- Jet, 1985, The Toba magma hada high ey content and thus greater umber of favorable ses Whete spherical vesicles could form, Pethaps his Jed tothe large amount of bubble-vall shards inthe Toba ash. We suggest ‘hat magmas of high esta content may thus give is to widely dispersed ah all up explosive eruption. NEW VOLUME ESTIMATE ‘A inimum ash volume of 30 hm? can be calculated by assuming an average thickness of 10cm of ash covering 7000000 km? and correct- ing to dense cock equivalent (DRE) with a correction factor of 05. BY 1sing an iterated volumestimate routine based on area/hicknesrls- tions of asf blankets (Rose et al, 1974, Wanderman, 1980, a min- imum ash volume of 800 ken? DRE for the mast recent Toba eruption i obtsined. GEOLOGY, October 1987In order to refine this estimate, more data points are necesary. The ‘sh known to cover the easter Indian Ocean wit 2 thickness of about 10cm, and it occurs in India in a Nuvi! sequence. Considering the absence ‘of any significant changes in size and shape, iis conceivable thatthe ash might occur in Central Ass, the Middle East, and beyond. More distance ash localities should be sought, and the Antarctic ice cores should be examined forthe Toba ash ‘We have also calculated the ignimbrite volume from the youngest Toba eruption by asuming an outflow sheet area of 20000 km?, an intracalera area of 2500 km?, and average thicknesses of 80 and 400 m, respectively. We artived at total ignimbrite volume of >2000 km? DRE for this eruption. By combining the ignimbrite volume and ash volume, we have calculated the total volume of the youngest Toba tuto beat least 2800 km® DRE, butt may conceivably be much larger because the extent ofthe ash blanket i unknown. ‘As Walker (1972) and Sparks and Walker (1977) have shown, ignimbrites tend to concentrate crystals because during their turbulent emplacement, sh composed mostly of glass is preferentially ls, We can se this reasoning to estimate the volume of coignimbrite ash through leastsquares mixing calculations. By determining the amount of ash that needs to be mixed with the ignimbrite matrix in order to obtain the average pumice composition of a sampling sit, we have ealeulated the ‘volume of gas that has eluate during ignimbrite emplacement. Such calculations show that between 6% and 81% of glass has been lest from individual areas of the outflow sheet. An average of seven sites indicates that approximately 37% of the volume ofthe ignimbrite was lutriated as ‘las upon eruption and emplacement. This translates to aboot 750 km? of ash composed entirely of gs for an onland ignimbrite volume of 2000 km? This is a minimum estimate beeause it does not include exytls, ‘which are invariably part ofthe ash. Ninkovich (1979) reported that crystal are always les than 10% ofthe ash. I 5% crystal is esumed, the ‘volume of ash elutriated from the ignimbrite is raised to 840 km? DRE. COIGNIMBRITE ASH ‘Various lines of evidence suggest that the Toba ash may be ently of coignimbrite origin. Field evidence for this isthe lack of any significant Pinian-falldeposis underlying the ignimbrite, suggesting there was 00 large Pinan column before eruption ofthe ash flows. By examining the ash closely and characterizing its shape, we have shown thatthe widely dispersed Toba ash is composed almost entirely of bbubble-wall shards, These shards have very high drag coefficients, which greatly reduce the height ofthe eruption column necessary for ther disper- sal. A high Plinian column is therefore not required to disperse the ash so widely The volume of eltriated ash estimated from mixing caleulations is the same as that calculated by the integated-volume technique. Tis sug- ‘ests that the entire as-fall volume could have been elutratd off the top ofthe moving ignimbrite during its emplacement and convected upward into the atmosphere. CONCLUSIONS 1. The new volume estimate forthe youngest Toba tui atleast, 2800 km? of DRE magma. This number includes an esate of about 800 km of widely dispersed ah 2. Bubble-vall shards disperse preferentially and widely because of high ag coeficients related to thet shapes 3. High crystal content i the Toba magma may generate gester ‘proportion of bubble-val shards, which apear to frm in pressure shad- ‘ows near phenocrysts. ‘4. The Toba eruption may not have hada linian phase prior othe large ignimbrite, andthe dial ash may be enrely of coignimbrit origin GEOLOGY, Ouober 1987 [REFERENCES CITED ‘Ali, DT, and Ghazal, S.A, 1984, The regional geology and evolution ofthe “Toba voleao-econic depresion, Infonet: Gelogal Society of London Journal ¥ 181, 457-800. ‘Chesner, CA, 1985, Geochemistry ofthe Tob ignimbrite: Implications on sci ‘magma dics, oatow pttrs, nd caldera collapse: EOS (American Geo- piss! Union Transacsons), v.66 p. 114 Dish F, Onstot, IC, Chesne, CA” and Knight, M.D, 1987, No sor rever- tals of Brunbes age recorded in the Tobe tu, aorh Sumata, Indonesia ‘Geophysical Research Later (in pres). 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Walker, GPL, 1972, Cyl concentration in gnmbsts: Comsbatons to Mi cralgy an Petrology, v.36, p. 135-146. ‘Wiliams, MAL, and Royce, K, 1982, Quaternary geology ofthe mide Son Vale, sorcental Inia: Enplications for preistorc archaeology: Placo- seopaphy,Palacoliatslogy, Palaoecsogy, v.38, p. 19-162 ‘ikon, Land Hoang, TC, 1979, The influence of shape onthe atmospheric ‘eiing veocty of volcanic ash parle: Earth and Planetary Siene Lets, 44, 311-324 ‘Wandecmat, RL, 1980, Amati, an ative resurgent caldera immediatly south ‘of Guatemala City, Guatemala (MS. the Houghon, Michigan Technolog cal Univesity, 192 p. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ‘Supported by National Science Foundation Gants EAR 82-06685 and EAR. 45-1191, The ESS dvion of Lor Alamos National Laboratory (LANL) provided sce 10 is eleczon microsopy fcity where Round Hagan was a rat help, Ca ‘Orth naan th Taba ashes a the aero activation fait atthe INC division ‘OfLANL. Peter Staufer helped us obain spies of the Tos ash in Malays, and (MAJ. Willams provide samples fom India. Manuscript receive April 20, 1987 ‘Revised manuscript received June 29,1987 ‘Manwcrip accepted July 22,1987