Reactions With Substituent Effects

Electrophilic Aromatic Substitutions

In an EAS reaction, an electrophile reacts with an aromatic ring and substitutes it for one
hydrogen.

General Mechanism

There are five types of EAS reactions

1. Halogenation
2. Nitration
3. Sulfonation
4. Friedel-Crafts Alkylation
5. Friedel-Crafts Acylation

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1. Halogenation
Reagents are X2 and FeX3 (catalyst) where X is a halogen (generally Cl or Br)

a. Generation of electrophile in which the FeX3 induces a dipole causing one atom to become
partially positive (electrophile) and one partially negative. The partially positive will react with
the benzene ring, while the partially negative will join with the catalyst to form a new ion.

b. Reaction of electrophile with benzene

2. Nitration
Reagents are HNO3 and H2SO4 with the electrophile being NO2+

a. Generation of electrophile in which the HNO3 acts like a base and accepts a proton from
sulfuric acid to generate the conjugate acid of nitric acid which then releases a molecule of H2O
to generate the electrophile NO2+

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b. Reaction of electrophile with benzene

3. Sulfonation1
Reagents are SO3 and H2SO4 (fuming sulfuric acid) with the electrophile being HSO3+

a. Generation of electrophile in which the SO3 acts like a base and accepts a proton from H2SO4
to generate a conjugate acid, which has a formal charge on the oxygen. The conjugate acid then
rearranges in to give sulfur the formal charge and therefore forming the electrophile for the
reaction

b. Reaction of electrophile with benzene

1
Reaction can be reversible depending on the [fuming sulfuric acid]. High [FSA] forward sulfonation producing
benzene sulfonic acid. Dilute [FSA] reverse desulfonation reaction to produce benzene

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4. Friedel-Crafts Alkylation
Reagents vary, as there are three ways to produce the electrophile—a carbocation; the overall
reaction remains the same. Because this requires the formation of carbocation, rearrangements
are always possible.

1. R-X and AlX3 where X is either Br or Cl

a. Generation of electrophile using an alkyl halide

Example

Alkyl halide may be 1°, 2°, or 3° and so there are varying degrees of stability (3 > 2 > 1 > CH3)
and therefore with 1 and 2 alkyl halides, rearrangements (1,2 hydride shift or 1,2 methyl shift)
may occur
- May occur of a more stable C(+) can be generated from original
- Sometimes when an equally stable C(+) can be generated
- No arrangement occur if C(+) is less stable than original

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Example when rearrangement may occur

Example when rearrangement is less likely to occur

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2. R-OH and H+ Acid (phosphoric, sulfuric, acetic) whose conjugate base are not strong Nu:
because they are able to delocalize their charge and so not as strong to compete with the
carbocation.
a. Generation of electrophile using an alcohol in which the oxygen of the alcohol acts as a base
and accepts a proton from an acid, forming an intermediate, which then looses a water molecule

3. Alkene, H+

a. Generation of electrophile using an alkene in which the alkene donates its pi electrons to an
acid in order to generate a carbocation

- Aromatic (aryl) halides and vinylic halides do not react because the carbocations are too
high in energy (too stable) to form and react

- Doesn’t succeed on aromatic rings that are substituted either by a strongly electron-
withdrawing group (such as carbonyl C=O) or by an amino group (-NH2, NHR, -NR2)

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 - It is often difficult to stop the reaction after a single substitution (creates an activator
group) and therefore polyalkylation usually occurs—as happened in the laboratory

5. Friedel-Crafts Acylation
Reagents are an acyl halide (R-C=O-X) and AlX3 in which the electrophile is R-C=O+

a. Generation of the electrophile in which the AlX3 induces a dipole, causing the halide of
the acyl halide to become partially negative and the acyl group to become positive. The
halide will the aluminum halide catalyst to form a new ion (AlX4+) and the positive acyl
group will react with the benzene ring.

b. Reaction with the benzene ring

Example

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 Electrophilic Addition of Styrenes

Electrophilic Addition Reactions—Alkenes or alkynes π bond and electrophile (π bond of

benzene ring do not react). The reaction of Styrenes include the reaction of the vinyl group of the
benzene ring. Run under kinetic conditions, like all electrophilic addition reactants

Reagents: H3O+ (H++ H2O), HX, or X2

General Mechanism

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Substituent Effects of Styrenes

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 Base-Catalyzed Hydrolysis of Benzoate Esters

Can occur through either a reaction with

Reagents: NaOH (OH-), H2O

Produces a carboxylic acid and an alcohol

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Substituent Effects

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 Reactions Without Substituent Effects
Nucleophilic Aromatic Substitution

Benzene ring must have two substituents with characteristics:

1. One must be an EWG by resonance
2. One must be a leaving group (usually halogen) that is ortho- or para- to the EWG by
resonance

Reagent: CH3O- Na+ (nucleophile)

General Mechanism

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 Benzyne Reaction
Two criteria associated with Benzene ring
1. Must have a leaving group (usually a fluorine or other halogen)
2. Hydrogen on carbon ortho- to carbon with leaving group

Reagents: Strong base and Electrophilic Reagent

Strong Base Electrophilic Reagent

NaNH2 (Sodimamide) NH2- HBr (hydrohalous acid)
NaOH (OH-) X2
H3O+

Lithium di-isopropyl amide (LDA)

Sodium t-butoxide
(other alkoxide that are sterically hindered
produced by alcohols)

NaH (Sodium hydride) H--

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General Mechanism

Example

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Three possible products (ortho, meta, and para) but meta is major due to it being produced two
times in the reaction

Oxidation of Substituents on Benzene Rings

Oxidation refers to specific atoms (C,N,S) within molecule

- Decrease in the bonds to H and/or increase bonds to O

Two types of oxidations of benzylic atoms

1. KMnO4

2. NBS, hv

KMnO4 Oxidation is the oxidation of benzylic atom that requires to presence of at least one H
atom

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Examples

It is a strong oxidizer but does not oxidize 𝛑 bonds of benzene rings but will oxidize
alkene/alkynes to produce diols

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NBS Oxidation is the oxidation of benzylic/allylic carbons with at least one H atom. It is a
radical reaction that produces benzylic/allylic bromide

Radical Reaction has three steps

1. Initiation-formation of 1st radical species of a reaction
2. Propagation-reaction of a radical with a nonradical/neutral species to produce a nonracial
and radical; This is the rate determining step
3. Termination-reaction of two radicals to produce a neutral species

Mechanism

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Example

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Reaction Energy Diagram

Stability of carbocation radicals

1° allylic ~ 1° benzylic
2° allylic > 2° benzylic
BUT
There is no difference between the 1°, 2°, or 3° end molecule result

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Kinetic Reaction (under kinetic conditions)
Major Product—forms the fastest—derived from the most stable reaction intermediate formed
during the rate determining step (low ∆G≠)
Therefore the 2° allylic bromide is the major kinetic product (the most stable reaction
intermediate)

Thermodynamic Reaction (under thermodynamic conditions)

Major Product—most stable product, regardless of stability of the reaction intermediate
Therefore, the 1° allylic bromide is the major thermodynamic product because it is a
disubstituted alkene

Reduction of Substituents on Benzene Rings

Reduction is the increase in the number of bonds with H and/or decrease in the number of bonds
with O

Three types of reduction

1. Catalytic Hydrogenation Reagents: H2(g) and heterogeneous catalyst (Pt or Pd)

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 2. Clemenson Reduction (Acidic conditions) Reagents: Zn, HCl or Sn, HCl

3. Wolf-Kishner (Basic conditions) Reagents: Hydrozine (H2N-NH2) and KOH

Why three different reagents to accomplish the same conversion?

1. Catalytic hydrogenation
a. Reduces benzylic carbonyl and nitro groups
b. Reduces alkenes and alkynes
2. Clemenson Reduction
a. Reduces benzylic carbonyl and nitro groups
b. HCl can react with alkenes and alkynes in electrophilic addition
3. Wolf-Kishner
a. Reduces benzylic carbonyl and nitro groups
b. KOH can induce hydrolysis (base-catalyzed) of esters

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