Petroleunn Fnapveer tag, 506 Eecervoll Leck Roperties Lesson 8 — Flow Throuyts Perovs MMeolin “Fige Clow Aralogy," September 18, 194\Eluid How in Bros Melia D me Ae// | ee How Analogy for Laminar How In pipes we have the FPa‘ceville How relation | v= d? bp al i tr generabieed flow we have the Famning, equation | f= 2d bp and ky = dye | vp a Vein, the Poheville equation we ean write the fodlaulny leyresvion for flow vate G2 Uce doe ye aol: Le [9d Gal ad / ed hp | Xz ae = re A dp | & Ab | Bh Ade | ‘i where i eft bape * é | ” Zt we debe bye as the parreabliby’ of the pipe, then we Hind that frermenbility"” has the dimensione of Length squared OF Abee.| | | | O m8 Felt \few Uurtates tye coneget with a "bundle of tubes” \model where tor a ringde tobe we have | ; | rd + | 128 ae : 44 | roto | é ah | 1 | Therefore, the total Howrate os | saa £4 n | 2 4 \ ZY Gy 8 aL where the summation terra and % terms can be “Lompe 7 inte a tlow eoedhelent, ¢ 4 | qc ER & au ae Fe ap al where ; 2 2 se ode Cornell 4 bats Method loml $ ate adopted the hes a by Lye Pkev ——— cK ——__—_ Arere £1220 4 fer Lo trey How yeqlon vz bb teu 4 —_ aL hay bru? sole: for 4 ve bg a 2 bai Me = 3300" v2 bey dy Per hemp te ky Beery bathet values iQ se 10 have bea ation i ra augymmetric be? his experimental bended thatthe cd in Table ty or flow bate, 3 ‘swherothe pres fre directly ap ing that such 9 Med a he lve ibuted material cogram. Betty in the prepara: fom itis Corvorua nee OCR) “ondvetivity| 45, No, 10 Y ah if EMEA as oa ‘VBSIED pon present aod war dain a 1 = absolute visgosity, pound second/square foot thermometrie conductivity, square Toet/second Kinematic viscosity, square feat/second 2-5 specie weet, potindeuie fot shear, pounds/quare foot 7. = shear at wally pounds/quare foot Dimensionless parameters "Pew = molecular Prandul number »/< ‘BE = total Prandtl number ta/e rs = eddy Prandel mumber «a/4 Te = Reynolde number 2ie/> uo velolty parameter (Equation 9) > = distance parameter (Equation 8) Subseript w= wall ENGINEERING AND PROCESS DEVELOPMENT Cited (1 Bakhnotef, B.A, "The Mechanies of Turbulent Flow," Prince Von, Ned Princeton Universiey Prete, 104 (2) Waele, LM. Ke, Martinelli, Ry Cand Josassen, P. Tenn “im, Bae Mich, Buors, 63, (8) Brouh, HW, Sehlinger W. G., (Grr 43, 2430"6 (1081). (4) Connol, WR, Sehinger, W. C., and Sage, B. "BG. Am. Bos. nat, Dee. $657 (1082) (6) Corcorn, We Mo, Pago, Py ra Sehlingsr, W. G. BM typ, Bo, Cra, #4, 20-10 (1952). (6) Dino, iu Ge Powell, W. Gy and Seiler 8. 58'(040) nd Sage, B. HL, Teo. Bre Washington and Saee, Lent-Transter sidice eluting’ to” Rocket Power-Plant) Dovelopment,” Pe ‘Thisd AnglorAmriean Aeronautic! Conference 1951 Iiahed by The Hoyal Aeronautieal Society. (a) Mirgchelder, 0, Bid, Rc Band Spots, B., Proms. Am. ‘Meek. Buore. Ti, 021-87 (i040). (@) May, NT, Kendall, B. 11, Selinger, W. Gy and Sage, B. Hy ‘Washington, D.C, Am. Doe. Inst, Doe. $308 (1853), Kécimdny Th. von, Trane, Are See. Mech. Bngrs. 61 (css), Page, Be, Sra Corcoran, W. H., Schlinger, W. G., nnd Sage, Hy, Washington, D: Cy, Am. Doe Inst, Doe 3298 (1980), (1) Page, Fs Jes Corcoran, W. My Sebinger, W. ©., and Sege, "BH. Teo: Bio. Cute, 44, 419-28 (1952), 12) Page, Fy Je, Selinger, W. G, Breaux, D.K., and Sage, B. H., “Washington, D. Cs Am, Doe. Inet, Dor, 3298 (1081). (18) Page, F., Jr, Sehlingsr, WG. Bremoa, D-K.yand Sage, BH, To. By Caza 44, 424-90 (1050), (04) Prandtl, Plye 2,28, 487-9 (1928). (05) Reamer, i. H Wilford, D. B., and Sage, B. H., Washington, "Drs Am, Boo. Inst, Dee $713 (185 (16) Reynotie, 01, Pro Manchester Lit. and Philos, Soily, 24, 7 TUs?4}; "Papers on Mohanlal and Physical Subjects," Vol pp. a8, Cambridge (1800), (07) Sebilnger, WG. Berry, V. J Magon, J. La, and Sage, B. H, Tos v0, Cre 48, 602-6 (1059). (18) Sehlngen, W. G. Hie, N, T, Cavers, 8. D., and Sage, B. Hi, Th (198). (09) Taylor, Gr, Pha Tronty, A233, 289-349 (1929) (20) Taylor, G.1 Pree, Roy. Sue. (London), ANSE, 85-700 (1022) © 05-10 0) ‘Material supplementary to thia article has beon dopocted as Decurment 3000, te the ADE hosiiary Putiations Project. Pootodolction Service, inary of Congen, Washington 25, D.C. Copan may be ncured bs ce dhzs tach for mm micetim. Advance papnen¢nreies. Sake Flow of Gases through Consolidated Porous Media DAVID CORNELL! AND DONALD L. KATZ Univetty of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Mich HIE, Bow of gases through consolidated porous media is of Importance in widely dilfering spplications such as acro- dynamic problems, aeration processes, and the analysis of the Foehavior of natural ges resrvoire, The purposo of this paper is to correlate and predict the Bow of gases through the interstices of consolidated porous medis trates leading to deviations from Viscous flow that occur in the inertial, quas-turbulent, or turbu- Tent flow region. "The measurement of viscous fow of gases through consolidated porous media has been widely studied (0). Deviations from 1 rent addres, The Univesity of Peas, Aus October 1953 INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY viscous low of gare at ow flo rats, including molecular stream ing and other eftects, have reesived considerable attention (8, 14, 20), The measurement of the porosity (20) and the electrical recstivity {uctor (J, #8, 25) of consolidated porous media has received thorough study. ‘The pore size distribution of such materiale has been given wide consideration (2). Correspondingly little attention has been given to the devise tions from viscous How st high flow rates through consolidated porous media. Green and Duwer (18) presented an article on tthe flow of gases throUgh porous metals during this research, Fancher and Lewis (12) have given data on the flow of air ol, ‘and water through eandstones and ceramic sample In which the 2148,ENGINEERING AND PROCESS DEVELOPMENT effets of abut ony were wt investigated Cun monsate ments, ‘ott ad Curiae cenwutkers (5,8), ‘Tive proseat work involved a furl Carlson and Kastan (7) mire ns. fartor influening permeability tanvotidated| porous media both the vie regions have been vorrlated by Browse ane + investigation into wisrous sul turbulent flow of gies this consolidated porn mai 1 ronssted of four phases Writing slow equation for visous and turbulent owe in teronof the tn vanes "gunforming this How equation into ane bused nly on megsurable quantities 3° Mesrment of flow in the visu and turbulent geome Tisbelnved dat He tears and set sna pierce nel a a ar tl oro lina naa ta a atatge may ieee wean ret Pai aagh ch nt acer tae Secs mal engi agen te Sx pro Giron and Dawes (1) mate ar eer ee, tan Bayi do oan a at ae a ron sa "Th autor ay nd ta ho tl we A ta ie tor fo prec ta mais Sto Hamer belies es ment andr pl vt medina teeta akon Amare ‘Thie ce ma arom, Dae “oth hrs amir fw ah a ee ae ovum The tarry, nace te bak of te thats atanshat Slang pelea dk ee See UN thal fit mance ee tl rome foo oe ‘Tebne ar edn sped es ea invwodty wih tine tale pereust paint eran tuted wall pn et ha Sees min name meena of a yeneral nat Equation for Viscous and Turbulent Flow 1s Derived from Kozeny's Equation Most flow problems involving the flow of gases in continuous systems may be broken down into three major clases which have been widely studied experimentally and theoretically. "These sre molecular streaming, viscous flaw, and turbulent low. The systems to be considered here consist of solids having & regular, continuous intemal pore structure that permite the flow of gases under a pressure gradient. Under certain conditions each of ‘thew mechanisms may be expected tobe important. ‘The follow ing analysis is timited to visrour and turbulent flow. Severt excellent bibliographies of material on flow through porous media exist (6, 8, 10, 22) making it unnecessary to repeat such information here. Reference wil he made, however, to the work that forms the foundation of the present. development. The Kozeny equatisn for viscous flow through porous media ix dine cursed and extended, and then a yeneral equation for viscoue andl turbulent low ie derived ‘The term viseous flow i used here to indicate the flow mecha- nism i porous media that depends on the Aud viseosity but not lts density. Turbulent fw designates the flow region in which the pressure drop is proportional to the velocity raised to & power between 1.0 and 2.0. Bakhmetefl and Feodoroff (2), Green and Duwer (18), and others have sought to exclude fine-grained porous ‘modi from the systems in which turbulent flow may ‘occur, However, turbulence actually was observed in porous media by 2u46 INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY Fone ad wi (12, owing ith dou as to the exten & of urlnes in pro nein Unni thee as ah ‘we these and spectrin of tsbulce ty ene er medina compra to ater stem Du sce yet ‘xperinenal ewido hte coun are nade fa sulstctry hatin, the abe eet wil ha dee nate the seal term of tabulene Further non wi ones to determing wheter or ot random faction ‘fd verity at any pol se aly ooruring ‘Te Rosey equation for vies Bow through pro med (17) 8 deeb by Cams (8) ea miention af Paatig he ' py = 2D) oe 1 ate OOD 2 ‘The hydraulic radive(o) for eircular 4 i 2 ies given by m= Des ® Poin law in terms of the hydra raus then brome, for pis (2.0) 12) (oe) arr, = 20) (he) (oe) co) (m3) 2 he yl mae of porous beds wil be even by Deis “ in which 8 i characteristir of the aystom's geometry. The eon stant of Equation 3 will no longer be 2.0 nt wl have ome other alu, ty whic is elle the Kozony constant af elev ty be approximately constant at valu of about 28. eee Table 1. Volves of kx for Certain Geometric Configurations Tn gene Shape » 4 Grete 29, bo Site ie Her ae Shea between our 8388 Steet Sotte i Tn addition tothe substitution of fs for the 2.0 term in Equation 3, Kozeny gave the relationship between the effective velocity, (#2) an the superficin! velocity (0, in terms of the porosity (X} and the length of the hed (le) ns in Eaquaion 5. 6) Hliminating ee from Bastion 8, Equation 6 (Kozeny’s equation) is obtained mary. w) a) a Ts myXVCD) Proviousy, all the terms in Equation 6 were direetly mensurable cescopt the ratio, La/Ls. Lacking other evidence, vavious values Of Li/La have boen assumed including */2, V2, 1.40, and 1.304, A method has been derived for the evalistion of Lx/la from ‘measurements of porosity and the electrical reistance of a sample saturated with a salt solution of known conductivity which iy applicable to consolidated porous media that are noncondustors of electricity. The resistivity fuctor (P) was defined by Archie (Zin conection with electrical logging of gas and oil wells at the ratio of the electrical resistaoe of a sample saturated with a conducting brine to the recstaneo of « volume of the brine of the ome size and shape as the sample. ‘The value of # depen on the available cross-sectional void area of the sample and on the Increased distance that the electrieal current must fw becaine of the irregular path. ‘The available erosesectional void aren of the sample is the total cross-setional area multiplied by (2) (Cais). “The length of the path is the Tength of the sample multiplied by Le/lx, Since Fis divvetly proportional to the Vol. 48, No. 10{o the existence there are difer- in ronsolidted UL sre present ‘ae inecquate twill bo desig. ber work wil be ‘uctastone in ing 1 porous media 1 of Poiscuile's m nby @ ¥ then becomes, ® sill be given by ® stry. ‘The eon save some other dis believed to min Bquation eotive velocity ve porosity (X) ) nay’s equation) CO) Ly measurable various valuee 40, and 1.304 2M Le/a from ‘ww of a anmple Ivity which ie noneonductors ned by Archie xd oll wells as tursted with « he brine of the F depends on ato and on the {flow because al void area of, ‘plied by (X) ‘of the sample ional to the al. 48, No. 10 Jength and inversely proportional to the area, the eoreet expres on for Fit shown in Baquation 7 pn (ie = P= OUD @) quations having & slightly different form have appeared jn the iterature (23, 24). ‘These, however, are based on 8 eros tional ren proportional to the porosity rather than (2) La/ In Medified Equation, All Quantiies Mey Be Measured Directly except ky Substituting Bauation 7 in Bquation 6, a new form of Kozeny's equation is obtained in whieh all the quantities except Fy are (Trestly measurable, (bo) (4) PY Tr = (Gd) (8) o [Equation 8 should prove to he very valuble in establishing the ‘nature of Kozeny's constant more arcurately than has been po=- {ble previously, since all the term except fy ean bye established experimentally Te was preferred, however, to work with the effective pore diameter, rather than hydra mulius, beewuse the pore size {isteibution of the materials used was more easly measured thas tras the surface area needed in computing the hydraulic radi. Furthermore, thee is some doubt eoncorning the validity of the hydraulic radius when there is a wide distribution of pore sizes Dbeenuse the small pores increase the aren greatly, whereas the large pores contribute the porosity important to the flow. Sub- situting Equation 4 in Equation 8 and dofning fy hy = 32080009) ® jon 10, used in thi work, becomes * naPy _ catenuacey Ta ~ NGaKDI) a) For cirwular pipes, ky = 10, F = 10,2, = om Le = Ly and Equation 10 becomes Poiseuile's law, Equation 1 For porous media with a value of lof about 2.5 and 8 of about 5.0, b wil have a value of about 0.5. Since the emphacs ofthis ‘work was on turbulent rather than viteous flow, 4 was taken to be 0.5, and no attempt was made to refine this value further. ‘The values of De obtained by Uhe use of fy equal to 0.5 in quae tio 10 fll within the range of pore diamators determined by the pore sie distribution messuroments. Table T includes the esti- mated values of f for certain geometric configurations. ‘ince the Kozeny equation applies only to laminar flow, it i necessary to go to some such method as the uso of w friction factor-Reynolds number plot in order to handle both laminar tnd turbulent flow. In flow through rough pipes itis necessary to multiply the friction factor and to divide the Reynolds number by some factor, fy, in order to bring all the dats in the turbulent region together. ‘The factor, ty, may then be correlated with the roughness ratio, «/D, in the ease of rough pipes. Tt is assumed thet such @ factor existe for consolidated porous media and may be correlated sinilarly with the same «/D ratio. Lacking specific information as to the natare of « the correlation actuslly made was one of hy versus Dg with the type of consolidated porous Inedia as parameter. This type of correlation is not completely satisfactory in thatit ie basod an a derived quantity, Dp. Thwas lused, however, beeauso it provides an interpretation off that is consistent with the knowledge of the behavior of rough pipes. ‘Tn addition to the use ofl for consolidated porous media itis sso necessary to multiply the Reynolds number by bi to satisfy the laminar flow theory. ‘The fraction factor and. Reynolds ruuuber for porous media are given by Bquations 11 and 12. ENGINEERING AND PROCESS DEVELOPMENT = (Peon) (es) : Ro = (Pasha «2 By use of Equations 5 and 7 these forms of the fraction fuctor and Reynolde number may be transformed into expressions in terms of measurable quantitias as fx MaDe oN = AP NIN - it La) Ge a3) an AAs puintad out by muy provious investigators the curve on & frition fuctor-Reynolda number plot may be represented by & quadratic equation. For canscidated porous media this quadratic equation is (2y(u)ive)_, (82Y(0) Grea Ds * ENON) For guscs, neglecting kinetic energy changes, this equation may ‘ye integrated and put in terms af moarirable quantitios aP jd = 3) a= Pay _ GY) . BaNNRCYG) Ton (e)(De) (Doe) a GEE) OMMTVGA (9) ANG) sd an equation similar to wos Green and Duwer (13) have presen aquation 16, given hereas equation 17, Y (aN @Vontey RYTVG. NN(Gd + ona ‘The fretion factor and Reynolds number then become equations Band 19in terms of aand 8. = (6100.10 /0)(0)(—3PA 7 CaN) a «= Bla) Re ~ Har (9) ‘The constants, a and 8, can be broken dovn as 1) Gye oo sary FEN en Pquations 20 and 2 provide x meuns for eolating geometrea! {aetorsfor correlation. qution 17 may be rorranged for convenience in anyzing experimental data (P= PayMyG) NG) a Tav@HAMYTING ~~) It is evident that in thie frm a plot of (Pi8 — Pe) M\e0/- (LaX2KEXRXTHRNG) versie (G2)/) on coordinate paper yields straight line Boving a slope equal to 8 and an intereept quel fo a. ‘Thus, « and 9 can be obtained readily from all the date taken with diferent gases, Thie typeof plot has been used by sxveral previous authors, among whom are Martin (78) and Ergun (11). Data Were Obtained for Four Gases Flowing through 24 Samples of Sandstones, Limestones, and Dolomites Cylindrical samples of sandstone, limestone, and dolomite rock vere cut by use of a Y/rinch diamond core dil fom bulk sam- ples, They were dried, extracted with bensene, dried, and ex- {rected with water to remove the benzene-soluble and water- 2) (g.Ds— AP) 10 (20) hte matrai"Thesamlon ware then died ah oven October 1953 INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY 2arENGINEERING AND PROCESS DEVELOPMENT 220° F, Their pore volume wae measured by evacuating ‘Ncighed! samples, saturating them with water, and reweighing “Thuchulk volumewasdetermined by displarensentine pyenometer, sl the pore teu from thewe measurements, ‘The pore size distribution was obtained by the displacement of distiled water from the sample by air, Saturated samples ‘were placed on eculose tise saturated with water and resting fn & porous porcelnin barrier having x bubble presure for ait ‘over water of 85 pounds per square inch gage. ‘The air prestire fn the sample in the apparatus was niaintained constant by rusnusblosding pressure regulator, and the apparatus was kept ius constant temperature room to avoid temperature variations ‘The pore sizes were calculated as these for the displacement of liquid from a circular capillary. Figure 1 shows the pore size \sbibution curves for soveral of the samples studied, 090 eee a0 0 Pen CENT OF voIDs Figure 1. Pore Size Distribution Curves 4. = Whos sondtone No.1 = Bromide sondsone Now ond 1 Oteop sondstone Now 19 ond 14 Terpedo sandtone Nov 13, (© = Dicer rom howe ‘The electrical resistivity factor was determined by saturating the samples with 0.100 8 potassium chloride, The samples were placed between two platinizedplatinum cleetrodes becked by felt saturated with the 0.100 1 potassium ehloride end clamped 1 a frame constructed of Lucite. ‘The resistivity of the samples determined by moans of a Wheatstone bridge using « 1000 ing x Fi a a seribed by Equation 22 to fall 2 tone BE 2 So 1GER Bese iy ears oH . ee eee Cs aaa fea be etaed . 8} x me Paes dcly rom to ple as nae x ahh S902 rized values of @ and # are mint Bs oon Lax thven In Table 1. The low Outerope ie x i Be LB x on permeability semples all ea a ox sas, 989 10 of straight-line data. plot at “Golomite: 0X 2 Jow mean pressures because of er 3S Th erie Se ot ‘molecular streaming. Figure 5 comsonpet att ete Bay ERE FR 8et¢ permeability bromide sand Ie reaming however, 21. 48,No. 10 | October 1953, INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY 2u9ENGINEERING AND PROCESS DEVELOPMENT ee oe : no carro ae Flow Data Plot to Obtain a end 6—Wileox cl Sondstones Xa Ae NO Ou a = He oes Fer No 4, K+ 20 iuLoacoes-~ Figure 6,_ fr Correlation for * fe Sandstones. : : E cox f 0 = Wilcox Now 13 _ = Bromide Now 4-8 a iSong Nor 9-10 CU {B Spraberey Now 11-12 Ee fi Tos Ke 24 wetuoancies 3 Sitcrop How 13-14 BP sox |B Torpedo New. 15-16 / é are derived, Data taken at low mean pressures fected by molec: 3 oot 5 lar streaming have been omitted from this plot 1e 5. Flow Data Plot to Obtoin a and B—Bromide Relationship to Other Methods Is Shown Sondstones Previous applications ofthe Kozeny equation to flow problems Xa Ar a ate have requited the estimation of the increase length of the path through an irregular bed. ‘The use of Equation 7 enables one to onsite this property of the bed dirertly, Table TY lists the vas not understudy in tie work, and its efst wore avoid Te apelug the data taken at higher mean presure.Simi- TE fow data more ten on total of 24 consolidated porous ample T "Phe eauos of by given in Table TH were computed from the espimentally devrined vali of by Fy and X and plated SURI ith the (pe of matrix parameter a in Figures Tun 2. ‘There corelatons of fy show some eattring of the 7 fu) ‘Tie te undeubodly due tothe mmpling and exper \ see eons und tothe aviary auton of = 08. The . cnverage devistion of the values off forall of the samples exslud 2 é ing the bromide sandstones was 12.4%. The various bromide a wee ones difered considerably in ther charactristice a is b Spourent fom the photomirographs in Figure 8 and, coe ea seeetiy a gud correlation would not be experted forthe. "The conventional means of presenting fid fow date be & innendontom Tation factor Reynolds namber plot Such a Slot ngiven ts Figure forthe ow data of hisinvestigntion and col | That of Groen and Duwer (18) for porous metal. Three expres t SNe given for the tition factor and Reynolds number | ‘Thc a arm are de to Grom and Dawes and are based on IM Bethe empirical flow constants. "These would be used in Seliing Sow dat, “Tho eocond sof frm af fend Re may coolly s Le Pe Ua Row data ae not availble and ow rates must be oof 6 Predicted. ‘Iknowledg of the permesbiity, porosity, end eke- : trical resistivity factor with Figures 6 and 7 giving ky values is Figure 7. ks Correlation for Lim fufieiont to predict the entire range of visas and turbulent slones and Dolomites fo The nal forme of and Te ure the bai theoretical i 0 = tows dont Ho, 17, 20-22 1 facta and Reynold umber from whic the oer two forme Ebert ace ry ‘e 2180 INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY Vol, 45, No, 10by molew. « problems af the path bles one to 1 Hats the = 45, No, 10 seanared walder of fy/a for the sates eid. ‘The Lae mae vary From 1.36 10 3:26, Since thi ratio ie square in the Tattnt tw equation, i ix evident that St is of conserable Japar ance in any Buid low eorelation. Me atone the evaluation of the Kozeny’ctstant has depended uv anassumed value of Zr/ba, With a method of messuring 2 ig ineetly now available ib is posible to enleulale the Feeeay constant accurately For any poros media whose Pel sea. poracity, auriare area, and electrical veastvity factor fae known “rhe theory developed! here permits an analysis of the Fy and ‘Bye terme prosented by Brownell, Dombrowski, and Dickey (A). ce) a OEM Turk) OX) CJ Cs) 30 % = NNO c ‘the constant (q) relates the particle diameter to the effective ameter ofthe flow pat De = (Ds) es) “these values of Fy and Fne should not ho interpreted varying sk Ac? and XC! when the porosity of « porous medium is vHtered, beeauce actual changes in the porosity will also change Shealues of f/by and fin the usual case, thus complicating the-natare of the porosity funtion, ‘The presence of the cost- ENGINEERING AND PROCESS DEVELOPMENT stunt (e) is due tothe fact that tivo diferent teferenew points om {he frieton Farr pot have bee ue Summary Procedures for predicting and correlating turbulent Row through romslidated porous media are shussusing the perma Tien povoity, and eletreal resistivity factor of the solid and the properties of the fd, A method of evaluating the actual Heed ot the path through «porous mediuns by’ means of wn ele et vesstiedty meuurement ie shown. A. procedure for evalie Trine the Koveny constant more arcurately than previously pow Siiisshown, The relationship ot this work to that ofBrowawel, Koneny, Groen and Duwez, and others i given ‘Acknowledgment “This work was carried out under the Soeony-Vacuum fellow ship in chemical enginering atthe University of Michigan, ‘The camples studied end the pure methane were provided by the Phillips Petroloum Co. Nomenclature ‘er + dimensionless proportionslity factors, ‘9 Z Mective diameter of pore structure, fect De = eleticle diameter of unconsolidated particles, fect ‘eZ Biecrical restivity factor: electrical res 10,0005 +. WILCOX. SANDSTONES, HO. 1-3 SI, + BROMIDE SANDSTONES, NO. 4-8 yy > BURBANK SANDSTONES, NO. 9-10 “Senabeney, aueroneh, Wo ah 2 at Le Sia 3 Z Wt 10% @ $ | pear oor o2ccceod Sin aly t | a : ‘oor On decsr i’? &, Dever h Se ae = EE Figure 8. Friction Factor-Reynolds No. Plot October 1983 INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY 2181ENGINEERING AND PROCESS DEVELOPMENT sample saturated with brine/sesistanen of quantity ie esi an ape a ha me of Fy w towels eto feetor factor frownell’sFesymoids number factor "j= fietion factor 4. 5 conversion factor, 3.17 pounds mass X foot/pounds ores % square second 6 = spe a vas, pounds mas /aguare Toot Koreny constant, dimensiones 1, Z dimensiontess geometrical constant in Taminar term ‘flow equation ‘hy = dimensionless, geometsical constant in turbulence term a fo equation eral engi of porous modi, fect ‘lective length of ow path, fect, fivdrnvlic rai, feet. moll Weg of gm Bressure poutds forcefequare foot absolute Eos constant: 1543 pour force X eubiefet/Squave oot % pound mele xT 1 anole tmgeratre TR = superficial velocity, fet/seoon se = effective velocity Ia pare structures, feet/second "E = fractions poroaty Comprossiliity factor of s gas fouficient of laminar term of flow equation, fee seeticentoftrbulence em of flow eat, fak iimensignless constant relating hydraulic radius and iste diameter i roughness dimension of @ pipe, feet 1 5 Miseoity, pounds mass/(oat) (second) > = utd deoslty, pounds mass/eubie feet Lterature Cited (0) Archie, G. E., Trans, Am, Inet, Mining Met. Buore, M46, 54 ao) (@) Bakhmeto, B.A. and Feodoroml, N.-V., Trane. Am. Soe. (@) Barer, ROP, “Carirge University Pres, 1941 London, (4) Bieber, ba Bh Pngrey 155,240 (104). Brownell, Hs, Dosnbvowshl, 1.8. ned Dickey. ‘Bua. Progr. 48,418 (030) nd Kate, D. Tax Trout, Air oat, Mining Met (6) Powells By tind Kata, Ds Toy I 43, 587 (1047. (9) Catiuone'A” Soland Bastion, ie Bay Ants Lal Ming Met Phares Peck, Publ, 1996 Say 1040) (8) Carman DAG, Pras, Fae Chet, Baars. (Landon), 18, 150 1987} (9) toi, 16, 168 (1938). (lo) Datigvaies J. tishing Co. 104. (11) Ergon, Sy Chem ng, Progr, 48,89 (1952). G13} Fancher, 6. Hey and Lewis, J.-A, Ivo. Exe, Cusac, 25, 1139 ‘ass (13) Green, Ly ad Dues, PJ Appl. Moohanien 18,39 (1951), G15) Grunberg av and Nissan) A. Basset Petroleum Teena, 28, 92 (015. (18) Mandtook of Chemistry and Physica, 24h ed., Clevelan, ‘Ohio, Chem, Rubber Publbing Co. 104 (40) International Criieal Tables, Vols Wp: 2, New York, MeGraw. Wil Rook Co, 120, (42) Kovenyc te Bor, Wien, Ad, 136a, 271 (1927) (G8) Martin’ Ids, PhD, these, Corvouie Institute of Technology, Te (19) Mishel A. nd Gibson, RO, Pre. Ray. Sve (Landon), AYSA, "288 (1981. (20) Muskat, M. "Physica Principles of it Production," Now York, MeGrav Hi Book Co. 1918 1) Perry, ts Hs "Chemical Bnginecra? Handbook," 8rd ed, New "York, MeGraw- Hl Book Co, 1850, (22) Suva, My Hey and Hertel, K.Lo, “Advance in Colloid Sc one,” Vol. 1 New York, Interscience Publishers, 142, (28) While, MLR J and Rose, W.D., J, Petroleum Tecinl, 2, 108 (950). (24) Whiley BI. R. J., and Spengler, M. B., Gull Rescarch and Dex elopmaeat Co, Research Project 4G-1, Rept. 15 (arch 19,1081. (25) Young, 4. W., and Pot, Ra 1950) Uleromeriten* New York, Pitman Pub- Petroleum Bngr,22B, 80 (Iannary restr for review June 30,1952 Aocerren Angi 8 1853 Radiation-Conduction Correction for Temperature Measurements in Hot Gases W. & WEST, Je, AND J. W. WESTWATER Unive of lines, Urbs, CCURATE measurement of the temperature of a hot gas is ‘s problem beset. with difficulties. Consider the common fase of a hot gn flowing through a duct. A number of possible temperature measuring devices could be used, but objections can be eted foreach Tf some gort of radiation moter is sighted through a peep-hote, it “sees” the duct walle as wll asthe gas. The duct walls cannot be at the ges temperature unless the outside of the duct is pro- vided with perfect insulation. Usually the duct is losing best to the surroundings, and the duct temperature and gas temperature are diferent. ‘Thus the pyrometer may give readings that are in error, posibly by saveral hundred degeees (8). One radiation scheme does give good socurscy; ths is the line-reverstl method ‘which consiste eseentally of measuring the radiation emitted by a felt suspended in the hot ges. This method ie euitable for lames ‘only aod isso inconvenient to use that i ia rarely soon in industry. 1 a thermometer oF similar probe deviee is inserted into the gas stream, it will have a radiation error, because the probe can see ise INDUSTRIAL AND ENGINEERING CHEMISTRY the cool duet walls, ‘There will be a conduction error alro (the so-called fn effect) caused hy the flow of heat along the probe to the duct wall “Two methods of attacking the problem are possible. One ro sists of trying difforent designs of temperature measuring devices Until one is found that produces a direct reading of the true gus temperature, large ody of literature deals with this approsch, Some ofthe methods use shielded thermocouples (5, 4,14), heated shields (8, 12, 20) heated resistance elements of resistance ther- mometere (16), hented thermocouples (12), thermocouples of zero diameter (6, 9, 19), high velocity suction tubes (J, 14, 15), & ‘ever arrangement of to orifices (8,13, 17), and other arrange raents a well ‘The second method consists of using some simple measuring Avice which produces an “incorrect” temperature, the error of ‘which can be ealeulated accurately. This isthe subject of the present paper; the discussion is restrieted to probe devices "Phe conduction erro inherent in all probes has boen well under- Vol, 45, No, 10Development of a Generalized Darcy Equation ABSTRACT General equations relating the pressure drop necessary 10 sustain the flow of a fluid through a porous matrix at a given rate have been de- veloped. The results indicate that at high values of flow rate the pressure- flow behavior may not necessarily satisfy the usual Darcy equation. The mathematical analysis, carried through the micro-pore geometry and ‘extended through the macro-reservoir scale, indicate that Darcy's law, of limited applicability to certain ranges of Reynolds numbers, can be gener- alized through the inclusion of some additional parameters. The “generalized Darcy equation” has also been formulated in dimen- sionless form permitting the evalua- tion of its predictive accuracy with regard to literature data. ‘A comparison between predicted and experimental values indicates that the generalized Darcy equation predicts the pressure drops with good ‘agreement over all possible ranges of Reynolds numbers. INTRODUCTION The limits and the nature of valid- ity of Darcy's law’ has been a subject, of every-day interest to the industry for many years, It is well known that as the Rey- nolds number, characteristic of the fluid flow through porous media, be- comes large, Darcy’s Jaw gradually loses its predictive accuracy and ulti- ‘mately becomes completely void For the last 20 years much has been said and written on this subject. Un- fortunately little has been accom plished to bring about a satisfactory ipo gener es oy Ser aa ie Siamanatersicee © PHILUPS PETROLEUM CO. MOR TER | gerlESVLLe, ORLA, T.N.427 ‘agreement, at least on the nature-of the threshold of validity of Darcy's law. Fluid dynamists, geo-physicists, and engineers all had their individual views, explanations. interpretations and concepts on the subject. To some, a mechanistic analogy with pipe-flow proved a satisfactory expla- nation.” To others, turbulence, in its random character, was incompatible With the geometric structure of con- solidated porous systems. To some,’ turbulence merely represented a fac tor influencing the permeability meas- urements and again to others" em- pirical or semi-empirical correlations proved satisfactory from an engineer ing viewpoint. Deviations from Darcy's law at high flow rates have been stdied by systematic experiments by Fancher, Lewis, and Barnes.’ In an article on the flow of gases through porous met- als, Green and Duwez" conclude that the onset of turbulence within the ores appears unsatisfactory to ex- plain deviations from Darcy's Jaw. This view is held by many others. While the subject remained con- troversial for many years, the devel- ‘opment of vast nattiral gas reserves throughout recent years further justi- fied considerable interest on this problem from the standpoint of gas reservoir behavior, As large amounts of field data became available from the operation of many gas fields, it became evident that the steady-state behavior of gas wells was not, in gen- eral, in agreement or compatible with Darcy's law. This suggested a careful reconsideration of all_ mechanisms which may account for pressure drops in addition to viscous shear. In a series of articles” A. Hou- peurt indicated that deviations from Darey’s law may be explained on the basis of kinetic energy variations and jetting effects without resorting to 2s- sumptions on turbulent flow condi- tions. Another article by Schneebeli” indicates that special experiments by Lindquist clearly demonstrated that the onset of turbulence does not nec- essarily coincide with conditions of deviation from Darcy's law. This view is also held by M. King Hubert." Starting with the basic pressure flow relations suggested by Houpeurt, the derivation, development and ex- tension of analytical expressions to supplement and generalize Darcy's law has been the objective of this work, MATHEMATICAL ANALYSIS DeRIvaTION oF DIMENSIONLESS PRESSURE-DROP, FLOW-RATE RELATIONS In considering the fiow of @ fluid through a porous matrix geometrical- ly represented by a succession of capillary passages in the shape of ‘truncated cones;"* an approximate ‘expression may ‘be derived relating viscous and inertial, ie., total pres- sure drop to the physical properties of the fluid, geometric properties of the rock matrix and the rate af flow: @) Such a representation is equivalent to assert that the term [e(m*— 1)/ 16x’'m}, variable with various porous ‘media and probably highly variable within 2 given porous medium, may be macroscopically defined as equal to a lithology factor times the aver- age grain diameter d. In view of the usual grain and pore size distribu-tions encountered in consolidate por- ‘ous media, purely mathematical jus- tifcations ‘of such a generalization appear to belong to statistical me- cchanies and are beyond the scope of this study. From the standpoint of engineering analysis, however, as it will be shown later, the laboratory data obtained by careful, systematic experiments’ indicate that such lithol- ogy factors can be found to correlate the non-Darcy, pressure-drop flow behavior, through cores from various producing formations. Recalling the definition of dimen: sionless friction factor by Fanning equation”: ap) dt patie: cing back to Eqs, 1 and 2, nd sub Sttuting the defition of the Rej- molds nustber i R= ned @ wwe obtain ip ,e Halt ea]. © Eq. 5 is the dimensionless, general- ized Darcy equation where f repre- sents the friction factor defined by the Fanning equation. COMPARISON OF THEORETICAL RESULTS WITH EXPERIMENTAL DATA, Fig. 1 is given as basis for com- parison of Eq. 5 with experimental data available from the literature.* ‘The friction factor vs Reynolds number data published by Fancher, et al, is used to compare f vs Re plots predicted by Eq. 5, for various values of a, with results’ from actual laboratory measurements ‘The core properties of the samples given in Fig. 1 are included in Ta- ble 1 The average grain diameters were determined by using screen analysis data and the equation (6) Most of the flow data used in this analysis was taken by water. Some measurements obtained by air are in- cated on the plots. ‘The examination of Fig. 1 indi- cates that for specific values of « fac- tors.the general theoretical, pressure drop, flow rate relations can be satis- fied with fairly good accuracy inde- pendently of the ranges of Reynolds numbers, ‘The plots in Fig. 1 also indicate the general family of curves which : tee Sy Fic, 1—Comramsoy of Expenteenrat, Dara wir Premicrions Mane wire Dancy AND Gexteatiano Daney Equartons can be predicted for a given value of gas well This rate, by a similar cal the permeability, porosity but for culation, yields a1 maximum Rey- varylng lithology factors « nolds number of about 1,200. “The considered data indicate that In aking atypical ease of No. 22 the range of applicability of Darcy's Woodbine ‘sand’ the data indicates law aries between R, = 0.5 (No. that for Reynolds numbers larger 20 Woodbine sand) and about R= than 1.0 the Darcy equation would 8.0 (No. 23 Woodbine sand). Most gradually lose its validity in predict of the samples considered begin to ing the friction factor or the pressure devinte on or about y= 18. drop. For, ~ 10itcan be seen at ical natural gas well produc. #2 P7 p wRaseby yuetiened eet ing about 33 Met/D/t of pay thick Lyx jaw equal rad The overall ness would have at the wellbore 4 oe Reynolis number equal 036.3 (po- pressure gradient ©? thus would be rosity w= 10 per cent, gravity, ~ nar O68 and visoosky p= O02 ep). A sbout 1.85 times the presure gradi production rate of 330 Mef/D/fi of ent predicted by Darcy's law. Feservoir thickness may be consi¢- Ata given Reynolds number the eed an exceptionally high rate for a ratio between the pressure gradientspredicted by Eq. 5 to the pressure gradients predicted by the usual (1+ $8) eee fined before. For reservoirs produc- ing crude oil the correction term (E*) is usually very small com- Darey equatio pared {0 unity and may be considered negligible in most cases. CONCLUSIONS ‘The theoretical analysis, its gener- alized results, and available labora- tory data indicate that for a given porous medium having a high Rey- nolds number the pressure-drop, flow-rate behavior does not necessa rily satisfy the usual Darcy equation, As the Reynolds number is increased, the deviation from, the Darcy law be” comes more and more apparent. This deviation is not necessarily due to turbulence. Its nature, its threshold, and its magnitude are all predicted by theoretical fluid-flow equations. In the development of these equa- tions the porous medium is consid- ered as a bundle of capillaries of varying size. In addition to the pres- sure drops which occur as a result of viscous shear, the changes of kinetic energy irreversibly lost to ambient media may be analytically evaluated, When the Reynolds number is small the steady-state flow through a porous medium may be completely described by the permeability of the ‘matrix and the viscosity of the fluid. At high values of Reynolds number, however, a similar description of flow requires data on additional parame- ters such as porosity, grain size, and slithology factor. At low Reynolds numbers the flow is laminar and follows Darcy's law very closely, it may be referred to 25, the “Darey-flow” regime. At higher Reynolds numbers, the inertial forces become appreciable in comparison to viscous forces. The flow may still be laminar but it can no longer be predicted by Darcy's Jaw, It can be predicted by the gen- eralized Darcy equation and it may be referred to_as the “non-Darcy low” regime. The transition from Darey to non-Darcy flow is a grad- ual one. ‘At stil higher values of the Rey- nolds number the inertial effects may become large compared to viscous effects and cause turbulence at least localized to large voids, fractures, cavities, etc... This regime may be called the “porous turbulent flow” regime, NOMENCLATURE = radius of a capillary constric- tion average grain diameter grain diameter from screen analysis 4 = the dimensionless friction fac- tor k =the permeability of porous ‘medium inn = radius of a capillary enlarge- ‘ment divided by the radius, of a capillary constriction, a dimensionless parameter radius of semi-pore opening length of a semi-pore divided radius of a capillary, con- striction, a dimensionless parameter wc = length of a semi-pore P = the pressure R= the Reynolds number, dimen- sionless V = average fluid velocity AP ie SE = overall pressure gradient ‘ar : a lithology factor, dimension- less © = the porosity = the viscosity of fluid A = denotes a differential quantity r= length or radius of a core sample p= density of fluid 5 = denotes summ: ACKNOWLEDGMENT The author wishes to thank the management of Phillips Petroleum Co, for permission to publish this work. REFERENCES 1. 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