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McKaylee Martin
September 21, 2015
English 2010
Carolyn Halloway
Genetic Modification
As defined by dictionary.com, Genetic Modification is the development and application
of scientific methods, procedures, and technologies that permit direct manipulation of genetic
material in order to alter hereditary traits of a cell, organism or population. Genetic modifications
seem to be a huge controversial topic in deciding whether this is ethically right or wrong. Should
we be altering human beings genetic make up to avoid having hereditary/genetic abnormalities?
Is the risk worth it? With all of the advances in technology, genetic modification has become
very accessible. It is because of the great advancements in technology that there are different
types of genetic modification including cloning, gene therapy, genetic enhancement, and
mutation.
Cloning
Gene cloning is defined as the process in which a gene of interest is located and copied
out of DNA extracted from an organism. When DNA is extracted from an organism, all of its
genes are extracted at one time, this DNA, which contains thousands of different genes. Human
cloning is also known as asexual reproduction. Genetic cloning has become one of the most
controversial topics in society. This is because of the basic question, Should we actually be
cloning humans? As stated by Joyce C. Havstad in an article titled Human Reproductive
Cloning: A conflict of liberties, In principle, it is often argued, human reproductive cloning
ought to be permitted based on one of the most fundamental elements of personal liberty, the

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right to reproductive freedom. Most of the time, the argument with this statement is the fact that
individuals have the right to reproduce as they choose, as long as in doing so they are not
violating any other rights. However, shouldnt we think about the
cloned individual? What are their rights as far as
becoming their own person? In todays
world, people tend to think more about
how their lives will be affected and
what would bring them happiness. However,
shouldnt we be considering how a cloned person
would feel?
The main concern with human cloning would be along the lines of threatening of
psychological harm to cloned individuals. Psychological harms could result if cloned individuals
were forced to recapitulate the personalities and lives of those they were cloned from. In turn this
is also violating their right to self-determination. This issue was originally discovered by Hans
Jonas who saw this was infringing on what he termed an an individuals right to ignorance. His
whole idea is that a cloned person knows about the life of whomever they were cloned from, will
also know too much about themselves. This causes concern for that individuals right to an open
future (Havstad 72). Havstad states that proponents of human reproductive cloning do not
dispute that its practice may lead to violations of the right to self-determination. They even
acknowledge that these violations could cause psychological harms to cones. Havstad suggests
two ways to avoid psychological harm. First is to point out that it is a mistake to think that the
identical genomes are in fact identical persons. It is important to understand that the individual
that was cloned, and the cloned individual are solely two separate individuals. The second is to

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invoke Derek Parfaits non-identity problem. The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy describes
the nonidentity problem as
The Nonidentity problem focuses on the obligations we think we have in respect of
people who, by our own acts, are caused both to exist and to have existences that are,
though worth having, unavoidably flawed existences, that is, that are flawed if those
people are ever to have them at all. If a person's existence is unavoidably flawed, then the
agent's only alternatives to bringing that person into the flawed existence are to bring no
one into existence at all or to bring a different person a non-identical but better off
person into existence in place of the person whose existence is flawed. If the existence
is worth having and no one else's interests are at stake, it is unclear on what ground
morality would insist that the choice to bring the one person into the flawed existence is
morally wrong.
By avoiding these two tactics, we can better avoid causing psychological harm to cloned
individuals, however this is not a promise that psychological harm will not come to those cloned
individuals, but there is a way to possibly avoid it (Havstad 72). Having said this, knowing this,
why would we continue to clone individuals if there is a greater risk for psychological issues
along the road? Does it make any sense that cloning be allowed, when there is a great risk of
depression to both cloned individuals and those who were cloned? There is a reason why human
cloning has not been regularly preformed due to serious issues that could potentially follow a
successful cloning.

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Gene Therapy
Antonio Ayala, author of an article titled Advanced therapy medicinal products: Gene
therapy describes gene therapy as, a set of techniques that allow us to enter sequences of DNA
or RNA inside of target cells, to modulate the levels of expression of altered proteins which do
not play its role. Gene therapy is meant to help with the curing of diseases through introducing
genes into a mutated cell. It allows scientists to introduce cells into the body to correct genetic
defects and will also eliminate the clinical consequences of genetic disorders (Ayala 254).
However, not all disorders/defects can be treated with gene therapy. Gene therapy has
only proven to work on genetic diseases caused by a mutation of single gene also known as
monogenic diseases. These genes are inherited as Mendelian Inheritance depending on whether
patters require two alleles of the gene mutant, also known as recessive genes, that will them to
produce the alteration or only one, dominant genes (Ayala 254). Indeed this process would be
absolutely amazing if we could perfect this. Wouldnt it be nice to rid our families of Cystic
fibrosis, Down syndrome, Huntingtins disease, etc.? By using gene therapy we are putting an end
to these monogenic diseases. However, with every advantage there is always a disadvantage, this
disadvantage being that things can always go wrong with the genetic therapy causing negative
side effects. Parents then have to ask themselves, do the benefits out weight the risks?
Genetic Enhancement
Genetic enhancement, in general, refers to the transfer of genetic material that is intended
to modify non-pathological human traits. Similar to gene therapy, genetic enhancement also
takes place in an embryo. Jon W. Gordon states that genetic enhancement, does not relate to
improvement of traits for alleviation of deficiencies or reduction of disease risk, but to
augmentation of functions that without intervention would be considered entirely normal.

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Genetic enhancement is the far more effective than somatic cell gene therapy. Embryo gene
transfer affords the opportunity to transform most cells of the organism. The genes that are
enhanced are in fact extended to the gametes and are heritable (Gordon 2). By enhancing genes
in the embryos, we are in a way just making the genes the embryo already possesses more
developed and enhanced.
Gene Mutation
Gene mutation is a permanent alteration of the DNA sequence that makes up specific
genes. Mutations can range in size such as affecting a single DNA based pair to a large segment
of a chromosome that includes multiple genes. Mutation is commonly classified in two ways.
First

there is hereditary mutations that are inherited from parents,

also known as germline mutations because these are
present in the parents egg or sperm cells. Second there is
acquired mutations that occur at some time during a persons life and are
present in only certain cells. Often times this type of mutation is
environmentally acquired such as ultraviolet radiation.
Acquired mutations cannot be passed down(1). With

developing technologies we are able to alter or change some of these genetic mutations in
embryos.
There is so many different advances in technology. However sometimes as a general
population, we tend to jump the gun. When a person with a family history of Down syndrome is
told that they can change their embryos genetic make up to avoid having a child with genetic
abnormalities, often times we jump the gun and say, go for it. I think that this is absolutely
amazing that we can do this. We can alter genetics to avoid having negative mutations. Many

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will argue that by altering a person's genetic makeup, we are altering them as a person and this is
ethically not right. I think we should be using this advanced technology to our benefit, by testing
embryos for monogenetic genes. I don't think we should be using gene enhancement to make
traits we already have even better.
In conclusion, there is a reason we have access to such advanced technology, we should
be utilizing this technology for families with serious genetic mutations. Gene therapy is the only
acceptable use of genetic modification. I feel that cloning, enhancement, mutation are families
picking and choosing what they do and do not want. Genetic therapy is the only form of genetic
modification that is for the benefit of the embryo itself by insuring health.

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Works Cited
Ayala, Antonio, et al. "Advanced Therapy Medicinal Products: Gene Therapy." Pharmaceuticals
Policy & Law 17.1 (2015): 253-264. Business Source Premier. Web. 22 Sept. 2015.
Gordon, Jon W. "Genetic Enhancement in Humans." Science 26 Mar. 1999. Print.
HAVSTAD, JOYCE C. "Human Reproductive Cloning: A Conflict Of Liberties." Bioethics 24.2
(2010): 71-77. Academic Search Premier. Web. 22 Sept. 2015.
Morales, Nestor Micheli. "Psychological Aspects Of Human Cloning And Genetic Manipulation:
The Identity And Uniqueness Of Human Beings." Reproductive Biomedicine Online
(Reproductive Healthcare Limited) 19.S2 (2009): 43-50. Academic Search Premier. Web.
22 Sept. 2015.
"The Nonidentity Problem." Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy. M.A. Roberts, 2009. Print.
"What Is a Gene Mutation and How Do Mutations Occur?" 20 Sept. 2015. Print.