Runninghead:TRANSRACIALADOPTION/FOSTERCARE

TransracialAdoptionandFosterCare
AnastasiaGarner,AaliyahHoliday,LeahJackson,BrandonRobinson
UniversityofNorthTexas

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TransracialAdoptionandFosterCare
Transracialadoptionandfostercaretakesplacewhenachildisplacedinahomein
whichheorsheisnotthesamerace.WithintheUnitedStates,over400,000childrenareplaced
infostercareduetodisturbanceinthefamilyhome.Hundredsofthousandsmorearegivenup
duetocountrypoliciesandpersonalreasons.Thehistoryoftransracialadoptioncanbedated
backasfarasthe1950swithintheUSandinternationally.AstheracerelationsintheUnited
Stateschangedsodidthelaws,ideologies,andattitudesregardingtransracialadoption.Laws
weredraftedinorderpreventdiscriminationofwhiteAmericanfamiliesfromadoptingachildof
color.Furthermore,manystudieshavebeenperformedtoexaminethestatisticsbehind
transracialadoptionaswellastheimpactsthatithasonthechildreninvolved.
History
AttitudestowardtransracialplacementsreproducedthehistoricalcolorlineintheUnited
States,whichwasempatheticallyblackandwhite.Whiteparentsweremorelikelytoaccept
childrenofallethnicities.Thosewhotookinblackchildrenwereconsideredatfault.After
WorldWarII,demographicpressuresshapedthistrendasleastaspowerfullycivilrights
ideology.Newcontraceptivetechnologylikethepill,legalizedabortionafterRoev.Wade,and
thesexualrevolutionalldecreasedthesupplyofhealthywhiteinfants,alongwiththestigma
surroundingillegitimacy.Theresultwasthatsomewhiteparentsreconsideredtheirpreference
forsameraceadoptions.

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Makingfamiliesinterracialonpurposewasthepointofmostinternationaladoptions
fromAsiancountriessuchasKorea,Japan,andVietnamaswellasadoptionsarrangedbythe
IndianAdoptionProjectafter1945(POV,2000).Intheearly1950s,manywhiteAmericans
startedadoptingAsianchildren.DuringtheKoreanWar,manyAmericansoldierswouldsleep
withKoreanwomenandwouldgivebirthtobiracialchildren.Thiswasnotacceptedwithinthe
Koreanculture,andtheywerecalledwrongblood(Papke,2013).Manyofthesechildrenwere
abandonedandlefttosurviveonthecoldstreets.In1979,ChinaintroducedtheOneChild
policywhichprohibitedfamiliesfromhavingmorethanonechild.Malechildrenweregreatly
preferred.FemalechildrenwereabandonedandsenttotheUnitedStatestobeadopted.White
AmericansbelievedthatadoptingtheseAsianchildrencouldbeseenaspatriotic.Theywould
raisetheAsianchildrentobeChristianandridthemofthecommunistmenacetheywereborn
into.WhiteAmericanstrulyfeltthattheyweresaintsforsavingthem.Anotherreasonwhite
AmericanspreferredtoadoptAsianchildrenwasbecauseAsianswereconsideredtheideal
minoritygroup.Whitesthoughttheyweresuperiortootherracialminoritygroupsin[behavior],
intelligence,andcapacityforfittingintowhitesociety(Papke,2013).Thisprovesthemindset
ofwhitesuperiority.
TransracialadoptionhasalsoaffectedtheNativeAmericancommunity,albeitundera
differentsetofcircumstances.NativeAmericanhistorywithwhiteAmericanshasnotbeenan
excitingencounter.Sincethe1800s,whiteAmericanshavetriedeverythingintheirpowerto
erasetheNativeAmericanpeople,alongwiththeircultureandtraditions,andmakethem
Americanized.Before1978,itisestimatedthatincertainstates,between25to35%ofNative
Americanchildrenweretakenfromtheirhomes,with90%ofthosechildrenbeingplacedin

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whitefamilies(TheAdoptionHistoryProject,2012).FailingtounderstandtraditionalNative
Americancultureandchildrearingpractices,officialsandsocialworkersfrompublicand
privateagenciesclaimedthatremovalofNativeAmericanchildrenformtheirfamilieswasinthe
bestinterestofthechild.Thesechildrenweresometimestakenthroughfraudulentmeans,and
parentswereoftenmisledorrelinquishedtheirchildrenunderduress.Thisbecameknownasthe
IndianAdoptionProject(Papke,2013).
TheadoptionofNativeAmericanchildrenbywhiteparentsraisedsimilarconcernsas
thoseraisedbytheNationalAssociationofBlackSocialWorkers:Wasthispracticejustanother
formofculturalgenocide?(TheAdoptionHistoryProject,2012)In1978,Congresspassedthe
IndianChildWelfareAct.ThisactprotectsthebestinterestsofIndianchildrenandtopromote
thestabilityandsecurityofIndiantribesandfamiliesbytheestablishmentofminimumFederal
standardsfortheremovalofIndianchildrenfromtheirfamilies(Papke,2013).Allchildwelfare
courttrialsinvolvingNativeAmericanchildrenmustbeheardintribalcourts,ifpossible,and
tribeshavetherighttointerveneinstatescourtproceedings.Itisbelievedthatitisbesttofind
homesthatarereflectedtotheNativeAmericanculture.ThegoaloftheIndianChildWelfare
wastopreventillegaladoptionsofNativeAmericanchildrenbywhiteparentsandtoprevent
unethicalremovalofNativeAmericanformtheirhomes.However,asof1997,NativeAmerican
childrenwerestillbeingseparatedfromtheirfamilies,withanestimated20to30%beingcared
fororadoptedbynonNativeAmericanfamilies.
Between1968and1972,approximately50,000blackandbiracialchildrenwereadopted
bywhiteadoptiveparents(TheAdoptionHistoryProject,2012).Atthetime,adoptionofblack
childrenbywhitefamilieswasthoughtnecessaryduetotheincreasingnumberofblackchildren

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infostercareandthelackofblackadoptivefamilies.Intheearly1970stransracialadoptions
gainedinpopularityasthenumberofavailablewhiteinfantsdeclinedandthenumberof
prospectiveadoptiveparentscontinuedtogrow(TheAdoptionHistoryProject,2012).
Thepracticeoftransracialadoptionwasseverelychallengedin1972.AttheNational
ConferenceoftheNorthAmericanCouncilonAdoptableChildren,theNationalAssociationof
BlackSocialWorkers(NABSW)issuedaformalpositionopposingtransracialadoption(The
AdoptionHistoryProject,2012).Inthispositionpaper,NABSWarguedthatsuchadoptions
deniedAfricanAmericanchildrentheirracialheritage,disabledthesechildreninaracistsociety,
andunderminedtheAfricanAmericancommunity(TheAdoptionHistoryProject,2012).The
NABSWalsochallengedtraditionaladoptionpracticesandraisedquestionsabout
institutionalizedracismwithintheadoptionprofession.Theybroughtforwardexistingcriteria
forprospectiveadoptivecouplesthatroutinelypreventedblackfamiliesfromqualifying,and
statedthateventhoughprospectiveblackadoptivefamiliesdidexist,adoptionagencieswere
failingtorecruitthemandwere,infact,passingthemoverinfavorofwhitecouple.
In1980,ReeceWilliams,a10yearoldAfricanAmericanboy,waskilledbyhis
adoptiveAfricanAmericanparents.Thissparkedtheinitialinterestinracialmatchingpolicies
(Kroll,2007).SenatorHowardMetzenbaumbelievedthattheReeceWilliamsdiedbecausehe
wasdeniedofbeingplacedwithawhiteAmericanfamily.HepresentedtotheCongressthat
racematchingforminoritychildrenhadgreatlynegativeeffects.Hefurtherexplainedthat
AfricanAmericanchildrenwerenotbeingwellservedbypoliciesandpracticesthatpromoted
theirplacementswithAfricanAmericanfamilies(McRoy,Mica,Frundlich,&Kroll,2007).
ThroughoutSenatorMatzenbaumpresentationtotheCongress,therewasnomentionofthe

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racematchingtechniquesthatwerebeingappliedwithwhiteinfantsbeingplacedwithwhite
families.
TheMultiEthnicPlacementActof1994,authoredbySenatorHowardMetzenbaum,
mandatedthatadoptionagenciesreceivingfederalfundscannotdenyordelayadoptionsbased
solelyonracialdifference,butitcouldstillbeconsideredasadecidingfactor.Italsorequired
thatstatesweretorecruitmorefamiliesofcolortobefosterfamiliesandadoptiveparentsthat
representedtheracialandethnicbackgroundofthechildwelfaresystem(POV,2000).Senator
MetzenbaumanticipatedthatthisbillwouldhelpolderAfricanAmericanchildreninfostercare
findhomeswithouttheconsiderationofracematching.Whatthepolicymakersfailedtorealize
wasthatthelongerwaitsofchildrenofcolorinfostercarewascausedbythedifficultiesof
findingfamiliesinterestedinadoptingolderchildren.Whitefamilieswerentbeingdeprivedof
therightofadoptingchildrenofcolor.Theysimplywerenotinterested(McRoy,Mica,
Frundlich,&Kroll,2007).
AboutfivemonthsaftertheMultiEthicPlacementActwaspassed,manypeople
complainedaboutthecontradictingofthelawthatallowsracetobeaselectionfactorinthe
placementsofchildrenofcolor.In1996,theInterethnicPlacementAct(IEPA)wasmadeintoa
lawthatprovidedthatracewasnottobeconsideredasafactorindecisionsaboutfostercareor
adoptionplacements.TheUSDepartmentofHealthandHumanServicesalsoissuedregulations
andpenaltiesagainststatesiftheywerefoundtohavedelayedordeniedachildsfosteror
adoptiveplacementonthebasisofrace(McRoy,Mica,Frundlich,&Kroll,2007).Bothlaws,in
theory,weredesignedtodecreasethelengthoftimeachildhastowaitbeforebeingadoptedand

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eliminateracialdiscrimination.Inreality,theywerecreatedtodisruptthebelieved
discriminationagainstwhiteAmericanfamiliestoadoptAfricanAmericanchildren.
TheImpactsofTransracialAdoption/FosterCare
Whileexaminingtheinformationabouttheimpactoftransracialadoptiontherewas
foundarticlesthatsupportedtransracialadoptionandalsoarticlesthatopposedtransracial
adoption.Thosethatopposedtransracialadoptionpresentedtheargumentthatitwascultural
genocideandthatitwasdetrimentaltothechildrenthatareinvolved,theculturesfamilies,and
communities(Park&Evans,2000).Theyposetheargumentthatpeoplefromdifferentraces,
especiallyCaucasians,arenotabletoproperlysocializetheadoptedchildrentobeabletodeal
withthediscriminationthattheymayhavetodealwithinsocietyandstilldevelopapositive
selfimage(Park&Evans,2000).Althoughthisinformationwassaidaboutblackchildrenbeing
adoptedbywhitefamiliesitcanbeappliedtomosttransracialadoption.
Ithasbeenfoundthatthereisagrowingnumberofminoritychildrentobeadopted,less
blackandotherminoritiesfamiliesthatwanttoadopt,andashrinkingnumberofhealthywhite
babiestobeadopted(Park&Evans,2000).Duetothis,proponentsoftransracialadoptionraise
thepointthatitisbetterforchildrentobetransraciallyadoptedthantostayinthechildwelfare
systemorinanadoptionhome.Anotherpointthathasbeenbroughtupbyproponentsof
transracialadoptionisthatifakidismaladjustedinatransracialhomeitismorelikelydueto
otherfactorssuchasprevioussexualabuse,feelingsabouttheadoption,andchildsageatthe
timeofadoption,alongwithothers(Park&Evans,2000).Someproponentsevenwentasfaras
tosayitcanbebetterforchildrentobeadoptedbywhitefamiliesbecauseithasbeenfoundthat

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theyhavehigherIQsthanblackchildrenwhoareraisedbyblackfamilies(Park&Evans,
2000).
Peoplethatdisagreewithtransracialadoptionsaythattherearemanyflawswiththe
researchthatproponentsoftransracialadoptionhavedone.Inonestudyitwasfoundthatthe
studiessupportingtransracialadoptionusedesignstudiesthatdonotprovidethefullpicture.
Thishappensbecausesomestudiesdonotincludeinformationaboutthelongtermeffectssome
peopledropoutofstudiesanditislikelythatthefamiliesthatarehavingtroublearetheones
whodonotfinishthestudies(Park&Evans,2000).Theyalsosaythatthisresearchisdonewith
anethnocentricview.Anethnocentricviewisusedbecausetheresearchersfocusonstandards
setbywhitepeopleandtodetermineifachildismaladjustedandifachildismentallyhealthy.
(Park&Evans,2000).Theyalsouseanethnocentricviewbecausetheydonottakeinto
considerationthatinotherculturesgroupwellbeingandindividualwellbeingarecombined.So
theysimplyfocusonindividualwellbeingasastandardformentalhealth.Theyalsodonottake
thelossofthechildrensethnicidentitywhenperformingmostofthesestudies(Park&Evans,
2000).Asmentionedearlier,thisstudymostlyfocusedonblackchildrenbeingtransracially
adoptedbutcanbeappliedtootherracesaswell.Althoughtherehasbeenmuchspeculation
abouttheharmsandbenefitsoftransracialadoptiontherehasnotbeensignificantproofthatitis
harmfultoachild.
TransracialAdoptionStatistics
TransracialAdoptionmeansthatraciallydifferentparentsandchildrenarejoined
togethertoformanadoptivefamily.Basedontheinformationfoundhaveresearchednot
surprisedthatTransracialAdoptionratesarerelativelynotthathigh.Only28%ofAdoptionsin

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theU.Saretransracialadoptionsinthefostercaresystem(Gaille,2014).Intermsof
internationaladoptionsonly59%arechildrenwhoarenonHispanicAsiandescent,Gaille
(2014)found.Inthefostercaresystem,35%oftheadoptionsareofnonHispanicblack
children,justtwopercentagepointsbehindAngloSaxonchildren.Thevastmajorityofchildren
intheworld,whoareadopted,arenonwhitehowever73%ofthesechildrenareadoptedby
parentswhoarewhite.
Eventhoughracecansometimesbeaseparationfactorinnumerousareasofnational
policy,careers,andpolitics,itisnotalwaysthatcasewhenitcomestotransracialadoptions.
Therearesomanyparentsadoptingchildrenthatarebornoutsideoftheirraceandculture,that
thereseemstobeaconnectionovertheracialdivisionsthatcouldpotentiallytearcertainracial
communitiesapart.Iftransracialadoptionscouldbecomethecenteroftheraceconversationso
thattheworldcouldseethebigpictureallofthegreatthingsthathappenwithinthesefamilies,
thenpossiblyagreaterdifferencecouldbemade.
About84%ofinternationaladoptionplacementsaremostlikelytobetransracial(Gaille,
2014).Only21%oftheprivatelyinitiatedadoptionswithintheUnitedStatesareestimatedtobe
atransracialadoptionplacement.Fromaworldlyview,4outofevery10adoptionsaremadeby
parentswhohaveadoptedtransracially.Thereare51%moregirlsadoptedeveryyearthanboys,
butthisisbecauseofthehugegapthatcomesininternationaladoptionstwothirdsof
internationaladoptionsareofgirls.Only19%ofAsianchildrenthatareadoptedaremale,
furtherincreasingtheresultssincegirlsareadoptedoutofChina(Gaille,2014).Russiaisthe
secondmostcommoncountrywhereadoptionstakeplace,accountingfor13%ofinternational
adoptions.ManyadoptionagenciesintheUnitedStatesmaynotplacewhitechildrenwithsingle

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parentsorapplicantswhoareolderthan40.Manyadoptionexpertsrecommendthatchildrenbe
placedinfamiliesthathaveatleastoneparentwhosharesthatchildsspecificraceorcultureso
thatanauthenticidentitycanbemade.Despitetheseobstacles,transracialadoptionscontinueto
increaseeveryyearintheUnitedStates,especiallywithinternationaladoptions.Thetwomost
commondemographicsthataretheleastlikelytoacceptatransracialadoptionareAfrican
Americanwomenwhichis84%andwhitemenwhichis72%(Gaille,2014).Morethanhalf
(51%)ofwhitewomenarewillingtoadoptasameracechild,butupto87%ofthemarewilling
toadoptanonwhitechild(Gaille,2014).
Behavioralandsocialproblemsareprevalentintransracialadoptionstoo.Gaille(2014)
foundthatfortysevenpercentofpeopleinarecentsurveybelievethatkidswhoareadopted
internationallyaremorelikelytohavemedicaland/orbehavioralproblemsthanchildrenwhoare
adoptedfromthesamecountry.Between7080%ofalltransracialadopteeshaveveryfew,if
any,seriousemotionalorbehavioralissuesthatmustberegularlyaddressedthesamerateas
sameraceadoptees.Transracialadopteescomparetotheirsameraceoppositesintheareasof
selfesteemandsocialadjustmentaswell.Inthefewstudiesthathavebeenconductedonthe
matter,transracialadopteeshaveveryfewsocialpsychiatricissueswhichneededtobe
addressed.Alladopteeshaveuptoa3timesgreaterriskofsufferingfromatleastoneserious
psychologicalissuethatneedssomeformofprofessionaltreatment.
Inconclusion,transracialadoptionisacommonworldlypracticethathasbeenpopular
amongnumerousfamilies.Asdiscussedtheorigin,laws,statisticsandeffectsontransracial
adoptionareimportantfactorsinchoosingtoadopttransracially.Inearlyhistory,the1950sled
whiteAmericanstoadoptAsianchildren.Fromthateraon,transracialadoptionsbecamemore

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andmoreprevalentintheU.S.asadoptionlawschanged.Duetonewadoptionlaws,it
ultimatelyledtoanincreasewithpeopleadoptingtransracialchildren.However,though
transracialadoptiongrew,only28%oftheU.Sadopttransracialchildrenduetosocialand
environmentalproblems.

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