Puerto del Suspiro del Moro

Ada sebuah tempat di Spanyol yang diberi

nama seperti judul tulisan ini, Puerto del
Suspiro del Moro. Di telinga kalimat di
atas terdengar indah mendayu, namun
sesungguhnya, kisah yang terkandung
dalam kalimat ini sungguh pilu. Puerto del
Suspiro del Moro berarti Napas Terakhir
Orang Moor atau terjemahan populernya
berbunyi Tarikan Napas Terakhir Seorang
Muslim.
Puerto del Suspiro del Moro adalah nama
sebuah tempat. Tepatnya sebuah gunung.
Tempat
ketika
rombongan
Sultan
Muhammad
XII,
khilafah
terakhir
kesultanan
Granada
berhenti
dan
melayangkan pandangan sedih ke arah
Istana
Alambra
yang
terpaksa
ditinggalkannya karena Ratu Isabella dan
Raja Ferdinand mengusir mereka. The last
Sultan itu dipaksa mengangkat kakinya.
Sultan Abu Abdillah Muhammad, atau yang bergelar Sultan Muhammad
XII berhenti, matanya menerawang, dari pelupuknya menetes air mata
penyesalan. Selama 800 tahun Islam memerintah dan melayani Granada,
kini dia menjadi orang yang paling bertanggung jawab atas
kehancurannya. Ketika menangis di pucuk bukit, sang ibu menegurnya,
Kini kau menangis seperti perempuan. Padahal kau tak pernah
memberikan perlawanan seperti seorang laki-laki.
kisah-kisah inspirasi terbaik
Kemudian rombongan ini menuju Maroko, tempat pembuangan keluarga
Sultan. Karena itu, tempat rombongan ini terdiam, berdiri dan menatap
untuk terakhir kalinya Istana Alhambra disebut Puerto del Suspiro del
Moro yang berarti Tarikan Napas Terakhir Orang Muslim. Kisah ini pernah
ditulis oleh Salman Rushdie dalam novelnya berjudul The Moors Last Sigh.
Dan tentu saja, Salman Rushdie menulisnya dengan perspektif dan sudut
pandangnya sendiri.
Air mata itu bermula dengan kisah kecil kerjasama yang pernah terjalin
antara Sultan Muhammad XII dengan Ratu Isabella dan juga Raja

Ferdinand. Jauh sebelum singgasana itu

goyah, jauh sebelum
pengkhianatan itu tiba, mereka memiliki hubungan yang entah bisa
disebut apa.
Puncaknya, 2 Januari 1492, Granada harus diserahkan oleh Sultan
Muhammad XII kepada Ratu Isabella dan Raja Ferdinand yang telah
menang setelah mengadu domba dua bersaudara. El Chico, begitu orangorang Spanyol menyebut Sultan Muhammad XII, artinya yang kecil.
Beberapa di antaranya, bahkan memberi gelar el zogoybi yang berarti dia
yang kurang beruntung. Sebutan-sebutan itu adalah gambaran kecil untuk
membangun kecemburuan sang sultan terhadap saudaranya, yang
ternyata dipilih oleh sang ayah untuk menggantikan dan menduduki
tahta.
Kekuasaan selalu menyimpan
seribu
misteri
dan
segala
konspirasi. Tak ada yang lurus
dan lempang di dalam bahasa
politik. Lain yang disebut, lain
pula yang direncanakan. Lain
yang direncanakan, beda pula
yang dijelaskan. Ratu Isabella
dan
Raja
Ferdinand
yang
awalnya seolah berpihak dan
akan
membantu
Sultan
Muhammad II untuk meraih
tahta,
kini
berbalik
arah
menggulingkannya.
Dan
segalanya, berawal dari rasa
kepemilikaan atas sebuah klaim
kekuasaan.
Dan
ketika
kesadaran
itu
datang, kejadian-kejadian sudah
terlalu liar untuk dikendalikan.
Pengkhianatan
Isabella
dan
Ferdinand sudah terlalu dalam
untuk dicarikan penawar, apalagi dikalahkan. Betapapun gigihnya
pasukan pasukan Kesultanan Andalusia melakukan perlawanan,
kekuasaan Islam yang sudah bertapak lebih dari 800 tahun berakhir
dengan mengenaskan.

Pada 2 Januari 1492, pasukan dari dua kerajaan Iberia Kuno, Aragon dan
Castille berhasil merebut dan mengalahkan kota-kota Islam di Spanyol,
termasuk Granada.Pemimpin dua kerajaan tersebut, Raja Ferdinand dan
Ratu Isabella bersatu dalam sebuah pernikahan yang membuat keduanya
diberi julukan The Catholic Kings. Hari itu bendera dan panji-panji Kristen
dikibarkan di seluruh tembok kota Granada.Gema lonceng terdengar di
seluruh penjuru kota, pasukan Kristen merayakan kemenangan besarnya.
The Catholic Kings mengeluarkan perintah dan memberikan pilihan
kepada umat Islam dan Yahudi di wilayah taklukkan untuk masuk Kristen
atau diusir. Faktanya, banyak sekali yang masuk dan memeluk Katholik,
karena takut dibunuh. Dan yang selamat melahiran diri keluar dari
Andalusia. Sejak saat itu, Eropa menjadi daerah bebas Muslim sampai
beberapa abad kemudian. Dan ini adalah sisi gelap dari peradaban Barat
Kristen yang sangat biadab.

Pada tahun yang sama, 31 Maret, Raja Ferdinand dan Ratu Isabella
mengeluarkan Edict of Expulsion atau perintah pengusiran bagi warga
Yahudi.Warga Yahudi diberi dua pilihan, dibaptis menjadi Kristen atau
diusir keluar dari Andalusia. Negeri ini, selama berpuluh tahun telah
menjadi surga dunia untuk warga Yahudi. Karena di bawah pemerintahan
Islam, hidup mereka terjamin dan peradaban mereka berkembang,
mereka dilindungi dan diberi kesempatan untuk menjalankan apa yang
mereka yakini oleh pemerintahan Muslim Andalusia. Setelah keluarnya
Edict of Expulsion, ada banyak Yahudi yang masuk Kristen dengan cara
terpaksa. Sebanyak 80.000 orang Yahudi melarikan diri ke Portugal dan
50.000 lagi mencari suaka di wilayah baru Islam, Khalifah Utsmani di
Turki.
Di Turki, mereka disambut dengan baik dan mendapat perlindungan dari
pemerintahan Muslim. Tapi di Andalusia, mereka diburu untuk dibunuh.
Untuk menggambarkan betapa beratnya pembantaian yang dialami kaum
Yahudi saat itu, ada angka yang bisa ditelusuri. Pada tahun 1483 saja, di
wilayah ini menurut laporan Komandan Inkusisi Spanyol, Fray Thomas de
Torquemada, telah terbunuh sebanyak 13.000 kaum Yahudi di Spanyol.
Setelah itu selama puluhan tahun, Yahudi dikejar-kejar dengan rasa penuh
ketakutan. Puncak dari masa kegelapan itu jatuh pada tahun 1492, saat
The Chatolic Kings memberikan pilihan sulit untuk kaum Yahudi. Dibaptis
paksa atau pergi meninggalkan Eropa. Pilihan terakhirlah yang diambil,
hanya dalam hitungan bulan saja, sejak April hingga Agustus 1492,
sebanyak 150.000 warga Yahudi yang meninggalkan Spanyol. Dan salah

satu tujuan utama mereka adalah wilayah Khilafah Utsmani yang bersedia
memberikan perlindungan
Tapi yang menarik adalah, semua peristiwa pembantaian yang menimpa
umat Islam dan kaum Yahudi akibat kebijakan-kebijakan yang muncul
setelah dua pemimpin Katholik, Raja Ferdinand dan Ratu Isabella.
Pernikahan Raja Ferdinand dan Ratu Isabella sebetulnya dirancang dan
diatur oleh seorang Yahudi bernama Abraham Senior dari Segovia.
Abraham Senior sangat berpengaruh dalam seluruh kebijakan Ratu
Isabella. Karena keberhasilan yang ia dapat atas nasihat dan saran politik
dari Abraham Senior, sebagai rasa terima kasih Ratu Isabella memberikan
jabatan Kepala Penarikan Pajak kepada Abraham Senior. Bahkan kerajaan
atas keputusan Ratu Isabella menganugerahkan gelar Rabbi de la Corte
atau Rabbi Kerajaan.
***
Dulu, ketika menyeberang Selat Gibraltar, pasukan yang dipimpin Tariq
bin Ziyad masuk dengan gagah berani dan kepala yang tegak menantang.
Di bakarnya kapal-kapal agar pasukan tak memikirkan cara untuk pulang.
Kalah bukan pilihan. Maju terus dan meraih kemenangan.
Tariq bin Ziyad masuk ke wilayah ini dengan membawa tentara sebesar
7.000 pasukan. Sebagian besar pasukan ini adalah bangsa Barbar, sangat
sedikit pasukan keturunan Arab, kurang lebih ada 300 orang dan ada
sekitar 700 Muslim kulit hitam yang bergabung dari benua Afrika. Ketika
mendarat di negeri Andalusia, Tariq bin Ziyad memerintahkan pasukannya
untuk membakar dan memusnahkan kapal mereka. Hal ini menunjukkan
tekad Tariq yang tak akan kembali ke negeri asal. Baginya tidak ada
pilihan, kecuali menang.
Bulan Rajab tahun 92 H atau 30 April 711 M, pasukan Muslimin berangkat
dari Ceuta. Mereka mendarat di gunung batu bernama, Mount Calpe.
Tempat ini kelak lebih dikenal dengan sebutan Jabal al-Fatah oleh kaum
Muslimin yang berarti gunung kemenangan. Tapi secara internasional,
gunung ini dikenal sebagai Jabal Tariq atau lebih disebut dengan Gibraltar.
Kemudian, pasukan diberangkatkan ke Andalusia.
Saat berada di atas kapal dalam perjalanan antara Ceuta dan Gibraltar,
Tariq tertidur. Di dalam tidurnya itu ia bermimpi melihat Rasulullah Saw
beserta para Sahabat Muhajirin dan Anshar. Mereka semua memegang
pedang dan menyandang busur panah. Ia mendengar Nabi Saw berkata

kepadanya, Kuatkan dirimu wahai Tariq! Tuntaskan apa yang menjadi

misimu sekarang ini. Kemudian ia melihat Rasulullah saw dan para
sahabatnya pergi memasuki Andalusia.
Kota yang ditaklukkan pertama kali adalah Cartagena. Setelah itu, kotakota lain segera menyusul dengan kekalahan bangsa Visigoth. Dan inilah
cikal bakal peradaban Islam di Eropa yang kelak sangat mewarnai
kebangkitan beradaban Barat. Kelak peradaban Islam yang diretas oleh
Tariq bin Ziyad ini melahirkan orang-orang seperti Ibnu Rushd atau yang
dikenal Barat dengan nama Averoes (1126-1198). Filsuf yang sangat
mempengaruhi perkembangan pemikiran dunia Barat. Juga lahir tokoh
seperti Az Zahrawi yang lahir di Cordoba dan ia sangat dikenal sebagai
manusia pertama yang memperkenalkan teknik operasi bedah.
Ensiklopedi tentang teknik pembedahan menjadi rujukan dunia
kedokteran di Barat. Ada pula Az Zarkalli, astronom Muslim yang
memperkenalkan pengetahuan astrolobe, sebuah instrumen yang
digunakan untuk mengukur jarak sebuah bintang dari horizon bumi yang
dijadikan navigasi dalam transportasi laut.
Bahkan, Ajip Rosidi, sastrawan Indonesia dalam kata pengantarnya pada
buku M. Natsir Kebudayaan Islam dalam Perspektif Sejarah dengan jernih
mengatakan, Peradaban Yunani pun mungkin akan tenggelam kalau saja
tidak diselamatkan melalui penerjemahan ke dalam bahasa Arab oleh
sarjana-sarjana Islam di bawah para khalifah yang sangat mendorong
kemajuan ilmu, karena pada dasarnya Islam memang tidak menghalangi
kemajuan ilmu, melainkan mendorongnya tanpa batas. Bahkan juga para
sarjana Barat mendapat kesempatan yang sama dalam istana-istana para
khalifah di Baghdad dalam usaha memperkembangkan ilmunya dengan
para sarjana Islam sendiri.
Barat, Eropa khususnya, tanpa sentuhan peradaban Islam, mungkin akan
lain ceritanya dan tidak seperti sekarang. Sejarawan Barat, Charles Singer
dalam bukunya Short History of Medicine memberikan gambaran betapa
dunia kedokteran di Barat pada abad pertengahan sangat kacau dan
terbelakang.
Anatomy and physiology perished. Prognosis was reduced to an absurd
rule of thumb. Botany became a drug list. Superstitius practices crept in,
and Medicine deteriorated into collection of formulae, punctuated by
incantations. The scientific stream, which is its lifeblood, was dried up at
its source. (Ilmu anatomi dan fisiologi (di Barat) telah hancur. Diagnosa
satu penyakit ditentukan dengan bermacam-macam cara dan terkaan
dengan melihat jempol. Ilmu tumbuh-tumbuhan hanya tinggal kerangka.

Praktik tahayul telah menyelinap dimana-mana. Derajat ilmu kedokteran

telah turun, dan menjadi hanya seperti kumpulan mantera, juga sihir. Ilmu
pengetahuan yang menjadi darah dan nyawa (bagi ilmu kedokteran) telah
kering dari sumbernya.)
M. Natsir dalam makalahnya yang berjudul Eropa dalam Abad
Pertengahan. Pada periode tertentu, Barat adalah peradaban yang
dibangun dengan cara menerjemah ilmu-ilmu yang telah diabadikan oleh
ulama dan ilmuwan Islam dari berbagai sumber. M. Natsir menyebutnya
sebagai Zaman Terjemahan:
Sebagaimana Baghdad dalam abad ke-8 M, begitu pula Toledo pada abad
ke-12 M. Sebagaimana dulu Khalifah al Mamun mendirikan satu Baitul
Hikmah, sebuah badan ulama-ulama (dewan ulama) dengan al Hujaj bin
Mathar, Ibnu Bathriq dan lain-lain, untuk menterjemahkan segala maca
ilmu dari Persia, India, Suria dan Yunani ke dalam bahasa Arab. Begitu
pula Arcibishop Raymond menanam satu badan penyalin di bawah badan
Artsdeken Dominicus Gundisalvus, untuk menerjemahkan bermacammacam ilmu yang telah dikumpulkan oleh pujangga-pujangga Muslimin
dari bahasa Arab ke bahasa Latin.
Dahulu, Hunain ibnu Ishaq yang mengumpulkan dan menyalin ilmu-ilmu
falsafah, hisab dan ilmu alam ke bahasa Arab, maka sekarang Gerard van
Cremona yang mengumpulkan pusaka Hunain, dan menyalin hampir
semua ke bahasa Latin.
Pun dari kalangan Yunani banyak ulama-ulama yang cakap berbahasa
Arab dan Latin, sangat berjasa dalam zaman terjemah ini. Salah satu dari
mereka adalah Faraj ibnu Salim (atau Ferragut van Girgenti) yang telah
menerjemahkan buku al Hawi dari Abu Bakar Razi dengan nama Liber
Continens. Pekerjaan ini ialah memakan waktu tak kurang dari seperdua
dari umur manusia yang biasa. Gerard van Cremona (1114) berjumpa di
Toledo buku Ptolomeus yang bernama al Magest dalam bahasa Arab
terjemahan dari Yahya bin Khalid al Barmaki. Itulah yang diterjemahkan ke
bahasa Latin (tahun 1173) dan menjadi pokok dari terjemahanterjemahan ke bahasa-bahasa di Eropa Barat.
Buku-buku ilmu kedokteran Yunani dari Hipocrates dan Galen
diterjemahkan Gerard van Cremona dari terjemahan Hunain bin Ishaq.
Selainnya dari itu kitab-kitab dari al Kindi, Ibn Sina, al Farabi, Abu Qais dan
lain-lain. Setelah Gerard van Cremona meninggal dunia dalam tahun 1187
M, tidak kurang dari 70-80 buku yang telah diterjemahkannya dari bahara

Arab ke bahasa Latin sehingga (ia) mendapat gelaran Fathers of Arabism

di Eropa.
***
Tapi setelah 800 tahun Islam berkuasa di Andalusia, Sultan Muhammad XII
harus menyeberangi Selat Gibraltar dengan kepala tertunduk dan dada
yang ditikam-tikam kesedihan.
Kerajaan menjadi neraka sebelum neraka yang sesungguhnya. Saling
berebut tahta menjadi agenda paling besar para pembesar. Dan hal ini
dimanfaatkan dengan cerdik oleh musuh-musuh yang menghendaki
khilafah Islam Andalusia bubar. Dan ketika pasukan Isabella dan Ferdinand
datang menyerang, mengepung selama tujuh bulan, pembunuhan besarbesaran dilakukan, perlawanan hebat juga telah diberikan, tapi apa mau
dikata, tubuh kepemimpinan umat sudah rapuh akibat saling seteru.
Dan ketika Islam dan kaum Muslimin dikalahkan, yang menjadi korban tak
hanya manusia, tapi seluruh sisi peradaban. Seorang Kardinal
memerintahkan pasukannya Spanyol mengumpulkan seluruh buku-buku
tentang Islam dan semua yang berbau Arab untuk dibakar. Tidak saja
yang terdapat dalam perpustakaan resmi milik pemerintahan, tapi juga
milik pribadi yang tersebar di rumah-rumah. Jumlahnya diperkirakan lebih
dari satu juta. Dikumpulkan di tengah lapangan kota Granada dan
dimusnahkan dengan cara dibakar dengan diiringi upacara agama.
Memusnahkan ilmu pengetahuan Islam, seperti menjadi bagian dari amal
ibadah.
Seorang penyair Spanyol menuliskan puisi tentang detik-detik terakhir
kepergian Sultan menuju tanah pengasingan:
tuvieron que abandonar muy a su pesar
los fastuosos salones y majestuosos jardines
de los palacios de la Alhambra
donde tanto goce terrenal haban disfrutado
durante varias bienaventuradas generaciones
raja harus pergi
meninggalkan dengan enggan
aula istana Alhambra yang megah dan taman-taman yang indah
di mana kenikmatan duniawi
telah diberkati berbilang generasi

Los dbiles rayos del crepsculo,

procedentes del sol poniente
tras el horizonte que forman las colinas de Loja
apenas permitan discernir
detalles del paraso perdido
samar-sama senja sirna
dan matahari terbenam jua
cakrawala membentuk perbukitan Loja
raja hanya boleh menyaksikan
rincian surga yang mulai menghilang
Entah berapa kali sejarah sudah berulang dan mengajarkan tentang
candu kekuasaan dan bahaya keserakahan. Jika keduanya bertemu dan
bersatu, keburukan besar tak hanya akan menimpa individu. Tapi
gelombang panjang kerusakan, akan terjadi menimpa semua lini
kehidupan. Mudah-mudahan kita mampu belajar dan tak mengulang
sejarah keburukan.
Kisah inspirasi ini ditulis oleh Ustadz Herry Nurdi yang ditulis oleh beliau
dalam situsnya yang luar biasa, penerang.com
Kisah dan foto diambil dari situs http://penerang.com/2010/12/14/puertodel-suspiro-del-moro-revisi/

y Markus Hattstein

The last Islamic kingdom in Western Europe and the rise of the Nasrids
The last Islamic kingdom in Western Europe, the Nasrid kingdom of Granada, has always fascinated
historians and, since the Romantic period, has inspired European interest in the Orient. Forced onto
the defensive at an early stage, and always having to struggle for its continued existence, the kingdom
not only successfully held its own for 250 years, but also became the last bastion of sophisticated
Andalusian-Arab culture, despite infighting and various attacks from the outside world.

The Nasrid family, who until this time had been

insignificant provincial princes, took advantage of the fall of
the Almohads in Spain aher 1229, when a series of local
rulers and governors again started to set up small, albeit
very short-lived, kingdoms. One of these was Muhammad
ibn Yusuf ibn Nasr from Arjona, in the province of Jaen,
who, as head of the Banu l-Ahmar, could trace his ancestry
directly to one of the Prophet Muhammads comrades-inarms. On April 18, 1232, he proclaimed himself Muhammad
I, Sultan of Arjona, thereby rapidly extending his rule to
Jaen, Guadix, and Baza, and in May of 1237, he conquered
Granada, making it the capital of his kingdom.
Through a tactically adept policy of alliances with the
Christian kingdoms as well as the Merinids in Morocco,
Muhammad I extended his kingdom, forcing some towns to
submit to him and conquering others. Displaying astute
judgment of the existing power relationships, he accepted
King Fernando III of Castile as his sovereign and in 1248
even helped him, as his vassal, to conquer Seville. While still
on the throne himself, Muhammad I named his sons as his
successors, to ensure the continued existence of his
kingdom in the bet of the Christian Reconquista. By the time he died in January of 1273, he had
eliminated his enemies and rivals within his kingdom and brought the power of the rebellious nobility
under his control.
Power and government were farther consolidated in Granada under Muhammad II (1273-1302), the
eldest son of the kingdoms founder. Muhammad II first terminated the policy of alliances with the
Chris- tuns, and then entered into a pact with the Merinids of Morocco, who also had base* in
Andalusia and ruled jointly in vevcul cities in southern Spain. His original objevtive was to unite all
Muslims in Spain and North Ainu in battle against the Reconquista.
However, this alliance with the Merinids fell apart during the fight for Malaga, which, after a
prolonged siege, reverted to the Nasrids in 1279, after an interim period under Merinid vassals.
Muhammad II was thus faced with a major alliance between the Merinids and the Christian kings, hue
was able to counteract it In skillfully exploiting the internal quarrels among his enemies. After 124H),
he created an alliance with the Christian kingdoms against the Merinids. The Christian king. Alfonso
XI, successfully drove the Merinids from the south toast and forced them to relinquish all their bases
in Spain.
Muhammad II was as politically astute and far-sighted as hn father and entered into various alliances
to strengthen the kingdom of Granada Me had also extended the region under his control to pans of
Castile. Muhammad II was succeeded by his intellectual but politically inept son. Muhammad III
1302-1309). The fathers achievements were all but lost when, in 1304, Muhammad III and his troops
occupied the Moroccan port of Ceuta, used by the Merinids as a springboard to Spain, and which the
king therefore wanted to conquer. The enterprise ended in disaster, because the kingdom of Granada
was suddenly surrounded on three sides by an alliance between the Merinids, Aragon, and Castile.

Muhammad III was thus deposed and replaced by his younger brother, Nasr (1309-1314), who tried to
save the situation by making major concessions to his opponents, especially the Merinids.
His successor, Ismail I (13141325), made another alliance with the Merinids. In 1319, with the help
of Moroccan Berber contingents, he won an important victory over Castile in the battle of the Vega,
which temporarily halted the advance of the Christians. However, after Ismails assassination,
Granada was once again forced on the defensive and had to accept heavy land losses under the rule of
the child sultan Muhammad IV (1325-1333).

The kingdom of Granada at its zenith

Under the rule of the sultans Yusuf I and Muhammad V, who are most famous as architects of the
Alhambra, the kingdom of Granada was at its peak. The extremely diverse countryside between the
coast on the one side and the high mountains of the Sierra Nevada on the other meant that the
kingdom had to be cultivated in a very organized fashion. Andalusia was famed by its contemporaries
for its agriculture. The fertile land around Granada, the Vega, was artificially irrigated in summer, so
that it was possible to cultivate a wide variety of vegetables, grafted fruit trees, olives, vines, citrus
fruits, and dates. Corn, wheat and barley were grown and processed as staple foods, while, on the
coast, fishing and sea trade with northern Africa were particularly important.

The domain of the sultan, who also demanded a major part of the produce of the Vega for his own
personal use, was very extensive, whereas private land ownership and leased land formed increasingly
small parcels. Larger tracts of land were managed on the basis of a joint lease or a system of shared
ownership. Increasingly, the many small villages and hamlets in the countryside developed in line
with the example of the cities with the mosque and marketplace forming the center. It would be
wrong to speak of general prosperity, however, because the high tribute payments to Castile were a
constant burden on the population. Nevertheless, the splendid buildings of this period bear witness to
the life of luxury enjoyed by the ruling classes. The lower echelons must also have been able to earn a
reasonable living, because the kingdom of Granada experienced no social unrest.
Yusuf I (1333-1354) concluded various peace treaties so that he could devote himself to cultural
activities within his kingdom and to his passion for building. At the very start of his reign, he

negotiated a peace treaty with Castile and Morocco, and from 1336 he maintained close diplomatic
relations with Aragon. In 1340, however, Castile and Portugal formed an alliance and defeated him at
Tarifa. In 1342, the fortress at Algeciras, on the southern tip of the kingdom, was besieged by the
Castilians and was forced to capitulate two vears later. Despite this, in the same year (1344), Yusuf
concluded a ten-year peace treaty with Castile and used this period to carry out his major building
plans. In 1348, he started the major works to extend the Alhambra, and opened the Madrasa of
Granada, which became the kingdoms greatest mosque school.

Vase from the Alhambra. 14-15th century. Granada, Museo Nacional de Arte
Hispanomusulman The production of valuable objets d'art enriched not only the court of
the ruler, but also enlivened Granada's busy trade in merchandise with the Islamic
kingdoms of the East and northern Africa, particularly with the Merinids in Morocco.
This winged vase is based on classical amphorae and shows two exaggeratedly thin golden
gazelles on a blue background, moving while facing each other, surrounded by foliage and
geometric motifs. The Muslim blessing of "Happiness and Prosperity" is inscribed on the
central band that goes right round the vase.

When Yusuf was assassinated by a bodyguard in October 1354, his son,

Muhammad V (1354-1359 and 1362-1391), came to the throne. In 1359 the
port of Malaga was lost to the Christian fleet, and Muhammad V was
overthrown in a palace uprising, and exiled to Morocco. It was another three
years before he regained the throne of Granada. He was able to ensure a
longer period of peace after 1370 by means of a policy of close alliances with
Morocco and Christian Spain, and he also developed good diplomatic
relations with the Mamluks in Cairo, which also benefited trade.
Muhammad V developed his keen interest in building and carried out most of his extensive
construction work mainly in the second period of his reign, creating the Alhambra complex in the
form we know it today, with verses carved in the stone walls in praise of its ruler. The reign of
Muhammad V saw Nasrid art and culture reach its peak. In terms of religion, Granada was a bastion
of conservative-orthodox Malikite Islam. The kingdoms theology schools produced many outstanding
orthodox jurists, and, with the works of the world traveler Ibn Battuta, who spent some time in
Granada, and of Vizier Ibn al-Khatib, literature also reached a high point in Granada.
The sciences received a particular boost when the Madrasa was founded in Granada and it produced a
great number of commentaries, historical works, and anthologies. Forced out by the Reconquista,
important and traditional schools of medicine and astrology also settled in Granada. Alongside
commentaries on Hippocrates and Galen, these schools also produced new compendia of surgery and
pharmacology. Attempts were also made to investigate in greater depth the natural causes of the great
plague, which struck Granada in several waves after 1348.
Ibn al-Khatib (13131375) was a prominent historian who entered the service of Yusuf I as secretary
in 1340 and was quickly promoted. In 1359, he accompanied Muhammad V when he was exiled to
Morocco, and on his return, held the highest office, that of vizier, between 1362 and 1371. He knew the
major scholars of his time, such as Ibn Khaldun, and left a legacy of over 60 works.

Poetry was particularly encouraged from the time of Muhammad HI, who like his vizier Ibn al-Hakim
al-Rundi, was a distinguished poet. Yusuf I surrounded himself constantly with poets, and under
Muhammad V, established literary circles grew up in the court. As well as hymns of praise Co the
ruler, particularly Muhammad V, there were also satirical poems and poems in the traditional Arabic
style (tawriya). Some more significant poets, such as Ibn Zam- rak (13331393), whose poems also
adorn the walls of the Alhambra, set the style for the Madrasa of Granada. Many members of the
Nasrid dynasty, such as Sultan Yusuf III, were famous for their poems. There was an active cultural
and intellectual exchange with Morocco and the Mamluks of Egypt. Many scholars and poets visited
the various courts, thus reinforcing this cultural symbiosis.

Timeline of Nasrid Rule

Political decline and the end

Flllppo Barattl, The Sultana, 1872, oil on canvas, Private

collection. After having been forgotten and neglected, the nearly
ruined Alhambra was rediscovered in the Romantic era and
became a focal point for European longings for the exotic and the
supposed sensuality of the Orient. No work contributed more to
this feeling than the travelogs and tales of the American author
Washington Irving. In The Alhambra, written in 1832, he
combined historical records with motifs from oriental and
romantic legends and sentimentally transfigured the Granada of
the Moors. Many historic paintings and book illustrations were
based on his stories.

After the death of Muhammad V, Castilian armies again

invaded the Nasrid kingdom in April 1394, but were
decisively beaten by the bellicose Sultan Muhammad
VII (1392-1408), the last politically powerful Nasrid
ruler. Under Yusuf III (1408-1417), the constant
pressure from Castile further increased, and after 1410,
Granada faced a relatively strong alliance of the
Christian princes.
After 1417, the kingdom sank into a lasting crisis in terms of domestic politics, when a succession of
short-lived emirs fought against each other, drove each other out, and then returned to the throne
time and again with the help of Christians and changing alliances. One of these emirs, Muhammad IX,
ruled a total of four times between 1419 and 1447. The Christian kingdoms help with alliances did not
come cheap, and they constantly wrought further concessions from the weakened kingdom. The
Muslim troops suffered a heavy defeat in 1431, after which the Christian kings began their systematic
advance into the region of Granada. In June of the year 1431, Juan II of Castile even managed to
advance briefly as far as Elvira at the foot of Granadas city walls. As early as 1421, the pope in Rome
had called Christendom to launch Crusades against Granada. The end of Nasrid rule was only a matter
of time.

Nasrid sword, 15th century, Cassel, Staatliche Kunstsammlung. This sword, made
for the Nasrid court, with its richly ornamented blade showing the heads of two
fabulous creatures, must have been used for ceremonial purposes rather than for
fighting. From the very beginning, the rulers of Granada recognized the military
supremacy of Castile on the Iberian Peninsula and assumed the status of vassals to
the Christian kingdom. The internal strife of the 15th century led to a gradual loss
of territory for Granada. Even though the bellicose Sultan Mulai Hasan, and his
courageous brother Muhammad al-Zaghal, co-ruler of Malaga, did manage to
achieve further military successes against the Christians, the last sultan Boabdil
was taken prisoner by the Christians in 1483. He regained his freedom only by
making major concessions that led, just a few years later in January 1492 to
Granada being taken by the Catholic Monarchs.

In the 1440s, the anarchy in Muhammad IXs struggles for the throne
came to a peak. This period also saw uprisings by the Andalusian
nobility and the bloody end of the powerful Abencerrajes dynasty
within the Alhambras walls. In the 1450s, several equally powerful
sultans of the now divided ruling dynasty were at this moment
fighting for power, and the situation was becoming rapidly more
chaotic. Granada owed its survival solely to the anarchy that also
prevailed in Castile at this period. Only the penultimate Nasrid emir,
Abu 1-Hasan Ali, known as Mulai Hasan (1464-1482 and 1483-1485),
managed to bring some semblance of order back to the situation
within Granada. In particular, he reorganized military affairs, thus for
one final time establishing the borders of the kingdom, and he also
suppressed the rebellion led by his brother, Muhammad al-Zaghal,
who had settled in Malaga in 1470. Starting fresh negotiations with
the Christian kingdoms, he set up permanent legations and
recognized the risk posed by the unification of the two Christian
kingdoms as a result of the marriage of the Catholic Monarchs,
Ferdinand of Aragon and Isabella of Castile, in 1469.
The end of the kingdom, or sultanate, of Granada became a favorite subject of 19th-century Romantic
literature, particularly as a result of Washington Irvings stories, and it is difficult to separate
historical facts from romantic embellishments. Authors have liked to attribute the end of Moorish
Granada to Mulai Hasans love for an aristocratic Christian woman.
In actual fact, there was a power struggle in the palace between the Sultana Fatima and the Christian
favorite, Turaiya. Moreover, with regard to the succession to the throne, Mulai Hasan intended to
overlook his elder sons in favor ofTuraiyas children. Taking advantage of Mulai Hasans campaign at l
oja in July 1482, his eldest son, Muhammad XII, whom the Spaniards called Boabdil (a corruption of
his real name, Abu Abdallah) or El Rey Chico (The Little King), seized the throne with the help of the
Christians and some noble Arab families. This resulted in a civil war between father and son, which
sapped the kingdom of its last vestiges of strength. At the battle of Lucena, in April 1483, the
Christians took the inexperienced Boabdil prisoner, and Mulai Hasan returned to the throne. When he
died two years later, his brother, al-Zaghal, seized power as Muhammad XIII in Almeria.
This created an opportunity for the extremely cunning King Ferdinand of Aragon, who was holding
Boabdil prisoner, and who, since 1484, had been steadily advancing on the land surrounding Granada.

Boabdil was released in return for concessions, under which he became a vassal of the Catholic
Monarchs and large sums of money were paid. In March of the year i486 he was once again in
Granada, from where he conducted the fight against his uncle. The Catholic Monarchs had in the
meantime been advancing towards Granada: Ronda fell into Christian hands in 1485, Malaga in 1487,
and Guadix in 1489. In December of 1489, the courageous, bellicose al-Zaghal was forced to hand over
Almeria in return for free passage. Many Andalusian Muslims, especially members of the nobility,
were exiled to Morocco and Egypt.
In 1491, the siege closed around the city of Granada, and Boabdil capitulated in return for free
passage. On January 2, 1492, Ferdinand and Isabella entered Granada without a struggle at the head
of their army. A cultural epoch and an era had come to an end. The tragic figure of the last king of
Granada, who, after 1527, fell in battle in the service of the Sultan of Morocco, has particularly
attracted the attention of historians and writers, especially those of the 19th century. Whereas all sorts
of cruelties and excesses used to be attributed to him, he is now viewed more as an inept ruler whose
actions were unfortunate and who could no longer defend himself against his enemies.
The Catholic Monarchs, incidentally, revoked the agreements they had generously sworn for the right
of the Muslims and Jews remaining in Granada to practice their religions and unleashed a wave of
compulsory baptisms. But that really belongs to the history of Christian Spain.