Running Head: L1 AND L2 ACQUISITION SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES

L1 and L2 Acquisition Similarities and Differences

Ku Mei Butler Kern
University of Northern Colorado

L1 AND L2 ACQUISITION SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES

Abstract
This paper provides a brief summary on the similarities and differences in learning first-language
(L1) and second-language (L2) acquisition theories as a guide for ASL (L2) instructors.
Instructors may use this information to enhance curriculum design, and create activities that best
simulate the experience of L1 learners within the classroom setting.

L1 AND L2 ACQUISITION SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES

L1 and L2 Acquisition Similarities and Differences

Many people enroll in a second language class with the hopes of becoming a fluent
speaker of that language. It is a bold decision and one that requires a lot of effort and dedication
by the learner. But what about the efforts of the instructor? Over time, the theories of language
learning have strongly influenced the way second language (L2) learning courses have been
taught. Some were effective and some were not. Recent research focuses more on information
gleaned from studying first-language (L1) speakers and their process of language acquisition.
This is because L1 speakers are the language model of which L2 speakers aspire to speak like.
The L2 learner who achieves the level of proficiency compared to an L1 speaker is considered a
success. However, re-creating the situations of L1 learners is near impossible. Therefore,
research on the similarities and differences between the L1 and L2 learners may help to bridge
the gap. Knowing the key differences can assist language teachers in creating curriculum and
activities that will benefit the time students spend in language learning courses with maximum
results for their efforts.
Similarities
Developmental sequences: Both first language (L1) and second language learners (L2)
follow similar patterns of development in their language acquisition (Ipek, 2009). During the
first phase, known as the silent period, the learner remains silent, observing language as they try
to figure out the many parts of language. Next, the learner experiences what is called the
formulaic speech phase. During this phase, the learner begins to use the language, though
comprehension isnt always existent. A sort of copy-cat phase, the learner memorizes chunks of
commonly used expressions, used at appropriate times. An example of this can be seen during
greetings. Babies are often trained that upon someones arrival or departure, it is appropriate to

L1 AND L2 ACQUISITION SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES

say Hello or Bye-Bye. In the last phase, the learner begins to apply structural and semantic
simplifications. This phase is experimental and allows the learner to apply learned linguistic
forms in various ways.
Sequence of acquisition. Research by Roger Brown (1972, cited in McLaughlin, 1987)
and Lightfoot and Spada (2013) suggests that there is an order of acquisition similar to all
languages. The order of acquisition follows that learners learn grammatical morphemes in the
order of noun/verbs, prepositions, articles, and question words throughout their language
development. (Ipek, 2009).
Unmarked/Marked features. Unmarked features in language are universal in all
languages and hence, are more easily learned by the L2 learner. Marked features, in comparison,
are specific to each language based on history of the language, borrowed from other languages,
or have arisen accidentally (Ipek, 2009). This is similar to the L2 learner where marked features
need to be clearly pointed out and practiced.
Differences
Amount of time/exposure. The time spent learning a language greatly differs between
L1 and L2 learners. L1 learners are exposed to thousands of hours in the language, using various
social contexts in their daily lives/communities to further expand their knowledge of vocabulary
and language use. Conversely, L2 learners most often take language courses in the classroom
environment and even with years of taking classes only amount to hundreds of hours (Lightfoot
& Spada, 2013, p 38). In addition to the vast difference in hours of language exposure, is the fact
that L1 babies practice linguistic features to the language at a basic level of sounds through
babbling. L2 learners skip the babbling phase and are forced to multi-task and simultaneously
learn vocabulary, grammatical rules, and cultural nuances.

L1 AND L2 ACQUISITION SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES

Vocabulary. L1 has exposure to thousands of words in various settings, helping to

develop pragmatic skills. L2 learners would benefit greatly from exposure to vocabulary in
context, but the classroom setting doesnt always allow for that varying situational exposure. L1
learners experience language in a wide variety of social contexts while L2 learners learn in
controlled environments with a more formal context.
Fossilization. In L1learner situations, feedback is not always given immediately;
multiple exposures to the correct utterance/grammar often lends to correcting itself
automatically. In essence, time is on their side. In contrast, The only place where feedback on
error is typically present with high frequency is the language classroom (Lightfoot & Spada,
2013, p. 39). L2 learners must be provided with corrective feedback due to fossilization factors
that are not present with L1 learners. Errors must be caught early on so that the mistake does not
become a permanent feature of their L2 abilities.
Inhibitions/attitudes. L1 learners take advantage of the optimal age for language
acquisition, usually between the ages of 2 and 12 (McLaughlin, 1987), also known as the Critical
Period Hypothesis. Children have not fully developed their identities before the age of 12 and
therefore easily incorporate language. L1 learners have no other language choice and are in
many senses, forced to learn the language in order to communicate and function in their
environments. In comparison, most L2 learners are past the Critical Period of language
acquisition and have varying reasons for learning the language. As adults, egos are already
established and inhibitions and/or the fear to make mistakes, impacts their willingness to speak
the language and be corrected consistently. For many in America, either schooling requirements
or business interests will motivate them to learn the second language. Others are motivated by
religious proselyting reasons or by familial reasons such as dating or marriage to an individual

L1 AND L2 ACQUISITION SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES

who speaks the L2 as their L1. Each situation certainly affects ones motivation and emotional
fortitude necessary to learn another language.
Inter-language. One advantage L2 users have is a basic familiarity of how languages
work based on their L2. This advantage, however, also poses problems of its own. Interlanguage, a term used for the L2 learners developing L2 usage, is affected by the familiar
grammatical and linguistic features of their L1. This interference can cause L2 learners to
make errors in the L2.
Individual learner differences. L1 children benefit from interactions with adults based
on situations they experience in their daily lives. Included in that scenario, are modified
responses to make the language more accessible to the young L1 learner. This is called childdirected speech and is characterized by a slower rate of delivery, higher pitch, more varied
intonation, shorter, simpler sentence pattern, stress on key words, frequent repetition, and
paraphrasing (Lightfoot & Spada, 2013, p 26). Within that child-directed speech are numerous
opportunities to adjust or re-iterate based on whether or not the child understands. Caretakers
often develop a sense of the level the child is at and provide appropriate developmental
opportunities that not only take advantage of Vygotskys Zone of Proximal Development, but
also adjust according to the childs individual needs. This is harder to achieve in the classroom
setting where the one-on-one scenario of the L1 learner cannot be duplicated.
Summary of recommendations for ASL teachers
From the similarities within developmental sequences, ASL instructors can recognize that
while often discouraged, the silent phase of a learner might be useful as the L2 learner gains
useful information about the language through observation. Weaning the learner from this phase
and teaching memorized, predictable chunks of conversation is a good way to increase learner

L1 AND L2 ACQUISITION SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES

confidence and is a necessary part for any L2 learner using the language outside the classroom
setting. Instructors can also take advantage of the similarities between languages by teaching
vocabulary in a natural, sequential acquisition order. For example, teaching common noun/verb
pairs and prepositions within contexts that the new language L2 learner will most likely
encounter during introductory conversations and topics are more immediately useful and
significant to the learner.
The marked features of the target language are specifically taught, regardless of L1 or L2
status. Lessons may be created to address these unique features, or can be mentioned throughout
lessons as vocabulary or topics that fall into this category arise.
L2 learners miss the babbling stage of language acquisition, where the learner can play
with the smaller building blocks of the language (morphemes and phonemes). In the case of
American Sign Language (ASL), these aspects include hand-shape, orientation of hands/palm,
location of sign, movement, and non-manual markers (facial grammar). If language learners
provide activities so that L2 learners can learn to discern the smaller parts that make up words,
this will enhance their ability to identify separate words in a sentence as well identify meaning.
This is a skill necessary to understand the overall message and continues to develop throughout
the learners L2 development.
Learning vocabulary is an essential part to beginning to speak languages but it should not
be the focus of language learning classes. Teaching vocabulary in context more similarly mirrors
the experience of L1 learners, and helps to develop pragmatics (how language is used for varying
meanings).
Language use within context is essential. Instructors should introduce vocabulary
relative to real-life situations in the classroom. This process begins with teaching formulaic

L1 AND L2 ACQUISITION SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES

conversations, those that students are likely to encounter outside the classroom. This increases
their confidence and gives them entry into conversations similar to what L1 learners experienced
(social). Constant feedback should be given to correct any mistakes before a bad habit forms.
Learners will be less confused by inter-language if language instructors make clear the
differences between the linguistic rules of the target language (L2) and their native language
(L1).
Using various activities that pair higher skilled learners with other students of a lower
level skill (ZPD) creates greater opportunity for students to use language in real-context but also
provides greater levels of immediate feedback. Creating activities that use pairs, group activity,
as well as instructor/student time allows learners to adjust scenarios to their own unique
needs/developmental pace.
Conclusion
There are many similarities and differences between the L1 and L2 learner. Knowing the
key differences and being able create curriculum and activities not only benefits students, but
benefits instructors as it provides a research-based way of teaching language. When followed,
the amount of time students spend in language learning courses will provide them with the
maximum results for their efforts. Dedicated language instructors will find that their efforts are
well rewarded in knowing that their students goals of becoming fluent in a second-language are
closer to reality.

L1 AND L2 ACQUISITION SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES

References
IPEK, H. (2009). Comparing and Contrasting First and Second Language Acquisition:
Implications for Language Teachers. English Language Teaching, 2(2).
http://dx.doi.org/10.5539/elt.v2n2p155
Lightbown, P., & Spada, N. M. (2013). How languages are learned (4th ed.). Oxford: Oxford
University Press.
McLaughlin, B. (1987). Theories of Second Language Learning. London: Edward Arnold.

L1 AND L2 ACQUISITION SIMILARITIES AND DIFFERENCES

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