FM Transmitter

FM Broadcast Range 88 to 108 MHz.

Channel Separation 200 KHz
Frequency Deviation = 75 KHz
FM Broadcast

Monophonic

Stereophonic ( Left and Right Channel)

FM Stereo Transmitter

Signals L + R and L R are Pre-Emphasized.

Input Audio Signal (L-R) is Converted to NBFM by DSBSC
Modulator. Uses Armstrong Method of FM Generation
Carrier Used for this Modulation is 38 KHz.
This carrier is Obtained from Pilot Source of 19 KHz via
Frequency Doubler.
Signal (L+ R) is used Directly

FM Transmitter
Composite Baseband Signal for Final Wideband FM
Modulation is

Pilot is Kept at 19 KHz as on its both side there is no signals up

to 4 KHz.

FM receiver
FM receiver is similar to the
superheterodyne layout
Only Difference is Envelope Detector is
replaced by Limiter Discriminator and
De-Emphasis Circuits
RF is 88 to 108 MHz, IF is 10 MHz.
RF

mixer

LO

IF

limiter

AF power
amp

Discriminator

deemphasis

Receiver components:
RF amplifier
AM may skip RF amp but FM requires it
FM receivers are called upon to work with
weak signals (~1
(~1V
V or less as compared to 30
for AM)
V
An RF section is needed to bring up the signal
to at least 10 to 20 V before mixing

Limiter
A limiter is a circuit whose output is constant
for all input amplitudes above a threshold
Limiters function in an FM receiver is to
remove unwanted amplitude variations of the
FM signal

Limiter

Limiting and sensitivity

A limiter needs about 1V of signal, called
quieting or threshold voltage, to begin
limiting
When enough signal arrives at the receiver to
start limiting action, the set quiets, i.e.
background noise disappears
Sensitivity is the min. RF signal to produce a
specified level of quieting.

Sensitivity example
An FM receiver provides a voltage gain of
200,000(106dB) prior to its limiter. The limiters
quieting voltage is 200 mV. What is the
receivers sensitivity?
200 mV/200,000= 1V->sensitivity of receiver

Discriminator
The heart of FM is this relationship
fi(t)=fc+kfm(t)

What we need is a device that linearly follows

inst. frequency
f
is at the IF frequency
carrier

Of 10.7 MHz (Fixed for all

channels)

Disc.output

-75 KHz

+75 KHz
fcarrier

Deviation limits

Examples of discriminators
Slope detector - simple LC tank circuit
operated at its most linear response curve
output

fc

fo

Phase-Locked Loop
PLLs are increasingly used as FM
demodulators and appear at IF output
fin

Phase
comparator

Error signal

Lowpass
filter

Output proportional to
Difference between fin and fvco

Control signal:constant
When fin=fvco

fvco

VCO

VCO input

Zero crossing detector

FM

Hard

limiter

Zero
Crossing
detector

Multivibrator

Averaging
circuit

Output

FM input

Hard limiter

ZC detector

multiV
Averaging circuit

more frequent
ZCs means
higher inst freq
in turn means
Larger message
amplitudes

FM Receiver
After Limiter and Discriminator, Signal is Passed through various Filter
Circuits.
Output of Filters is De-Emphasized and Audio Signals obtained as L and
R separate channels of Stereophonic Receiver.
Pilot Freq. Signal after extracted from Filter Used as Synchronous
Detector Carrier for DSBSC Modulated Waves.

Noise In Communication System

A. External Noise:

B. Internal Noise:

(1)Atmospheric Noise

(1) Thermal Agitation

Noise

(2)Extraterrestrial Noise
Solar Noise
Cosmic Noise

(2) Shot Noise

(3) Transit Time Noise

(3) Industrial Noise

Noise Calculations

(1)

Addition of Noise Due to Several Sources

(2)

Addition of Noise Due to Several Amplifier

NOISE IN ANALOG MODULATION

AMPLITUDE MODULATION

Channel model
Distortionless
Additive White Gaussian Noise (AWGN)
Flat noise spectrum:white noise

No/2

Noise power=hatched area

-W

Receiver Model
The objective here is to establish a relationship
between input and output SNR of an AM
receiver
Modulated signal s(t)
BPF

detector

filter

output
BT=2W

Noise n(t)

-fc

fc

Establishing a reference SNR

Define channel SNR measured at receiver
input.

The output of the product modulator is

Therefore, any reduction in input SNR is

linearly reflected in the output.

 Following a similar approach,

(SNR )o
(SNR )c

ka P
=
<1
2
1 + ka P

k : AM modulation index
P : avg. message power
Best case is achieved for 100% modulation index
which, for tone modulation ( Ka2 = P/2), is only
1/3

DSB-AM and DSB-SC noise

performance
An AM system using envelope detection needs
3 times as much power to achieve the same
output SNR as a suppressed carrier AM with
coherent detection
This is a result similar to power efficiency of
the two schemes

Threshold effect-AM
In DSB-AM (not DSB-SC) there is a
phenomenon called threshold effect
This means that there is a massive drop in
output SNR if input SNR drops below a
threshold
For DSB-AM with envelope detection, this
threshold is about 6.6 dB