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bN vK qBM wu vK sOUD UMK qJA c w
UUDK VdL qOu qJA
WuL l u vK WuLL c UMK rXu (3)

UO WHUC bN WKUL d
wU b WK
WUML UFU WOU UdH qL

............................................................... w uL w UdNJK WKuL uL
..............................
......................................??vL d UdJ s qzU b vK u w uL
..................
................................................................................ WKuL uL s
.........................................?
................................................................?? w uL w UdNJK WUF uL
...............................
....................................... vL d UdJ s qOK b vK u w uL
..................
.......?u?...................................... ...................................... WUF uL s
.........................................
...........................WdG d W bM WOIM UNU w uL UB dF U OzUdN
.............................................. `B VzuA iF WKuL nB uL rOFD bM
........................................................................ WKuL nB uL r s
................... q ................................... WUM w WKuL nB uL b
u YO c UNOd v ld UdNJ qOu vK WKuL uL b ................

ld wzUdNJ UO qOu vK WUF uL b b ...................................vK
................................... vK u YO c UNOd v
d??_ b?? bM .........................b?? ? ? ? ? ? vK WUD w?? wzUOLOJ qUH qLF
d dD bM .......................
............................................................................... s U wzUdNJ UO
.....................................
................... VDI s WOzUdNJ b w UO U uJ wD U V
....................... VDI v
.
dU t ed ...................... ? UO UI
WOUuu .......................... U bu dO_
b S WOU(1) bI s w uu(3) U qu d WOzUdNJ WMA s WOL XIb
dO
U quL w UL UO
.............................................. s dOFK WOzUdNJ WFb uI `KDB b U
wK UL q UO b d
.............bN d .............WOzUdNJ WFb uI

WOMO d_U WOzUdNJ WFb uIK dU UOK dU bNK ed
b???????????????
WOzUdNJ WUI* WOzUdNJ b

(Simple Electrical Circuit)
WDO WOzUdNJ b
WOU WOU_ UuJL s UNUJ j w WOzUdNJ b uJ

Source
wzUdNJ bB*
wzUdNJ UO Ud wzUdNJ jGC bN' d d u c u

(Load)
wzUdNJ qL(
a dL UBLU WOzUdNJ eN_ b s U u

(Conductors)
u*
wzUdNJ bBL sO UO Ud d qJA w

sJLuOML U s lMB U U U qL
W U{S p WOKU d WOzUdNJ b w rJ qF
tKBH wzUdNJ qLU UO qu SwitchUH
dUM WUL FusedNB W U{ sJL ULWuN
qJA w sO UL dHL UO s b
WDO WOzUdN b ed duB jD* qJA
UNze W U uJ UbM WIKG WOzUdNJ b uJ

s wzUdNJ UOK dL qL YO iF UNCF WKB
UNze b uJ UbM WuH WOzUdNJ b uJ qL d d dD v bBL w d b

uBH U uDF
wzUdNJ UO d lML YO qB dO
(Short Circuit )
dB WU w WOzUdNJ b
UO o b WCHM WUI d qL b dU qJA wzUdNJ bBL w d qB UbM
qu
iF v R b WFHd d ZM qzU
U
(Short dB qB tQ uI WOzUdNJ b e
WOzUdNJ b w dBI b b w Circuit)

TU qOu u e u b U s
wzUdN dB b qJA
qJA w sO UL _ w
WDO WOzUdNJ bK ed jD*
WUD UB vK u WDO WOzUdN b ed jDL duB jDL qJA sO

WDO b c q r WOUJ s rdU UBL WKO d UL UO b UOI dO UN W U
bIFL b r w WIdD c b b VFB s t dO qJA sOL w WMOL WIdDU
b UuJ qL u b qJA U v WMOLU We UDD ULF r V cN
L UNu w WOzUdNJ ud v dF V UDDL c q d q sJ WOzUdNJ
ed
u wU b sOVU VDI v dOA dOB dP VuL VDI v dOA qu j WUDK
WOzUdNJ dUMF iF
wzUdNJ ed
wzUdNJ dBMF
qu
jD vK sOKu lUI
qOu uB wzUdN
ULNMO wzUdN
sOKu sO bI u vIK
wKO UB
dOQ UB
WuU WO WOK

WuU WO_ U) s WUD
( DC )dL UO bB
( AC )UM UO bB
wzUdN d
wzUdN U
dNB
:(Electrical Resistance)
WOzUdNJ WUI*
w quL U eQ qu d UdO UM bDB wzUdNJ UO qJA w UdJ

UdJ dO U WUI WU b
WOzUdNJ WUIL dF quL c w
wzUdNJ UO
wzUdNJ UO dL UL WU bI UNQ
d db s qJA w UL UNO
wzUdNJ bN
cN U b v lL W dFL uL q
WOzUdNJ WUIL
WOzUdNJ WUI* dOH qJA
WOU
UDL U??e?? q WUF uLK
UdJ Wd W{UFL s dO bI
wzUdNJ UO dL `L wUU Ud
b dO WUI uL cN Q UI c UNO
WU u UNQ
U??? M? q??? W??K? u??L? u?? ?L? ? U?? ?
b WKOK W{UF b UNS uOML_
WOzUdNJ WUIL u qJA
Q U??I? c?? U??d??? U??d??? J? Wd

u UNQ b WCHM WUI uL cN
l WOzUdNJ b w UL UO WLO s b WUIL Q UM sJL d ULWKu

bI l{ UO_ s dOJ w U UM d v U s nK WUI UN WKuL uL q
WOzUdNJ d _ w uuL sO dUM UL qO vKF WOzUdNJ b w WUIL s b
UDDL w UN ed R dU WOzUdNJ WUILK UA UUI s U w U W b eN
qJA w sO{uL sedU WOzUdNJ
(1) UO bN Wb _ dF () UGO wUuO dU t ed WUIL UO b
Xu (1) bN bM dO (1) tb UO dL `L w WUIL bI u

t ed UOL (103 U (K)sO dU t ed uKOJ _ UHUC s
WbL Wd eN_ iF WUI rO `{u wU b (106) U (M) sO dU
WOKLF UO w
s q
qOu pK
uOK 20s d
UD WFD
50 - 0
wzUdN uJ
50 - 15
d _ w 5 dUM
UbM 60 - 0 WMU uJ UbM 600-0

UNd UHS WUI* WLO lHd U uJ
U{ ÒUB
:(Conductance)
WOKu*
b U s d wzUdNJ UOK UL WOKu b V VUML s uJ UO_ iF w

(Conductance).WOKuL vL WOU b cNwzUdNJ UO dL UN{UF
UN e??d??w??zU??d??N?J? U??O?? ddL vK U??L? b?? s?? dF W??U??I?L? fJ w?? WOKuL
b UL r dO_ W w ohm WLK uJF w mho u bu UIGdU
WUIL uKI w WOKuL S U O{USdU UN ed WOKuL UOI Siemens eMOLO
G=
:(FUSES)
1
R
WF w UL
dNB*
bze UO s WOzUdNJ b dUM WOzUdNJ eN_ bFLK WUL dBM u uOH dNBL
dNBM dBM w dNBL qL hKeN_ c nK v R c b dB UO s s
()qJA `{u ULsOF b s UO U bM b `H
dNBL qL qJA
b WK
WOU WK_ s V
WOU WOU_ dUMF s WOzUdNJ b uJ
WuH WOzUdNJ b uJ uJ UbM WIKG WOzUdNJ b uJ
uJ UbM
UbM uA dBI b
w WOzUdN WUIL
wUuO dU UN ed UNUO b dU WOzUdNJ WUILK ed
s b vK WOzUdNJ b w WUIL qLF
s U Wd WOzUdNJ eN_ w sO dUM
w WOU dUMF WUIL WOdI WLOI
qOu pK
WU U
dH w sO dBM ?
b???????????????
uU
c uUI u uU iF UNCF vK WOzUdNJ b w WUIL UO bN rO bLF
v W r cN wL bI ucL W WOzUdNJ bu jd w WF `{u
w UL UO b VUM wK U vK hM WF c nA c u wUL_ rUF
tUI l U OJ quL w d sO bN d l U d U UM qu
UO Ud V w uI u bN WOzUdNJ b w bN bB u buL WUD
WU WUIL WLO dH UO q bN q ULK UO bN ULK tOK UM wzUdNJ
WUI u S fJFU iHM UO d v R WOU WUI u S XU bN d S
lHd UO d v R WCHM
uU U
w uUI WOU UJ W UM
I
UO
V
R
WUIL bN UO
UO WLO vK WF c hM WUIL bN Wb UO WLO U WF c b
WUIL WLO vK WuI bN WLO U
R
V
I
WUI*
UO bN WUIL
WLO vK WF c hM UO bN Wb WUIL WLO U WF c b

UO WLO vK WuI bN WLO U WUIL
bN'
V=RI
UO WUIL bN
w d sO bN WLO vK hM WUIL UO Wb bN WLO U WF c b

WUIL WLO w WUIL d UL UO WLO d{ qU U WUI
uU dz
UO bN sO WF dc WId qN

w WMOL uU dz b w WUIL
qJA
WLO pF j uU dz b
U WuKDL WF dNE WuNL bu
qJA w `{u u UL WuNL WLOI
uU qJA
U
(6)UBL WUI XU S Xu (12) WOzUdNJ WF b UNu WUD qLF UO UB
UBL c w UL UO b V

q
UNUODF q WOzUdNJ b rd
R=6
I=?
12V
(V=12)
Xu (12) bN
(R= 6)
( 6 ) WUIL
(I = ?)
dO ( ) U?O
e uU dzb WUFU WuKDL WF VJ

I
I
12
6
V
R
2A
U
dO (3) bI UO V Xu (220) bN bB s qLF ZK W U
U WUI b
q
I=3A
V=220V
UNUODF q WOzUdNJ b rd
R=?
(V=220)
Xu (220) bN
(I = 3 A)
d?O(3) U?O
(R = ?)
( ) WUIL
e uU dz WUFU WuKDL WF VJ

R
V
I
220
3 = 73
ld b WK
uU h d
UL dIL bN s vK bN wzUdN UB idF bM b U
UL dIL bN s q bN wzUdN UB idF bM b U
b V WOzUdNJ b r Xu (12) WUD s qLF
(4)tUI UO UB
UBL w UL UO

WOzUdNJ b r Xu (220) d bN bB s qLF (80) tUI ZK W U
U w UL UO b V
bN d V WOzUdNJ b r dO tb UO Ud d (6) UNLO WUI
WUIL w d sO
b???????????????
WOzUdNJ bI WUD
s u UL b vMH WUD S dF u UL WUD UJ b w UdNJ

WOzuC WOzUOLOJ WOJOUJOL WUD UJ nK qu WOzUdNJ WUD U sJL d v qJ
s d UJ v WOzUdNJ WUD qu WOzUdNJ eN_ b UL WOzUdN WU v Wd
WOzUOLOJ WOJOUJOL WOzuC Wd WUD q bOHL WUD
WOzUdNJ WUD bOu
WUD U??B? r?? s?? WOzUdNJ b??u??L? dF

d??O? Q??? d?? U?? v??K? U??N? K? L? w?? b??L? ? F? W??O? zU??d??N? J?
buL UHK uL b YO wOUMGdNJ
WOzUdN WF u dOQU UNO buO wOUMG U q
qJA w `{u UL
b Wd WOzUdNJ WUD bOu UD w
WOzUdNJ WUD UB s bB WOOUMGdNJ qJA
U U WOLA WuM WUD d rH

U c??w??U?? j??G?{ U??
WU UMOu qOGA w qLF
bu qOGA Ub uI WL{
b??u??L? b?? U??L? WOzUdN
W??U??u?? W??D? u??? L? d??O? G? B?
UD w U eb Ud
WOd WOzUdNJ W?? U??D? bOu
UL uN b
WOzUdNJ WUD bOu UD; WOU_ e_qJA
WOzUdNJ WUD lu qI
oKD u uD WUu pKNL v WOzUdNJ WUD bOu WD s WOzUdNJ WUD qIM
b w UJA c b U duB U L qJA sO WOzUdNJ lu qIM UJ UNOK
pKNLU wNM WOzUdNJ bI bOu WD s
vK WOzUdNJ WUD lu qI UJ u%
qOGA vK qLF WU WOzU UMOu
bu*
5?? d b??N Z??M W?OzUdN bu
Xu uKO 10-6
Xu uKO 33 v bN' l d u ?
l rd Xu uKO 132
WOzUdNJ WUD lu qI qJA
bI iOH p UO iH bN'

od s WHKJ qOKI _ w bN' u qOKI v W U{U qIM uD w uIH*
dG lDI WU b
ed* b* v WOHd oUM* d WOzUdNJ WUD qIM w WOzuN wUF jGC uD
WOUMB
Xu uKO 15-6 s d ju bN v lHd* bN' iH u vK u% WOd UD ?
WOUMB ed* b* u d WOzUdNJ WUD qIM ju bN uD
Xu 380 Xu 220 v iHM bN v ju* bN' iH u
iHM* bN'U pKN* e WOzu WO{ O ?
Electical Power)
WOzUdNJ bI
w qG qIM e d cqJA w
j b vK d?? v WDI s bMB qI
r pd w cL qGA WLO vDF qIM
dsuOM bu qGA UI WOU WFU U
WbL bu fH w u U C vL
W UD
bI
se
WUD UOI
qGA
bI
qJA
se
bu WOU w cL qGA bI qGA c t r c bFL wN bI U

d fLO rUFK U LdJ u U C vL WOU w u w bI UO b
(W) dU uK ed WU W
G bN bB c WOzUdNJ b w

UdJ pd w WU
UO l w WJKNL WOzUdNJ WUD bF vL b e d UO
UI P dU UN edWOzUdNJ bI b?? e d wzUdNJ
WOzUdNJ bI Q Wd qL UO uI qL bN ULu bu
bNU UO d{ qU U
bN'
UO bI
P=Ix V
qJA
YO
uU bI
:P
dO_U UO b
:I
XuHU bN'
:V
WOKL bu uKOJ b pc WOKLF UIOD W U rz UNS dOG b u U0

(KW) 5 d(U t ed 1000 U u bI UOI
U
uU sL b V dO 5 bI UO V Xu 220 bN wzUdN s
uKOJ
q
bN UO bI
1100 = 220 5 = uU bI
uKO 1.1 = 1000 1100 = uKOJU bI
s uJ b UN dI* qOGA bN bI WOzUdNJ eN_ UHu Wu vK U q

qOu UI dbI U* qO vK UM vMO UN' t c UO WLO W dF tO ud*
bN' bI Wb UO WLO U sJ1 UN' c WUL( wzUIK lUI dNBM* UO
WOU WFU WOzUdNJ UUU WO_ UL
bI
UO
bN
U
dH t c UO b V Xu 220 bN qLF uKO 5 tb wzUdN d
q
Xu 220 bN
5000 uKO 5 bI
UO
bN bI UO
dO 22.7 = 220 5000 UO
iF w d_ WOdJ dUMF UUI* u* w d qJA WOzUdNJ bI b

s bbF w bOH dO uJ b UNMJ WOzUdNJ d _ UM* w UL bOH d( c uJ UO_
WOdJ dUMF u; Ud; u* w UL U{ uJ U0 q d_ eN_
w b* bI s dF W U P = IVwU_ bI uU V = IR uU Z sJ1
UL WF cN 5KJ UM dU qJA WUI*
WUI* UO Wb bI
WUI* UO ld bI
2
P=I V
WUI* bN' Wb bI

WUI* bN' ld bI
2
WUI* w b* bI qJA

P
V
R
U
tb V Xu 220 bN 484 tUI wzUdN UB
484 WUI* q(
Xu 220 bN'
bI
WUI* bN' ld bI
100 = 484 (220 220) bI
(Horse Power) UB(
bI
UF w wJOUJO* UB( bu UO_ iF w WOzUdNJ UC* Ud; b vDF

c fLO q s bI UOI bu c XF{ bHP 5 d(U UN ed 746
U Lz UWU Ud; lOMB U w qLF U
dOJ tU WOd; c T UJ UB r Q
qI l d u i UB( UNO ZM w
746 UbI b s eM U bFL se s WUM b*
4\3 U bu UB( Q dc VUM* s

U dI uKO
(Electical Energy)
WJKN* WOzUdNJ WUD
YO UNb s WOzUdNJ eN_ b W dF0 WJKN* WOzUdNJ WUD V%

se bI WUD
WUU se uKOJU bI (KWh) WU uKOJU WUD bI YO
UOI b vK lUB* UM* w WOzd lu Wu u%
kpKN* UNOK UM VU w WJKN* WOzUdNJ WUD
w WOzUdNJ WUD N
d_ WOzUdNJ eN_qJA
uN nOJ W b 5 eN q WOUF bI eN_
UO( w b WFzUA eN_ iF b `{u wU b'
WOKLF
WOzUdNJ WUD UO UN qJA
bI
UN
100 v 10s d WHK bI d u
U{ ÒUB
2000-1000
WOzUdNJ UJL
300
WOeML W
2200
WOzUdNJ W bL
3000
WOzUdNJ d _
80
ueHK UN
U
w WJKNL WOzUdNJ WUD V UU (8) bL qLF uKO (2) UNb WOzUdN Q b
U K (30)WU uKOJ dF U UNHOUJ dH c
q
uKO
(2) Q bL b
UU(8) qLF s
U K (30) WU uKOJ dF
WU uKO WJKNL WUD
U K N nOUJ
se bI WUuKO WJKNL WUD
WU uKO 16 = 8 2 = WU uKO WJKNL WUD
WUuKOJ dF WJKNL WUD WJKNL WUD nOUJ
U K 480 =16 30 WJKNL WUD nOUJ
b WK
WUML UF WLKJU dH
w WOzUdNJ bI
w bI UO b
vK uU bI bI rI uKO v uU bI qu ?
? uKOJU bI bI dC v uKOJU bI qu

UF wJOUJO* UB( ?
? UB(U bI bI dC v UB(U bI qu
wU_ bI uUI mOB V

(220) bN U S dO (3) bI UO V WOeM W `D s bOK W s
uU tb V Xu
uU Q bL b V dO (11)bI UO V Xu (220) bN qLF WOzUdN Q b

uKOJ
c t c UO b V Xu (220) bN qLF uKO (4) tb wzUdN U
qL
WUIL UO Wb bI wDF w WF V
uU sL b V dO(5) bI UO tO d (50) tUI wzUdN s
uKOJ
WUIL bN Wb bI wDF w WF V
UBL b V Xu (220) bN (806) tUI wzUdN UB
WJKNL WOzUdNJ WUD wDF w WF V
Ue WJKNL WOzUdNJ WUD UOI WOKLF bu d
WOzUdNJ WUD V U Ou WU (12 bL qLF uKO
(1,5)
UNb WU W
U K (30) WU uKOJ dF U UNHOUJ WJKNL
b???????????????
WOzUdNJ UUI*
bM UNO wzUdNJ UO d oOF w U* WOU w WOzUdNJ WUI* Q oU w X

WUI s U w WOzUdNJ UL_ Q X UL _ bu UI wzUdN bB0 UNK
c w wzUdN bB0 tK WO t U* UO WLO b% w w qL( WUI Q uU s XLKF
d UNu UE UUI* u v U qu WUI b% w quF v dF u b
UNKOu
uL WUI
qu* WUI
w qu WF vK qJA w 5 u UL qu* WUI bLF
qu* u
tu l U d VUM qu* WUI tu UU qu* WUI e
qu* WUI vK dR* quF qJA
qu* lDI WU

qu* lDI WU ULK t qu* lDI WU l U OJ U UM qu* WUI VUM
uJ dO UNFDI WU w uU*U UO ob YO s U* dOu UdNJ qU9 tUI XK
WFHd U* UO ob UNUI uJ dOG UNFDI WU w uU* U WCH M U* UO ob UNUI
qu* U u ?
s WMO WUI w ULK WOuM WUI*U dF U v udU WHK * u* WUI WUI sJ1
UNUO b uOK (20) d W bM 23(1) tFDI WU d(1) tu qu WO vK U*
d(U UN ed d 23
dr WOuM WUIL
U?? ? ? ?*
0.0149
WCH
0.0178
UM
0.021
Vc
0.0241
uOM*_
0.14
1.9
bb(
bb d qJO dJOM WJO
b'
WO WF b U _U qu* WUI U sJ1

quL UL WOuM WUIL
qu* u
qu* lDI WU
R=
L
A
_U qu* WUI
YO
_U quL WUI
dLUquL u
rKquL lDI WU
quL UL WOuM WUIL

d rK
U??????????????
Q U LK 2r
(1.5)
tFDI WU d
(100)
tu UM s pK WUI V
d 2r 0 .0178) UMK WOuM WUIL

q????????????????(
1,81 = 0 8710 (1 5 100 ) quL WUI
d( W
dF c U* WUI* d( qUF*U dOG c s dF d( W dOG U* WUI WLO dOG

W (1) UNd W dOG WO (1) UNUI U* pK s WMO WUI WLO w UBIM Ue tQ
Wu W bu tLO s dOF r)wUuO d(U d( qUFLK eduOK
WLO e w uLK
(Positive Temperature coefcient) Uu
WUILK d( qUF* uJ
UdJ Wd U v UNd W U R w WOIM UF* q UNd W UU UNUI

wzUdNJ UO qOJA b U& w rEM qJA UNF WOKL VFB U2 WOzuAF
WLO qI w uLK (Negative Temperature coefcient) U U WUILK d( qUF* uJ
WO UNUI qI w WOOdJ qOU; uF u* U q UNd W UU UNUI
u* iF d( qUF* WLO wU b' 5d( qFH WOzUdNJ WMA U s be* bu
UdNJ U w Wb *
d qUFL
UL
UM
uOML_
uH
XOd
sM
WJO UUuJ
+0.0038
+ 0.004
+ 0.0045
- 0.0004
0.0041
+0.000005
b'
WOU WF b U(RHOT) WMU WUI* WLO U sJ1

RHOT = R20 {1 +
(THOT - 20)}
YO
Wu 20 W bM WUI* WLO R20
ULK d( qUF* (
WUILK WOzUNM d( W THOT
U????????????
W u bM 7M s uMB wzUdN UB qOH WOzUdNJ WUI* V
20 WdG d W bM qOH WUI XLK tKOGA UM Wu 2020 v UNd
Wu W qJ 0.005 U 7M d( qUF* 50 U Wu

q????????????????(
RHOT = R20 {1 +
(THOT - 20)}
R2020 = 50 {1 + 0.005 (2020 - 20)} = 60
WUOF* UNUUI WOzUdNJ _
WOzUdNJ eN_ WUM w qb UL WOzUdNJ WUD lu qI w WOzUdNJ _ b

pK u vK UNLO w bLF WUI _ cN UdO WOzUdNJ Ud; u; q
V UN_ UNO ud dO WUI* c uJ U U tU u tFDI WU
qUM pK b vK bN' u

vK bN' u WLO bLF bB* bM j) Wb w tM q qL( bM j) WUN w bN' uJ
UOd w bN' u U u t tOK UF* s d U* UO WLO pK WUI
.(%5) Ud; w (%3) Wb eN w WJA bN s (%2.5-1.5)
t U U{
WuIM* WOzUdNJ WUD w UH

_ 5 v R Wd WU v WUD c s e qu% vK _ WUI qLF YO
UQ _ c d9 c UO WLO WOUM WUOF* UUI* iF b' 5
6
2.5
1.5
36
24
18
16
13
11
23 lDI* WU
dO dI* UO
WKL c UO WLO WOUM WUOF* UUI* b'
v R b pK d W lHd Ud0 uL* WLOI pK d U* UO WLO U&

w b U qJA ozd uA wzUdN U9 b v wUU tHKG c UF UNB
bI bbL 2 3(2.5) U{ bbL 2 31.5) WOeM* bbL
UUI* u
U OU
b hzUB rOI WOzUdN UUI b eK WOdJ WOzUdNJ b qL oOI

WOzUdN UO qL WdF WO rO UN WHK UJQ UUI* lMB c b c qL VUM
WLOI dOG WLOI WU UUI* UL 5Oz 5u v UUI* rI WuKF
Fixed Resistors WLOI WU UUI*
dU dO qJA U dU qJA WUI* r vK VJ dOG WU WLO UN w UUI* w

WOzUA WOJK WOud UUI v UNFM U* U I UUI* c rI u
Carbon resistors WOudJ UUI*

qJA w `{u UL WOzUdNJ UNb l VUM YO WHK UQ WOudJ UUI* bu
U H pOdO u q WKu dO U u* udJ s Ze s UUI* c lMB
sJ1 v bF0 WUI* Ud d d(U bL& r U OuD uJ U uKD* qJAU U* VB
qJA k WOU) _U UNKOu
WOzUAG WUI* WOudJ WUI* VOd qJA
WOzUdNJ UNb l VUM UUI* U qJA
Film resistors WOzUAG UUI*

wuD qOJA qO `D u WUI U s fU UA d WOzUAG UUI* rOLB VKD
U* u dOG pc UAG c w wu e lDI WUILK WuKD* WLOI vK uB( r we
w u W UUI* c bu qJA w `{u u UL UNLO wUU WUI* wd 5
tAuOdJ qJOM wbFL UAG dbBI bO wbFL bO_ UA wudJ UAG
UNM WHKJ vK wUU W d UNMJ WOudJ UUIL wU qJA YO s WOzUAG UUIL
Wirewound resistors WOJK UUI* ?

pK u lMB qJA w `{u UL eF qOJA qO vK pK s UH b s lMB
d( UNUI qUF WFHd* WOuM UNUI V dJ b w dJ qJOM pzU s
WLOI iH M*
WDK wUe D s WO WID vDG jO; ju dOQ s WUI* UuJ WUu
k d( bb vK UNb 5 uOM*_ s d b0 nKG UNCFXML qd s
WUI* r vK dU uU UNb _U WUI* WLO VJ UUI* s uM c w qJA
U I tAUM rOBS1852 WOUDd WOUOI WHu* w b; eOd UE lWd(
WOJK UUI* qJA
WOJK WUI* VOd qJA
Surface Mount Resistors-SM Resistors WOD UUI*

`D* UL 5KJA duWUJ WOU WuD* UuK WLz UNKF U2 UNL dGB U9
WOU v_ 5U) UU s uJ eOd UE UeOd w b WD* WUI*wuD_
WUI*qJA dNE UL UH_ bnUC* qL dO_ WU WU) U WUI* WLO 9
WU WOu WIK v WU{_U U I tdAMwUL) wuK eOd UE UeOd w b WOuD_
qJA dNE UL WUILK d( qUF* q9
UeOd d WOD UUI* qJA
Network Resistors WOJA UUI* ?

UNHOKG r WNUA* UUI* s WuL s U w
w 5 u ULWKUJ* b WHK tA wU G
WOdJ b w WOJA UUI* b qJA
WNUA* UUI* s dO b u% w
WOJA UUI* qJA
Variable Resistors WLOI dOG UUI*
UNLO dOOG sJL dOGL UUILK U UHK ud eN w uBU rJ ÒUH dF
uB UMUJS wMF cN (1000) UNLO dOG WUI uI UbM UNOUHdb WuN
(1000) dHB sO d rO vK UNM
dOG* WUI* qL qJA
WUIL WLO vK ULNUu qB WUIL wUN L Ud d W dOGL WUILK

vK sOUNM b l tUu qB UI dBM u d oeM e qB YU dD WOKJ
qJA w `{u UL WOKJ WUIL s WHK rO
vK uHK pK s lMB WOD Wdz udJ s UWJ qJ vK UIL dBMF lMB
U d rOI du WHKJ WKOK w 1 s q WObL bI rz WOudJ u_U VK
du dQ 3 WDuL bI rz wN _ WuHKL u_ U UO 1 uKO1 sO
uKO 100 10 sO U d rOI
wjC Zb q WO{d bF qLF b dOG UQ dOG* UUI* du

oO j{ v WU( bM b c oOb jC u oKG* uM uH* uMUJ W du
qJA k WUI*WLO w dOG b WUI* UH db ZMO YO b
dOG* WUI* qJA
YO rI u bN UOI(Potentiometer) bN UOI r UC dOGL WUIL vK oKD

k udJ U vK oeML Wd pc (VIN)qbL bN s qJ (VOUT)d bN WLO b
wK UL qL WU w d L bN WLO b qJA
VOUT = VIN x
R2
R
qLFLogWO9Uu nB LinWOD U0 WOudJ bN'UzefOUI du

WOFL eN_ w UN'U rJK Q dO_
bN' UOI qJA
WU) UUI*
WOKL UIOD rz WU lM dD WU u s lMB

UUI* qL s UNKL nK WOdJ b w WMOF
UUI* c s WUF
udO qJA
udO WUI
qJA k UN{UH d( W UHU uLK qJA UNUI dOG w WUI* w

w d( Wb fL UNb sJ1 UL d( W UH s WUL( w b
Uu UNM bu d( W UO eN w bd Wb eN w rJ
d( W UHU UNLO qI w (NTC) VU d qUF WUI
d( W UHU UNLO e w
(PTC) Vu d qUF WUI
UUI* c u qJA dNE
(VDR) bNK WFU uUH WUI

UNd vK dR* bN' U l WUI* c WLO qI
UH s WOzUdNJ bF* WU U w U U b
u vK WUI* c qu wzUdNJ bN' w TUH*
WU) UUI* u qJA
bNK TUH UH b UbM tU d* UN' l

s e h9 U OE( uUH WUI qI UN' wd 5
tb dJM TUH* bN'
dNBL qLF WOud WOJK WUI ?

UO U UbMF WOd WOU ULb_ U F UuK Ud UM WOJK WUI* WU w
bM UO d lDI qBHM WKu vK UK dNB b v WUI* c s dI* b
2 s q UNLO dOG WUI b WOudJ WUI* WU w U WKu U( U sJ1 qDF
bF UNb sJ1 WUI* c d% dI* b UO U UbM l s q dOG UNb
qDF
Light Dependent ResistorLDR uC vK bLF* WUI*

UU UNLO hUM WUI* c WOzu{dNJ dUMF b s b uC vK bLF* WUI*
2 s d v qB b b WOU E w uC vK bLF* WUI* WLO uJ UNOK jU uC b
_ s U lC v UNUI iH M uCK dF UbM sJ UO
uOUJ bOd q uCK WU( WKu* t u* s uC vK bLF* UUI* lMB
uC vK bLF* WUI* VOd qJA 5 CdSe e uOUJ bOMOKO CdSe
r qOu wdD e pOdO Ue s WU WI vK uCK WU U s WIO WI qJA
uCK WU( U* vK uC uI `L WOU cU t wJO wbF w l{u
uCK WU U
WU bU
WOzuC WUI* e ?qJA
WOzu{ WUI qJA
qOu d
WOzu{ WUI* lDI qJA
eN w U U qLF U* qO vKF UOdJ w bb UIOD uC vK bLF* WUILK

tUO u{ uu U d_ VKD YO qd* w VNK nU WO u_U rJ c
UUILK WOMH UHu*
wU WOzUdN w WHU WUI b U UNUd V w UUILK WOMH UHu*

UOL uKOJ U WuKDL WLOI s dF WUIL
WOU WUFL s UN wQ WUIL Ub w uBI bI w bIL bI
P=
V2
= I2 x R
R
U tM dF bLF* buU d( W w dOG qJ WUI* w dOG u d( W qUF

uOK*U e_U
tM dF se s WMOF b vK WMOF d X% qB c WUI* WLO w VKI u dI
% Wu WM
UUI* eOd rE
UUI* u rE
U U
5UE UM UNUNUH UNLO v dOA WOu ud WLKF WOzUAG WOudJ UUI* uJ
qJA dE wUL) wuK eOd wUd wuK eOd UL wuK eOd w sbLF
qJA
wUd wuK eOd

WUILK _ rd UO WN s v_ WIK( b%
WU WIK( b% WUILK wU rd WOU WIK( b%
W b WFd WIK( U UH_ b dAF nUC*
qJA k WdEM WUI* WLO w t uL* UH
wUd wuK eOd qJA
U????????????
cN v_ vK_ sb U U Od oU qJA w WMOL WUIL WLO U
WLOI
q????????????????(
sO WUIL r vK WMOL u_ UIK v dEMU
(4) bF qUI dH v_ WIK u
(7)bF qUI wHM WOU WIK u
(100) nUCL qUI dL WU WIK u
5%
UH W qUI w WFd WIK u

sO UNCF VU U_ l{u
uKO 4.7 4700 47100 WUIL WLO

WLOIK vK_ b
4700 + 4700 x
5
= 4700 + 235 = 4935
100
WLOIK v_ b uKO
4700 - 4700 x
5
= 4700 - 235 = 465
100
wUL) wuK eOd
WOU WIK( b% WUILK _ rd UO WN s v_ WIK( b% wUd UEM w U( u UL

dAF nUC* WFd WIK( b%WUILK YU rd b WU WIK( U WUILK wU rd
`{uWdEM WUI* WLO w t uL* UH W b dO_ WU) WIK( UH_ b
UNUH UUI* WLO bb UEM c b WId qJA w 5* U*
BS1852 ud UE
WOU Wb_ d( WDu dAF nUC* WLO pc WdAF WKUH UJ bb% r UEM c w
d
UH
WLzUI c ULF WId WOU WK_ `{u
1%
0.18 wMF R18
2%
560 wMF 560R
5%
WdA WKU nUCL(K)d( b YO uKO2.7 wMF2K7
10%
uKO39 wMF 39K
20%
WdA WKU nUCL(M)d( b YO UO 1.0 wMF1M0
b'
b' k UH v U wU{ d U( r r s

WLzUI c ULF WId WOU WK_ `{u
5% UH 0.18 wMF R18J
10% UH 560 wMF 560RK
UUILK WKCH* rOI
uu* rOI b uJ tUHUC dA r WdAF rOI s K bF UUI* du

%10UNUH mK w UUI* w WUI* rOI b* qLAO b; UHU U uJ WKK q w

E6 WKKU U C dF WOU WOU_ WOb WdAF rOI WKK UMeK
1.0, 1.5, 2.2, 3.3, 4.7, 6.8
UHUC* UF* b* u U* qO vKF rOI cN WdAF UHUC* du wKLF oOD w
WOU rOI 2.2 WLOI WUI*
2.2,22,220.2.2K,22K,220K,2.2M
w 10% UNUH mK w UUILK E12 WKKK WOU_ rOI

1.0, 1.2, 1.5, 1.8, 2.2, 2.7, 3.3, 3.9, 4.7, 5.6, 6.8, 8.2
w 5% UNUH mK w UUILK E24 WKKK WOU_ rOI

1.0, 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, 1.5, 1.6, 1.8, 2.0, 2.2, 2.4, 2.7, 3.0
3.3, 3.6, 3.9, 4.3, 4.7, 5.1, 5.6, 6.2, 6.8, 7.5, 8.2, 9.1
UUI* qOu
U F
w W dD UUI* qO u sJ1
wu vK qOu
dDU uu v_ WUI* wd b YO UNCF WKB UUI W qJA 5

k WU WUI* s _ dD l qB WOU WUI* s wU dD WOU WUI* s _
lOL w tH UO d YO UOK jI b U wu w bu t qJA s
b e lOL s UO lDI UUI* b Xd UUI*
UL WOKJ WUJ* WUI* w jI b WUI0 UUI* bS p b c jO sJ1
WLKJ UBU wQ(T)d( YO(RT)d(U UN ed qJA w `{u u
UO b dOG UUI* WuL s b b w UNF{ sJ1 w WUI*WUJ* WUI*U bBIwKJ
uL*
(Total)
WOzUdNJ b
WUJ* b
wu vK UUI* qOu qJA
w UL UNLO V q d VUM UUIL vK VT bBL bN u wu w

qJA
(V1 = IT x R1) v_ WUIL vK bN d bN u
(V2 = IT x R2) WOU WUIL vK bN u
wUU VT =V1 + V2 + V3
(V3 = IT x R3) WU WUIL vK bN u

UL bN dH d uLLK U U(VT) bBL bN uJ
IT RT = IT R1 + IT R2 + IT R3
RT = R1 + R2 + R3
VOd w WKb UUILK d' uL* U wu b WUJ* WUI* WLO 5 cJ

qJA k b c
wu vK UUI* qOu qJA
bK
(RT)
WUJ* WUI* (VT)bB* bN vK wu w wzUdNJ UO WLO bLF

wU uM vK uU vK UM (IT) b UO V
WUJ* WUI* bB* bN UO

IT =
VT
RT
U????????????
V qJA w 5 UL wu vK (30) (20) (10) UUI* XK
WOKJ WUI*
q????????????????(
RT = R1 + R2 + R3
= 10 + 20 + 30
= 60
U????????????
(6) UNLO WU (4) UNLO WOU (2) UNLO v_ UUI XK
Xu (6) UbN WUD wD sO wu vK
WOKJ WUI* V
WOzUdNJ b r
wKJ UO V
WUJL b r
q????????????????(
12
6V
6V
qJA
12 = 6 + 4 + 2 WOKJ WUI*
w jI b WUI0 UUI* bU WOzUdNJ b j W

UJ* b
WD* b c vL qJA w `{u UL WOKJ WUJ* WUI*

dO 0.5 = 12
6 WOKJ WUI*
wKJ bN' (IT) wKJUO
U????????????
Xu (220) dIL UNKOGA bN (100) UNM q b WNUA U{ ÒUB WL
UB q vK bN u V Xu(220) bB wd sO wu vK XK
q????????????????(
UU UNOK u u bBL bN S wu vK Wuu WNUA ÒUBL UL
Xu 44 = 5220 UB q vK bN u
dIL UNKOGA bN vK qB r UN_ b WCH M uJ u ÒUBL c U{ b
Xu (220)
u vK qOu
UL u b U w lUB* UM* w WOzUdNJ WUDU WOzUdNJ UL_ WcG

WUDK wOzd bB* wd 5 u vK WOzUdNJ UL_ qu YO qJA w `{u
UF* j) UH j UL 5D WUu bB*U wzUdN qL q qu Xu
(220)
WOzUdNJ
Xu (220) fOzd bB* bN vK wzUdN qL q qB cN duOM
lUB* UM* w WOzUdNJ WUDU UL_ WcG qJA
(V T) WOzUdNJ WUDK wOz bB wd 5 u vK Wuu UUI W qJA 5
uJO bB* bN vK WUI q qB% cJ

WU WUIL bN WOU WUIL bN v_ WUIL bN bBL bN
qJA
UNLO V wJ VUM bK WuJ* UUI* vK u w bB* UO u UL

uJ uU b U qJA w UL
v_ WUI* wKJ bN' (I1) _ WUI* UO
I1 =
VT
R1
WOU WUI* wKJ bN' (I2) WOU WUI* UO

I2 =
VT
R2
WU WUI* wKJ bN' (I3) WU WUI* UO

I3 =
VT
R3
WFd WUI* wKJ bN' (I4) WFd WUI* UO

I4 =
WOKJ WUJ* WUI*
(VT)
VT
R4
bB* bN vK u w wKJ bB* UO WLO bLF

WOdH UO uL U (IT) bB* UO bK
IT = I1 + I2 + I3 + I4
VT
V
V
V
= 1 + 2 + 3 + ...
RT
R1
R2
R3
1
1
1
1
=
+
+
+ ...
RT
R1
R2
R3
UUI* UuJF lL qU l u b WUJ* WUI* uKI WLO U d vMF0

UUI* c s _ WLO dG s u b WUJ* WUI* WLO qI p s ZM Wuu*
5U 5U UM
S (R) b q WUI u vK (N) Ub WNUA* UUI* s WuL qOu bM
RT =
WUJ* WUI*
R
N
UU UNOK bB* UO u
S qJA w UL u vK 5UI qOu bM
qU 5UI* rO d{ qU WUJ* WUI*
qJA
R1 x R2
RT =
R1 + R2
5UI* rO lL
U????????????
WOzUdNJ WUI* V u vK (40) (60) 5UI* XK
q????????????????(
WUF* b sJ1 jI 5UI vK u% b U0
RT =
R1 x R2
60 x 40
= 24
=
R1 + R2
60 + 40
U????????????
w UL u vK 60 (R3) 200 (R2) 300 (R1) UUI* XK
V qJA
WOKJ WUI*
Xu (20) bN bB wd 5 WuL* XK WUI q d UO wKJ UO
40
20V
300
200
60
20V
qJA
q????????????????(
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
+
+
+
+
WOKJ WUIL
RT
R1
R2
R3
300 200
60
WU( c w dG_ dA* nUC* UNUUI bOu uJ c lL WOKL VKD

S (600) U
1
2
3
10
15
+
+
RT
600 600 600 600
vK qB WUFL c wI VKI
RT =
IT =
600
= 40
15
wKJ UO
WOdH UO
VT
220
= 5.5A
=
RT
40
I1 =
VT
220
= 0.73A
=
R1
300
I2 =
VT
220
= 1.1A
=
R2
200
I3 =
VT
220
= 3.67A
=
R3
60
U????????????
WOKJWUIL V u vK Wuu (200) UNM q bI WU UUI l
q????????????????(
WUF* b sJ1 WU UUI* U0
RT =
R
200
=
= 50
N
4
V d* qOu
UUI* tO qJA w `{u UL u vK qOu wu vK qOu 5 lL' sJ1
WU w (R1) WUI* l wu vK Wuu WuL* c u vK Wuu (R4) (R3) (R2)
Vd* qOuU dF p S U w u wu qOu 5 e*
WLO dO_ dI V WUI* h bM qJA

UNL vK WK* WLOIK U dI WU
VdL qOu qJA
UUI* UD
U U
UNd W UH v R U2 t uL* b( s Ud U* UO U WO U WUI* qDF

WUI* qDF s ZM WOudJ WUI* XH WOJK WUILK uJ* pK tF lDIM c b( v
WcG bB qB bF dO_ b U UNLO UOI WUI* qD UA r UNUJ w WuH
YO dJ* ULF WO WLOI dOG vL d qD UM WUI* d b qB b s
WLOI YO s UHu* fH UN dQ WHU WUI* b Vd% WUI* WLO lHd
uU uB_ bI _U
U??????????
qJA w WMOL WOzUdNJ bK WOKJ WUIL V
6
4
2.4
7.4
qJA
q????????????????(
qd vK qLF b cN WOKJ WUIL U VKD
WUI w ULN sJL u vK Uuu R3 R2 sOUIL UL v_ uD
(RT1) WUJ
RT1 =
R1 x R2
=
R1 + R2
6x4
6+4
= 2.4
w UFL sJL wu vK Uuu R1 RT1 sOUUIL UL WOU uD

(RT) WUJ WUI
RT = R1 + RT1
= 5 + 2.4
= 7.4
b WK
...................... bu UI ...................................................................... w WOzUdNJ WUI*
..................................................................................w qu WF vK U qu WUI bLF
....................................................................................................................w ULK WOuM WUI*
........................................................................................................... bu WOuM WUI* UI
................................. w tU u UF Wb qu* WUI U w b w WF
XU pK WUI V d (0.0178) UMK WOuM WUI* d (80) tu UM s pK
23 (2,5) tFDI WU
23 (1,5) tFDI WU
pUE V 5U U
................................................................................................................ tQ dF d( qUF*
V UN_ UNO ud dO WOzUdNJ _ WUI
....................................................................
....................................................................
.................................................... v R p S dI* UO s d UO qu w d

:w WU UUI* u
........................................ ?
........................................
........................................
WOU UUI* u VOd r

dOG* ?
WOJK
WOudJ
:WOU UBU wMF U
.................................................................................. (PTC)
.................................................................................. (NTC)
.................................................................................. (VDR) ?
: WOU UUI* Ub d
.................................................................................. (PTC)
.................................................................................. (NTC)
.................................................................................. (VDR) ?
...................................................... dNBL WOudJ WUI*
(1000) v dH s dOG WUI vK uBK UNKOu WOHO r 1000 dOG WUI
U* WOdH WOzd uD) w WOzUdNJ bbL w pL d b s
WLO U wC dL wHM dH VOd vK w WOu UIK l UNOK WOud WUI
UNO UL WLO U WUI* c

c WLO U w w dL dL VOd vK w WOu UIK l UNOK WOud WUI
UNO UL WLO U WUI*

bK WOKJ WUI* V WOzUdNJ b r wu vK (35) (25) (20) UUI* XK
uKD* R3=15 R2=18 R1=12
Xu (220) bB wd 5 wu vK XK UU W
WOKJ WUJ* WUI* V
WOzUdNJ b r
b w U* UO V
WUJ* b r ?
U q vK bN' u V ?
WCH M UNU{ b uJ Xu (220) bB wd 5 wu vK Wuu* ÒUB* qK
wu vK XK (484) UNM q WUI 100Xu220 WNUA U{ ÒUB WF
uKD* Xu (220) bB wd 5

WUJ* WUI* V
WOzUdNJ b r
UB q vK bN' u
ÒUB* d U* UO V ?
UB* vK bN' u UB* w U* UO UB qJ WOIOI( bI ?

WUJ* WUI* V WOzUdNJ b r u vK (120)(60)(30) UUI* XK
WUJ* WUI* V WOzUdNJ b r u vK (8) (12) 5UI* XK
uKD* (100) UNM q WUI WNUA uK UB sdA vK u WM q
WUJ* WUI* V
Xu (220) bB* bN U UB q w U* UO WLO wKJ UO WLO V
wOzd bB* wd 5 u vK WOzUdNJ eN_ qu lUB* UM* w qK
WUJ* WUI* V qJA w WMO* b w
WUI (120) UNM q WLO UUI WuL du (50) UNLO WUI eN& nO
25
50
50
qJA
(10) UNLO d
b???????????????u
b?????? q??O??K??%
W???O???zU???d???N???J???
b???????????????
udO uU
b bN UO UqOK w uU b sJL t oU b w XE bI

UM sJu wu vK Wuu U UI b b W UI vK u w WDO WOzUdNJ
dHL uU bU UNKOK sJL w bIFL WOzUdNJ b s dOJ
U uO Ud
qFbIFL WOzUdNJ b qOK WOKL dO w dD sOuI s bbF UM
bIFL WOzUdNJ b qOK udO
wuU
uU rU _ uUI dF bIFL WOzUdNJ b qOK ULN UuU udO
Uu rUF l{
qOBH s wA sOuUI sc dAM bNK udO
uU wU uUI vL ULMOUOK udO
UOK _ udO uU
w qOu dH WDI bI w WOzUdNJ UOK d uLL vK uUI c hM

d uLL uI sJL YO j uB uUI c WUO sJL dH U WOzUdNJ b
bIF fH s WU UO uL U bI WMOF WDI v W UI UOK
wuU w u?? d `KDB tuM V
_ UO
UN lL w WODI uM U WOL v dOA udO
WUML U UNzUDS pwzUdN

bN UO q
WU uJ Wu uJ U UN
wU UO
YU UO
kqJA v dE _ udO
uU rNH
W pUM ULMO bIF v tL bOu u 1 UO UM
bIF fH UG 4UO 3 UO 2 UO UO
d od t bu tS bIF v 1 UO qb U bM t
ld UO
d_ UH od s UGL u u
_ udO
uU qJA
wK UL
UUMJ WUF v c UMLd u
4UO 3UO 2UO 1UO
I1 = I2+ I3 + I4
I1
I2 _ I3_ I4 = 0
VU bIFK UGL UO Vu bIF v qb UO Ud UM UM k
U??????????????
qJA w I3UO U WLO b
I2 = 3A
q????????????????(
I1 = 6A
(I3) (I1)
I3 = ?
v UN
UO dH
I4 = 5A
uL UOK udO
uU UMI
bIF UG I4 I2 UO ULMObIF
U bI WMOF WDI v W UI UO

qJA
bIF fH s WU UO uL

I1 + I3 = I2 + I4
6 + I3 = 3 + 5
I3 = 8 - 6 = 2A
bNK wU udO uU
WOzUdNJ b w WIKG WIK vK wzUdNJ bN rO lOL d uLL vK uUI c hM

dH U
U UIL d{ qU d uLL uI sJL YO j uB uUI c WUO sJL
UNO WOzUdNJ WFb uIK d uLL U WOzUdNJ b w WIKG WIK w WU UO
b VOd w uQ
V1
R1
emf =
R 2 V2
E1
IxR
bFuUI c oOD UM Wd U v U V

VDI v VU VDI s WUDK WOzUdNJ WFb uI U
d U U WUD w UO U s dEM iG UN VuL
E2
UNO UO U fH uN W UIL wd sO bN
wU udO
uU qJA
wzUdN
UO WOzUdN
WF u q
S Vu* wb U& uWU UI U& Uc S
U U uJ p nU U q
U u uJ WU UI U& w
qJA w WMO* WIK( vK bNK udO
uU oD UM
E1 - E2 = V1+ V2
E1 - E2 = I (R1 + R2)
U????????????
qJA w WMO* b w W UI q
w U* UO WLO V
bIF
R1
I3
68
12V
E1
I2
I1
R3
R2
33
E2
22
9V
I3
qJA
q????????????????(
bIF vK UOK udO
uU oOD
I1 + I2 = I3
dHBdO WIK( vK bNK udO

uU oOD
E1 = I1 x R1+ I3 x R3
E1 = I1 x R1+ (I1 + I2) x R3
12 =68 I1 + 22 (I1 + I2)
12 =90 I1 + 22 I2
........ (1)
dC)dHBWOU) dJ WIK( vK bNK udO

uU oOD
12 - 9 = 68 I1 - 33 I2
3 = 68 I1 - 33 I2
........ (2)
d{3 ? v_ WUF* dC uIM2 1 5O 5UF* q UMOK V

vK qBM 2 ? WOU WUF*
36 = 270 I1 + 66 I2
6 = 136 - 6 I2
vK qBM 5UF* 5U lL$ r

42 = 406 I1
I1 = 0.103A
v_ WUF* w (I1) WLO s uF r

12 = 90 x 0.103 + 22 I2
I2 = 0.124A
I3 = I1 + I2 = 0.103 + 0.124 = 0.227A
WK
I2 = 2A
I1 = 4A
UOK _ udO uU h d

qJA w ld UO U& WLO V
I3 = 3A
bNK wU udO uU h d

I4 = ?
qJA w WMO* b w UO WLO V
qJA
qJA w WMO* b w UO WLO V
R1
8
12V
R1
R2
R3
6V
12V
R2
9V
qJA
qJA
b?????????????????????
UFu*
b dUM b UNHu WOzUdNJ WUI* oU w X
WOzUdNJ b dUM s d dBM vK dF WOzUdNJ
uI wzUdN dBM u lu*U
(Capacitor).
wzUdNJ lu* u
wzUdN U qJ vK sA WOKL UM w WOzUdNJ WUD eU

UFu* dAM b c w mdH WOKL UM w UN
WHK* UNBzUB UNu
UFu qJ
lu* VOd
uN q WU U ULNMO qBH 5u 5ObF 5u s tUJ j w lu* uJ

lu* wu s u qJ qu pOdO s u UJO* pO s u XeU lA* u
tUJ j w lu* VOd WId qJA 5 qOu d
lu* VOd qJA
lu* qL WO
qJA w WMOL WOO{u udU WUFU luL mdH s WOJOUJO dIH c w gUMM
UdJ s qUL b bu c luL vK oD dO bN k qJA wH
luL wu sO bN d bu wUU u q vK d
w sOL S UHL bMF

V WUD uI qJA
uK vK uuL d UdJ
UL VuL UND UU luLK uKF
s UdJ s WU WOL lb uI
luLK wKH uK u VU UND
tLO b b w UO dL pc WO
bI R WOU WUIL WUu
WM tODF d UdJ uKF uK
vK d UdJ U UL Wu
lu* mdH s WOKL qJA
c R WU WM tODF wKH uK

luL wu sO bN d bOu v
qJA V WUD wD sO bNK U U tOu sO bN d `B v luL s dL
bN `B UbM Xu 10 luL wd vK bN `B v b w UO d dL
WUD bN luL bN sO d bu bF r t_ UO d nu WUD bN U U luL
luL kUO UHL ` sJL U uA luL tO `B c Xu w t ? qJA sO
uK s tuD t wzUdN U qJA uJ w luL wu sO uuL tM vK p bF
r bNK bBL dOB dH tb sJL b s luL qB bM VU uK v VuL
sA UO pc k d d UF v tu uF YO wzUdN qL tK bM tM mdH
luL wu sO WUF UL uu dE tH luL d dL WOU b w dL mdH
WOzUdNJ WF b
tOK 5F bN oOD bM lu UNe lOD w WMA bI* UO w (Capacitance) WF
bI (F) d(U UHK ed U rUF v W UH vL bu UI (C) d(U UN ed
:WOU WFU lu* WF
uuJ We* WMA
= UH WF
XuH u_ 5 bN' d

C=
nF UuUM F UdJO* b qLF c b U L{ uJ U (1) tF U Fu

U LK WOKLF UIOD w pF UuJO
U1 10-6 F UdJO*
U 1 10-9 nF UuUM
U 1 10-12 pF UuJO
lu* w We* WUD
uK v Vu* uK s tuD t wzUdN U qJ vK WOzUdNJ WUD lu* e

5 bN' d WLO ld WF WLO d{ qU l U d lu* w We* WUD VUMVU
WOU WUF*U vDFlu* wd
E = 0.5 CV2
YO
u'U WUI WUD WLO =E
UHU WUI WF =C
lu* wd 5 bN'= V
UFu* u
5OU 5L v UFu* rOI sJ1

WLOI WU UFu*
WLOI dOG UFu*
WLOI WU UFu*
WdA q s WF b; lu* u WLOI XU lu*

d bI tF bI tL vK q YO WFUB
iF qJA 5 tOd vK oD uL* bN'
b w Wb* WLOI WU UFuLK WFzUA UJ_
WOdJ
WUF U* uM U F WLOI WU UFu* u s
uOMu_ s 5I s uJ wu lu*
WO UFu qJA
XeU lLAU lA* u s WIO WI ULNMO

kH% WOzUOLO U0 nKG r U F WuL* nK
WOU U q s p XeU uK2 wbF U w rJ dOG wbF U w

WOu UFu* WF d bze Wu s lu* kH vK bU* u w eF
UFu* bXu 600 bF U U UNKOGA Uu UdJO 4 UuJO 3000 5
lu* Ud; w qOGA UFuL WOu
U s WOA u_ c b WOJO UFu*
u* u iF s u `zUH s U {u WOJO
dOu sdOu WFzUA WUF WOJO
5KdOu UudJOu
U ju UJO* s WIO `zd s uJ UJO* lu
WIO WID UN UJO* `zd vKD b WObF u 5
WOJO UFu qJ
w lu* vL WObF* u_ q q WCH s

UNM d WU WID nKG wCH UJO* lu WU( c
qOu Ud
Uu UL UObF UI tON wDG pOdO s u s uM c uJ pOdO lu

lu*
dOGB UNL dOJ UNF UFu* c eO2 s WOOdJ WOzUOLOJ UFu*
uOMu_ s u w UI b s Vd UFu* s uM c Q qJA 5
uK q WUM WOzUOLO U0 WFA u s WI uOMu_ bO s WU WI wKH
uK qJA dL WcG bN l lu* qOu bMF uK uOMu_ s u uOu_
U tu UF ju u tOK Vd* uOM*_ bO `B luLK Vu* VDI wKH
luLK VU VDI uKF uK u WI qJA ULMO bO

s uM c q bMF wzUOLOJ luLK Vu* VDI vK b WOHO qJA 5
d db' WOU d_ bN' WDI l Vu* dD qu WOdJ b w UFu*
WDI* WOzUOLOJ UFu* b sJ1 UL tHK UH v R wzUOLOJ lu* WOD fJ
d* UO w
sJ1 lu* wu wD u bO_ UI VOd WDI* dO WOzUOLOJ UFu* lMB
d* bN' dL* bN' UB l UFu* c b
WO WKu dH UNMe bM UNHK UNOD 5 U d u WOzUOLOJ UFu* U s
tHK UF UH'
VU VD
Vu VD
U
wbF u
uOM* U
wJO
wzUOLOJ lu* VOd qJA
b uOUM b sJ1 WOOdJ uOUM UFu

w lu* vL uOMu_ s
U9 UN WOOdJ uOMu_ UFu s WHKJ d w uOUM lu WU( c
d( W dOG l UNF U UNL dGB uOMu_ UFu s UNdOE vK
se bM UNO d u
:(Variable capacitors)
WLOI dOG* UFu*
dz qJ vK UM uOMu_ s Wu `zUH s UFu* s uM c uJ

`zUH s WuL l qbU `zUHB cN `L WIdD bK qU u vK WUCO
qJA w 5 UL uN w UFu* s uM c w WUF U* uJ WU* w UN WU d
l{ V UNM WHK UF vK uB( sJ1 ud eN w U U UFu* c b
lu* WF uJ WU `zUHB l U OK b
`zUHB qb UbMF iF l UNCF UNKb u_
dGB UNLO bM WF uJ U OK uH* l{u v `zUHB b UbM U vLEF UNLO bM
Ue dOG UFu qJA
b (Trimmer Capacitor) oOb jC lu rU dF dOG* UFu* s U u UM
od s U p rWuKD* WLOI j{ dG WF w WHOH dOOG b w WU( uJ UbM

jC wd WDu 5uK 5 WU* dOG
UFuLK WOMH UH
u*
hzUB) c r uKD* ULF rz* lu* UO UNu0 r WMOF WOM hzUB UFuLK
WF
r vK WuJ UuJO UuUM UdJO*U UNM dF* luLK WOL WLOI w

lu*
dI* WOKOGA WOuH
WID UON v R WLOI c U& lu* vK dLU UNDOK uL* uBI WOuH w

r UF WI pL l U d WLOI c VUM tHK v R U2 lu* wu 5 uu* WUF
lu* r vK UNLO qO s d* dL* bNK WMU dI* WOKOGA WOuH s dOF
Wb UH
Wu* WMU tM dF WOL WLOI s t uL* vB_ d u
d( W qUF
b Wu W d( W dOG l lu* WF bI dOG u
d* UO
W bM tM dF dI* WOKOGA WOuH jOK bM wzUdNJ UF w U dL* UO u

WMOF d
eF WUI
WMOF d W bM tM dF dI* WOKOGA WOuH jOK bM wzUdNJ eF WUI w
dI
se s WMOF b vK b d w qB c Wu* WMUlu* WF WLO dOG u
UFu* qO
u
wK UL u vK wu vK UUI* UL UFu* qu

c UF WUL WHUC TUJ wu vK 5Fu q wu vK UFu* qOu
uL TUJ UF WUL tO b luL LF wu vK 5uu* 5Fu* wMF
5uK 5 WKUH WU* l U OJ U UM VUM WF U0 5Fu* w UF wUL
WOKJ WF WLO iOH v R UF WUL U S
wu vK UFu* qOu qJA
5Fu* vK WOzUdNJ WMA uJqJA w 5 u UL wu vK UFu q

5HJ* wu 5 bN' d uL UO (VT)wKJ bN' d UWU
VT = V1 + V2
Q
CT
Q
C1
Q
C2
1
CT
1
C1
1
C2
uKI U W&UM WUJ* WF uKI SUFu bF wu vK qOu WU wd vMF0
WuL* w lu dG WF s q WUJ* WF uJdHM* UFuLK WHK* UF s q
WOU WFU vDF WUJ* WF WLO uKI Swu vK UFu* s n b q
1
CT
1
C1
1
+
C2
1
+ ...... +
C3
1
Cn
u vK UUI* U WUF* U c t qJA WUF* cN k
U??????????????
uKD* wu vK Wuu (C3 = 2
F) (C2=3 F) (C1=4 F) UFu W
WuL* cN WOKJ WF U

q????????????????(
1
CT
1
C1
1
+
C2
1
C3
1
CT
1
4
1
+
3
1
=
2
13
= 0.92 F
12
lu* u WU WHUC TUJ u vK 5Fu qOu u vK UFu* qOu

uL TUJ Wu WU tO b luL LF u vK 5uu* 5Fu* wMF c
U S lu* u WU l U d U UM VUM WF U0 5Fu* wu wU
WOKJ WF U v R lu* u WU
u vK UFu* qJA
q wd 5 bN' d uJ WU( c wqJA w 5 u UL u vK UFu q

5Fu* wM uL* WU uJ WOKJ WOzUdNJ WMA U(VT) bB* bN' U U ULNM
QT =Q1 + Q2
CTVT =C1VT + C2VT
CT =C1+ C2
uL* U W&UM WUJ* WF SUFu bF wu vK qOu WU wd vMF0
vDF WUJ* WF WLO Su vK UFu* s n b q dH* UFu* UF d'
WFU
CT = C1+ C2 + C3 + ...... + Cn
vK Wuu* UUI* rO lL q lL& u vK Wuu* UFu* UF rO k

WH bN' WLO UNOK oD u vK Wuu* UFu* UL wu
U????????????
WOKJ WF V u vK Wuu UdJO UNM q WF UFu W
WuLLK
q????????????????(
CT = C1+ C2 + C3
CT = 5 + 5 + 5 = 15F
sAK wMe XU
U_ RC rU dF w UUI UFu s WuJ* WOzUdNJ b q9 U tu

Ucc* WOdJ Uu* U UCM qOJA XOu s bbFK WMU
WUI lu mdH s WOKL wQ ULO UMM
sA WOKL
b UH* bMF qJA w UL WUI wzUdN bB WUu U lu* sA

U dI dH `B v hUM YK U O dO UO b w d1 wzUdNJ bB* s sA lu*
`B v U Ob be r dH sA b bM lu* wd 5 bN' d uJ sA UN bM
sA WUN bM wzUdNJ bB* bN' U dI U U
bN vMM
W
sA
Vs
Vs -Vc
UO vMM
1RC 2RC 3RC 4RC 5RC
se
Vc
lu* mdH s vMM qJA
sAK wMe XU
bB* WOu WLO s 63.2% v WOd 5 bN' d qB v lu* sA se dF
WO WUF*U tLO vDF lu* sA wMe XUU

= RC
YO
WOUU wMe XU
_U WUI*
UHU lu* WF
WLO s 63.2% v lu* wd 5 WOuH qB YOlu* s vMM qJA 5

wMe XU WLOI WOU WOMe dH WUN w wMe XU WLOI WU WOM d w bB* WOu
v qB WM lu* wd 5 WOuH WLO be u (2RC) U iIM s bF
U lu* s r sWdEM WOUM scJ wI* e'
(5) U WOM d d bF sJb
s
63.2%
U2bB* WOu WLO s 99.3% v lu* wd 5 WOuH qB(5RC) sAK wMe XU UF{
tKLQ U uA lu* U s UMMJ1
v U Ob hUMU cQ r sA WOKL b bM U O dO uJO lu* s UO WMU U
WOM d w wzb* UO s 37% v qB WM UO qI usA UN bM U dI dH `B
U iIM s bF wMe XU WLOI WOU WOMe dH WUN w wMe XU WLOI WU
cJ wI* e' s d 37% v qB WM UO qI u (2RC)
U????????????
uKO(200) WUI* WLO UdJO lu* WF d qJA w
WKU uB lu* sA se lu* sA wMe XU V
q????????????????(
= RC
= 200 x 10+3 x 2 x 10-6
= 0.4 S
WOU wKO 2 5 0.4 5 wMe XU sA s
mdH WOKL
o lu s WMA mdH bM b U vK dFMUFu* s WOHO vK UMdF bF
5 sA U lu qOu r UbM tM

W
mdH
C
bN vMM
1RC 2RC 3RC 4RC 5RC
se
lu* mdH s vMM qJA
tM mdH lu* b WUI wd

lu* wd 5 bN' d cQ WUI*
5 u UL w vMM o U Ob hUMU
wd 5 WOuH qB YOqJA w
WLO s37% U dI 36.8% v lu*
XU WLOI WU WOM d w wzb* bN'
5 bN' WLO qI u 2RC U s bF wMe XU WLOI WOU WOMe dH WUN wwMe
U qJA lu* mdH r sWdEM WOUM scJ wI* e' s 37% v qB WM lu* wd
lu* wd 5 bN' qB 5RCsAK wMe XU UF{ 5 U WOM d d bF sJb
U qJA U dH lu* U s UMMJ1 U2 wzb* bN' WLO s 1% v

UFu* eOd
WbtF w UL WLO qOGA bN WF q t WOMH UHu* lu* r vK lD

UHu* c WUJ d b U r uBI qOGA d W
UNM d( U_ tO b wL u U UNM lu* r vK
wu u U
qLA rOI c tOK WuD tUuKF uJ UFu* rEF
WF W pc lu* bM qLF c bN' WF
cN ned b UdJO*U U Lz WF uJ WF
UuUMU WF wMF
UFu* eOd qJA
VJ UO_ s dO w V d( tF rd vDF bN'

V d(
b' w WMO* d( WUu lu* WF w UHWb WLO bb% r Wb
wU qJAU W{u d U vK WK_
p bF d r U W s uJ ed 5LO v UO s U uu uJ lu* k
w u ud c dOH W 5L
pc 2 U S dC qUF u YU rd UuJOU WF w UO s 5L
cJ 1000 w WdC WF wMFO 3 U 100 w WdC WF wMF
d( U 10% wMF K d(U Wb b U_ l c d(
d(
UH
1%
2%
5%
bM qLF c bN' b% d( l w U W ULd
10%
lu*
20%
30%
20%wMFO M
U????????????
p wMF UL 474K63 wU edU dR lu
q????????????????(
w lu* WF 10000 dC qUF uJO 4 u YU rd UM
UdJO 0.47 U c UuJO 47 x 10000 = 470000
10 % w WF W K u W U_ bF c d(
63 bN' U* c w bN' b K d( bF 63 ULd
UuJO 47 47 UO s 5L b$ Xu
UFu* UD
WO UD_ U/ b v WOdJ WOzUdNJ b w Wb* UFu* dF b
u dBI
lu* idF s b ZM b c UF UON WO U F lu* wu UB s qDF c ZM

c t uL* b( s td W UNO lHd d w tKOGA t UON WOu s vK WOuH
qB b b WCHM WUI tUI UO bM lu* wDF YO U uO UFu* UD d s qDF
dH v
WUI tQ dB lu*
tBzUB) UF ju bIH UbM U qDF c ZM tUI UO bM WU WUI wDF
WUI tQ dBO
WuH
wzUOLOJ luLK b UL UH td b UBH s U qDF c ZM
WF dOG
s d WF WU( c w lu* wDF

s p ZM uK qJA q dI* tF
WOB dE s qOGA d
lu* WUI UOI qDF c UA sJ1
WF UO UN b s WU( c w b
WLOIU UN' d WUI lu* WF UOI
eN d db' lu* r vK WK*
u_ w du X WOLd WF UO
qJA lu* hH dO_ b sJ1
WUI 1Fs UNF be w UFuLK wzb
qJA UHU UNLO b r Wb w WCHM
"U p b WOU WLO bM X v wb
dO_ UN WUD s lu* s WOKL s
WODIU dO_ UN lu* qu U V
wLd WF UO UN qJA
WOB ZzUM vK uBK WOB
WK
WOU qL' qL
................................................................ UNb WOzUdN dUM UFu*
.............................................................. s tUJ j w lu* uJ
w UFu* w wzUdN UF Wb* WUF u* ?
................
................
................
................
...............
................
................................................................................. WOzUdNJ WF
pc b dO b UNMJ ........................... w WOzUdNJ WF UO b ?
WOU WF UO b WOKLF UIOD w b
............................ Ue ............................
............................ Ue ............................
............................ Ue ............................
................ .................. .................. w qu W lu WF 5F

............. ................ l U d ................. l U OJ VUM lu* WF
.................................................................... s wu lu* uJ
............................................. ? se u lu* sA wMe XU
luLK UF VOd `{u U ODOD U L r
wOdJ lu* VOd `{u U ODOD U L r
dOG lu VDI* wOdJ lu* U e lu WOU UFu* u r
U e
d luLK WOMH UHu* r d
UNM
(6)
wU WF UdJO
(4)
_ WF 5Fu q s W&UM WOKJ WF V

u vK r s wu vK UdJO
V (2000) WUI d sA UdJO (7.4) tF lu sA wMe XU V

WKU uB tMA se
WOU UFu* WUI UO bM UNOK uB( lu* dO_ UN d d
................................................ UdJO (40) tLO UD_ s U lu
UdJO (6) tLO UD_ s U w wOdJ lu
tOu UB UF UON v U2 t UON WOu s vK WOuH dF lu ?

lu* r q lu* u s uBH td b UdJO tLO w lu
WOU UFuLK UH W WF WLO V
............................................................... (2n2k) tL vK uJ lu
.......................................................... (22M1KV) tL vK uJ lu
................................................................. (104) tL vK uJ lu ?
b?????????????????????
UM* UOK WOU_ U*
UM* UO dAM b c w (DC) dL* UO l wOz qJA UMKUF WIU b w

UM* UO bu s WOOz uB tOK qB clUB* uO w ULF lzUA
(AC)
tBzUB UdL* UO s UO c eO1 c ULUdNJ Wd WDK bzUF

gUMUM* UO bOu WOHO eO2 hzUB 5M U c vK b c w VO$
uD d d q t WIKF* WOU_ rOUH*
dL* UO s UM* UO eO1 c U

WOU UIM w dL* UO s UM* UO nK
dLL bN bB WOD U V p se dL U WLOI XU dLL UO
qJA tUd U fJFO UML UO U U XU dLL UO qJA
jI b U& w d dL* UO qJA
fJFM UML bN bB wd WOD qJA tUd U fJFO UML UO U
dLU dOG UML bN UOK WOEK WLOI UL VU VuL sO qJA
d sOL tUd U fJF UdNJ Wd WDK t Ue c UML UO se l
bu WOU w
qJA tUd U& fJF UM* UO qJA
uI w WOdJ bOu dLL UO bu UUD s dLL UO vK qB

bu s WOOz uB tOK qBM UML UO U dL UO v UF UML UO qu
UML UO bOu WOHO UI dAM UdNJ Wd WDK bzUF UML UO
b WuN p UML bN iH ld WOOUMGdNJ uL b sJL
v dF d v u s dLL UO qu eN bF U bI w dzU
U WLE w UML UO UL v c wOzd V u c UHJ WCHM bIF
rUF U lOL w WOzUdNJ WUD lu qI
( Waveforms )
WOu* UJ_
wu* qJA se d0 UO bN' WLO w dOG j/ 5 wUO r s U wu* qJA
b WDu dL* bN' UOK wu* qJA UM sJ1 rOI j s U dL* bN' UOK
bM Wd d UNH rOI bM bN' UO UUO qO UML S qJA w WMO* WDO
qJA w 5 u UL rOI j vK qB u se l bN' UO 5 WF vMM r
dL* bN' UOK wu* qJA qJA
wC dL UO
WUI* d UO lODI UH UMb U

dL UO Wu vK qB u rEM qJA
qJA w 5 u UL WOC
se
w Ub$ w Uu* UJ s bbF UM

wCM dL* UO qJA
Wu* u_ pK 5 sWOzUdNJ b
s uJ w bIF* Uu* UC UM UCM UAM* s Wu WK* Wu* WFd* Wu*WOO'
WHK d bM UuJ* s bbF
UuLK WFzUA UJ_ qJA
UM* UO bOu
bOu dU vK tKL b w UM* UO bu bLF

w d qu w W&UM WdOQ WOzUdNJ WFb uI
w 5* jO UM* UO bu uJ wOUMG U
5D 5 u u WU Wd b nK s qJA
ULNOK 5OU e wIK tOUN XK 5OOUMG
U YO 5IK( 5U vK UIeM udJ s UUd
qL 5UdH l WOU WUI XK ULbK WU
jO UM* UO bu qJA
tHB d WU UI U&U U b UbMF bK

ULMO wuM' VDI s dIU U* w qH_ v _
5HBM b w dOQU bu* bN' S cN wULA VDI s dIU vK_ v d tHB d

v R bN' c wu vK 5UD XK u UL U U9 d nBM w dOQU bu* bN' rb
WOudJ dH e wIK d qL( WUI w wzUdN UO ob
tU{ w WKU eM u U nK* Wd lU pOK bN' c bOu r nO d wJ

WHK*
90-0 l{u
U* uD nK* u 5 dH We uJ UbM
wOUMG* U* uD) Wu nK* d Wd uJ
WEK c w dOQ bN UM uJ UNFDI
wOUMG* U* uD lDI b v nK* b U
v qB v UHU bN' c b dOQ bN tO buO
s b d nK* lDI YO W (90) We bM vLEF tLO
qJA
qJA w `{u u UL uL qJA U* uD
180 - 90 l{u
bN' b W
(90)s
b W be UbM
UbM U* uD s q b lDI nK* _ UHU
qJA
d dH bu* dOQ bN' `B W (180) We qB

5 UL wOUMG* U* uD) U u d nK* _ WOU
qJA w
270-180 l{u ?
bN' b W(180) s b W be UbM
c w sJ WOU d U* uD lDI t_ UHU
WMU tOd U& UJF V nK* tOD fJFM WEK
qJA
bM rE_ VU bN' qJA wOUMG* U* uD)

U* uD lDI WDIM c w nK* _ W (270) We
uL qJA
360 - 270 l{u ?

b b UNO b w WDIM u nK* t UbM
5* bN' vMM vb dHB u WOU UHU bN'
WOO Wu qJA YO WOO Wu rU (36) qJA w
qJA
nKLK WKU q bM b
bOu uI dOG UO u UdNJ Wd s lUB* U?M* qB c UF wzUdNJ UO

WOU q w WOO Wu (50) bu wUU bu WOU w d (50) bF0 b dO WOzUdN bu
WMe U W bu WDu WOzUdNJ WUD UD w UM* UO bOu r
td - U2 bOIF d WIOI( w bu* c uJ
Generator Three-Phase Synchronous
w 5D s d b UL wzUdN fOUMG0 rzb fOUMG* b UHK* s d b b

WOO Wu qJ UNK b UM* UO bu bB* ed db c d; Wd V bu*
UOE( dOG tOD WOD t b% Ud UNM d
Frequency
d
U dOG qLA UO bNK WKUJ Wu*

mK v dHB s beU b YO WOEK UNLOI
mK v fUF* U& w beU b p bF dHB v uF v hUM r Vu* vK_ b(
d l WLEM uB jLM c dJ d d dHB v qB v hUM r VU vK_ Ub
UI(f) d(U dK ed( Frequency ) d b WOU w bu* Uu* b vL se
( Hz) .d(U UN ed edO vL bu
90
WOO WuL
nB w 25 qLJ qJA w WMO* WOO' Wu*
WKU b
U Ud S wUU bu WOU w 50 WOU
180
270
360
rEF U w qLF* UM* UO d edO 50

d qLF b* Uu U edO 50 U rUF
tU t q UOzuA d c q UO sJ r edO
WOO' Wu* qJA
uI dO d bF t b; WLOI s d UH
UbM 5FK WuK uB U FDI u{ wDF wKOH UB*
UO qI w Wb* _ WUI UH v R d UH UL edO 40 v d iHM

UM*
Wu 25
WOU nB
qJA
edON UHUC b c b WOU d b UB ueHK ud U w

WO
edO 1000 (KHz) edO uKO
edO 1000,000 = (MHz) edO UGO
edO 1000,000,000 (GHz) edO UO
d(U UN ed b se r UM* UOK bu b UNdG w WOMe dH vK oKD
(f)d uKI U T
T=
1
f
WF cN d_ qJA

f=
1
T
b se qJA
U????????????????
Wu* b se V edO U UdNJ Wd t Ue c UM* UO d

UO c
q????????????????(
T=
1
f
T=
1
50
= 0.02 S
U????????????????
Ud V WOU 0.0166 WOU wKO 16.6 U b UNM WOO Wu
q????????????????(
f=
T=
1
T
1
0.0166
= 60 HZ
UO bNK WOO' Wu* UUO
r cN wL b wO UM bN u UdNJ Wd bu t Ue c wzUdNJ bN'

VO vMM qJA YO s l seK WMU bN' dOG
W Wb WE( bM WOuH WLO s dOF sJ1 c We
vLEF WLOI
WOEK rOI
V() = Vm SinWO WFU b
YO
0
90
180
270
360
b W bM bNK WOEK WLOI V()

bN' Wu* vLEF WLOI Vm
b W VO Sin
w bN UNGK WLO vB UM s WF s
WOO' Wu* qJA
uJ b U U U uJ UbM UNO qBVm
dH U UbM dH U uJ UbM dHB mK bN WLO S pc (90 ) WU
qB UbM (1-) U U UbM uJ bNK WU vLEF WLOI U (180 ) (
0
(270 )v
t se We Wd Wb WOM WE bM bN WLO s dOF sJL pc
V(t) = Vm Sint
WO WFU
WFU vDFbu WOU w Wu* UNKLJ w WKUJ b b w We Wd
= 2F
edONU d F YO
bNK WUML WOO WuL

wJ WLOI w dLU dOG UO
dC sL dQ WOO Wu UI
d bu WU rOI iF dF
Amplitude U bb bb WHK
qJA sO WOO WuL

U uO d_ W dD
UO bNK WOO' Wu* UUO qJA

(Maximum Value)
WU w
(Vm )d_U
vLEF WLOI
bN' WU w UN ed UO bN' UNGK w uBI WLOI w
vL (Im ) UO
WOO Wu* vLEF WLOI qJA 5 (Peak Value) c WLOI UC
UdNJ Wd t Ue c UM* bNK vLEF WLOI WU Wu* WLOI v dHB j s UI
Xu 311 mK
(Peak to Peak Value)
WLI v WLI
d_U bN' WU w UN ed WU WLI v Wu* WLI s WOO' Wu* U s dF w
v WLI s WLOI S dHB j) WMU dUM WUM* WOO' Wu* U0 (IP-P) UO WU w (VP-P)
vLEF WLOI nF{ U WLI
vLEF WLI 2 WLI v WLI WLO
(Average Value)
WDu* WLOI
nB b vK WOEK rOI s WuL cQ WKUL* UB_ UuLK WLOI c U(

Wu* wHBM rOI c U b w V UMOF b vK UNLI rOI c lL$ jI Wu
uL U Wu* rOI uL dH U WU( c w WOEK rOIK d' uL* u
WO WFU vLEF UNLO Wb WOO' WuLK WDu* WLOI V% WU rOI
x 0.637 WDu* WLOI

2
V(av) =
x Vm = 0.637 x Vm
vLEF WLOI
(Iav) d_U UOK WDu* WLOIK ed UL (Vav) d_U bN' WDu* WLOIK ed
(Effective Value)
WUFH WLOI
5 b w dL* bN' UO s UNH WLOI qUI UN_ r cN WUFH WLOI XOL bI

bN' Ubu w Wd( bI U Wd b WUI w bu c dL* bN' UO WLO UN
UO cQ s tOK qB c UM* bNK vLEF WLOI uI p vK UL UM* UO
UNODF w Wd( bI s tH bI* jCU wDF bN' c Xu (311) U eM* w UF
eM* w UM* bNK WUFH WLOI S wUU Wd d fH X%dL* bN' s Xu(220)
Xu (220) U
WO WFU WOO' WuLK WUFH WLOI vDF
vLEF WLOI x 0.707
vLEF WLOI
WUFH WLOI
Wu w WOEK rOI ld ju* wFOd c' WId bU U O{U
0.707
qUF 5F
(Root Mean Square Value :RMS). UFd* ju c WLO r WUFH WLOI vK oKD cWKU
WUF* b V p bM vLEF WLOI v WUFH WLOI qu% UMeK U UU

WUFH WLOI x 1.414 WUFH WLOI x
vLEF WLOI
U????????????????
WLO XO eM* w UF UO cQ s UNOK qB w UM XuH (220) WLO
bN' cN vLEF WLOI V WUFH bN'
q????????????????(
WUFH WLOI x1.414 vLEF WLOI
220 x 1.414 =
Xu
311 =
WLOI(IRMS ) d_U UN edO UOK WUFH WLOI U ( VRMS) d_U bNK WUFH WLOIK ed
WLOI c fOI UO bNK UOI eN rEF UL WOKLF UO( w Ub d_
(Phase Angle)
E1
E2
uD W
bNK WOO' Uu* w W rOI

d U w UdOG sJ1 w UM* UO
90
w WOzUdNJ Ub b u uDU uD

0
90
180
270
360
d Wu vK Wu UN dQ bI
sbu UMb dHM uD uNH Ò{u
buLU UML bN bOu UUL sOKUL
qJA
buL S Ub UM qJA w sOL

dHM 1 buL UN U w Wd fHM (2) buL S Ub se s d d bF (1)
sO b W w d UM uJO (2) buL U UbM (90) UbI W d d 1 buL
1 buL UNM w WOO WuL uI sJL pc WOM WE w (90) UbI sbuL
2(E2 ) buL Wu (90) UbI We buL UNM w WOO WuL vK (Leads) bI
W sbuLK bN wu (19)qJA w sO 90 UbI We (E1) buL Wu vK ( Lags)dQ

U WOO Uu l (16) qJA w 5 d uD d W uNH Ò{u ULNMO uD d
UNMO ULO nK ULMO b d
uDU
ldL Wu* UMb
S d_ Uu* UNF UIM
w UU9 UNF WIH uJ Wu*

j lDI UNS ? Wu* U uD
(90)bI0
Wu* s dQ dHB
s dQ ? Wu* UI cJ
(90) UbI We Wu*
j lDI Wu* S dO
?
UbI We Wu* bF dHB
dQ Wu* UI c (180)
(180)UbI We Wu* s
Wu* uI sJ1 UL

Wu* l uD w U U9 fUF
qJA
WK
WOU rOI V qJA w WMOL WOO WuL v udU
vLEF WLOI
WDuL WLOI
WUFH WLOI
WLI v WLI WLO
vLEF UNLO V Xu (240) U WUFH UNLO WOO bN Wu
WLOI V Xu (311) U UdNJ Wd t Ue c UML bNK vLEF WLOI
bN cN WUFH
WuL b se V edO U UdNJ Wd t Ue c UML UO

UO c
WuL cN b se V edO Ud Wu
WuL cd V WOU [U b UNM Wu
b?????????????????????
UM* UO
WO( WuF WFUL*
rEFL lUB* UM* w WOuO UMUO w WOzUdNJ bIK bOKI bB* u d* bN' bB
t W b t (AC) d bN bB vK qLFK WLLB WOzUdNJ UL_
w bbU UMA se vK bLF UNCF WOOUMG* vK tKL w bLF UL_ c s dO
UNCF nK* WFO t UNCF q WUI* WFO UN WOzUdNJ UL_ lOL XO qLK lU nJ
nJ* WFO t d
WHK WOzUdN UL qJA

(Re- WKUH*U vL?? UF 5M nJ nK vK u% dz w wzUdNJ UO Ud?? W{UF
vL?? WUI vK u% UO dz w wzUdNJ UO Ud?? WOKJ W{UF* _ UNb actance)
UNb (Impedance) tFUL*U
(Inductive Reactance) WO( WKUH*

UF WOJ WF u nK* ZMO UO c dOG UbM jI wzUdNJ UO Ud vK nK* dR
w nK* dL pc XU qJA dLU wzUdNJ UO dOG dOG* UO dz w UO w dOOG
XL edU UN ed WO( WKUH*U vL W{UF* c tUd UF WOJ WF u U
vK WO( WKUH* bLF
dMNU nK* WLO
WOU WFU vDF d
XL = 2
fL
XL = 2
3.14
d nK* WLO
nKLK WO( WKUH* d ULKJ
U????????????????
UO bI V 50Hz d 10Vp-p bI bN bB l q 10 mH tO nK

tO U* UFH
iL
V= 10VP-P
f= 50Hz
q????????????????(
XL = 2
L=mH
fL
= 2 x 3.14 x 50 x 10 x 10 -3
= 3.14
qJA
nK* w U* UO WLO U uU b r WO( WKUH* WLO WdF bF

I=
Vrms
XL
V rms =
I=
V p-p
2
3.536
3.14
10
2
= 3.536 v
= 1.13 A
WO( dzb w UO bN' 5 WF

w WU; WLO V p dQ sJ WO( dzb w bN' tO dOG c Xu fHM UO dOG
WE( uBI tLOI UO qB bN' tO dOG c Xu fHM UO dOG jI WUI vK u% dz
Imax =
Vmax
R
uBI tLOI bB* bN u

bN' d
UO
R
se
qJA
uD UNK/ lOD UMMJ tOO tu WOUO UNUOMM0 UO uN' qOL UML v
UN*U vL WLOI* uD) c UJOUJO* w uI q9 UL UU9 WOKJ WLOI V WLOI
t WOLJ c bI t* u q1 YO u WOL qOL b rOI j tU t* dF
rOI j) WMU tu* c t bI q9
V
wK UL UN*U UO bN' 5 WF qO9 sJ1
w UL W UbI We bN' s UO dQ jI UHK vK u% w WO( dzb w

qJA
VL , iL
90 V
L
iL
iL
180
360
qJA
V
90
wK UL UN*U nK* UO bN' 5 WF qO9 sJ1
s dG dH s d We bN' s UO dQ pc UUI vK u% UHK* lOL

Ub w qB YO WO( WKUH* ULK We c be WUI* ULK We c qI YO
dH WUI* WLO uJ UbM v vK_
(Phase Shift) t We We c vL
45
bN' d
XL=10
UO vMM
V
R=10
qJA
WUI* l WO( WKUH* U p W W uJ dzb w

p uUO WdE vK ULU p r nK WUI WO( dzbK WOKJ WFUL* U(
XL
Z=
R2 + XL2
WO( WKUH* WUI* 5 uu
5 t W dzb w U* UFH UO WLO b WIU dzb w UDF* rOI vK ULU

UO bB* WN
dzbK WOKJ WFUL* WLO U r
Z = R2 + XL2 =
200 = 14.1421
wKJ UO WLO U uU b r

V=ZxI
I=
I=
V
Z
10
= 0.71 Amp
14.1421
(Phase shift) t We ULNMO We vL bN' s UO dQ WO( dzb w
= tan-1
XL
R
= tan-1
10
= 45
10
WuF WKUH*
q
v
d bN d vK u{u nJ 5 wU rd
bB* bN WLO l ULz VUM nJ* d vK WMA

qJA
q = Cv
UM nJLK dzb w s UO d1 YO bB* bN w rzb dOG l nJ* WM WLO dOG

bB* bN hUM UM nJLK dzb w mdH UO d1 bB* bN be
WLOI w dOG rz d* bB* bN U0

V
bB* bN l VUM nJ* WM U0 U&

Vm
sA UOKL wu V dzb w d UO d1

V(t)
UNKu mdH
q = Cv
dq
dt
cdv
i =
dt
i =
qJA
bN' qO9 sJ1 se l bN' WLO dOG YO WOO tu s U u dOG* UO U UIU UMLKF
VO' Wb
V(t) = Vm sin t
d v(t)
= Vm cos t
dt
d v(t)
i(t) = c
dt
i(t) = c Vm cos t
Im = c vm
Vm
Xc=
Im
U UI nJLK WuF WKUH* s U w Xc

Xc =
2fc
ULKJ d vK WuF WKUH* bLF pc WuF WKUH* XK nJ* WF ULK tQ k
WuF WKUH* XK d
WuF dzb w UO bN' 5 t* WF

bN' UO o YO UU9 WO( dzb fJF w WuF dzb w UO bN' 5 W W
UbI We
90
IC
I
V
90
V
90
270
qJA
u% dz 5 d We bN' UO o pc (R) WUI* s qOK b UM WuF dzb w

. 90 UbI t We jI nJ vK u% dz dH U W W jI WUIvK
0
45 UbI We bN' UO o WuF WKUH* l WUI* U UbM

0
45
R=10
XC=10
qJA
WUI* 5 UbI W uu uUO WdE vK ULU p r WOKJ WFUL* U(

WuF WKUH*
Z=
R 2 + X C2
XC
U????????????????
10V U bB* bN U WIU dzb w
dzb w U* wKJ UO WLO b
UO bN' 5 W W b
q????????????????(
dzbK WOKJ WFUL* U r
Z=
R2 + XC2 =
200 = 14.142
uU vK ULU
I=
V
Z
10
14.142
V=ZI
= 0.71 Amp
UbI We bN' o UO U WuF dzb U0

= tan-1
XC
R
= tan-1
10
= 45
10
XL
Z=
R2 + (XL - XC)2
XC
dOG* UO dz w bI

uC d( q WUD UJ s d qJ v u WU WUI w tJKN* bI
bF s U w (P) edU UN ed (True/ Active
power)
WOIOI( bIU wL bBLK ld
U nK w wOUMG U qJ vK We* WUD qL v d bN bB s WUD UI

tUFH dO WUDU WUD c vL tU& UO dOG UbM bBLK uF nJ `zUH vK wzUdN
(Q) edU UN ed (Reactive/ Imaginary power) WOUO)
WdUE bIU vL (Q) tUFH dO (P) WUFH bIK t lL s U wN WOKJ bI U
(S) edU UN ed (Apparent power)
WOIOI( bI
t v WOzUdNJ WUD c u qL v d bN bB s WOzUdNJ WUD UI bF w
WOzUdNJ bI u wzUdNJ U p vK UL wJOUJO wzu{ d WUDK d
d v UU9
+
I
0
Time
PP =VP x IP
Pav =Veff x Ieff
qJA
WOEK bIK wMe bF* U U w d v Wu* WJKN* WOIOI( bI

P=VI
bBLK UFH bN' V

qL( w U* UOK WUFH WLOI I
wJOUJO* UB( bu pc UI (Watt) u UNUO b
U????????????????
10A bI UO d1 220 v vK qLF U w WJKN* WOIOI( bI b
q????????????????(
P=VI
= 220 x 10
= 2200 watt
WOUO) WUFH dO bI

bB l UNKOu bM nK* nJ*U WUD se se WOU UN WOzUdNJ dUMF iF
s d tu UNKu% U U Wd w qL( bB* 5 WOzUdNJ WUD qIM d bN
dBMF dFO F pKN bI sJ wzUdN bN UM uJ qL( bB* 5 UO d1 WUD
WOUO b WU( c w UOK WKUH WLOIU bNK WKUH WLOI d{ qU dF UOL L
(Q) edU UN ed WOIOI XO
(VAR) UFH dO dO XuH UNUO b
Q=V
bBLK UFH bN' V

nJ* nK* w U* UOK WKUH WLOI I
WdUE bI
IT
VT
IR
IC
w WOIOI( bI U bU sJ1 WUF WU( w

bN d{ qU U qL( c UNu UNJKN
nJ vK qL( c u bI qL( UO bB*

vL pc WU e WKO UF 5M nK
WdUE bIU WUF WU( w S = VT IT dC qU
qJA
dO XuH w UNUO b

P=V
IR U Vd* qL( v bB* s tKIM* WOIOI( bI UC `{u s
r bB* s WU tOL cU nJ* wHJ ULMO dzb w bIK pKN* dBMF w WUI* uJ
tKIM* bI q1 rd c S = VT IT U dzb w WdUE bI WUI*U dJ qJA UNU
sLC IT UO p IR WUI* w U* UO s d bB* w U* IT UO lu vK WIOI
nJLK dJ mdH sA UO WUI* UO WU{U
IC
UO bB* bN 5 WOOU& WF 5 wU rd

IT
dzb w U* wKJ UO nJ* UO WUI*

IT =
IR
qJA
VT
IR2 + IC2
=tan-1
XC
R
`{u s uUO WdE vK ULU

IR = IT Cos
IC= IT Sin
b$ iuFU
:WOIOI( bI
P = VT IR
= VT IT Cos
:WOUO) bI
Q = VT IC
= VT IT Sin
:WdUE bI
S = VT IT
bI qUF0 We c U9 VO vL dzbK wKJ UO bB* bN 5 We w
We
WU wH WOzUdNJ dzb UuJ vK bI qUF wUU We c WLO bLF (PF=Cos
P = V I WUFH bI uJ 1=
U U dH
YO WU* WUI*
nJ* WU w dH tUFH bI uJ dH U W90 YO nK* WU w

dH tUFH bI uJ dH U W 90
dzb XU UbI t UI Ò bu dHB 5 Wd* dzb w bI qUF WLO d
p `{u wU rd WO dzb XU dU WuF
IL= I sin
S=
IR= I cos
QL= V I sin
P= V I cos
IC= I sin
QC= V I sin
S=
IR= I cos
WO dz UbI We bN' s dQ UO qJA
nK* w tUFH dO bI fUF nJ* w tUFH dO bI U WOU& WF k

U c UN nJ WU{U dzb w nKLK tUFH dO bI s hK WuN sJ1 tU ZM p s
Ò bu s t d bI qUF 5 vL
Series RLC circuit wu vK nJ nK WUI qO

u
bN' s dQ UO WO( dzb w nJ nK WUI vK VUG w u% dOG* UO dz
WKUH* 5 We U tOK 90 UbI We bN' UO o ZuF dzb w UbI We
0
wGK 5KUH* s U pc 180 w tuF WKUH* WO(

0
XL
UNM e d
90
90
dOG* dU dz w
XL = XC XU WUI dz
XC
XL > XC
XU WO dz
XC > XL XU WuF dz
qJA
UNb w WFULLK WOzUNM WKB; w WOzUdNJ b WFU2

(Z)
XC
XL
edU UN ed UN wzUdNJ UO d* b pK dUM
sJ1 tU uUO WdE vK ULU _ bu UI

WUF* V tOKJ tFUL* U
Z=
R2 + (XL - XC)2
qJA
uU V UO WLO wDF

V=ZI
I=
V
Z
UO bNK UFH rOI w V, I YO
U????????????????
dzb w U*UO WLO WOKJ WFUL* b
q????????????????(
2F
5mH
IK
WuF WO( 5KUH* U r WOKJ tFUL* U

XL = 2
=2x
FL
x 50 x 5 x 10-3
= 1.571
qJA
XC =
=
1
2 FC
2x
x 50 x 2 x 10-6
= 1591.55
Z =
R2 + (XL - XC)2
(1000)2 + (1.571 - 1591.55)2
(1000)2 + (-1589.98)2
1000000 + 2528033.22
Z =
3528033.22 = 1878.31
XL=1.571
90
90
XC > XL p bN' o UO WuF dzb
R = 1000
dzb w U* UFH UO WLO U r uU bU
I=
XC=1591.55
V
220
=
= 0.117 A
Z
1878.31
qJA
(Electrical resonance)
5d
UU UU WUD UI WKL lu w wMF u vK 5uu nJ nK 5 5d dU

ULNMO
IL
XL
Vf
IC
XC
V
IL
qJA
IC
IL
UO U nJL dBK dzb c qO9
IC
nK* UO s d UNO nJ*

IT
V
IL
s d UNO nK* UO uJ UbM nKL dBK qO9

qJA
nJ* UO
IC
UbM WOzUN WUIL WOU* WU( w dBK qO9
UOzUN bB* w UO d1 YO nJ* nK* UO U

(Resonance) 5dU WU( c vL WuH dz
IT
IC
c nK* UO nJ* UO U WU w 5d WU
IL
sJ1 UNM nJ* WFU2 nK* WFU2 U wUU wMF
qJA
5d d WLO U
XL = 2
fL
XL = XC
4
f=
XC =
1
2
fL=
fC
2
1
fC
f LC=1
2 2
1
2
LC
UO U bM UM 5d WU b% qJA w UL nJ* nK* l u vK WUI qOu bM

U w UNO WUILK jI WUJ dzb uJ iF ULNCF UC* ULNUU& dE nJ* UO nK*
.ZT = R 5d
IC
Vf
XC
XL
IR
IL
qJA
IT =
IR2 + (IL - IC)2
uUO WdE vK ULU

V
V
V
, IL =
, IC=
R
XL
XC
IR
IT2
= IR2 + (IL IC )2
IT2
IT2
V2
I2
V
I
ZT
V2
V
1 2
+(
)
2
XL
XC
R
1
1
1 2
+(
))
2
R
XL
XC
1
=
1
1 2
1
+(
)
2
XL XC
R
= V2 (
1
1 ( 1 - 1 )2
R2
XL XC
1
1
1
+(
-2
2 FL
R2
FC)2
wU rdU 5 u UL Ub$ bB* d WMU WFUL* dOOG b bM
ZT=R
f
qJA
f (Hz)
5d d bM R w UN WLO vB_ qB b ULz WFUL* U k

f=
1
2
LC
b U b qUF bM 5d uJ YO bI qUF 5% dz 5d dz vK WK_ s

bB* d sJ2 UO q d1 dzb w WOIOI( WUILK jI WU WOKJ WFUL* uJ Ò
bI qUF 5%
QC(VAR)
WOU UE* d c s b Wb
90
90
WUFH dO bI fUF nJLK WUFH dO bI

P(w)
d_ wGK 5bI s U pc nKLK
QL(VAR)
UNM e
qJA
wU uM vK bI UF WU sJ1 tU V = IR uU vK ULU

P = I2 R ,
P=
V2
(Watt)
R
Q = I2 X ,
Q=
V2
(VAR)
X
S = I2 Z ,
S=
V2
(VA)
Z
nK WUI0 UNKO9 sJ1 Ud; UuB WO UL WOzUdNJ UL_ rEF
qL
wKJ UO wKJ bN' 5 We U9 VO WLO V p 0.1 5 bI qUF WLO d
vMF0 nK* w WFzUC bI WLO XK Ò 1 s bI qUF d ULKJ WO( dzbK
%85 U b qUF WOKJ bI s %40 WFzU{ b wDF %60 U bI qUF
qC ULN WOKJ bI s %15 WFzU{ b wDF

u lUB* w WFzUC WOzUdNJ WUDK dOu p bI qUF 5 WU( d UM s
WOuO UMUO w Wb* WO( UL_ s p dO v
WU{ od s r bI qUF 5%
L=160mH
sJ w( qL( l u vK nJ
220V
50Hz C
tU{ Vu nJ* c WF w U

qLK
RL=60
U* bM R c vK WU
wU
qJA
0.95 v tF bI qUF 5 dzbK tU{ Vu nJ* tF b

ZT =
S1
QL
RL2 + XL2
XL = 2
ZT =
qJA
FL = 2
x 50 x 160 x 103 = 50.27
(60)2 + (50.27)2 = 78.28

VT
220
=
= 2.81 Amp
ZT
78.28
IT =
S1 = VT IT = 220 x 2.81 = 618.2 (VA)

QL = I2 XL = (2.81)2 x 50.27 = 396.94 (VAR)
P1 = I2 R = (2.81)2 x 60 = 473.77 W
5 q bK bI qUF U r UNO

Cos
P
473.77
=
= 0.77
S
618.2
QT=QL- QC
QL
S1
QL QC
qJA
Cos
= 0.95
5 bF dOG r WOIOI( bI U0

P2 = P1 = 473.77 w
P2
S2
Cos
=
2
S2 =
P2
Cos
Z2 =
473.77
= 498.71 (VA)
0.95
=
2
P22 + QT2
QT = QL - QC
498.71 =
QT =
(473.772 + QT2
(473.77)2 + (473.77)2 = 155.74 (VAR)
QT = QL - QC
155.74 = 396.94 - QC
QC = 396.94 155.74 = 241.2 (VAR)
220 V U bB* bN U nJ* bN U
V2
QC =
XC
V2
XC =
QC
(220)2
= 200.66
XC =
241.2
=
2x
bB* l u vK uu nJ* U0
1
x 50 x 200.66
XC =
1
2 FC
= 1.586 x 10-5 F = 15.86 F
b???????????????u
??
u??* U????
b?????????????????????
Semiconductors
WK
u* t u*
w u) q uOUd' uJOKO q WKu* t u* s WUFH WOdJ dUMF lMB

u* w U c YWKu tA u* s dJ suJ s b WHK* WUFH dUMF qL VOd
w Wb* rOFD WOKL UMWOzUdNJ UNBzUB uK c UNOd YO s WKu* t
Vu* qu* t (N-type) VU qu* t U WOIM WKu* t u* WOKu U rJ
(P-type)
vK U `B U c W bF pM lu
WUF dO dUM WUF dUM v WHK* WOdJ dUMF nOMB
wzUdNJ UOK UNKOu W w d WOIM WKu tA uLK uK c VOd dF
WKu tA ULK VzuA WU{S Wu* uH d( UdJ U d dF
(N-type) WU pK (P-type) Wu* WKu* t u* 5 u) w dH eO9
Electronic Devices
WOdJ d
UMF
w dUMF s 5OU 5u s UNu vK WOdJ b uJ
(Passive Devices) WKU) d
UMF
rJ WOKLF uI t UL UEM b w bI rOC dOJ WOKLF uI dUM w

U XU WU UNFU2 UNUI p v WU{ UNKLF uI v WKb U v u U
UFu* UHK* UUI*U d WU UNOK WDK*
(Active Devices) WUFH d

UMF
UO Ud rJ bN XFM dUM w

UOI vK U w dQ uB wzUdNJ
WU v qOu WU s UIqb WOKLF
UL rOC WOKL fJFU lDI
UOzUM ued dUMF c dN s
ued u WUFH dUMF iF qJA
WKUJ
ICWKUJ* b udU ub

qJA w WMO*
u* U UNOK oKD cuOUd' uJOKO q WKu* t u* s WUFH dUMF lMB

WKu tA u* s dJ suJ s b WHK* WUFH dUMF qL VOd w u) q
WK
u* t u* w WOLU jd
u* U WUM w Wb* dUMF r s (Ge) uOUd' (Si) uJKO dBM bF
dUMFK b b' s WFd WuL* sL{ lI UL
WM UF{ l WLOI Wu UNM uM c q9
+4e
uM
-e
WU WM UNM qJ UdJ WF UN jO% (+4e)dJ

qJA w UL
(-e)
Ò{u w UL uJKO dBM UMM bu c w
dJ
RUJ b
u* U qL
WKu t qO9 qJA
Ub w u% uJKO k oU qJA s

qF qOJA c dO Ub U W UdJ b nB UdJ l vK dO
Vu u `B UdJ l VJ qO9 Vu u `B UNUdJ bIH qO9 uJKO
s qLJ b vK uBK d l UNUdJU UA rU WUO uJKO uJ pc
WOLU WDdU WOKLF c vL WUA* WLU* c u b UdJ UL
edL t WOU UF WO (Crystal) uK WKJA uJKO lL WKB WU( w
l U0 bu uJKO c `L VOd c uK s q vK uJKO
d uJKO
uJKO UA
suJ WF UNUdJU
Si
l WOLU j l
w UL U* uJKO
Si
Si
qJA
Si
d?? ? ? ? ?( W?? ? ? ? ? b?? ?M? ?

o??K? D? * d??H? B? W??C? H? ? M? *
u??J? K? O? ? u?? ?K? ? d??B? ?
Si
RUJ b
p WOU WUIUF
U??d????J?? u?? ? ? b?? ?F? ?
WdA* UdJ
j?? w?? W??U??A? d??O? d??

uJOKOK uK VOd qJA
uK `D vK WOLU
d??' W?? U??H?U??
Si
d dJ
dJ WdG d?? v??
u
WOLU j??d?? iF
UL W??d??( WUD qFH
Si
Si
Si
qJA 6
WOLU WD
WuIM
uI UMMJ1 YO
s d UdJ Q
Si
RUJ b
` WOLU WDd
tUJ U U Wd( d
WdA* UdJ
WDd vK oKD U U
WOLU WDd dJ qJA
WKLJ* dO WOLU
WD U dJ UG Q WOUJ bu WKLJ dO WOLU WD uJ U w (Hole) u WKJA*
UM d WKLJ dO WOLU WD uJ W U U tUJ U U WuJ* uH b U WOLU
7
UdJ Wd Wd( s 5u eOO9 sJ1

WKLJ dOG WOLU jd Wd (Electrons)
w UdJ d YO Holes uH
qJA w UL uH Wd( fUF U&
uH UdJ Wd U& qJA
w uH bO 2 r U UdJ dHM

3 r s WUF Wd qIM uH U 3 r
2 r v
b U WOIM uJKO uK wWMA U uH UdJ vK oKD

uH UdJ
WOIM uJKO uK w uH UdJ b U qK R
(Doping)
WK
u* t u* rOFD
d( W vK bLF wN UO WKOK uJ uJKO uK w WuJ* WMA U U UMHK UL

dUM b UC uJKO WOKu 5 WOU WUI WKOK uJKO WOKu uJ pc
uJKO b q c c q% YO wIM uJKO uK v WU) WuL* WU WuL*
uK s UN WzUAU WUC* c vK oKD uK qOJA dOG vK qLF uK w
uJKO
b b' w WU WuL* dUM b WzU u (Doping) rOFDU uBI*U
uJ q U uJKO uK WOKu 5% q s p wIM uJKO uK w WU) WuL*
uOK WzU qJ WzU b WKOK VM rOFD
(Donors) WU* u*
WuL* dUM b s WU{ bM

w UdJ WL vK u% w WU)
uHHdO Ub
uHH Q
uJKO l l WOLU j WF qJA
UNUdJ s WF Wb uK w U
UL d fU) dJ vI 5 w WL)
v dJ c UC YO qJA w
d( W s W&UM UdJ uL
w UdJ b w U WKB; uJ
NtypeVU qu* tA qJA
XU uH b vI d WN s uK
_ WzUA c WU{ WOKLF dQ dO WLOI
dUMF c vL UdJ b U R WU) WuL* dUM b s WzU WU{ WOKL
(n-type)
VU u WLFD* uJKO uK vL (Donors) WU*U
d w UdJ UL WMA U s 5u UNb (n-type) u WLFD* uJKO uK

WMA U vL uH (majority charge carriers) Wd WMA U vL b
(minority charge carriers) WOK
(Acceptors)
WKI* u*
WuL* dUM b s WU{ bM

w UdJ W vK u% w WU
udO Ub
u Q
l WKLJ WOLU j W qJA
Wb uK w U uJKO
WOLU WD
WuIM
( P--type) Vu* qu* tAqJA
WOLU WD vI 5 w W UNUdJ
qJA w UL hole u WKLJ dO
uH b w U WKB; uJ d( W s W&UM uH uL v uH c UC YO

_ WzUA c WU{ WOKLF dQ dO WLOI XU UdJ b vI d WN s uK w
dUMF c vL uH b U R WU WuL* dUM b s WzU WU{ WOKL
(p-type impurities)
Vu* u WLFD* uJKO uK vL
(Acceptors) WKI* VzuAU
uH UL WMA U s 5u UNb p-type Vu* u WLFD* wIM uJKO uK

vL UdJ majority charge carriers Wd WMA U vL b d w
minority charge carriers WOK WMA U
p-n juction VU Vu WK
N-type
P-type
VzuA s dBMF wIM uJKO s uK rOFD bM

dD w WKI* VzuA s dBMF UNd b w WU*
n-type u uJKO s 5u uK w uJO d
junctionWKuU dF WKU WIDM ULNMO p-type u
WKu WIDM
P-N WK qJA
qJA w UL
d( uH UdJ d - qJA w
UdJ s qOK b uH s dO b vK u WKuK s1 dD k jI

U d uH s qOK b UdJ s dO b vK d dD u 5 w
d b WKu U v UdJ s d b uu dE WdA w WOzuA Wd WMA
uH dF 5 w 5LO v UO s WKu dF UdJ U WKu 51 v uH s
U uI pMJ1 ULKJ UO v 5LO s
N-type
P-type
UdJ bIH u VJ WU WdA

u bIH UdJ VJ Wu* WdA
UNH sJ1 diffusionUAU WOKLF c vL
WOUF WUJ oUM s UFU WMA U Wd
WCHM WUI
eM WIDM
WOU UNUI
WCHM WUI
vK WIDM* `B UA WOKLF WO WMAK

UO b P-N WK qJA
qJA w UL WU UNMO1 vK Wu WKu U

wzUdN U uJ vUA dU dL
WIDM w Wd( WKB `B UA w dL s WMA U lM9 WOU bA WKu wU vK

eU( bN vL UOzUdN bN bu* wzUdNJ U* ZM dHBK U U WMA U( WKu
U s U bN' w dH V Potential Barrier
vMF0 UNU e WKu d d9 w WU Wu* WMA

WIDM UNOK oKD UMA s WdH vI WKu WIDM
A
WOU eM WIDM u Depletion
RegioneM
WKu eU( WODu mK WOU WUI wN UMA s

WK vK oKD ju
tKJ wzUM e qJA
0.7
uJKOK ju
0.3
uOUd'
WdA d vL Diode wzUM r p-n VU Vu

qJA w UL Cathode jN*U WU WdA d AnodebFB*U Wu*
WK
WUM* UFU WOU UdH qL
p w tOK WOdJ dUMF WUM w Wb* WKu tA u* dN
u rOFD WOKL s bN WOKL w rOFD
v WU{S VU qu tA vK uB( sJ1
s qzU b vK VU qu tA u
s qzU b vK Vu* qu tA u
v WU{S Vu* qu tA vK uB( sJ1
b?????????????????????
(Diodes)
UOzUM
U& w UO lM1 b U& w UO d0 `L jNbFB 5d UF dBM wzUM
WKu t U s b Wd vK qJAp-n WK s u* U wzUM Vd fUF*
n u U*U qB* dD vL A d(U t ed u_U p u U*U qB* dD vL
wzUM r vK wzUM e lD U O r( dOJ UOzUMK WMUK d(U t ed uUJU
wUN b u UCO WIK UM U L dG_ UOzUM uUJ u UN u_ u UD_ `{uO
uK u WIK WDu uUJ 5 u_ bF UIK l WOUe UOzUM uUJ 5
wzUM qL n
bM UO d0 `L ULMO wU_ UO WU vK tKOGA bM UO qOu vK wzUM qLF

wJF UO WU vK tKOGA
(Forward Bias)
wU_ UO
uUJ qu ULMO bBLK Vu* VDIU Vu* uM u_ qu wU_ UO WU w
(ON) qOu WU w UH tQ wzUM dB WU( c w bBLK VU VDIU VU uM
UO dd9 vK qLF b WCHM tOd 5 WUI*
wU_ UOqJA
[ s be bN WLOI uUJ s WOU d u_ uJ UbM U OU UM wzUM dcU db'

bN' u ? bN' c dF uOUd' wzUM WMU Xu [ uJOKO wzUM WMU Xu
(Vf) d_U t ed wU_
oOC eM WIDM
wU UO WU w wzUM qJA q1

Vu* VDI dF u qOK WuN
VU VDI uHK bB u WUDK
uH S pc UdJ bB u WUDK
U&U c& WUDK Vu* VDI s UB
VU VDI s UB UdJ WKu
wzUM qL WOqJA
dL fUF* dD s WKu U&U c&

w WKu UI WU( c w eU( WOu eM WIDM d s q hUM R l{u c
WKu d d9 5dD s Wd WMA U U eU( WODu UBIM wU UO WU
(holes) Wu* WMA U Wd WKB; U U wzUM w U* wKJ UO uJ d v d s
s ZM (p-type) Wu* WdA w U* UO U d ULKJ (electrons) WU WMA U
Wd s "U (n-type) WU WdA w U* UO 5 w (holes) Wu* WMA U Wd
s "U wU UO WU v wzUM w U* UO U uLF vK (electrons) WU WMA U
Wd WMA U Wd
(Reverse Bias)
wJF UO
uM uUJ qu bBLK VU VDIU Vu* uM u_ qu wJF UO WU w
dB b WFHd wzUM wd 5 WUI* `B WU( c wbBLK Vu* VDIU VU
d wzUdNJ UO d0 `L (OFF) lD WU w UHL wzUM
wJF UOqJA
b U& w UO d0 `L c U& U ULB qL tA wzUM qL `C cJ

fUF* U& w UO d lM1
uu U OzUM qJA q1
Wd WMA U V `L WIdD wJ UO WU w
WKu 51 v uHWu* WMA U V vK wU) bN' qLF YO WKu s bOF
w U s tId U eM WIDM d eO WKu U v UdJWU WMA U
l eM WIDM
wWcG bB WDu s dI eU( WDu

WMA U WKu w d1 l{u c q
W q UNLO bLF bF WKOK w WOK
wJF lA UO vL dOG UO WM d(
(reverse saturation current)
wzUM qL WOqJA
wzUMK eOL* vMM*
d UO W `{u vMM* c uJOKO U s uMB wzUM eOL* vMM* qJA 5

wJF wU_ UO WU w p wzUM wd 5 bN'U wzUM
wU_ UO
s dEM iG uJOKO wzUM Xu [ U dI U (Vf) wU_ bN' u vMM* 5
wzUM d U* (IF) wU_ UO WLO
wJF UO
d9 b WFHd wzUM WUI uJ WU( c w wJF UO eO2 U C 5 vMM*
Vd UO vL tUL sJ1 YO b dOG UO
wzUM nK v R c UO ddL b wzUM UNM WMOF WDI s wJF bN' e UbM
wJF UON bN bN' c vL
wzUMK WOMH UH
u*
wzUM UO bM U w nU wzUM b bM UNUd V w wzUMK WOMH UHu* r s

wK UL WMOF w tb
wU_ UO
nK wU_ UO WU w wzUM d1 sJ1 UO vB u
vB_ wJF bN'
c UO ddL b UNM q wJF UO WU w wzUM tKL sJ1 bN vB u

tHK v R
Wc WLOI (VRRM) dJ* wJF bNK uBI WLOI bb UFU uI UOzUMK WFMB* UdA
b(PIV) wJF bNK

b bN' c bF U wzUM qOGA S 5U( w vB_ wJF bN' s
WOdJ b w b WFzUA UOzUM iF UHu U 5* b' 5 tHK v R
IN5402
IN4007
IN4148
OA91
OA47
Si
Si
Si
Ge
Ge
uJOKO
uJOKO
uJOKO
uOUd
uOUd
IV
1.6V
1.0V
2.1V
0.6V
(Vf) uBI WOU_ WOuH
3A
1A
100mA
50mA
50mA
(IF) vB_ wU_ UO
220v
1 KV
75V
115V
25V
(VRRM) dJ* w JF bNK uBI WLOI
WOuHK bu
WOb*
WOuHK bu
WOUF
u?? ? ? ? ? M
U?? ? ? ? L?
U wzUM
WU d
nU
ULF
b'
wU_ UNULF U* U I bOuK UOzUM U UOzUM v UOzUM rOI U UO d

iHM wU bN u VKD U UOzUM U U9 WHK 5H s qJ UOzUM UKD uJ
dG cN WUM uJ uOUd' UOzUM S UM s
wJF bN' s WOU rO qL% vK U d WN s .uI bOu UOzUM uJ V

dG cN uJOKO UOzUM qLF pc wU_ UO s dO rO
W?UG vB wJ bN dO WUG qB vB wU UO U qJA d_ WOJK ub du
dI wU UO du Wd b vK VOdK WLLB* d_ WuKI* ub U Xu
dO v dO 5 U d
UOzUM U
w UL _ UOI UD l{ w uM vK _ UO UN bU wzUM U sJ1

w WFHd uJ V wU_ UO WU w WCHM uJ V _ d qJA
dOu_ UN d WOD tuM VnU wzUM dF p dO U wJF UO WU
uJ WOKb UN' WUD _ pVu u_ dD VU dL_ dDWuJF uJ dR*
WuJF
WFHd WUI
wJ UO
WEHM WUI
wU UO
wzUM UqJA
vK qLF wzUM U eO2 pK1 c (Digital Multimeter) UUOI bF* wLd UOI UN
k rOK wzUM Xu [v [ s d w wzUM wd 5 wU_ bN' u WLO UO
qJA
UUOI bF* wLd UOI UN WDu wzUM UqJA
W
U) UOzUM
hzUB) s bOH dO UIOD uu WLN UNKeOL* UHB UOzUM s b u UM
UNOL_ WU) UOzUM c u iF vK UM UMd w dBIMUOzUM cN eOL*
(Zener Diode)
wzUM dM
UON b YO UF* wzUM Vzu s WeL* UNzu be WOuJOKO UOzUM w dM UOzUM

WKCH dM uN WOJ UON uN U U& dM UOzUM du U O q U I b rO bM wJF
Xu[ Xu[ Xu[ Xu[ Xu[ Xu U* qO vK UNM
b U BOB UOzUM c XLL b Xu v cJ Xu Xu Xu
d ob* wJF UO WLO U r U nK s wJF UON WU w qOGA UM bu* d(

lzUA tKJ dM wzUM e wU qJA 5 Izm dI* uBI WLOI dMe
lzUA tKJ dM wzUM e qJA
d wU_ UO ob `L YO UF* wzUM q dM wzUM dB wU_ UO WU w

WLO tOd 5 jK* wJF bN' WLO mK v UO d0 `L s tS wJF UO WU w sJ
U U tOd 5 bN' vI wJF U& w UO dMe d1 WDIM c bM bM rLB* Vz dM bN
dM wzUM eOL* vMM* qJA `{u d ob* wJF UO WLO w dOG s rdU
dMeK WOMH UH
u*
b bM UNUd V w UHu* r s
dM wzUM UO bM U w nU dM wzUM
wK U WMOF w tb
(Vz) dMe bN
b dMe UbM UNM c wJF bN' WLO w
s rdU U U bN' c vI wJF UO ddL
wJF UO WLO w dOG
(Pzm) uBI bI
dMe wzUM eOL* vMM* qJA
WU w wzUM Ub sJ2 uU b vB w

WOU WUF*U vDF nK wJF UON
PZM = IZM VZ
dM UOzUM u iF UHu b' 5 wJF UOK uBI WLOI w (IZM) YO

WFzUA
WK K
bI
uF
du* uN' b
BZY 88 series
500mW
wU
2.7V to 15V
BZX 85 series
1.3w
wU
5.1V to 62V
BZX 61 series
1.3w
wU
7.5V to 72V
BZX 55 series
500mW
wU
2.4V to 91V
BZY 93 series
20W
wd
9.1V to 75V
BZY 97 series
1.5W
wJO
9.1V to 37V
IN 5333 series
5W
wJO
3.3V to 24V
(BZY88C9VI)U*
qO vK dMe bN UNO wLM w WKK dMe r vK lD UFU

Xu uN dMe bN U (BZY88) WKK v wLM dMe wzUM wMF
dMe rEM
qb bN w dOG s rdU WLOI XU WcG bN dOu UNHO s U u dMe rEM
UON uM vK dMe qLF b c wdM wzUM b bN rEM qJA 5 qL( UO

qL( qB cJ dMe l uU (RL) qL( qu Vu* VDIU uUJ qu YO wJF
(Vz) dMe wd 5 XU bN' vK
dMe bN s d bB* bN WLO uJ V rEM dO bN bB s rEM* WcG r
bN (RS) WOKK WUI* qu p ULCXu WKO wJ UO WU w dMe UI sLC bI0
w dMe qL UL{ dMe WUL UO WLO bb%
WMU UL u wJF UO WU
bN sJ1 U vK qL( UO uJ UbM rOEMK
RS- 5LOI 5
UNLO dBM sJ1 U q qb

WOU WUF* V max RSmin
RSmax =
VIN(min) - VZ
ILmax
RSmin =
VIN(max) - VZ
RSmin RS < RSmax

dM rEM qJA
Izmax
uJ YO
YO
bB* bN
VIN
dMe bN
VZ
qL( UO WLO vK
ILmax
nK dMe tKL WLO vK
IZmax
dM wzUM bU bN rEM dz rOLB WD WId wU U* w bIM
U????????????????
20-5 5 U dOG qL( UO Xu 20-15 s dOG bB* bN U bN rEM w
.RS wu WUI* WLO d b Xu 68 dMe bN U S dO wKO
q????????????????(
RSmax =
RSmax =
VIN(min) - VZ
ILmax
15 - 6.8
20 x 10-3
RSmax = 410
(50mA) wb UO UNO d w UIOD VUM uM c s bN' ULEM dcU db'
UL uKD* dMe bN vK uBK wu vK dM UOzUM b q sJ1 t tuM V q

qJA w 5
dMe wzUM U
U w l* uK_ fHM _ UO UN bU WFd uB dM UOzUM U sJ1

UIU UL WbOKI UOzUM
dzb UM sJ1 W d ZzU vK uBK
UO s UMMJ9 w qJA w WMO* WDO
wJF UON uM w dMe wd 5 bN' u
dI* dM bN' U U uJ V c
(Light Emitting
uCK lA* wzUM

Diode-LED)
wu vK dM wOzUM qqJA
t u (LED) uCK WFA* wzUM eO1 U

w u WO t wzUdNJ UO d bM uCK
uCK WFA* UOzUM dFwU_ UO WU
vK bI U WU v U bOH WKO
UNL Ue* s dOJ w WbOKI WKOH ÒUB
UNOu wKOGA UO s q bI UNUO
WOUF
bOHu s (LED) uCK WFA* UOzUM lMB
dMe wzUM U qJA
b uJ uOUG bOHu bOO s uOUG
b bF uCK WFA* UOzUM du dO wKO 5 U d WOU UO bM WLz UNU

X% WF WFA* UOzUM du UL _ dC_ dH_ wUId dL_ w u_ s
du u1 bF s rJ b w b w WOzd* dO (Infra-Red) dL(
vK fO wzUM WK UNM WuMB* U* u vK uCK lA* wzUM tM c uC u bLF
5 uOUG bOHu s lMB dC_ uCK lA* wzUM U* qO vKwzUMK wU) G u
uCK WFA* UOzUM u iF qJA
WFzUA UNUJ Ue uCK WFA* UOzUM qJA
uCK WFA* wzUM l wu vK WUI qOu U eK WUM WLO bM wU_ UO s bK
WUI* WLO V% qJA w 5 UL
WOU WUF* WUu
RS =
VS - VF
I
wzUM d wU_ bN' u

(2)
(VF)
(VF)
YO
d sJ1 bB* bN (VS)
u vK bLF wU_ UOK WUM WLO I Xu

WUILK WKCH WLO d UO wzUM r
(RS)
qJA
U????????????????
wKO uCK lA* wzUM UO Xu bN' bB WLO XU qJA w
d wU_ bN' u rKF l wu WUI* WUM* WLOI V dO[dO
Xu U wzUM
q????????????????(
RS =
RS =
VS - VS
I
12 - 2
0.02
RS = 1000
UU& Xu s be WCHM uCK WFA* UOzUMK WOJF UON uN U V

d uN l qUF w b w p v WU{ wzUM UD v R
lA* wzUM l fUF u vK bOKI wuJOKO wzUM qOu dC s
qJA w UL uCK
qJA
Vd(Seven Segment Display) `zdA wU UF dcU db'

UOzUM s WuL vK UL rd dNE uCK WFA UOzUM l s
b s d u qJA dNE qJA w 5 UL WMOF d w TC
uCK WFA* UOzUM vK UNOd w bLF dF
dF b qJA
uCK WFA* wzUM U

w l* uK_ fHM _ UO UN bU WFd uB uCK WFA* wzUM U sJ1
w WMO* WDO dzb UM sJ1 W d ZzU vK uBKUIU UL WbOKI UOzUM U
qJA
(Varicap)
UJU uF wzUM
UJu (Varactor) uU (Varicap) UJU q WHK WU& UL X% wzUM c ZM

(Voltacap)
bN' WLO dOG wzUM c UNbI w WF WLOI rJ sJ1

w 5* uF wzUM eOL* vMM* dNE tUD 5 jK* wJF
s iHM uF wzUM UNbI w WF WLO qJA
dH s wJF bN' WLO l bM U dI pF
W wJF bN' wzUM WF 5 WF wMF c Xu
wJ VUM
uCK WFA* wzUM UqJA
WOdJ nOu w dOG nJL uF wzUM b

wzUM q YO ueHK UN w duO uMI VM b q
s sJ U2 U JOUJO dOG* nJ* q uF
W WOdJ VOUQ uMI nOu U
UO WU w uF wzUM v UdE
u nJ* dUM t b$ qJA wJF
(N)
U*
(P)
U* q9 YO bOKI u_
WKUI WIDM* VFK ULMO nJ* wu

d nO qJA 5 UF ju
oD* wJF bN' UU e WKUI WIDM*
w WF UH v R U2 wzUM wd 5
Ò fJF wzUM UNbI
uF wzUM eOL* vMM* qJA
uF wzUM qLqJA
b?????????????????????
(Rectier Circuits)
ud eN q WKOK U w
(D.C)dL
.uI
WcG bN v WOdJ eN_ rEF U%
eN_ qB% U( rEF w sJUUD s bN' c vK qB% WU( Wued

b vL WU b YO
(220v/A.C)UF UO WJ s dL* WcG bN vK WOdJ
WOdJ eN_ WcG VUM dL bN v dOG* bN' qu (Supply Power) WcG
uI bN
WcG bu wUL jD* qJA
WcG b qd s WKd q WHO hOK sJ1 WcG bu wUL jD* qJA 6

w uM vK qJA w WMO*
iH) u
wdJ UN' WU V p WUM WLO v (220v/A.C) UF bN' iH) u; b

.uI
b U& w uI bN v (A.C) WOO' bN' Wu qu uI UN_ WcG b VK w
Òd
dO .uI d bN S pc b rU XU WcG bN v WOdJ eN_ rEF U%

Òd v U U dI WLOIUU bN' c `B v WLOI XU dO t_ VUM
bN' rEM ?
p oOI% VFB s U OKL WLOI XU d bN WcG b wDF V WOU* U( w
d) bN dOG v UR sJ1 U UM
Xu 5 dOG q XU fO UF bN'
bN iH WcG b s UO V wzUdNJ qL( ULK XU dO wzUdNJ qL(
Ò fJF UNd
wzUdNJ qL( qb bN w dOG s rdU d) bN XO rOEM b pc
bN' ULEM dzb c vL
.uI tu* nB .uI w .uI s WHK U/ W dIH c w gUMM
dDMI .uI uD WOzUM WKUJ Wu*
(Half wave)
tu* nB uI
v(220v/A.C) qb bN iH vK u; qLF YO tu* nB uI qJA 5

wzUdNJ qL( dL* UOU tcG uKD* UN' qL WUI* U WU( V WUM WLO
wzUM uJ Vu* b nB d
WMU Vu bFB* YO wU UO WU w
220V
RL
w UHL wzUM dB WU( c w jNLK

qL( d UO d0 `L (ON) qOu WU
tu s Vu* tu* nB qL( d d1 cJ
WOO' qb
tu* nB uI qL b qJA
jNLK WMU Vu bFB* YO wJ UO WU w wzUM uJ VU b nB

w VU tu* nB d1 wUU qL( d UO d0 `L
(OFF)lD WU w UHL dB
qL(
Wu* nB uI d qJA
sJ1qJA k WLOI XU dO uI bN v Xu% b bNK WOO' tu* k

WOO' qb Wu d fH u UCM d q tu q qUI d WC bu t WE
WFU WU( c w bNK WDu* WLOI vDF bu WOU w WC (50) UM S wUU
V(AVG)= 0.45Vrms
(Power Supply Filters)
WcG b Ud
uF `d*
fO WcG b `d S tUJ j w

.uI d wd 5 uu lu s d
qJA w 5 UL
b
(C1)
lu* v bN WC u bM
vLEF WLOI v tOd 5 bN' qB v sAU

WC UH bMqJA k(Vm)bN' tCM
uF `d l Wu nB uI qJA
(RL) qL( WUI w mdHU (C1) lu* b bN'
cJ bN' tCM vLEF WLOI v sAU b YO d bN WC qB v mdH w dL

.WCM bN' vLEF WLOI U dI U XU u bM bN' vK UH( U lu* k
WOU WFU vDF (VOUT)lu* wd 5 d) bN S wUU
Vout = 1.414 Vrms - 0.7
YO
uLK uU nK* bN' WUFH WLOI uILK cG* bNK WUFH WLOI V
bN' u WLO 0.7
.uI wzUM d
m??d??H???? s?? ? ?A? ?
tM ZM l??u??L?K? nOHD
U??O? W?? ? ?d?? u?? L? ?? ? b?? N? ?
v??K? v??K? V??d??U??M? ?
ULK XU dL* bN'
Òd U q uL U
qC
Òd lu qL qJA
(RC) :
`d*
`d* s tOK qB c dL* bN'

UuL s WFHd W vK u jO uF
lu WF WLO Ue UuL W iOH sJ1
5* u/(RC) `d bU rOFM
d `d s U b c qJA w
d dL* UO dd9 vK qLF WCHM
dH U dL* UO d qL( v iHM*
100 50wUF d uL bN d lM9
Ud* u qJA
d) bN UH w `d* c WO edO
R WUI* wd 5 bN' uN WO
(LC) :`d ?
VKG - cJ qJA (L) oU) nK*U (R) WUI* bU oU (RC) `d 5% sJ1
.oU) nK* nOUJ r w `d* c WO WUI* d bN' u WKJA vK
j WDI u bU WKU Wu uI
WKU Wu uI qJA 5
wzUM j WDI u bU
u 5OzUM b c b uD
S ju WDI iQ bMj WDIM
uJ uU nK* d bM uN'
t wMF c W 180 bI0 WUF
uJ U u A WDIM bN uJ UbM
WDIM WMU p U U (C)WDIM bN
(A) WDIM bN `B UbM (B) ju
U u (C) WDIM bN `B U U
qb tu* Vu* nBM
(C) WDIM Wu (A)WDIM uJ WOO'
j WDI u; WKU Wu uI qL b qJA
(B)ju
WDIM WMU p WU
UO WU w (D1) wzUM uJ wUU
d qL( WUI w Vu* tu* nB d1 cJ wJ UO WU w uJO (D2) wzUM U wU

(D1).wzUM
WDIM WMU p Wu (C) WDIM WU A WDIM uJ WOO' qb tu* VU nBM
nB d1 cJ wU UO WU w(D2) wzUM wJ UO WU w
(D1)wzUM uJ wUU ju
(D2).wzUM d qL( WUI w VU tu*
qU uI eO2 w c tu* wHB UM w qL( d U& fH w d1 UO WE sJ1
wC bu t WE V qL( w jI b Wu nB d9 w tu* nB uI vK tu*
UCM d q tu q qUI d
wUU WOO' qb Wu d nF{ u
UL bu WOU w WC 100 UM S
WU( c w uI* bNK WDu* WLOI
uI* bNK WDu* WLOI nF{ U
Wu* qU uI d qJA
Wu* nB uI s UNOK uB( - w

WFU vDF
V(AVG)= 0.9Vrms
qLF uF `d uI* d w qu

rU dL bN v uL* bN' qu% vK
WFU vDF(Vout) lu* wd 5 d) bN
WOU
Òd nJ l uD wzUM Wu* qU uI qJA
Vout = 1.414 Vrms - 0.7
YO
.uI wzUM d bN' u WLO 0.7
(Bridge Rectifier):
dDMI uI
UO d1 YO Wd .uI UOzUM l s b uJ k UL dDMI uI qJA 5

qU uI w UL j WDI u v U dDMI uI UL jI b U& w qL( w
w?? u??D? w??zU??M? t??u??*

uI U% l??u??
u?? ? ? v?? ? d??D? M? I?
bN' iH l 5Q
uKD* u* v
n??B? M? U?? ? M? ? ? w?? ?
qb Wu s?? V??u??*
(D2) (D1)
UOzUM uJ
w??U?? U??O? ? W??U?? w??

w??zU??M? ? d??? U??O???? d?? ?1
(RL)qL(
WUI (D1)
(D2) wzUM
n??B? M? U?? ? M? ? ? w?? ?

qb Wu s?? VU
D4 D3 UOzUM uJ
dDMI uI qL b qJA
w??U?? U??O? ? W??U?? w??

s WKK vK
(RL)qL(
qB cJ (D4) wzUM
(RL)qL(
WUI
(D3)wzUM
d UO d1
uI d vK qu (50HZ) WOO' qb Wu d nF{ (100HZ) Ud WuI* Uu*
(100) s d WOU WF ULO lu dDMI
u ULwCM bN' rOFM vK qLF UdJO

qJA w 5
vDF(VOUT) lu* wd 5 d) bN
WOU WFU
Òd lu l dDM uI qJA
Vout = 1.414 Vrms - 1.4
YO
.uI wzUM d bN' u WLO 0.7=
WKUJ* dDMI UuI b sJ1 UL WKI .uI UOzUM WF bU dDMI uI UM sJ1
qJA `{u WF_ UOzUM vK UNKb u% w
WKUJ* dDMI UuI* WFzUA UJ_
WKUJ* dDMI UuI* WFzUA UJ_ qJA
WKUJ* dDMI UuI UH
u
tb dDM uI UO nU dDM uI b bM UNUd V w UHu* r s

wK U WMOF w
(I )vB_ wU_ UO
FM
nK dDMI uI d1 sJ1 wU UO vB u
(V
RRM
vB_ wJF bN'
5* b' 5 nK wJF UO WU w dDMI uI tKL sJ1 bN vB u

WOdJ dzb w b WFzUA dDMI UuI iF UHu U
uM
wzUeOH qJA uF
IFM
VRRM
VM WKK
d WKUJ
0.9A
800v - 200v
DF WKK
d WKUJ
0.9A
800V - 200V
WO WKK
WOuD
1A
800V - 50V
SKB2 WKK
j w
1.6A
800V - 200V
KBPC WKK
WFd
6A-2A
800V - 200V
KBU4 WKK
j w
4A
880V-200V
SKB25WKK
wuJU uLG
35A-6A
1200V-200V
WODI wzUM WcG bB
v WMU VU bN d Vu bN d du WcG bB v U% WOdJ b iF

w 5 u UL WODI wzUM WcG bB vK uB( j WDIM u dDM uI b sJ1 _
t U ULO Òd lu v WU bN d q k qJA
WODI wzUM WcG bB qJA
.uI UuJ U( W{ WKN bu
Òd lu
c r WLz UHu0 .uI l b* ULOJ Òd lu lL V

UdJO*U lu* WF dI* qOGA bN UHu*
dI* qOGA bN
qB bM .uI b lu* d) bN s d Òd lu* dI* qOGA bN uJ V
tu bN' vLEF WLOI U dI UF qL WU w tu* qU uI d bN uKF* s qL(
WU w uU nK* bN WOO' qb tu bN' WUFH WLOI nF{ d (1.4) WOO' qb
uI sL{ wU_ bN' uN WO U dI Xu 2 wA iF d) bN iHM qUJ qL(
WOU WUF*U (Vout) d) bN wDF dDMI
Vout = 1.4 V 2 VF
YO
uU nK* bN qb bN' WUFH WLOI V
wuJOKO .uI wzUM Xu 0.7 U wU_ bN' u VF
luLK dI* qOGA bN uJ V 5F U gU vK uB( qO w U q vK
uU nK* bN nF{ qb bN' WUFH WLOI nF{
lu* WF
WU bU UM t uL* uL bI vK qL( UO vK VUM* Òd lu* WF bLF
UdJO*U Òd lu WF vK bUI c hM WUM* Òd lu WF WLO U( WDO
U b' w u rOI dO_U qUJ qL( UO UF{ 500 v 200 5 d V

UIOD rEF l
UdJO*U lu* WF
qL( UO
dO [
dO [
dO [
dO
dO
s d
dO
b'
lu WF dG_ WLOIU UH UJU tS bN' rOEM b Wu .uI uJ UbM
Òd
.uI UOzUM
WLOI w UHu* c r WLz UHu0 .uI w b* wzUM lL V

.uI wzUMK dI* wJF bN' wU_ UOK uBI
(IFM)
vB_ wU_ UO
q qbF wGM bO U gU dOu qO w qUJ dDM uI WKI UOzUM b bM

qLK qu* UO WLO nF{ d 1.5 mK vB wU UO vK dDMI uI wzUM
(VRRM)vB_
wJF bN'
bN' nF{ UF vB wJ bN vK .uI wzUM q qbF wGM bO U gU vK uBK

.uI sL{ wzUM t dF sJ1 c vB_ wJF
w WHK* .uI dz w .uI UOzUM UN dF w WOJF uN' rO U 5* b' d

w Wb* UOzUMK dI* wJF bNK WdI* WLOI b' 5 UL WuF Ud b
.uI
b u
wJF bNK uBI WLOI
dI* wJF bNK WdI* WLOI
uF `d l Wu* nB uI
bB* bN' vLEF WLOI nF{
bB* bN' WUFH WLOI UF{ WF
uF `d l uD wzUM Wu* qU uI
bB* bN' vLEF WLOI nF{
bB* bN' WUFH WLOI UF{ WF
uF `d l dDMI uI
bB* bN' vLEF WLOI
bB* bN' WUFH WLOI nF{
b'
U????????????????
(220V/12.0.12) j WDIM iH u b uD wzUM tu* qU uI
Òd lu 5uI
wK U b dO 2 bI dL UO wzUdN qL cG b
UuILK dI* vB_ wU_ UO
UuI* t dF c vB_ wJF bN'
UuILK dI* vB_ wJF bN'
dI* vB_ wU_ UO
1.5mK vB wU UO vK wzUM q qbF wGM bO U gU dOu qO w
qL( UO WLO nF{ d

dO 3 2 1.5 dI* vB_ wU_ UO
UuI* t dF c vB_ wJF bN'
Xu 16.8 = 1.4 12 bB* bN' vLEF WLOI

b' v udU
bB* bN' vLEF WLOI nF{ wJF bNK uBI WLOI
Xu33.6 = 16.8 x 2
(Voltage Multipliers)
bN' UHUC
pKWLOI WCHM UO WOU uN v WOzUdNJ eN_ iF w WU( d

bN' UHUC vL WU WOUF uN' c bOu b ndJO* d w Wb*
bN' WHUC r YO
(Voltage Multipliers)
b rOLB V d* s b (Vs) wzb

(2Vs, 3Vs,4Vs, ..) uN vK uBK
VS
wzUdN qL
VS
Vi
b d bN' WHUC qJA 5

wK ULO UNKL hK w
nB 5uI s uJ UN b& b XKQ

bN' WHUC qJA
nBM w qJA w UL UF 5uu Wu

(D1) wzUM Wu WDIM uJ WuLK Vu*
vLEF WLOI v (C1) nJ* s r pc wJ UO WU w (D2) wzUM wU UO WU w
qJA w WMO* WODIU (Vs=1.41Vi) bB* bN' (Peak Value)
(D2)
wzUM wJ UO WU w (D1) wzUM WU WDIM uJ WuLK VU nBM w

s r pc wU UO WU w
(Peak vLEF WLOI v (C2) nJ*
(Vs=1.41Vi)bB*
bN'
Value)
VS
Vi
qJA w WMO* WODIU

VS
Vi
vK wKJ bN' `B pc

(2Vs) 5HJ* bN uL qL(
bN' WHUC qOK% qJA
UNKL d bN' WHUC b qJA 5 R

bN' WHUC b qJA
b?????????????????????
WODI wzUM ued

WbI
UbM wUuKF* dBFK v_ UMK XF{ U w
s 5d sU wKu 5OJd_ UeOH ULK s od sJ9
ued uL u* U u s bb wdJ dBM d
WUI* qu% (Transfer Resistor)wLKJ UB (Transistor)
b q1 ued U
w r( dOJ WOdJ UULBK U2
WOdJ UULB qJA
qJA kWOdJ eN_ w U IU UNb U
qOKI tN tFOMB WuN tHOUJ WK tL dG w ued eO r XK9
UNM XFM r( dOG ued U sJ se l WOdJ UULBU WUI WUDK
WKUJ* b rOLB v ued uD WHKJ q U n U L dG WOdJ eN
U OU Wb* uU( eN U wUU dOG eO w We* ued U vK u w

ued uOK (9.5) vK u% (PIII) dJO* ZUF*
U qJA ued b

WOzUdNJ U rCL
wzUdNJ UO qBH qB wdJ UHL
WO u_ v ued nMB
ued u
U* U WK
u ued
U* dOQ ued
WODI wzUM WK
u ued
Unipolar Junction Transistor

(UJT)
Field Effect Transistor

(FET)
Bipolar Junction Transistor

(BJT)
MOSFET
JFET
PNP
NPN
WODI wzUM ued VOd
uM s 5FD 5 P uM s WFD qOJA U ULNMuJ r PN wK s ued c uJ

ued c s Uu bu U_ c vK P uM s 5FD 5N uM s WFD qOJA N
WODOD ULu l ued s 5uM WOM qJA 5 PNP wU
NPN _
e ued WOM qJA
w W ued d
(E:Emitter) YU
(B:Base)bUI
(C:Collector) lL*
qL s UMd UO w UL_ c wUF `C u

UL rN d wDOD ed w YU eOL ued
Ud' WUF* WN' v rN dOA wzUM w U( u
vK bU U2 N uM s U* WN v dOA t UL UdJ
uJ NPN ued PNPued wDOD ed 5 eOL
YU 5 _ 5OzUM tKO9 sJ1PN wK s ued
5OzUM TUJ ued qJA
qJA dNE UL bUI lL* 5 wU bUI
(P) Uu UNUA Ud ULN s rd vK lL* s YU eO1 c U U pKF

U( eOd qF U2 lL* Wd w tM dOJ vK YU Wd w VzuA eOd (N)UU
w NPN ued w WMAK WOK_ U( dc wU w tM d v_ w WMAK WOK_
U qJA dNE UL Wu* uH uI w PNP ued w WU d( UdJ
b dOG UNJL WDu UNOKu uJ pc U O WCHM eOd WM eOL bUI
U F WHK u UJQ ued lMB
WOU bI qLF w ued UNb WFOD
bI qLF w ued U dO r uJ
ued l{udG r uJ WDu
tUL( WLJ WObF WOJO WK q
d d ULMO d_ Wu' quF Wud s
ued WFzUA UJ qJA
WKF pK s t W qOu
YO wU d b0 tK sJ1 U wbF UM WOUF bI ued be vd

lA lOD nU b d( bLK d( b* v ued s d( wbF* UM' qIM
ued WFzUA UJ qJA dNE uN v d(
qLF b
uN UB od s ued wKu VUM* UO dOu V wFO qJA ued qLF wJ

uJ YO ÒB UO WU w l{ NPN ued qJA 5 td v WOU UO
wU UO WU w YU bUI WK
wJ UO WU w lL* bUI WK
(VBE) bUI YU bN s dOJ d (VCB) bUI lL* bN uJ
NPN. ued w UdJ UO UdqJA
UNNOu (N) YU WIDM s UdJ v bUI YU WK w wU_ UO R

v ued bU w UdJ rIM bUI WIDM w UdJ b c U bUI u
5uL
od s WcG bB v r lL* v UNId lU(99%) UdJ s WIU WOK_
lL* WIDM0 qB* WUDK Vu* bN' dOQ Y% p lL* d
(IB)
bU UO d W bUI WIDM w Wu* uH l(1%) WOI* UdJ b

b dOG
vK lL* v UdO lU w UdJ b bLF
l UdJ c b e YO bUI WIDM WUL
ued rEF dF* s bUI WIDM WUL qOKI
UdJ rEF u v R U2 b WIO{ bU pK9
lL* WIDM v
UO (IB) bUI UO (IE) YU UO 5 WLN W bu
wU qJA vK U O{U WF c l{ sJ1 (IC) lL*
IE = IC + IB
uJ UJ YU UO S b dOG bUI UO U0

lL* UO U U
5 WOKb tUI dOOG vK ued bI p uF

dOG WUI TUJ ued qJA
lI dOG WUI0 ued tOA sJ1 c YU lL*

YU lL* 5 UNOd
WUI* XK bUI UO ULKJ ()qJA `{u ULbUI UO WDu UNLOI rJ r
uedK WOKb WUI* bUI UO q ULK lL* UO U v WR uedK WOKb
lL* UO q
w UO U U9 t qU2
PNP
ued S NPN ued WIU WAUM* XUM ULMO
s t pc k() qJA w 5 u UL
(Holes)Wu* uI Ud t PNP
ued
5UD fJ wGM ÒB UO q
PNP.ued w Wu* uI UO Ud qJA
WOU_ ued
W w tb bM d_ w dBM ued

qb* U dA td s b U d uJ V WOKL
s WHK OJA bu tOK UM b d
YU w ued UNO qLF sJ1 w b

k dA* lL* WdA* bUI dA*
qJA
(Common Emitter) dA* YU
dNE ULMO tU ued bU 5 qb U oD

S c vK tU ued lL 5 dJ* d) U
?
qJA k d) qb s q 5 dA YU

(Common Base) WdA* bUI dz
YU 5 qb U oD WdA* bUI w
ued lL 5 d) U dNE tbU ued
dOG WUI TUJ ued qJA
d) qb s q 5 WdA bUI S c vK tbU

qJA k
(Common Collector)
dA* lL*
5 uu* qL( wd 5 d) U dNE ULMO lL* bUI 5 dA* lL* U oD

? qJA k d) qb 5 dA lL* uJ c vK lL* YU
b UO r uBI U* iF s uK UNMJ eOL* bzuH iF q wDF
w ued b% w quFUNM Uu* WHOu vK UM WUM*
WO WUF* s tU sJ1 UNK UO b d UO 5 WM u

Ai =
:(Ai)UO V
IOUT
Iin
WO WUF* s tU sJ1 UNK bN b d bN 5 WM u (Av) bN' V

AV =
VOUT
Vin
WOU WUF* s tU sJ1 UNK b b d b 5 WM u :(Ap) bI V

bN' V UO V bI V
Ap = Ai AV
qb UO v qb bN W wU bB s d w WUI* qb WUI

d) UO v WuH b d) bN W wqL( s d w WUI* d) WUI
dBI b
UbU d) U bN Wu qb U bN Wu 5 uD W wuD W
b bI UO bN' rC wN U uO d_ dA* YU uI lOD
WOzUdNJ U U rCL
WOU Wud U bN rOC b UO rC bN' rC WdA* bUI
d
b jd qLF c WCHM d WUI WFHd q WUI0 U9 WUI UN dA* lL*
UFUL* oOu uL tH wU_ qLF eM WCHM UNUFU UL l WFHd WFU2
W dA* bUI
dA* lL*
dA* YU
dU
d (500) U
(1)b
d (50) Uju
WOuH V
(1)b
d (200) U
d(200) U
UO V
d (500)U
d (200) U
d(10000) b U
bI V
(200)WWOb
(100)KWWOU
(2.5KWWDu
qb WUI
(100)KWWOU
(100)WWOb
(20K)WOUWDu
d) WUI
W0
W0
W180
uD W
WOU_ Wued UC* eO2 b'
uedK UO V qUF
UO V qUF dFUNK UO rOC d UO 5 WM u UO V qUF U tu

qOu d b UM U0WOzUdNJ U rCL tKL w ued UH s ued w
UN U e cQ WMOF qOu WId qJ b UO V qUF WLO SbU ued
UO V qUF d) d u lL* qb d u YU uJ WdA* bUI w
WO WUF*U vDF edU t ed
=
IEYU UO v IC
lL* UO W w WU( c w
IC
IE
. 0.995 v 0.95 s U
WLO d YO
YU d uJ lL* w d) UO dNE ULbUI vK qb UO oD dA* YU w

lL* UO 5 WM u WU( c w UO V qUFqJA kd) qb s q 5 dA
dA* YU WU w UO VJ 5KUF vK ued UUO UL u% IB bUI UO IC
WO WUF*U vDF hFE edU t ed dL* UO WU w UO V wDF _ qUF*
hFE =
IC
IB
c w dFhfe edU t edWUM* dOGB U rOC WU w UO V wDF wU qUF*
IB bUI UO w dOGB dOG v
hfe =
IC lL* UO w b% w dOGB dOG 5 WM tQ WU(

IC
IB
qJA w 5* uM vKuedK eOL* qu vMM bU hFE hfe rO U sJ1
O{ uJO hfe WLO hFE WLO 5 dH QU OD uedK eOL* qu vMM U S
rO d
d 200 v 20 s WUF uedK hFE
uedK eOL* qu vMM qJA
U????????????????
UO tLO bdO dJO 600 tLO bU UO dO wKK 30 tLO lL UO qLF ued
h
FE
dL* UO V qUF WLO YU

q????????????????(
WOU WUF* s YU UO WLO vK uB( sJ1

IE = IC + IB
IE = 30 + 0.6
= 30.6mA
WOU WUF* s hFE dL* UO V qUF WLO vK uB( sJ1 UL

hFE =
hFE =
IC
IB
30
0.6
= 50
ued u UOMM
w ued u UOMM b v UO_ rEF w UOdJ rK w uB* UK

UM UOMM* c b UOKLF c q d VFB YO WHK* b rOLB qOK% UOKL
d) UOMM qb UOMM UL UOMM* s Uu
eOL* UOMM* vK UM dBIM UMMJ b w ued qOu j/ U UOMM* c nK
U uO ued d w dA* YU _ dA YU w tK bM uedK
Input Characteristics qb UOMM
S dA* YU WKu WMU d) bN U bM qb bN l qb UO jd w WF w

qb UO q1 (IB) bUI UO
qb bN q1 (VBE) YU bUI 5 bN' d
d) bN q1 (VCE) YU lL* 5 bN' d
cQ p uedK qb u rd () qJA w WMO* dA* YU b sJ1
(VCE) U) bN XO bM (VBE) YU bUI 5 bN' d (IB) bUI UO s qJ d
dA* YU u 5F WFzU U qJA
VCE U) bN' 5LO bM dA* YU WU w uedK qb u qJA `{u
wzUM u vMM dO b v tA c qb UOMM S `{u u UL
Ib A
300
bUI UO
200
100
0-25
0-50
0-75
1-00
YU bUI WK WOu
VBE
dA* YU WU w uedK qb UOMM qJA
Output Characteristics d) UOMM
d) UO 5 jd w WF UN vK tKOu WId s dEM iG uedK d) UOMM dF

S dA* YU WU w qb UO U bM d) bN l
d) UO IC uL* UO q1
d) bN VCE lL* 5 bN' d q1
qb UO
IB o UO q1
bM dK eO vMM q rd vK d) bN lL* UO s qJ UUO cQ d) u 5F

wK U d) u dNE dA* YU WKu d) UOMM qJA 5 bUI UO WU WLO
d) lL* UO w dO U v R qb bUI UO w Ue
ued(0.3V ) uJOKO s uMB* uedK
uBI WLO v
(0.7V)u
v d) bN u bM
(IC( UO qB U OJ bUI lL* WK UM
uOUd'
d) UO w WuK U v U OKL R VCE U) bN U w dL

30
IC
Ib = 250 A
Ib = 200 A
20
mA
Ib = 150 A
Ib = 100 A
lL* UO
10
Ib = 50 A
5
YU lL* WOu
10
VCE
15
20
dA* YU WK d) UOMM () qJA
ued qOGA oUM
WOU qOGA oUM b w WOM WE( w ued qLF

WOD) qOGA WIDM U C UNOK oKD w Active Region WUFH WIDM*
Cut- Off Region lDI WIDM
Saturation Region lA WIDM
qOGA oUM UNOK dA* YU b ued u UOMM* U u/
()
qJA q1
ued
WUFH WIDM*
S WIDM* c w ued qL bM WUFH WIDM* w uedK _ hzUB XdF o

U OJ UO UM uJ lL* bUI WK U U OU UO UM uJ YU bUI WK
dJ W lL* UO YO WOzUdNJ U (Amplier) U LC WIDM* c w ued qLF
Ic = hfe Ib bUI UO s
Ib = 250 A
lA WIDM
IC
30
Ib = 200 A
mA
20
WUFH WIDM*
WOD)
Ib = 150 A
Ib = 100 A
lL* UO
10
Ib = 50 A
lDI WIDM
0
5
YU lL* WOu
10
VCE
15
20
ued qOGA oUM () qJA
lDI WIDM
UUM lL* bUI YU bUI wK s q uJ UbM lDI WIDM w ued qLF
UO Ud p vK Vd qJA k dH bUI UO U UbM p b UOJ UO
WOu S WIDM* c w ued qLF WO tUL sJ1 wJF d UO vL b dOG lL
UH TUJ lDI WU w ued uI sJ1 lL* YU 5 U UNKUJ dNE WcG bB
qJA k (OFF) lDI WU w wJOUJO
lDI WU w wJOUJO UH UF lDI WIDM w ued qJA

(ON)qOu WU w wJOUJO UH TUJ lA WIDM w
lA WIDM
lL* bUI YU bUI wK s q uJ UbM lA WIDM w ued qLF
U OU UO UUM
UO w dc dOG v R s bUI UO w U S WIDM* c w ued qL bM
lA lL* UO WOK oKD WU qL( WUI UI d vK U dI UU dO_ UO vI YO lL*
5 WOuHK ed IB(sat) wFA bUI UO lL*U lA UO d v R c bUI UO dF IC(sat)
UbM uJOKO s uMB* uedK Xu 0.2 U wVCE(sat) edU lA bM YU lL*
qJA k (ON)qOu WU w wJOUJO UH TUJ tS lA WIDM w ued qLF
Darlington Transistor
uMO ued
uMO e dF ued s U 5 qJA

qB ULMO U F ULUFL qB sued UL(Darlington Pair
b ued U U dB WOd c d bUI ULb YU
5uJ* sued s q V d{ qU U UO V
bF bI UO w wUL V vK UNM uB( sJ1 wUU
UO s vK tLO lL UO
uMO ued qJA
(Q2)wU ued qLF
UM_
WOKLF UIOD s bbF w pc (Q1) _ ued lL

v_ WKd* w VJ wU dOG U ued ULF wGM
lL* UO qL% vK U ju VJ ued ULF (Q1)
(Q2) WO WKd* w U O wUF
qJ vK wQ WKUJ uMO ued lMB uedK WFMB* UdA iF

d W t bOKI ued
ued w Wd( dOQ
dOH sJ1 dK UNOU w WOdJ UULBU UNUI b ued uO b

w_ uM vK p
td W wUU lHd ued w UO d bM
UdJ uH WMA U s bu v ued d W U R
lL* UO U v ued w WMA U U R
WU v qBO ued S WU( c dL u WOU{ d bu wU{ UO
U nKO (Thermal Runaway) d( H
d( dI wd YO WOU) ued UO rOLB d( H W'UF sJ1

d( XOA vK bU UL d( l lL* UO be lML Wd b s uF uedK
WU w U l* u c tOUA vK Vd (Heat Sink) d d vK ued Vd
bI ued wbF* r' d( b* dcU db'WOUF WDu* bI ued
UJO* s wzUdN U b V lL* d uJ
WOU Wd d vK UNOd bM
uedK WOMH UH
u*
ued UO U w nU ued b bM UNUd V w WOMH UHu* r s

wK U WMOF w tb
MOSFET
FET NPN PNP tOD u ed u
(Ge). uOUd' (Si)uJKO u ed U u
rOIU vL UU `L rO wdJ dBM Q uedK bu uBI rOI

UNL nK UON ued dF UU& uBI
VCE(max) uBI YU lL*
VCB(max) uBI
WOu
bUI lL* WOu
IC (max) uBI
lL* UO ?
lL* WOu d{ qU UNQ uedU b* bI dF Pd(max) uBI b* bI

Pd(max) uBI WLOI U V WLOI c (Pd = VCE.IC) lL* UO YU
dA* YU WKOu dOGB U WU w UO V u (hfe) UO V
V d b WdF V ued b bM (ft) uedK lDI d
(Frequency cutoff)
d dF 5F d bF Wd iHM ued
b bM UNLO s 0.707 v
(hfe) UO V WLO bM iHM c d tQ uedK
edOuKO
UNb WIdD U F WHK WOUO UJ UQ ued lMB wU) qJA
WHK* td eO9 WOHO ued qJA u vK ued UUO UL u%
nOMB sJ1 uedK WKCH* UIOD ued UUO UL b% UIOD
WO UM_ v UIOD YO s ued
d_ bF ued
bI iHM (AF) WOFL d ued
WOFL dK b ued
bI iHM (RF) Wu d ued
Wud dK b ued
bI iHM wUH ued
bI wU wUH ued
ued UUJ VO
c Vdued s dO WuL qzb UHu vK ued UUJ VO u

WFUB UdA UNb U_ d_ s WuL w tUA q s WuL w ued
p U UNM w ued vK WbK
WO_ UdA
ued rd WHK* WOdJ dUMF ued eOd w dJd UE b

dH 5L b d U W s WKK* b_ uJ b WKK b ULNIF 5d
wK UL 5_ 5d(
uedK WUF UIOD wU d( `{u ud U u v dOA _ d(
uOUd
uJOKO
bI iHM WOFL d ued
WOFL dK b ued
bI iHM (RF) Wu d ued
Wud dK b ued
bI iHM wUH ued
bI wU wUH ued
U* qO vK
bI WCHM* WOFL dK rLB uJOKO s uMB ued
BC108
WOFL dK wuJOKO b ued
BD132
Wud dK bI iHM wuJOKO ued
BF194
uJOKO s uMB wUH b ued
BU508
vK U(hFE)uedK UO V WLO b v dOA d dOGB U ued e l

BC108C p
hFE = 125-260
hFE = 240-500
hFE = 450-900
WOJd_ UdA
_ rd vDF UEM c w (JEDEC) WOdJ dUMF wbMN* dA* fK* UE b
qO r r (N) d( tF dBMF w u b

wzUM 1 N
BJ T ued 2 N
udU 3 N
3055 rd X% q b U BJT ued u 2N3055 U* qO vK
WOUUO UdA
V ued u vK b d(U_ s WuL b d tF (2S)ed b

L ued r vK (2S)ed lD uI WOUUO UdA b'
ued UMb U
UUJ VO `H 2SB635 ed `BO (2S) lDI* ed cN nOC UMS B635 e wK l
tUHu vK dF ued r b$ 2SB WKK vK ued
d(
uM
PNP small power general purpose
b dOG b PNP ued
UF
PNP power
PNPu s b ued
NPN small power general purpose
b dOG b PNP ued
UF
NPN power
NPN u s b ued
P-channel FET
Wu* UMIU U dOQ ued
N-channel FET
WU UMIU U dOQ ued
ed eOd w wUUO UEMb'
WuJ UdA
d_ U_ s tOK WuL ( K ) ed b
ued UD
dBI b WuH ued wK b `B bI WHK dD qDF sJ1 ued

WUI u b dBI tKUJ ued `B b U( iF w u b
sJ1 c WR WHB p b u v bz WOu bz 5 V uJ U WOb WOK
tdu U t iH w V uedU Leakage d U U C
wzUM vK UL qJA `{u UL 5OzUM
(PN)
wK s U OKL ued uJ
ued WO bb% sJ1 tS wJF UO wU_ UO wU bM tO WUI*
bF nU dO ued d 5 UUI* WFO b' 5 dO2_ bU
ued p nK vK U O UUI* c s
w J UO
wU UO
WUI UO
WOU WUI
WCHM WUI
YU bUI WK
WOU WUI
WCHM WUI
lL*bUI WK
WOU WUI
WOU WUI
YU lL*
nU dO ued d 5 UUI* WFO b'
vK u% w ued u vK oDM WIU U

bUI 5 WUI vK u% w u_ vK YU lL* 5 wzUM
uMO ued vK YU
(uedK
UO V qUF UOI ued U sJ1 UL
US (Digital
Multimeter)
wLd UUOI bF* UN' bUh
FE
WO uD)
(hFE)UO V qUF UO l{ w UO UH l{
V qUF UO qJA

uedK (hFE)UO
(10mA)
d d rtd (NPN/PNP) ued WOD b

UN' vK VUM* Xu uI w ued
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