Running Head: PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS

Psychological Effects of Solitary Confinement

Draft 1
Curtis Tomkins
English 123
Professor T. Sung
27 November 2015

Introduction

Running Head: PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS

Out of over 320 million people currently residing in the United States, nearly 2.3
million of the population are housed in incarceration (David H. Cloud, 2015). This
accounts for nearly 25% of incarcerated people in the world. Even more staggering than
these numbers, however, are the amount of people held in solitary confinement.
According to the American Journal of Public health, the current number of U.S.
prisoners housed in isolation is over 84,000, making the practice implemented more in
the U.S. than in any other nation.
With its beginnings in the U.S. dating back to 1829 (Sullivan, 2006), solitary
confinement is a form of in-prison punishment that holds inmates in near complete
isolation for up to 23 hours a day. Most isolation cells are a cramped, concrete room,
often no larger than 8 by 10 feet. A small slot in the door is the cells only window, which
is also used to send food in to the prisoner. Isolation is most often implemented as a
disciplinary action when inmates break the rules of the prison. U.S. prisons use two
types of isolation to discipline prisoners. Inmates who break prisons rules are sent to
what is known as disciplinary segregation. This form of isolation is used most often for
only short periods of time. When guards and other prison officials feel as though their
safety is at risk, they can place prisoners into administrative segregation, which is
usually used for much longer periods of time (Weir, Alone, in 'The Hole', 2012).
Conditions in isolation cells are not always seen as humane treatment. Prisoners are
left alone with no natural light source within the cell, no stimulation and nearly no human
contact. Isolation cells are adorned only with a cot, toilet, and a sink.
Psychological Effects

Running Head: PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS

According to psychologist Graig Haney, inmates held in isolation and deprived of

nearly all human contact can suffer from mental disorders such as anxiety, insomnia,
paranoia, depression and aggression (Weir, Alone, in 'The Hole', 2012). These adverse
psychological effects can be seen in inmates even after only short periods of time in
isolation. In the early days of solitary confinement, many prisoners became insane, and
eventually committed suicide. Although isolation is often used to keep prison staff safe,
there are many accounts of prisoners becoming more violent and aggressive after
having been in solitary, which, in some cases, can cause dangerous confrontations
between inmates and guards.
Anthony C, Graves is a former isolation inmate of the Texas criminal justice
system. Graves spent over 18 years in solitary confinement after being convicted of a
series of murders in Somerville, Texas. Graves was later exonerated for these crimes.
In an article with CQ Researcher, Graves accounts what he witnessed while in solitary.
The former inmates describes an incident in which one fellow isolation prisoner would
sit in the middle of the floor, rip his sheet up, wrap it around himself and light it on fire
(Katel, 2012). Another prisoner that Graves would often see in the recreation yard would
allegedly "get naked, lie down and urinate all over himself (Katel, 2012). He would take
feces and smear it all over his face. Chris Marcum, another inmate held in extreme
isolation, recalls a so-called decent into madness, as he would often cut himself while
alone in his cell. Marcum now bears the scars to remember his time in isolation. These
accounts clearly highlight the probability of severe psychological trauma that inmates
can be subject to when placed into such conditions. These events and accounts also
show that reform is needed within the U.S. criminal justice system. Some of these

Running Head: PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS

prisoners will one day be released back into society, and without proper psychological
treatment, they will only continue to commit crimes.

History of Solitary Confinement

Behind solitary confinement in the United States is a long and storied history.
This practice has now become hardwired into the minds of prison officials in the U.S.
(Mann, 2015). Several violent events have helped to shape the current state of isolation
in this country. These events have caused the use of what is known as prolonged
solitary confinement. This practice is now used too often and for far too long. The two
main events I will be covering in my judicial rhetoric are the murders at Marion prison in
Illinois that are said to have started prolonged isolation, and the riots and hunger strikes
in Pelican Bay state prison in California that gave way to the legal case that began
major reforms on solitary confinement.
Prisoners held in segregation units more often remained in their cells for up to 23
hours a day, while the remaining hour was spent in a small recreation yard. The use of
23-hour-a-day isolation came about in 1983, at a federal prison in Marion, Illinois. This
particular prison was known as the toughest in the federal prison system. On two
separate incidents in Marion, correctional officers were killed by prisoners that were said
to have connections with the Aryan Brotherhood prison gang (Peters, 2013). After the
events, the prisons warden places the prison on a so-called permanent lockdown.
(David H. Cloud, 2015). The lockdown lasted for 23 years, and is said to have have

Running Head: PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS

sparked the over reliant use of solitary confinement in the U.S. During this time, not only
were prisoners denied access to the recreation yard, but also to the cafeteria, and to
work and educational programs. Unfortunately, these events led other prison facilities
around the country to follow suit, and began putting inmates in permanent lock down.
The rest of the federal prison system began to believe that this was the only way to
prevent more violent events such as this from happing again.
The problem we are facing today in the United States is that solitary confinement
is being used too often and for too long. In the early 1900s, the use of this practice
began to dwindle after harsh, wide spread criticism. During this era, isolation was still
used, but only for the short periods of time, and for the most dangerous criminals. For
nearly 80 years, the practice was used rarely throughout the U.S. in the 1980s and
90s, however, the war on drugs brought on a resurgence of solitary confinement. With
such staggering numbers of dangerous criminals flooding Americas prisons, violent
riots inevitably ensued. In order to stymie the prison riots and attacks on guards, prison
officials once again looked to solitary confinement to help solve the issue. The problem
was this thinking was that isolation was seen as a quick fix, and soon led to and overreliance of the practice.
This quick fix thinking led to the creation of what are now known as Supermax
prisons. These facilities were specifically designed to house inmates in isolation for
extremely long periods of time. The new Supermax facilities shared a similar concept as
Eastern State Penitentiary in the 1820s. Inmates in these prisons were locked in small
isolation cells with only small slot for a window, which was also used to send food
through to the prisoners. Inmates were kept in these cells for 23 hours of the day. The

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remaining hour was spent in a small, concrete recreation yard, under constant, strict
supervision.
Being that many of the inmates incarcerated during the drug wars were also
gang members, prison officials began relying on solitary confinement to keep these
potentially dangerous criminals out of the way, and to keep prison guards safe from
harm. In this sense, isolation worked, so prisoners were kept there for years, sometimes
even decades. Prison after prison across the U.S. began to adopt solitary confinement
as a go-to punishment to keep prisoners in check. It was not long before some
facilities began resorting to more extreme measures.
One such prison was Alcatraz prison, built in San Francisco in 1934. Alcatraz
was established to hold Americas worst and most violent offenders. The prison became
famous for its use of the D Block, which was an area of the prison used to house
inmates in isolation. Despite being an isolation block, prisoners housed in D block were
still allowed amenities such as clothes and food, and also time in the yard. A more
extreme isolation cell in Alcatraz, however, became famously known as The Hole. This
particular cell was a small, dark, concrete room where prisoners were kept naked, and
given bread and water through a small hole in the door. Although, inmates only spent a
few days in the Hole, the treatment they received there was amongst the worst in the
country.
Perhaps one of the most famous prisons known for its use of solitary
confinement is Pelican Bay, due partly to the fact that it is embroiled in controversy.
Pelican bay is possibly the first, and most notorious of the mechanized Supermax prison
facilities in the U.S. built in 1989, this facility was built for one purpose, prisoner

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isolation. The methods of isolation used here were also, quite possibly the most
extreme of the modern era. Unlike most prisons, Pelican Bay had no yard, no cafeteria,
and of course, no educational facilities. The cells here were a mere 8 by 10 feet, and
this is where prisoners spent nearly 23 hours of their day. The remaining time was spent
in a small, cage like exercise pen. Due to the perceived effectiveness of this practice,
however, several U.S. states began implementing isolation.
Advocacy of Solitary Confinement
It is my belief that extreme, prolonged isolation, even when used on violent
offenders, is indeed, torture. However, a complete ban of this practice does not seem
feasible in the near future. At this point in time, it is not a ban that is needed, but reform.
In this section, I will propose an end to prolonged solitary confinement, and overall
better treatment of inmates, such as what is now being implemented in the state of
California.
Despite extreme conditions for prisoners, when it comes to reform on the subject
of solitary confinement, Pelican Bay is perhaps where it all began. California was the
first state to place strict limitations on solitary confinement, beginning with a lawsuit filed
by prisoners of Pelican Bay against the state. The lawsuit, known as Ashker vs.
Governor of California, was based upon the psychological trauma the prisoners endured
during their time in the SHU (Solitary Holding Unit).
The eighth amendment of the U.S. constitution is meant to protect Americans
from cruel and unusual punishment. The grounds of Ahsker vs. Governor of California
were that the prisoners eighth amendment rights were being broken by having been put

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in isolation for such long periods of time. This case was part of a movement meant
improve conditions in Californias solitary units, and was brought about by a prisoner-led
hunger strike that began in Pelican Bay on July 1. 2011. Several plaintiffs in the Ashker
case were leaders of the hunger strikes.
On September 1, 2015, a settlement was reached in the Ashker vs. Governor of
California case. The results of this settlement included the ending of intermediate
solitary confinement in all California prisons. This did not, however, completely end
solitary confinement in California, but rather set strict limitations and restrictions on the
length of its use, and in the conditions in which inmates were kept. Before this
settlement, prolonged isolation would be implemented sometimes merely for a prisoners
involvement in a gang, in order to keep the guards safe. After the limitations were set,
however, prison officials could only sentence inmates to solitary confinement for
breaking rules while incarcerated.
California is not the only state attempting to set such restrictions on prison policy.
In Texas, many death row prisoners are held in solitary confinement while awaiting their
punishments. Guards in these prisons argue that isolation causes severe psychological
trauma in the inmates, which can often times lead to dangerous confrontations between
prisoners and guards. Guards and prison officials alike at several Texas prison argue
that housing death row inmates with other inmates who were of a lower security risk,
and providing for tem privileges such as work programs and television would help to
greatly reduce attacks on guards. On January 20, 2014, Lance Lowry, President of the
American Association of State, County and Municipal Employees (AFSCME), wrote a
letter to the Texas Department of Criminal Justice (TDCJ), advocating for such reforms.

Running Head: PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS

Lowry reported to the TDCJ that these recommendations would positively impact both
correctional staff and offenders on Texas death row. (Hannaford, 2014)
Several influential politicians have already spoken out and denounced the use of
solitary confinement in U.S. jails and prisons. Supreme Court Justice Anthony Kennedy
is one such individual. In a recent case concerning death row inmate Hector Ayala,
Justice Kennedy voiced his concerns on the flaws in our criminal justice system, and
about prolonged solitary confinement. Hector Ayala spent nearly 25 years in an isolated
cell Kennedy describes as no larger than a typical parking spot. The gross misuse of
isolation housing amongst U.S. prisons is one of Kennedys most pressing concerns,
and he is a strong advocate for its reform. Justice Kennedy has already spoken out
several times about how he believes that this practice is a violation of basic human
rights. About solitary confinement, Kennedy writes near-total isolation exacts a terrible
price. (The New York Times, 2015)
Despite the concerns and advocacy from such politicians, there are of course,
those who support the continued use of prolonged solitary confinement, and oppose its
reformation. Such opposition to the limitations set on solitary confinement is based
upon claims that isolation is an appropriate punishment for violent offenders, and that it
keeps prisons safer. In a survey composed by yougov.com, 56% of Americans believe
that solitary confinement is an appropriate form of punishment, while only 13% who
participated in the survey see it as a form of torture. Other supporters of solitary
confinement claim that it would not be cost effective to house past-isolation inmates in
non-isolation units among other prisoners. In addition there are still those who share
beliefs similar to that of the Quakers, early colonists who first experimented with solitary

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confinement. These supporters believe that inmates in isolation use their time for
introspection. Many prison officials argue that isolation housing is fast and easy, but it is
sometimes seen as a last minute punishment.
Conclusion
Solitary confinement was originally created to make prisons safer, and to keep
guards free of harm. However, due to an extreme overuse of the practice, the opposite
has taken place, and instead of isolation housing providing a solution to prison violence,
it has, in fact created an even greater problem with U.S. prisons. The adverse
psychological effects of solitary confinement have, if anything, made some inmates
more violent than when they were first incarcerated. As evidenced by accounts of prison
guards in Texas prisons, violent confrontations were more likely with prisoners held in
prolonged isolation. Although these inmates were most often held in isolation cells for
23 hours a day, there still remained one hour in which they were allowed to use the
recreation yard, accompanied by one or more prison guards. It was during these
interactions that guards most often found themselves in dangerous situations. Inmates
were often described as disoriented, and even insane after their time in solitary. The
guards and other staff at this particular prison argued that housing these inmates with
other inmates and giving them more privileges would reduce the amount of attacks.
Without drastic reform of the U.S. criminal justice system, solitary confinement in
particular, events such as these are sure to continue to plague our nations prisons. The
murders in Marion prison and the prison riots and hunger strikes in Pelican Bay are two
of the most notable events in the dark history of solitary confinement in the U.S., yet
they are merely a fraction of the incidents brought about by the use of isolation housing.

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Solitary confinement is considered by many to be one of the most inhumane

punishments a prisoner can receive, regardless of their crimes. Complete isolation and
sensory deprivation will never have the rehabilitative effects that they were originally
meant to have.
The main problem with the use of solitary confinement in the U.S. is that it is
used to often and for too long. Many prisons are now using isolation as a crutch, a quick
fix to keep the most violent offenders out of their hair. It is widely agreed that the
practice is an appropriate punishment for inmates who break the rules in prison, and for
this reason, a complete ban on solitary confinement becomes more and more unlikely.
However, there is still a chance for reform. The answer is not a ban on isolation
altogether, but a ban on prolonged solitary confinement. It was the use of solitary for up
to decades at a time that brought about the hunger strikes and the eventual Ashker vs.
Governor of California case filed by inmates housed in the infamous SHU at pelican
bay.
The Ashker vs. Governor of California case was the spark that started the reform
of isolation policies in California. All prisons in California have now banned the use of
solitary confinement for more than a few weeks at a time. More states need to
implement these same reforms, and the U.S. will see a drastic reduction of violent
incidents in its prisons. It is true, that these inmates are often violent offenders, yet they
are still humans, and if we continue to treat them as anything other than that, the entire
concept of our correctional system becomes null and void. The rest of the nation needs
to follow in the footsteps of California so that our prisons can accomplish the goal they
originally set out to, rehabilitation.

Running Head: PSYCHOLOGICAL EFFECTS

References
David H. Cloud, J. M. (2015). Public Health and Solitary Confinement in the United
States. American Journal of Public Health, 18-24.
Hannaford, A. (2014, January 28). Retrieved from texasoberver.org.
Katel, P. (2012, September 14). Retrieved from CQPress.com`.
Mann, B. (2015, August 14). Retrieved from npr.org.
Peters, J. (2013, October 23). slate.com.
Sullivan, L. (2006, July 26). Retrieved from npr.og.
The New York Times. (2015, June 19). Retrieved from nytimmes.com.
Weir, K. (2012). Alone, in 'The Hole'. Moniter on Psychology.

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