Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
4, 1993
INTRODUCTION
In recent decades the Protestant community has been increasingly interested in what the Roman Catholic Church refers to as "spiritual direction," Protestant pastoral care, which turned increasingly away from its own
historical and theological traditions to embrace findings in the social sciences, has again become interested in the unique gifts that religious counselors may bring to the counseling context. Spiritual direction provides
some insights into the importance of theological resources for promoting
growth and healing--an aim it shares with Protestant pastoral care.
Fairchild (1982) provides a general overview of the contrast between
spiritual direction, psychotherapy and pastoral counseling. This paper, however, will compare and contrast two approaches to pastoral care and two
approaches to spiritual direction by focusing on three themes: the significance of experiential knowledge of God; the importance of religious/spiritual and psychological insights for theory and practice; and the role of
ethics and social justice concerns. While this discussion will provide insights
which are mutually beneficial to both pastoral care and spiritual direction,
the spotlight here will focus on ways spiritual direction may effectively inform pastoral care.
The four approaches have been selected both because they are distinctive and because of the impact these works have had in their respective
fields. Seward Hiltner's Pastoral Counseling, published in 1949, served for
almost twenty years as a standard text in Protestant pastoral care (Conn,
1987, p. 37). Howard Clinebell's Basic Types of Pastoral Care and Counseling." Resources for the Ministry of Healing and Growth (1984) is a standard
1Joseph D. DriskiI1, G r a d u a t e Theological Union, 817 P o m o n a Avenue, E1 Cerrito, CA 94530.
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pastoral care text. Kenneth Leech's Soul Friend (1977) and William A.
Barry and William J. Connolly's The Practice of Spiritual Direction (1982)
represent two approaches to spiritual direction which are influential in the
Anglican and Roman Catholic communities.
EXPERIENTIAL A P P R O A C H TO G O D
Spiritual direction affirms the centrality of personal religious experience. "Pastoral spiritual guidance first heightens awareness of God, and
then raises appropriate response to God's presence and action" (Liebert,
1989, p. 298). According to Barry and Connolly (1982) the focus of spiritual
direction is not the relationship between the director and the directee, but
the relationship between the directee and God (Connolly, 1975, p. 99;
Neufelder and Coelho, 1982, p. 17). This, of course, assumes that such a
relationship is not only possible but that it is also affirmed by both director
and directee (Barry, 1987, p. 76). Barry and Connolly (1982) view this experiential relationship between God and the directee as integral for defining spiritual direction:
We define Christian spiritual direction, then, as help given by one Christian to
another which enables that person to pay attention to God's personal communication to him or her, to respond to this personally communicating God, to grow in
intimacy with this God, and to live out the consequences of the relationship. The
focus of this type of spiritual direction is on experience, not ideas, and specifically
on religious experience, i.e., any experience of the mysterious Other whom we call
God. (p. 8)
Barry and Connolly (1982) identify two reactions to religious experiences which have very different consequences. In the first instance a person
has a spontaneous reaction to God, but only a momentary desire to respond. Persons, for example, may encounter something in nature which
elicits a profound sense of thankfulness; they have a desire to thank God
for the beauty, but the event itself seems like an isolated experience. It
may be remembered, but it remains a "relatively isolated experience of
God" (Barry and Connolly, 1982, p. 34).
The other type of reaction noted by Barry and Connolly (1982) may
also be based on a meaningful encounter with nature, but rather than being
isolated from the fabric of the person's life it is integrated into an ongoing
conscious relationship with God. Here the experience of a sunset may serve
as another instance of how much God provides; or it may serve as a reminder that one has been taking God for granted lately and should reconnect. Barry and Connolly (1982) contend the integration of a religious
experience into one's personal experience of God's activity provides for the
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Hiltner (1949) and Clinebell (1984), on the other hand, do not directly address the possibility of participating in an authentic meaningful
personal relationship with God. Hiltner (1949) speaks of Christ's mandate
to preach the gospel and heal the sick as the primary work of the pastor.
While this mandate may guide the pastor's activity, it does not necessarily
empower it in a spiritually enriching experiential manner. "Broadly speaking, the special aim of pastoral counseling may be stated as the attempt
by a pastor to help people help themselves through the process of gaining
understanding of their inner conflicts" (Hiltner, 1949, p. 19). The focus
here is the relationship between the pastor and the person seeking aid.
Hiltner's (1949) interest in the way psychological principles, methods,
and techniques impact on healing results in a pastoral counseling approach
which does not focus on the relationship between the person needing help
and God. This becomes very evident in a section of his book which deals
with religious resources (e.g., spiritual direction and prayer) useful to the
pastoral counselor. In the brief section on spiritual direction, Hfltner (1949)
sees merit in periodic consultations between the ctergyperson and the parishioner. He is, however, primarily fearful that spiritual direction may locate too much authority in the director. He speaks of the need for spiritual
directors to adopt psychologically informed methods of counseling. His failure to mention any reference to God in this section belies his implied assumption that spiritual direction can be reduced to a form of supportive
counseling. He refers to the spiritual director as a "public-health man" who
assists the person in a review of his spiritual Iife and helps "in the application of therapy where that seems indicated" (Hiltner, 1949, p. 92).
One section of Pastoral Counseling (Hiltner, 1949) discusses prayer
as an activity which is primarily psychologically therapeutic. Hiltner (1949)
cautions the pastor to pray in a manner that it is therapeutically helpful
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I M P O R T A N C E OF R E L I G I O U S / S P I R I T U A L AND P S Y C H O L O G I C A L
I N S I G H T S F O R T H E O R Y AND P R A C T I C E
Seward Hiltner's (1949) counseling practices are undergirded by the
belief that there are certain essential h u m a n needs of the personality, distinguishable from biological needs, which if not given expression, result in
a violation of h u m a n nature. F r o m the "Christian-theological" point of view
the implication is that G o d created the h u m a n being with certain basic
needs which are denied at one's peril. The Christian pastoral counselor
m a k e s an additional theological affirmation: the Holy Spirit or divine grace
is operative when positive potentialities emerge, ostensibly spontaneously,
from the midst of a troubled, confused person. The implications of this
affirmation, however, are not developed by Hiltner (1949).
Hiltner's (1949) approach, both to the nature of the h u m a n personality and to appropriate methods for pastoral counseling, is guided m o r e
by psychological than theological insights. Even in his later work, Theological Dynamics (1972) the focus is on the way in which theological concepts
are enriched when their psychological dynamic is understood. His theory
of personality is grounded in dynamic psychology. His focus on the acceptance of the client's unfolding feelings as a counseling method reflects Hiltn e t ' s (1949) reliance on the influential methods of Carl Rogers (Rogers,
1942; Rogers and Wallen, 1946; Holifield, 1983). Hiltner (1949) summarizes
his method in five points:
1) The counseling process focuses attention on the parishioner's situation and his
feelings about it. 2) The counseling proceeds through real understanding on the
pastor's part of how the parishioner feels about the situation, and through communication of the reality of that understanding. 3) When conflicting feelings of the
parishioner emerge in counseling, the pastor first aids the parishioner in clarifying
the elements of the conflict and their relative pull upon him. 4) The counseling
relationship contains a special kind of freedom on the part of the parishioner, as
well as a special kind of limitation. The basic limitation upon the parishioner is
that he accept the pastor's task as helping him to help himself, and not as telling
him what to do or precisely how to do it . . . The parishioner should be free to
express or withhold any statements about his feelings. 5) The counseling process
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should include, on one or more appropriate occasions, that which will aid in consolidation of the insights achieved or the clarifications gained. (pp. 47-48, 51, 54)
Throughout the book Hiltner (1949) uses as a pedagogical technique insights gained from critically evaluating pastor-parishioner encounters. Empathic and clarifying responses are normative.
Significantly one does not find in this method per se anything which
distinguishes pastoral counseling from other types of counseling. In fact,
Hiltner (1952) was concerned that pastoral counselors might feel it necessary to speak only of religious matters. "As to counseling methods . . . . the
basic methods of the pastor and of other counselors is so nearly similar as
to be almost identical--if counseling is good" (Hiltner, 1949, p. 121). Hiltner (1949) notes, however, that pastoral counselors have a different role
and "loci of function" than other counselors, but he emphasizes the "basic
methods and approach are the same once counseling itself has begun"
(Hiltner, 1949, p. 121).
Hiltner (1949) devotes attention to the religious resources upon which
the pastor may draw. These include prayer, the Bible, spiritual direction,
Christian doctrines, sacraments and rites. He is clearly very concerned that
these resources not be used in a moralistic fashion or a manner which is
not psychologically therapeutic. In these discussions one glimpses elements
of his personal faith commitment. He speaks, for example, of sacraments
and rites as expressing symbolically "the relation between fundamental religious truth and the most common acts of life" (Hiltner, 1949, p. 223).
His references to the use of religious resources in the counseling context
notwithstanding, his method is informed principally by psychological insights.
Howard Clinebell's 1966 edition of Basic Types of Pastoral Counseling
reflected a move away from the Rogerian-psychoanalytic approach to a "relationship-centered" approach. Clinebell (1966) sought to incorporate into
pastoral counseling a wide range of approaches united by the "relationshipcentered" context. These included: family group therapy, role-relationship
marriage counseling, transactional analysis, crisis intervention theory, reality
therapy, existential psychotherapy, and ego psychology (Conn, 1987). Now
the client-centered approach was no longer normative; traditional pastoral
functions such as sustaining, guiding, inspiring, confronting, and teaching
were emphasized. It must be noted, however, that self-realization remained
the operative goal in his approach. The definition of such self-realization
has, however, been broadened to include the development of more meaningful relationships with neighbor and God (Conn, 1987).
In the second edition of Basic Types of Pastoral Care and Counseling
(1984) the theme of growth, so customary to self-realization approaches,
is even more predominant. Obviously influenced by critiques of pastoral
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where healing and growth are associated with the resolution of emotional
conflicts, Barry and Connolly (1982) relate such conflicts to the directee's
relationship with God. The resolution of such emotional conflicts is only
the first of two major phases in spiritual direction.
In the first stage, the directee may experience his/her own emotions,
e.g., anger, fear, guilt, without any awareness of God's presence. Here, the
directee often cannot fathom a deeply personal relationship with God.
Once, however, one has been sufficiently freed from anxieties, angers and
other fixations, a relationship with God can begin to flower. Thus, even in
this early stage of direction, Barry and Connolly (1982) do not want the
director to use any technique or method which would hamper the development of contemplation by overtly focusing on the director-directee relationship. This stands in contrast to both Hiltner (1949) and Clinebell's
(1984) approach to pastoral care, where the relationship between the counselor and client is the focus of the healing and growth.
In this first stage of spiritual direction, Barry and Connolly (1982)
contend meditating on scripture is used by the directee to nurture and focus
her experiential awareness of God:
They listen to the gospel text and treat it for what it is: literature intended to teach
people how to let it inspire their imaginations and enkindle their faith as it was
written to do. But the desire is not to know the Scripture text better. R a t h e r it is
to know Jesus better. (p. 57)
The director, following this method, must first help the directee keep
focused on his/her impressions of the text. This requires allowing the directee to fully explore the personal impact of the text prior to searching
out or uncovering its personal implications. According to Barry and Connolly (1982) this approach frequently allows the directee to see more in
the text than first realized; the significance of the passage deepens as the
director helps the directee reflect more deeply on it.
If directors do help directees to pay attention to the Lord, they find that the simple
act of looking at the Lord in a scriptural event, or in s o m e other event or situation,
is in itself productive prayer. This contemplation produces, all by itself, sprouts of
love, affection, and desire; and these in turn lead the person to look m o r e closely
at the Lord. T h e looking more closely can gradually bring about a new trust in
him or companionship with him. T h e search for meaning, while valid in itself, can
in the context of contemplation be a distraction from this process (Barry and Connolly, 1982, p. 59).
By using this method Barry and Connolly (1982) believe the object
of the relationship (e.g., God or Jesus) begins to acquire a life independent
of the directee. At this juncture, the directee's experience of God's reality
is becoming more defined and a second stage in direction is realized. Now
the directee is able to further deepen her affective relationship with God
by sharing her feelings. The purpose of this affective sharing, however, is
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p. 75).
According to Barry and Connolly (1982) it is this sharing process
which gradually but continually moves people more deeply into the relationship. Basic desires, hopes, loves, fears, anger, and guilt frequently surface; as these emerge into consciousness, the director will help the directee
notice what has unfolded. The director, however, does not force the directee to notice newly conscious material; she may ask questions which elicit
it if such is the will of the directee. Spiritual direction, in this context, is
based on "a process of progressively greater openness to reality that is
freely undertaken and freely pursued through a series of usually quiet,
sometimes dramatic, decisions to see and not be blind" (Barry and Connolly, 1982, p. 79).
As God's presence and identity assume a more definite role in the
directee's prayer, the director not only avoids interfering with the dialogue,
but sees herself as a facilitator of the encounter. As the contemplative experience deepens it will acquire distinctive forms in different persons. God
may appear, for instance, as awesome, daunting, loving, enigmatic, healing,
and disconcerting.
Through all these ways in which the Lord shows himself, the common element is
his reality. He is not an idea to be thought about, a set of values to be considered,
an image to be handled by the imagination. The person praying has the sense that
he is not controlling the way the Lord seems to him. Someone else is setting the
direction of the relationship, deciding its events. The praying person does not look
for helpful thoughts, work up feelings, or concoct images. He simply looks at the
Lord as he appears in Scripture or in experience, puts himself before him as he is,
and lets happen what will happen (Barry and Connolly, 1982, p. 62).
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Ministerial formation, according to Leech (1989), would involve programs in which the life of prayer and spiritual theology are pivotal:
If we are to provide the future church with pastors who are capable of guiding
others, we need to place a very high priority indeed on training in prayer, on the
practice of silence and reflection, on deepening the awareness of the presence of
God, on helping people to understand the principles of spiritual growth, and on
placing all theological work within a framework of worship and prayer. (p. 79)
To be spiritual directors clergy must be familiar, not only with spiritual theology, but also with various historical forms of prayer. They must
have an understanding of the prayer practices of significant groups in the
historical tradition, e.g., Jesuits, Carmelites. Being able to teach people how
to pray is also an important "how to" ministerial skill. The spiritual director,
of course, can also use the sacraments, the Bible, and any other religious
insight or tradition which assists the directee in coming to "the knowledge
of God."
While it is clear that Leech (t977; 1989) is centered in the classical
religious tradition of spiritual direction, he nevertheless recognizes areas
where psychological processes which promote growth also promote spiritual
wholeness. He observes, for example, that self-awareness is necessary for
emotional maturity and is a necessary prelude to knowledge of God. He
recognizes that psychological practices which place an emphasis on the relationship between the body and the spirit, e.g., relaxation exercises, reflect
an ancient realization which in the spiritual tradition of asceticism used
bodily techniques, e.g., breathing exercises, to further spiritual growth.
Leech (1977) also acknowledges that the journey to the unconscious, especially as it is described by Jungian psychology, may be a way to recover
a sense of God's presence.
The way in which the spiritual direction of Leech (1977; 1989) and
Barry and Connolly (1982) appropriate psychological and theological insights provides fertile soil for recovery and discovery in pastoral counseling. Leech (1977; 1989) is interested in recovering the largely ignored
history of spiritual and contemplative disciplines. Although he is far less
interested than Hiltner (1949), Clinebell (1984), or Barry and Connolly
(1982) in psychological theories and methods, his approach to spiritual
direction invites pastoral care to look more seriously at its own history.
New ways of using religious resources might also emerge if pastoral counseling sees itself as an integral aspect of the ministry of the ecclesiastical
community. Barry and Connolly's (1982) psychologically influenced methodology for practicing spiritual direction provides insights into the way a
theological tradition can integrate psychological insights without losing its
distinctive identity.
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23t
5:22-23). These fruits are positive and according to Barry and Connolly
(1982) lead to an enduring sense of basic well-being. "Fundamental joy,
peace, consolation are the best criteria for evaluating one's prayer" (Barry
and Connolly, 1982, 110). A deep sense of well-being is indispensable for
faithfully serving God.
Barry and Connolly (1982) are aware that some in the church fear a
turn to interiority may lead to a loss of energy for righting social wrongs.
Nevertheless, their theory of spiritual direction does not single out ethical
or social justice issues for specific faith development. Instead, the authors
contend such issues will emerge naturally as part of spiritual growth if such
is God's will. Following God's leading and Christ's example may move a
person toward prophetic ministries, e.g., Howard Thurman and Dorothy
Day. In the course of spiritual growth people are led to increasingly identify
with Jesus and his mission. The aim of such identification is not to imitate
the details of Jesus's life, but to see in it a dependence on God which
fosters personal autonomy. It is this autonomy which Barry and Connolly
(1982) suggest may lead one to champion otherwise unpopular beliefs, actions, and issues:
This experience of Jesus shows itself in an ability to live by one's own convictions
despite other people's opposition to those convictions; in a breadth of empathy that
transcends social and economic class; in a deepening trust of the Father of reality;
in a willingness to engage in the war against evil and to stand for justice and mercy
even when one must die small deaths in defense of them; and a willingness to die
those deaths and leave resurrection to the Father. (p. 112)
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lose harshness and contempt for those of different points of view as their hearts
are changed. (p. 197)
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Vision and clear insight are according to Leech (1977) the fruits of
engaging in contemplative practices. The person who is truly spiritual is,
according to Leech (1977), capable of seeing beneath the surface of events;
conventional and accepted values of the day are submitted to the judgment
of the Kingdom.
Consequently the contemplativeis more of a threat to injusticethan the social activist who merelysees the piecemealneed. For contemplativevisionis revolutionary
vision, and it is the achievementof this vision which is the fruit of true spiritual
direction (Leech, 1977, p. 191).
Leech's (1977) approach to spiritual direction concerns itself with
both individual and social ethics. He insists spiritual direction is not adequate unless it prepares people for the struggle of love against "spiritual
wickedness in the structures of the fallen world and in the depths of the
heart" (Leech, 1977, p. 191). This love is not sentimental or na~ve; "it is
a love which undermines oppression and burns away illusion and falsehood,
a love which has been through fire, a love which has been purified through
struggle" (Leech, 1977, p. 191).
The individualistic approach to ethical and social issues in the pastoral
care approach of Hiltner (1949) is augmented substantially by Clinebell's
(1984) interest in social justice and group pastoral care. Neither, however,
works from a theological position which integrates ethical/social issues into
a unifying framework. Leech (1977; 1989) provides a theology of Kingdom
which integrates personal and social ethics in a manner that might anchor
Clinebell's (1984) concerns in a more consciously theological manner.
While Hiltner's (1949) interviewing methods are closely related to
those of Barry and Connolly (1982) through their mutual dependence on
the research of Rogers (1942; 1961), the theological claims of Barry and
Connolly (1982) give their individualistic approach an entree into the realm
of social ethics. This approach offers a means to bridge the theological and
practical in a manner that might contribute to the ministry of pastoral counseling.
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