The Power of

Human Imagination

New Methods in Psychotherapy

EMOTIONS, PERSONALITY, AND PS YCHO THERAPY

Series Editors:

Carroll E. Izard

University of Delaware, Newark, Delaware

and

Jerome L. Singer

Yale University, New Haven, Conneerieut

HUMAN EMOTIONS
Carroll E. Izard
THE PERSONAL EXPERIENCE OF TIME
Bernard S. Gorman and Alden E. Wessman, eds.
THE STREAM OF CONSCIOUSNESS: Scientific Investigations into the
Flow of Human Experience
Kenneth S. Pope and Jerome L. Singer, eds.
THE POWER OF HUMAN IMAGINATION: New Methods in Psychotherapy
Jerome L. Singer and Kenneth S. Pope, eds.
EMOTIONS IN PERSONALITY AND PSYCHOPATHOLOG Y
Carroll E. Izard, ed.

A Continuation Order Plan is available for this series. A continuation order will bring
delivery of each new volume immediately upon publication. Volumes are billed only upon
actual shipment. For further information please contact the publisher.

The Power of
Human Imagination
New Methods in Psychotherapy
Edited by

Jerome L. Singer
Yale University

and

Kenneth S. Pop e
Brentwood Veterans Administration Hospital
Los Angeles, California

PLENUM PRESS . NEW YORK AND LONDON

Library of Congress Cataloging in Publieation Data

Main entry under title:
The Power of human imagination.
(Emotions, personality, and psyehotherapy)
Indudes bibliographical referenees and index.
1. Fantasy - Therapeutic use - Addresses, essays, leetures. I. Singer, Jerome L. II.
Pope, Kenneth S. III. Series.
RC489.F35P68
616.8'914
78-15392
ISBN-13: 978-1-4613-3943-4
e-ISBN-13: 978-1-4613-3941-0
DOI: 10.1007/978-1-4613-3941-0

1978 Plenum Press, New York

Softcover reprint ofthe hardcover 1st edition 1978

ADivision of Plenum Publishing Corporation
227 West 17th Street, New York, N.Y. 10011

All righ ts reserved

No part of this book may be reprodueed, stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted,
in any form or by any means, eleetronic, mechanieal, photocopying, microfilrning,
recording, or otherwise, without written permission from the Publisher

To our patients

from whom we have learned so much about

the human capacity for imagination

Contributors
Joseph R. Cautela e Department of Psychology, Boston College,
Boston, Massachusetts
Susan J. Frank e Department of Psychology, University of Maryland,
College Park, Maryland
Jesse D. Geller e Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School
of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut
Eric GreenIeaf e Private practice, Berkeley, California
Mardi J. Horowitz e Department of Psychiatry, University of
California School of Medicine, San Francisco, California
Alan E. Kazdin e Department of Psychology, The Pennsylvania State
University, University Park, Pennsylvania
Hanscarl Leuner e Department of Psychiatry, University of
Gttingen, Gttingen, West Germany
Leigh McCullough e Department of Psychology, Boston College,
Boston, Massachusetts
Donald Meichenbaum e Department of Psychology, University of
Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada
Kenneth S. Pope e Brentwood Veterans Administration Hospital,
Los Angeles, California
Joseph Reyher e Department of Psychology, Michigan State
University, East Lansing, Michigan
vii

viii

Contributors

K. David Schultz. Division of Psychiatry, Waterbury Hospital

Health Center, Waterbury, Connecticut
Anees A. Sheikh Department of Psychology, Marquette
University, Milwaukee, Wisconsin
Joseph E. Shorr Institute for Psycho-Imagination Therapy, Los
Angeles, California
Jerome L. Singer. Psychology Department, Yale University, New
Haven, Connecticut

Preface

For at least half of the twentieth century, psychology and the other
mental health professions all but ignored the significant adaptive possibilities of the human gift of imagery. Our capacity seemingly to
duplicate sights, sounds, and other sensory experiences through some
form of central brain process continues to remain a mysterious, alma st
miraculous skill. Because imagery is so much a private experience,
experimental psychologists found it hard to measure and turned their
attentian to observable behaviors that could easily be studied in animaIs as well as in humans. Psychoanalysts and others working with
the emotionally disturbed continued to take imagery informatian seriously in the form of dream reports, transferenee fantasies, and as
indications of hallucinations or delusions. On the whole, however,
they emphasized the maladaptive aspects of the phenomena, the distortions and defensiveness or the "regressive" qualities of daydreams
and sequences of images.
The present volume grows out of a long series of investigations by
the senior author that have suggested that daydreaming and the stream
of consciousness are not simply manifestations in adult life of persisting phenomena of childhood. Rather, the data suggest that imagery
sequences represent a major system of encoding and transforming
information, a basic human capacity that is inevitably part of the
brain's storage process and one that has enormous potential for adaptive utility. A companian volume, The Stream of Consciousness, edited
by Kenneth S. Pope and Jerome L. Singer (New York: Plenum Press,
1978) presents some of the basic theory and experimental research to
providing a systematic scientific understanding of the nature of imagery sequences as a part of the flow of experience.
This volume emphasizes a major new turn in the dinical application of our understanding of imagery and related fantasy or daydream
activities. While some of the methods can, of course, be traced to early
ix

Preface

experimental uses by Freud (imagery association), Jung (active imagination), and Schultz (autogenic training), most of the procedures emphasized in this volume have evolved as systematic treatment procedures within the past fifteen or twenty years. An earlier work (Singer,
J. 1., Imagery and Daydream Methods in Psychotherapy and Behavior
Modification, New York: Academic Press, 1974) pointed to the coexistence of imagery uses in a wide variety of treatment modalities from
psychoanalysis through the European mental imagery approaches and
the American and British emphasis on behavior modification. The
present volume brings together leading practitioners and theorists of
these methods for the first time. It provides a forum for presenting,
under one cover, systematic examples of practical dinical applications
of imagery and fantasy methods within psychoanalytic, cognitive, and
behaviorist orientations and the mental imagery approaches that have
been thriving in Europe. While it may be premature to attempt a
systematic integration of these diverse uses of imagery for dinical
purposes, the unifying principle of this volume is that imagery or the
sequences of images that we call daydreams or fantasies have tremendous adaptive possibilities for treatment of emotional disorders or for
self-development in general.
The book is organized into six sections. The first consists of a
chapter by the editors reviewing the range of dinical uses of imagery
and relating imagery and fantasy to basic processes in psychology.
There is, at least, a signpost toward possible convergences of the differing paths. The second section brings together uses of imagery that
relate dosest to psychoanalytic or psychodynamic orientations in psychotherapy. The third section reflects the developments influenced by
Jung, Schultz, and Desoille in Europe of the me nt al imagery or guided
daydream techniques and also provides examples of treatment in which
imagery is the core of the therapeutic strategy. The fourth section
provides examples of how leading American behaviorists view the
value of imagery in treatments with more precisely speeified focal
points and with stronger emphasis on evaluative research. The fifth
section provides broader applications of imagery use, its potential for
hospital treatment, for preventative application, and for ties to humanistic or body-oriented self-development approaches. This section also
provides in greater detail examples of very speeific research to suggest
new directions for systematic evaluations of the possibilities of imagery
use in a variety of treatment or preventive systems. The final section
presents an attempt, from the standpoint of the newly evolving field
of cognitive behavior modification, to point to possible bases for why
imagery methods in so many different theoretical systems of psychotherapy do produce personality change. Extensive bibliographies are

Preface

xi

provided by each contributor to permit clinicians and researchers in

imagery or psychotherapy opportunities to explore in more detail basic
theoretical or empirical studies that underlie the particular approaches
included hereino
Some of the material of this volume was developed while Kenneth
Pope held fellowships from the National Institute of Mental Health.
The translation of the chapter by Professor Hansead Leuner was provided by Augusta Arthur of Yale University, who would like to acknowledge the assistance of Kevyn Arthur and Jeffrey Blum in so me
phases of the work. Valu abI e aid in typing or retyping portions of the
manuscript was provided by Judith McBride, Lisa Rosenberg, Muriel
Jarmak, and Virginia Hurd. Bibliographie assistanee was also provided
the editors by Lawrence Rosenberg and John Caldeira.
JEROME

L.

SINGER

KENNETH S. POPE

Contents
Part I Introduction and Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Chapter 1
The Use of Imagery and Fantasy Techniques in Psychotherapy
Jerome L. Singer and Kenneth S. Pope
1. Introduction...........................................
2. The Stunted Growth of Psychology and Psychotherapy: A
Bias toward Verb al and Directed Thought. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. Therapyand Imagination ......... " . . . . . . .. . .. . . .. . . . . .
4. Dimensions of Cognition and Expression ................
5. Psychoanalysis and Related Psychodynamic Approaches "
6. More Direct Forms of Clinical Intervention . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7. Self-Efficacy and Imagery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .
8. Some Preventive and Constructive Uses of Our Imagery
Capacities ... -. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1. Imagery and Adaptive Escapism .............. , . . . . .
8.2. Imagery Uses for Self-Awareness ...................
8.3. Imagery for Self-Regulation and Biofeedback . . . . . . . . .
8.4. Imagery for Creativity and Aesthetic Experience .....
References ............................................

Part II Psychoanalytically Oriented Uses of Imagery

3
5
7
8
14
23
26
28
29
29
30
31
32

35

Chapter 2
ControIs of VisuaI Imagery and Therapist Intervention
Mardi J. Horowitz
1. Introduction...........................................

37
xiii

xiv

2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Contents

Image Formation as a Mode of Representation . . . . . . . . . . . .

Utility of the VisuaI Image System ......................
A ModeI of the Image System. . . . . . ... . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Oefenses and the Process of Working-Through . . . . . . . . . . .
Techniques to Alter Inhibitory Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Facilitations and Inhibitory Failures ....... . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
More CompIex Oefensive Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary .............................................
References ............................................

38
40
41
43
43
46
46
48
48

Chapter 3
Emergent Uneovering Psyehotherapy: The Use of Imagoie and
Linguistic Vehicles in Objectifying Psyehodynamie Processes

Joseph Reyher
1. Introduction...........................................
2. Procedures for Objectifying and Oifferentiating Awareness
and Interpersonal Behavior .............................
2.1. Self-OiscIosure ....................................
2.2. Entree Points: The Exploration of Self-Awareness ....
2.3. Eyes Closed Free Association. . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4. The Verbalization of Suppressed and Oissociated
Material: A Clinical Illustration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5. Relevant Laboratory Investigations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. Objectifying Repression and Repressed Orive-Related
Impulses ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4. Modes of Information Processing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5. Relevant Clinical Illustrations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6. Laboratory Investigations of Orive Intensification . . . . . . . . .
7. A ConceptuaI Integration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.1. Intrapsychic Oriyes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.2. Oissociation.......................................
7.3. Security Operations and Oefenses against Impulses ..
7.4. Endopsychic Orives. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.5. Free Imagery: The Mechanisms of Image Retrieval. . . .
7.6. Uncovering: Pathogenesis and Therapeutics .........
8. ConcIusions and Wider Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1. Oomains of Phenomena . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2. Can Spontaneous Visual Imagery Be Symbolic? ......
8.3. Creativity.........................................
8.4. Implications for Freudian and Sullivanian Theory ....
References ............................................

51
53
53
54
57
59
62
64
67
69
72
73
74
78
81
83
84
86
88
88
89
90
91
92

Contents

XV

Chapter 4
Clinical Use of Categories of Therapeutic Imagery
Joseph E. Shorr
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.

Introduction: The Function of Imagery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

The Technique of Psycho-Imagination Therapy. . . . . . . . . . .
Spontaneous Imagery ..................................
Directed Imagery ......................................
Self-Image Imagery ....................................
Dual Imagery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Body Imagery .........................................
SexualImagery ........................................
Predicting Imagery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Task Imagery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cathartic Imagery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Depth Imagery ........................................
General Imagery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Detection of Resistance in Imagery Production ...........
Group Therapy Imagery .................. ,. . . . . . .. . . . . .
Current Research ......................................
References ............................................

95
97
99
101
101
102
105
106
108
109
111
111
112
113
115
119
120

Part III Mental Imagery Therapies ....................

123

Chapter 5
Basic Principles and Therapeutic Efficacy of Guided Affective Imagery
(GAI)
Hanscarl Leuner
1. Introduction...........................................
2. Theoretieal Foundations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. Mobile Projection. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1. Diagnostic Aspect .................................
3.2. Spontaneous Projection ............................
3.3. Synchronie Transformation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4. Bringing Core Confliets into Focus ......................
5. Standard Themes ......................................
5.1. Standard Motifs of GAI ............................
6. Therapeutie Techniques ................................
6.1. Speeific Techniques and Strategies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7. Management Models in Symbolic Drama (Symbolic
Operation) ............................................

125
126
127
128
129
130
130
132
132
139
139
143

xvi

8.

9.

10.
11.

Contents

7.1. Two Examples. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

7.2. Theoretical Excursus ...... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.3. Elementary Level. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.4. Intermediate Level. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7.5. Advanced Level . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Investigative Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.1. Literature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.2. Statistical Studies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.3. Case Histories. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8.4. Didactic Possibilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
So me Theoretical Reflections on GAI ....................
9.1. The General Psychodynamic Concept ...............
9.2. What Is TherapeuticaIly Effective in GAI? . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3. The Nature of Transferenee Relationships in GAI. . . . .
9.4. Symbolic Concepts ................................
Indications............................................
Summary .............................................
References ............................................

143
144
146
146
147
148
148
149
154
157
158
158
158
159
161
162
162
163

Chapter 6
Active Imagining
Eric GreenIeaf

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Introduction...........................................
Dream Action and Dream Meanings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Human Competenee...................................
Realism in Dreamwork. . . . .. . . . .. . . ....... . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ModaIities of Experience ...............................
The Structure of Healing ...............................
Archetype and Image ..................................
Images and the Structure of Thought ....................
Structure Abstracted ...................................
References ............................................

167
168
171
173
176
179
183
186
191
195

Chapter 7

Eidetic Psychotherapy
Anees A. Sheikh

1. Introduction...........................................
2. Mental Images and Their Classification ..... . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1. After-Images . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

197
198
200

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xvii

2.2. Eidetic Images ....................................

2.3. Memory Images...................................
2.4. Imagination Images. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Ahsen's Eidetic Image: The 15M... . . . ... . . ... . .. . . . . .. ..
3.1. Visiosomatic Fixation and Dessociation. .. . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2. Bipolar Configurations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .
3.3. The Magical Laws of the Psyche ....................
Eidetics and Electrically Evoked Recollections ............
The 15M Theory of Personality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Diagnostic and Therapeutic Procedures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.1. The Age Projection Test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2. Eidetic Parents Test. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
A Case History. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ... . .. . . . . . . . .
Coneluding Remarks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .
References ............................................

200
200
201
201
203
204
204
205
207
210
211
212
219
220
222

Part IV Behavior-Therapy Uses of Imagery ............

225

3.

4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

Chapter 8
Covert Conditioning: A Leaming-Theory Perspective on Imagery
Joseph R. Cautela and Leigh McCullough

1. Introduction...........................................
2. Covert Conditioning Assumptions and Procedures .......
2.1. A Learning-Theory Basis for Covert Conditioning . . . .
2.2. Covert Conditioning Procedures .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. Imagery Development . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.1. Construction of Covert Scene s .... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2. Development of Imagery Capacity ..................
3.3. Training to Enhance Vividness and Controllability ...
3.4. Imagery Practice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.5. Assessment of Imagery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4. Application of Covert Processes to Overall Functioning ...
4.1. Covert Processes and Maladaptive Behavior. . . . . . . . . .
4.2. Behavioral Hygiene and Therapeutic Measures . . . . .. .
5. Application of Covert Processes to Specific Classes of
Behavior . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.1. Covert Behavior and Daydreaming . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2. Covert Behavior of Nocturnal Dreaming .. . . . . . . . . . . .
5.3. The Use of Covert Conditioning in the Modification of
Organic Dysfunction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References ............................................

227
228
228
230
234
234
235
236
238
239
239
240
241
243
243
246
248
250

xviii

Contents

Chapter 9

Covert Modeling: The Therapeutic Application of Imagined Rehearsal

Alan E. Kazdin

1.
2.
3.
4.

Introduction...........................................
Background and Implication of Covert Modeling .........
Efficacy of Covert Modeling ............................
Important Parameters of Covert Modeling. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1. Model- Client Similarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2. Model Identity ....................................
4.3. Multiple Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.4. Model Consequences ..............................
4.5. Unexplored Parameters ............................
5. Assessment of Imagery and the Mechanisms of Behavior
Change ...............................................
6. Imagery-Based Techniques versus Overt Behavior
Rehearsal .............................................
7. Conelusions and Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
References ............................................

255
256
259
261
261
263
263
264
265

Part V Broader Applications of Imagery . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

279

267
270
273
275

Chapter 10

Imagery and the Control of Depression

K. David Schultz

1. Introduction...........................................
2. Imagery in the Treatment of Depression: AResearch
Strategy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.1. Methodology......................................
2.2. Results ...........................................
2.3. Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4. Directedness of Imagery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5. Interpersonal Significance of Imagery ...............
3. Alternative Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4. Patterns of Depressive Experiences . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5. Daydreaming Patterns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6. Conclusions...........................................
7. The Nature of the Psychotherapeutic Process . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8. Imagery, Daydreaming, and a Cognitive Theory of SelfControl ...............................................

281
282
283
284
288
289
290
291
295
297
298
299
299

Contents

9. The Conscious Control of Consciousness: The Use of

Irnagery in Alleviating Depression ......................
10. Psychotherapeutic Uses of Irnagery . . . . . . . . . .. . . . . . . . . . . .
10.1. Clinieal Illustrations ..............................
10.2. An Overview ....................................
References ............................................

xix

300
303
303
305
305

Chapter 11
Just Imagine How I Feel: How to Improve Empathy Through Training
in Imagination
Susan J. Frank
1. Introduction...........................................
2. Theoretieal Background: Three Levels of Ernpathy ........
2.1. The Behavioral Level of Empathy ...................
2.2. The Subjective Level of Ernpathy ...................
2.3. The Psychoanalytie Notion of Ernpathy ... . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4. The Cognitive-Structural Level of Ernpathy ..........
2.5. Irnplications for Empathy Training . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. Research Procedures ...................................
3.1. Overview of the Research Plan .....................
3.2. Hypotheses .......................................
3.3. Empathy Training Conditions ......................
3.4. Outeorne Measures ................................
4. Results of the Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.1. Major Findings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2. Additional Findings ...............................
5. Discussion ............................................
5.1. Review of the Findings: Sorne "Hs," "Ands," and
"Buts" . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5.2. Further Implications for Research and Practice .......
5.3. Theoretieal Implications: The Fourth Level of Empathy
References ............................................

309
310
310
311
314
314
317
318
318
318
320
322
325
326
331
336
336
341
342
344

Chapter 12
The Body, Expressive Movement, and Physical Contact in
Psychotherapy
Jesse D. Geller
1. Introduction...........................................

347

xx

Contents

2. The Democratization of the Relationship of the Mind and

the Body . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. The Romantic Vision of the Body-Movement Therapies .. ,
4. Obstacles to the Development of Body-Awareness . . . . . . . .
5. Communication in Psychotherapy . . .. ..... . . .. .. . . . . . . . .
6. Form and Content in Psychotherapy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7. The Role of Language in Psychoanalytic Therapy .........
8. The Search for Meaning ............. , . ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9. The Unconscious in the Body-Movement Therapies . . . . . . .
10. Movements Are Expressive .. . . . . . . .. .. ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11. Against Interpretation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
12. Overcoming Resistances: The Reichian Influence .........
13. Styles of Exercising Authority . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
14. Changing Conceptions of Countertransference ...........
References .............................................

350
352
353
354
356
357
360
361
363
366
368
371
373
375

Part VI Conc1usion

379

Chapter 13
Why Does Using Imagery in Psychotherapy Lead to Change?
Danaid Meichenbaum
1. The Need for an Integrative Orientation .................
2. Imagery and the Context of Psychotherapy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3. Cognitive Theory of Behavior Change ...................
3.1. Self-Awareness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2. Generating Adaptive New Thoughts and Responses. .
3.3. In Viva Practice. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4. Imagery-Based Therapies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5. Psychological Processes Underlying Imagery-Based
Therapies .............................................
References ............................................

381
383
383
384
385
386
386

Author Index . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

395

Subject Index. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

401

387
393