HiPerMat 2012 Kassel

SRBaustoffeNr19_druck 02.02.
12 12:25 Seite 1
2012
Edited by
M. Schmidt
E. Fehling
C. Glotzbach
S. Frhlich
S. Piotrowski
This volume thus contains about 120 contributions from many

research disciplines that are influenced by High Performance
Materials and UHPC in particular: material sciences, structural
engineering, environmental engineering, nanotechnology, chemistry, architecture, codification, and economy.
ISBN 978-3-86219-264-9
kassel
university
press
U N I K A S S E L
V E R S I T A T
No. 19
Ultra-High Performance
Concrete and
Nanotechnology in
Construction
Structural Materials and Engineering Series
As an impressive amount of new knowledge could be obtained by

leveraging the growing experience in the fields of nanotechnology
and chemistry, the symposium was rebranded to honor this influence. It now bears the name HiPerMat, derived from Nanotechnology for High Performance Materials in Construction.
Heft 19
Schriftenreihe Baustoffe und Massivbau
To facilitate the fruitful exchange of knowledge and experience

both between international researchers and engineers in the field
was the objective of the 3 rd International Symposium on UHPC
that took place in Kassel on March 7 9, 2012, the proceedings of
which are contained in this publication.
Concrete and
Nanotechnology in
Construction
Ultra-High Performance Concrete (UHPC), with its high compressive strength of more than 200 MPa and an improved durability,
marks a quantum leap in concrete technology. This high performance material offers a variety of interesting applications. It allows
the construction of sustainable and economic buildings with an
extraordinarily slim design. Its high strength and ductility makes it
the ultimate building material for e.g. bridge decks, storage halls,
thin-wall shell structures, and highly loaded columns. Due to its
outstanding resistance against several kinds of corrosion, it is
deemed suitable for new fields of application where concrete has
not been considered viable before. To make use of its superior
properties, special knowledge of production, construction, and
design is required.
Proceedings of Hipermat 2012

3 rd International Symposium on UHPC and
Nanotechnology for High Performance
Construction Materials
Kassel, March 79, 2012
Edited by
M. Schmidt
E. Fehling
C. Glotzbach
S. Frhlich
S. Piotrowski
kassel
university
press

Heft 19
No. 19
Ultra-High PerformanceConcrete and

Nanotechnology in Construction

3rd International Symposium on UHPC and
Edited by
M. Schmidt
E. Fehling
C. Glotzbach
S. Frhlich
S. Piotrowski
kassel
university
press
Bibliografische Information Der Deutschen Nationalbibliothek

Die Deutsche Nationalbibliothek verzeichnet diese Publikation in der Deutschen
Nationalbibliografie; detaillierte bibliografische Daten sind im Internet ber
http://dnb.d-nb.de abrufbar
ISBN print: 978-3-86219-264-9

ISBN online: 978-3-86219-265-6
URN urn:nbn:de:0002-32656
2012, kassel university press GmbH, Kassel

www.uni-kassel.de/upress
Herausgeber
Prof. Dr.-Ing. habil. M. Schmidt
Universitt Kassel
Fachbereich Bauingenieurund Umweltingenieurwesen
Institut fr Konstruktiven Ingenieurbau
Fachgebiet Werkstoffe des Bauwesens
und Bauchemie
Mnchebergstr. 7
D-34125 Kassel
Tel. +49 (561) 804 2601
Fax +49 (561) 804 2662
baustk@uni-kassel.de
www.uni-kassel.de/fb14/baustoffkunde
Prof. Dr.-Ing. E. Fehling

Universitt Kassel
Fachbereich Bauingenieurund Umweltingenieurwesen
Institut fr Konstruktiven Ingenieurbau
Fachgebiet Massivbau
Kurt-Wolters-Str. 3
D-34125 Kassel
Tel. +49 (561) 804 2656
Fax +49 (561) 804 2803
bauing.massivbau@uni-kassel.de
www.uni-kassel.de/fb14/massivbau
Introduction
Ultra-High Performance Concrete (UHPC), one of the recent breakthroughs in concrete
technology, impresses us with its high durability and a compressive strength comparable to that
of steel. It permits the design of sustainable concrete structures such as wide-span bridges,
filigree shells and high-rise towers and allows for spectacular architectural designs.
In 2004 and 2008, two International Symposia on UHPC took place at the University of Kassel,
organized by the Department of Structural Materials and Construction Chemistry and the
Department of Structural Engineering. Since then, the set of knowledge about the Ultra-High
Performance Concrete has been substantially widened and its practical application has rapidly
increased worldwide. New researchers and users of UHPC have joined the community and
broadened the scope of its potential.
This conference as well has substantially grown since 2008. In 2012, about 130 speakers
presented their impressions, research, and practical experience. It also attracted the attention
of many international standardization bodies.
Even though the material is already highly developed, it is still possible to increase its potential
even further using recent advancements in nanotechnology and colloidal chemistry. Nowadays,
the reactions of binders can be studied at the nanoscale, synthetic nanoparticles of various
oxides can significantly improve microstructure and reaction potential. This knowledge gives
rise to many new possibilities that allow developing impregnable ceramics or multifunctional
materials. They can, for example, carry agents for environmental protection, provide additional
self-healing potential, and act as part of heating or cooling measures. As nanotechnology
provides many new and auspicious approaches to improve the performance of construction
materials and to open up new applications, the 3rd International Symposium on UHPC
extended its focus towards nano-optimized construction materials and its recent advancements.
This additional aspect led us to establish the new conference name HiPerMat, derived from
High Performance Construction Materials.
This volume thus contains more than 120 contributions from many research disciplines that are
influenced by High Performance Materials and UHPC in particular: material sciences, structural
engineering, environmental engineering, nanotechnology, chemistry, architecture, codification,
and economy. A design adequate to the materials and to the construction of durable and
sustainable high performance structures receives special attention.
We hope that our conference, Hipermat 2012, has once more contributed to the development of
modern and progressive buildings and materials for construction and will continue to do so in
the future.
Kassel, in January of 2012

Prof. Dr.-Ing. habil. Michael Schmidt
Prof. Dr.-Ing. Ekkehard Fehling
We thank our supporters
Scientific Committee for HiPerMat 2012

Chairmen
Prof. Michael Schmidt
Prof. Ekkehard Fehling
University of Kassel, D
Members
Prof. Tess Ahlborn
Steve Kosmatka
Michigan Tech Transportation Insitute, USA
Portland Cement Association, USA
Prof. Mouloud Behloul
Prof. Christian Meyer
Lafarge, F
Columbia University, USA
Prof. Harald Budelmann
Prof. Bernhard Middendorf
University of Braunschweig, D
University of Dortmund, D
Prof. Manfred Curbach
Dr. Christoph Mller
Dresden University of Technology, D
German Cement Works Association (VDZ), D
Prof. Franoise de Larrard
Prof. Harald Mller
Lafarge, F
Karlsruhe University of Technology, D
Prof. Marco di Prisco
Prof. Aurelio Muttoni
Politecnico di Milano, I
EPFL Lausanne. CH
Prof. Rdiger Faust
Jacques Resplendino
University of Kassel, D
Setec, F
Dr. Xin Feng
Dr. Serge Rimlinger
Shanghai University, CN
CERIB, F
Prof. Pietro Gambarova
Prof. Liyi Shi
Politecnico di Milano, I
Shanghai University, CN
Dr. Benjamin A. Graybeal
Alain Simon
Federal Highway Administration, USA
Eiffage, F
Prof. Jrgen Grnberg
Prof. Dietmar Stephan
University of Hannover, D
Technical University Berlin, D
Prof. Petr Hajek
Prof. Franois Toutlemonde
Technical University Praque, CZ
IFSTTAR, F
Prof. Harianto Hardjasaputra
Prof. Nguyen Tue
Universitas Pelita Harapan, Indonesia
Graz University of Technology, A
Prof. Josef Hegger
Prof. Jan Vitek
RWTH Aachen University, D
Technical University Prague, CZ
Prof. Detlef Heinz
Prof. Joost C. Walraven
Mnchen Technical University, D
Delft University of Technology, NL
Prof. Maria Konsta-Gdoutos
Prof. Alphose Zingoni
University of Thrace, GR
University of Cape Town, ZA
Symposium organizers
Dipl.-Ing. Susanne Frhlich
Dipl.-NanoSc. Christoph Glotzbach
Dipl.-Wirtsch.-Ing. Siemon Piotrowski
Table of Contents
Introduction
KEYNOTES
The Path to Ultra-High Performance Fiber Reinforced Concrete (UHP-FRC): Five
Decades of Progress
Naaman, Antoine E.
Sustainable Building with UHPC - Coordinated Research Program in Germany
17
Michael Schmidt
State of the art of design and construction of UHPFRC structures in France
27
Jacques Resplendino
An Overview of UHPC Efforts in North America
43
Theresa Ahlborn, Eric Steinberg
On the way to international design recommendations for Ultra High Performance Fibre
Reinforced Concrete
51
Joost C. Walraven
Application of Nanoparticles
59
Surendra P. Shah
NANOTECHNOLOGY
Fines and Nanoparticles
Optimization of UHPC by Adding Nanomaterials
71
Ehsan Ghafari, Hugo Costa, Eduardo Jlio, Antnio Portugal, Luisa Dures
UHPC Containing Nanoparticles Synthesized by Sol-gel Method
79
Genady Shakhmenko, Aleksandrs Korjakins, Patricija Kara, Janis Justs, Inna Juhnevica
Cavitation Treatment of Nano and Micro Filler and Its Effect on the Properties of UHPC
87
Janis Justs, Genady Shakhmenko, Viktors Mironovs, Patricija Kara
Nanoparticles as accelerators for cement hydration
93
Gerrit Land, Dietmar Stephan
Using Atomic Force Microscopy to Evaluate Superplasticizers
101
Christoph Glotzbach, Dietmar Stephan, Michael Schmidt
Investigation the Effects of Nano-Silica Colloidal Solutions on Properties of Mortars
109
Ali Akbar Ramezanianpour, Shabnam Firoozmakan, Hamed Bahrami Jovein
Mechanical Properties and Durability of Self Consolidating Mortars containing Nano SiO2
117
Ali Akbar Ramezanianpour, Mahdi Mahdikhani, S. Sina Yousefian Moghaddam, Morteza Nikravan,
S.Rahimeh Mousavi
A comparison between the pozzolanic reactivity of nanosilica sols and pyrogenic

nanosilicas
Hesam Madani, Alireza Bagheri, Parhizkar Tayebe
125
Fluid Catalytic Cracking Residue additions such an alternative to Silica Fume in

UHPFRC
133
Esteban Camacho, Pedro Serna, Juan ngel Lpez
Photocatalysis
Colloidal photocatalysts and their applications for air/water purification under UV or
visible light irradiation
141
Shuai Yuan, Meihong Zhang, Jianping Zhang, Yin Zhao, Zhuyi Wang, Liyi Shi
New Photocatalytic Cementitious Composites containing Modified Titanium Dioxide

Nanoparticles
147
Vyacheslav R. Falikman, Alexander Ja. Vainer, Igor V. Zverev
Synthesis of Photoactive Silica Spheres with Titania Nano Coating as Potential NanoComposites for Mortar and Concrete
153
Sameena Kamaruddin, Dietmar Stephan
Photocatalytic Building Materials and Methods of Measurement
161
Kai Amrhein, Dietmar Stephan
Self-cleaning ultra-high performance concrete surfaces
169
Jeffrey Chen, Matthieu Horgnies
Efficient Photocatalysis in the Visible with TiO2/Phthalocyanine Hybrid Particles
177
Andreas Winzenburg, Rdiger Faust
MATERIALS
Raw Materials, Mixture Compositions and Fresh Concrete
Synergistic Effect of Rce Husk Ash and Fly Ash on Properties of Self-Compacting High
Performance Concrete
187
Ha Thanh Le, Karsten Siewert, Horst-Michael Ludwig
Proportioning Optimization of UHPC Containing Rice Husk Ash and Ground Granulated
Blast-furnace Slag
197
Viet thien An Van, Horst-Michael Ludwig
Making UHPC with local materials - The Way Forward
207
Per Fidjestol, Rein Terje Thorsteinsen, Paul Svennevig
Control of Rheology, Strength and Fibre Bond of UHPC with Additions Effect of
Packing Density and Addition Type
215
Dirk Lowke, Thorsten Stengel, Peter Schiel, Christoph Gehlen
Influences on Repeatability and Reproducibility of Testing Methods for Fresh UHPC
225
Susanne Frhlich, Michael Schmidt
Hybrid Intensive Mixer with integrated Rheometer for High Performance Concrete
233
Harald Garrecht, Christian Baumert, Andreas Karden
Mechanical Behaviour of Hardened UHPC

Influence of vacuum mixing on the mechanical properties of UHPC
Jeroen Dils, Geert De Schutter, Veerle Boel, Egon Braem
241
Table of Contents
Definition of three levels of performance for UHPFRC-VHPFRC with available materials
249
Esteban Camacho, Juan ngel Lpez, Pedro Serna
Characteristics of Mechanical Properties of Ultra-high Performance Concrete

Incorporating Coarse Aggregate
257
Juan Yang, Gai-Fei Peng, Yu-Xin Gao, Hui Zhang
UHPC composites based on glass fibers with high fluidity, ductility, and durability
265
Jeffrey Chen
Energy Dissipation and Strength Evolution of Ultra-High-Performance Fiber-Reinforced

Concrete (UHPFRC)
273
Brett Ellis, Min Zhou, David L. McDowell
Effect of Heat Treatment Method on the Properties of UHPC
283
Detlef Heinz, Liudvikas Urbonas, Tobias Gerlicher
Hydration and Early Age

Modeling Cement Hydration Kinetics using the Equivalent Age Concept
291
Xueyu Pang, Dale P. Bentz, Christian Meyer
Mechanical Properties of Ultra-High Performance Concrete (UHPC) at Early Age
301
Harald Budelmann, Jens Ewert
Early Age Creep and Shrinkage of High Performance Concrete
309
Andina Sprince, Aleksandrs Korjakins, Leonids Pakrastinsh, Genadijs Shakhmenko, Girts Bumanis
Shrinkage Behavior of Ultra High Performance Concrete at the Manufacturing Stage
317
Sungwook Kim, Jungjun Park, Dooyeol Yoo, Youngsoo Yoon
Creep and shrinkage prediction for a heat-treated Ultra High Performance FibreReinforced Concrete
325
Philippe Francisco, Farid Benboudjema, Patrick Rougeau, Jean-Michel Torrenti
Creep Behavior of UHPC under Compressive Loading with Varying Curing Regimes
333
Jason C. Flietstra, Theresa M. Ahlborn, Devin K. Harris, Henrique de Melo e Silva
Mitigation of early age shrinkage of Ultra High Performance Concrete by using Rice Husk
Ash
341
Nguyen Van Tuan, Guang Ye, Klaas van Breugel
Durability
Microstructure of Ultra High Performance Concrete (UHPC) and its Impact on Durability
349
Jennifer C. Scheydt, Harald S. Mueller
Computer Modeling and Investigation on the Chloride Induced Steel Corrosion in

Cracked UHPC
357
Alireza Rafiee, Michael Schmidt
Marine Performance of UHPC at Treat Island
365
Michael David Arthur Thomas, Brian Green, Ed O'Neal, Vic Perry, Sean Hayman, Ashlee Hossack
Evaluation of Durability Parameters of UHPC Using Accelerated Lab Tests
371
Julie Pierard, Bram Dooms, Niki Cauberg
Bond Strength between UHPC and Normal Strength Concrete (NSC) in accordance with
Split Prism and Freeze-Thaw cycling tests.
Miguel A. Carbonell, Devin K. Harris, Sarah V. Shann, Theresa M. Ahlborn
377
Alkali-Activated Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag Binders for High Performance
Concretes with Improved Acid Resistance
385
Ricarda Tnzer, Dietmar Stephan, Michael Schmidt
STRUCTURAL BEHAVIOUR
Tension and Bending
Direct and Flexural Tension Test Methods for Determination of the Tensile Stress-Strain
Response of UHPFRC
395
Benjamin A. Graybeal, Florent Baby, Pierre Marchand, Franois Toutlemonde
Experimental and Analytical Analysis of the Flexural Behavior of UHPC Beams
403
Eric T. Visage, K. D. S. Ranga Perera, Brad D. Weldon, David V. Jauregui, Craig M. Newtson, Lucas
Guaderrama
Characterization of the Fracture Behavior of UHPC under Flexural Loading
411
Eric L. Kreiger, Theresa Ahlborn, Devin K. Harris, Henrique A. de Melo e Silva
Bending Behaviour and Variation of flexural Parameters of UHPFRC
419
Johannes Grger, Nguyen Viet Tue, Kay Wille
Tests on the Flexural Tensile Strength of a UHPFRC subjected to Cycling and Reversed
Loading reversed loading
427
Bjrn Frettlhr, Dominique Corvez, Emmanuel Chatoux, Karl Heinz Reineck
Flexural Model of Doubly Reinforced Concrete Beams Using Ultra High Performance
Fiber Reinforced Concrete
435
Chuchai Sujivorakul
Design of Reinforced UHPFRC in Flexure
443
Simone Strwald, Ekkehard Fehling
Shear
Shear Capacity of UHPC Beam Tests
451
Niki Cauberg, Julie Pierard, Benoit Parmentier, Olivier Remy
Interface Shear Capacity of Small UHPC / HPC Composite T-Beams
459
Charles Kennan Crane, Lawrence F. Kahn
Numerical Study on the Shear Behavior of Micro-Reinforced UHPC Beams
469
Martina Schnellenbach-Held, Melanie Prager
Experimental Investigations on I-Shaped UHPC Beams with Combined Reinforcement

under Shear Load
477
Jenny Thiemicke, Ekkehard Fehling
Ultimate Shear Strength of Ultra High Performance Fibre Reinforced Concrete Beams
485
Florent Baby, Jol Billo, Jean-Claude Renaud, Cyril Massotte, Pierre Marchand, Franois Toutlemonde
Shear Behavior of pretensioned UHPC Beams - Tests and Design

Guido Bertram, Josef Hegger
493
Table of Contents
Torsion and Bond

Experimental Investigations on UHPC Structural Elements Subject to Pure Torsion
501
Ekkehard Fehling, Mohammed Ismail
Torsional Test of Ultra High Performance Fiber-Reinforced Concrete Square Members
509
Changbin Joh, Jung Woo Lee, In Hwan Yang, Byung-Suk Kim
UHPFRC Box Girders under Torsion
517
Martin Empelmann, Vincent Oettel
Bond Behavior of Strands in UHPC - Tests and Design
525
Experimental Investigations on Anchorage of Rebars in UHPC
533
Ekkehard Fehling, Paul Lorenz, Torsten Leutbecher
Effect of adding micro fibers on the pullout behavior of high strength steel fibers in UHPC
matrix
541
Seung Hun Park, Dong Joo Kim, Gum Sung Ryu, Kyung Taek Koh
Fire and Impact

Literature Review on the Behaviour of UHPFRC at High Temperature
549
Pierre Pimienta, Jean-Christophe Mindeguia, Alain Simon, Mouloud Behloul, Roberto Felicetti, Patrick
Bamonte, Pietro G. Gambarova
Thermal Properties of Mortar with Ceramic Microspheres
557
Sung-Gul Hong, Sung-Hoon Kang, Eo-Jin Lee, Soo-Min Jeong
Material Characterization of an Ultra High-Performance-Fibre Reinforced Concrete under

Elevated Temperatures
565
Richard Way, Kay Wille
Behaviour of Ultra High Performance Concrete (UHPC) in Case of Fire
573
Dietmar Hosser, Bjrn Kampmeier, Dirk Hollmann
Failure Mechanisms of UHPC Components under Explosive Loading
583
Oliver Millon, Werner Riedel, Christoph Mayrhofer, Klaus Thoma
Ultra High Performance Concrete Structures under Aircraft Engine Missile Impact
593
Markus Nldgen, Ekkehard Fehling, Werner Riedel, Klaus Thoma
DESIGN AND CONSTRUCTION

Material Models
A Triaxial Fatigue Failure Model for ultra high performance concrete (UHPC)
603
Jrgen Grnberg, Christian Ertel
New fatigue design model for all concrete strengths
611
Ludger Lohaus, Nadja Oneschkow
Mechanical Behaviour of Ultra High-Performance Fibrous-Concrete Beams Reinforced

by Internal FRP Bars
Emmanuel Ferrier, Laurent Michel, Philippe Lussou, Bruno Zuber
619
Fatigue Behaviour of plain and fibre reinforced Ultra-High Performance Concrete
631
Ludger Lohaus, Kerstin Elsmeier
Moment Redistribution Capacity in Ultra-High Performance Concrete
639
Kenneth K. Walsh, Eric P. Steinberg
Composite Structures and Connection Technology

Design Models for Composite Beams with Puzzle Strip Shear Connector and UHPC
647
Joerg Gallwoszus, Josef Hegger, Sabine Heinemeyer
Connections of Precast UHPC Elements
655
Josef Hegger, Nguyen Viet Tue, Janna Schoening, Martina Winkler
UHPFRC for Prefabricated Bridge Component Connections
663
Benjamin A. Graybeal, Matthew Swenty
Field Cast UHPC Connections for Precast Bridge Elements & Systems
669
V.H. Perry, Peter Seibert
Timber UHPC composite floor structures environmental study
679
Petr Hajek, Magdalena Kynclova, Ctislav Fiala
Special Nodes in Ultra High Performance Concrete
685
Hasan Han, Steffen Grnewald, Joost Walraven, Jeroen Coenders, Pierre Hoogenboom
Cyclic Behaviour of Puzzle strips in UHPC
693
Application of Steel Shares as Shear Connectors in Slender Composite Structures
701
Wolfgang Kurz, Jrgen Schnell, Susanne Wiese
Structural Behaviour and Load-Bearing Capacity of Reinforced Glued Joints of UHPCElements
709
Daniel Wingenfeld, Christian Muehlbauer, Konrad Zilch
Adhesion of fine-grained HPC and UHPC to Steel and Glass
717
Joachim Juhart, Bernhard Freytag, Gerhard Santner, Erwin Baumgartner
Structural Elements
Probabilistic Modelling of UHPC Slender Columns
725
Martin Heimann, Holger Schmidt, Carl-Alexander Graubner
Ultra High Performance Spun Concrete Columns with High Strength Reinforcement
733
Corinna Mueller, Martin Empelmann, Helmut Lieb, Florian Hude
Experimental analysis and numerical simulation of Ultra-High-Performance Concrete

tube columns with a steel sheet wrapping for large sized truss structures
741
Ludger Lohaus, Jrgen Grnberg, Nick Lindschulte, Sven Kromminga
Shear and flexural behaviour of thin UHPC slabs
749
Lionel Moreillon, Joanna Nseir, Ren Suter
Modelling Flexural Tests on UHPFRC Thin-Walled Structures
757
Pierre Marchand, Florent Baby, Wal Al Khayer, Mohammed Attrach, Franois Toutlemonde
Buckling Behaviour of UHPFRC-Panels under Compression

Bernhard Freytag, Martha Escobar, Werner Guggenberger, Josef Linder, Lutz Sparowitz
765
Table of Contents
Analytical and experimental investigations on the introduction of compressive loads in

thin walled elements made of UHPFRC by the use of implants
773
Jan Mittelstdt, Werner Sobek
Load-Bearing Behaviour of Sandwich Strips with XPS-Core and Reinforced HPCFacings
781
Frank Mller, Christian Kohlmeyer, Jrgen Schnell
APPLICATIONS
Special Concretes and Applications
Microstructural Optimization of High-Strength Performance Air Hardened Foam Concrete
791
Bernhard Middendorf, Armin Just
UHPC Under Intensive Autoclave Cycles for Energy Storage Water Tanks.
799
Mohamed Abd Elrahman, Bernd Hillemeier
Ultra-High Performance Concrete for Drill Bits in Special Foundation Engineering
807
Hursit Ibuk, Karsten Beckhaus
Effect of Fibres on Impact Resistance of Ultra High Performance Concrete
811
Sandy Leonhardt, Dirk Lowke, Christoph Gehlen
On the way to micrometer scale: applications of UHPC in machinery construction
819
Bernhard Sagmeister
High Strength Pervious Concrete
825
Kay Wille, Rui Zhong
Sewer pipes and UHPC - Development of an UHPC with earth-moist consistency
833
Michael Schmidt, Torsten Braun, Heiko Mller
Development of an Ultra-High Performance Concrete for precast spun concrete columns
841
Thomas Adam, Jianxin Ma
Infrastructure
Whiteman Creek Bridge A Synthesis of Ultra High Performance Concrete and Fibre
Reinforced Polymers for Accelerated Bridge Construction
849
Wade Francis Young, Jasan Boparai, Vic Perry, Brent Archibald, Sameh Salib
Current Research on Ultra High Performance Concrete (UHPC) for Bridge Applications
in Iowa
857
Sri Sritharan, Sriram Aaleti, Dean Bierwagen, Jessica Garder, Ahmad Abu-Hawash
R&D Activities and Application of Ultra High Performance Concrete to Cable Stayed
Bridges
865
Byung-Suk Kim, Seungwook Kim, Young-Jin Kim, Sung Yong Park, Kyung-Teak Koh, Changbin Joh
Structural Performance of Prestressed UHPC Ribbed Deck for Cable-Stayed Bridge
873
Sung Yong Park, Keunhee Cho, Jeong Rae Cho, Sung Tae Kim, Byung Suk Kim
WILD-Bridge Scientific Preparation for Smooth Realisation

Bernhard Freytag, Gnter Heinzle, Michael Reichel, Lutz Sparowitz
881
Practical Use of Fibre-reinforced UHPC in Construction - Production of Precast Elements

for Wild-Brcke in Vlkermarkt
889
Markus Hecht
Structural Design and Preliminary Calculations of a UHPFRC Truss Footbridge
897
Juan Angel Lpez, Esteban Camacho, Pedro Serna Ros, Juan Navarro Gregori
Behaviour of an Orthotropic Bridge Deck with a UHPFRC Topping Layer
905
Pierre Marchand, Fernanda Gomes, Lamine Dieng, Florent Baby, Jean-Claude Renaud, Cyril Massotte,
Marc Estivin, Jol Billo, Cline Bazin, Romain Lapeyrere, Dominique Siegert, Franois Toutlemonde
Application of Ultra-High Performance Concrete for Multifunctional Road Pavements
913
Benjamin Scheffler, Michael Schmidt
"Whitetopping" of Asphalt and Concrete Pavements with thin layers of Ultra-HighPerformance Concrete - Construction and economic efficiency
921
Cornelia Schmidt, Michael Schmidt
Application of Ultra-High Performance Concrete (UHPC) as a Thin-Topped Overlay for

Concrete Bridge Decks
929
Sarah V. Shann, Devin K. Harris, Miguel A. Carbonell, Theresa M. Ahlborn
Assessment of a UHPFRC based bridge rehabilitation in Slovenia, two years after

application
937
Aljoa ajna, Emmanuel Denari, Vladimir Bras
Structural Health Monitoring of the Gaertnerplatz Bridge over the Fulda River in Kassel
Based on Vibration Test Data and Stochastic Model Updating
945
Michael Link, Matthias Weiland
Life-Cycle Cost Analysis of a UHPC-Bridge on Example of two Bridge Refurbishment

Designs
957
Siemon Piotrowski, Michael Schmidt
Material performance control on two large projects: Jean-Bouin stadium and MUCEM
museum
965
Dominique Corvez, Patrick Mazzacane
Innovative design of bridge bearings by the use of UHPFRC
973
Simon Hoffmann, Hermann Weiher
Study on the Application of UHPC for Precast Tunnel Segments
981
Norbert Randl, Arnold Pichler, Walter Schneider, Joachim Juhart
Architectural Elements
Architectural Concrete with UHPC for facades and interior design - recent application in
Germany
989
Thomas Drssler
The First Architectural UHPC Faade Application in North America
997
Peter J. Seibert, Vic H. Perry, Gamal Ghoneim, Gerald Carson, Rafaat El-Hacha, Ignacio Cariaga, Don
Zakariasen
Ultra thin Hi-Con Balconies First Application in Holland
1005
Rogier Friso van Nalta, Tommy Bk Hansen
Precast thin shells made of UHPFRC for a large roof in a waste water treatment plant
near Paris
Gilles Delplace, Ziad Hajar, Alain Simon
1011
Table of Contents
Off-shore Foundations
Design of Grouted Connections for Offshore Wind Energy Converters and Composite
Structures using UHPC
1019
Steffen Anders
Compressive Strength of UHPC in Bottle-Shaped Compression Fields
1027
Torsten Leutbecher, Ekkehard Fehling
Aspartoftheconferencebag,youreceivedastoragedevicecontainingtheonlineversionofthisvolume.Youcan
accessalltheinformationinthisbook,skimthroughitviaafulltextsearch,filterthecontributions,andgetfurther
informationontheauthorsandthevisitorsofHiPerMat2012.
Toaccesstheonlineproceedings,allyouneedisarecentwebbrowserandaPDFviewer,youcanuseanyoperating
system.JustplugtheUSBstoragedeviceintoacompatiblecomputerandopenthefilestart.htmlinitsroot
directory.
OntheUSBstick,youwillfindoneadditionalcontribution:
Grouted Connections with HPC and UHPC for Offshore Wind Power Plants - Material
Properties and Quality
Torsten Braun, Michael Schmidt
USB
Part One
KEYNOTES
The Path to Ultra-High Performance Fiber Reinforced

Concrete (UHP-FRC): Five Decades of Progress
Antoine E. Naaman1, Kay Wille2
1: Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA
2: Department of Civil & Environmental Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, Connecticut, USA
Following the onset of modern developments of fiber reinforced concrete in the early 1960s, there has
been a continuous search for its improved performance. One can thus follow such progress in milestones
along four inter-related paths: one path for the cementitious matrix, another for the fiber, the third for the
interface bond between fiber and matrix, and the forth for the composite itself. After identifying some key
milestones for each path, over a period of five decades, leading to todays ultra-high performance fiber
reinforced concretes (UHP-FRCs), the composition and key mechanical properties of newly designed
UHP-FRC mixtures obtained without heat or pressure curing while using materials available on the US
market are described. Record breaking performance in direct tension (in terms of strength, ductility, and
fracture energy) is reported and sets limits to exceed in the future.
Keywords: bond strength, ductility, fiber reinforced concrete, fracture energy, high strength, high
performance, steel fibers, tensile testing, ultra-high performance.
1 Introduction
The past five decades mark the modern development and broad expansion of fiber reinforced
cement and concrete composites, which has led to today extensive applications and market
penetration worldwide. Their success is due in part to significant advances in the fiber
reinforcement, the cementitious matrix, the interface bond between fiber and matrix,
fundamental understanding of the mechanics of the composite, and improved costeffectiveness.
Ultra-high performance cement or concrete (UHPC) composites are very brittle and, as such,
often compared to ceramics. Adding fibers to an UHPC matrix in order to improve its toughness
and ductility, has led to the terminology used here, that is: ultra high performance fiber
reinforced cement or concrete composite or UHP-FRC composite.
It is strongly believed that high performance and ultra-high performance fiber reinforced
cement composites are emerging materials well suited for use in the next generation of
infrastructure. There is real need to tailor-design these composites to satisfy certain demands
on strength, toughness, durability, ductility, and fracture energy. These include demand for
combined axial and bending resistance at the base of columns in high rise buildings, demand
for high rotational capacity, demand for combined plastic shear and plastic bending
deformations at the base of shear walls, high shear and bending resistance at the continuous
supports in long-span bridges, and, blast and impact resistant structures. Clearly high
performance mechanical properties are needed. UHP-FRC composites seem to be also
particularly suitable in thin products applications, such as panels and cladding, where they
could be used as stand-alone material. Enhanced durability properties could fulfill the need for
structures with longer lifetime, less maintainance and repair.
Combined properties of interest to civil engineering applications include strength, toughness,
energy absorption, stiffness, durability, freeze-thaw and corrosion resistance, fire resistance,
tightness, appearance, stability, construct-ability, quality control, and last but not least, cost and
user friendliness.
2 Definition and Characteristic Qualifications

High strength and high performance concrete, high performance fiber reinforced concrete
(HPFRC), ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC), and ultra-high performance fiber reinforced
concrete (UHP-FRC) have been addressed in numerous investigations in the US and abroad [152]. A recent review of their definitions, if available, can be found in Ref. [23]. For the purpose
of this paper and with the intent of providing extremely brief definitions until technical
committees working on these materials provide some, the following definitions are suggested:
Ultra high performance concrete (UHPC) is a hydraulic cement-based concrete with a
compressive strength at least equal to 150 MPa, etc.
Ultra-high performance fiber reinforced concrete (UHP-FRC) is a UHPC with fibers added
in order to significantly improve a particular mechanical property (or properties), etc.
The additive etc suggests that these short definitions could be qualified by one or a
combination of attributes, such as adopted by some researchers [19, 20]. For UHPC, these
attributes include, for instance, a minimum water to binder ratio, a minimum cement content, a
minimum packing density or a minimum level of durability performance. For UHP-FRC the
composite can be qualified by whether it is strain-softening or strain-hardening in tension
[12,13], or whether it is deflection-softening or deflection-hardening in bending, as well as by a
minimum level of ductility, toughness or fracture energy. Other attributes may be imposed
depending on particular applications; examples include permeability, electrical conductivity,
resistance to chloride penetration, volume stability (shrinkage or expansion), etc.
How a recommended level of performance is achieved in practice should be of less interest
to a general definition. Thus UHPC could be obtained using heat curing or pressure curing or
none at all; it may necessitate the use of a particular mineral additive or a polymer additive, or a
special mixing procedure.
Whether a single or multiple attributes are used, reference to broadly acceptable standard
tests procedures and specimen dimensions is needed to help clearly identify a particular
composite.
3 Chronological Developments: Five Decades of Progress

It is difficult to put specific limits at technical advances and progress on a particular subject, not
only in terms of time but also geographic location. However, one can point out certain
milestones that helped improve the performance of cement and concrete composites in general
and somehow started a trend. For UHP-FRC, these milestones can be followed along four
paths and their combination, namely, the cement matrix, the fiber, the bond at the interface
between fiber and matrix, and the resulting composite.
3.1
Concrete Matrix and Fiber
In Table 1, the authors list in chronological order key advances related to the concrete matrix
(2nd column) and the fiber (3 rd column) since the 1960s, mostly as encountered in the Europe
and the US. It is likely that a similar evolution took place elsewhere around the world, but with
some slight delay (or advance) in adoption or implementation. Table 1 is self-explanatory.
3.2
Progress Leading to Ultra High Performance Fiber Reinforced Concrete
It has been a common aspiration for researchers dealing with cement and concrete composites
to race for increasing compressive strength. In the early 1970s very high compressive
strengths of up to 510 MPa were reported from testing small specimens prepared under special
conditions with vacuum, heat and pressure curing [24, 25]. In the early 1980s the addition of
special polymer and the use of very low water to cement ratios led to what was described as
micro-defect-free cement with a compressive strength exceeding 200 MPa [26]; no pressure or
4
The Path to Ultra-High Performance Fiber Reinforced Concrete (UHP-FRC): Five Decades of Progress
heat curing was needed. Such discoveries, however, while illustrating the potential of the
material, did not translate into easily implemented applications. In Tables 2, the authors
summarize various milestones related to numerous such composites developed since the
1970s. Widely used acronyms are highlighted. Table 2 covers the period from 1970 to 2011. It
gives the approximate date of introduction, the range of compressive strength reported, the
reference, the name and/or acronym used for the material developed, if any, and the special
conditions applied to achieve the reported properties. Related references can be found in the
reference list [24 to 49] Note that Table 2 is by no means exhaustive; it covers what the
authors consider key developments in the US and Europe. The emphasis is on materials that
have led to ultra-high performance concrete and ultra-high performance fiber reinforced
concrete as understood at time of this writing.
Table 1: Chronological Advances in the matrix and fibers since the 1960s.
Decade
1970s
1980s
1990s
2000s
2010s
Cementitious Matrix and Concrete

Better understanding of hydration reactions; gel
structure;
Better understanding shrinkage, creep, porosity,
High strength concrete to 50 MPa in practice
Development of water reducers
Advances in concrete treatments and curing conditions
Increased development of chemical additives: HWRA,
etc
Increased utilization of fly ash and silica fume, and other
mineral additives, etc
Increased flowability (flowable concrete)
Reduction in W/C ratio;
High-Strength-Concrete terminology: up to 60 MPa;
special high strength: up to 80 MPa; exotic high strength
(special aggregate and curing): up to 120 MPa
High-Performance-Concrete terminology: high-strengthconcrete with improved durability properties.
Increased development in chemical additives:
superplasticizers; viscosity agents; etc.
Increased use of supplementary cementitious materials
as cement replacement
UHPC: application of concept of high packing density;
addition of fine particles; low porosity; lower water to
cementitious ratio;
Self consolidating concrete; self compacting concrete;
Increased developments of proprietary and nonproprietary UHPC/UHP-FRC
UHPC: improved understanding of high packing density;
application of nanotechnology concepts
Increased understanding of the cementitious matrix at

the nano-scale
???...
Fiber
Smooth steel fibers;
normal strength
Glass fibers
Some synthetic fibers
Deformed steel fibers:
normal and high strength
Low-modulus synthetic
fibers (PP, nylon, etc..)
Increased use of glass
fibers
Micro fibers
High performance
polymer fibers (carbon,
Spectra, Kevlar, etc..)
New steel fibers with a
twist (untwist during pullout)
PVA fibers with chemical
bond to concrete
Improved availability of
synthetic fibers
Ultra high strength steel
fibers: smooth or
deformed with diameters
as low as 0.12 mm and
strengths up to 3400
MPa
Carbon nano-tubes;
carbon nano-fibers
Carbon nano-fibers,
graphene,
???...
Table 2: Developments in high strength high performance cement composites from the 1970s to date (in the
US and Europe).
Year
1972
fc [MPa]
230
1972
510
1981
200
19811983
1980
all
120 to 250
1980s
Up to 120
1980s
all
Up to 210
1987
Up to 140
1987
Open range
1991
Open range
1992
Open range
1994
In excess of
150
Reinhardt and
Naaman
(Germany, US)
Li and Wu
(US)
De Larrard
(France)
1995
Up to 800
Richard & Cheyrezy
1998
and
later
2000
and
later
Early
2000
Up to 200
2005
Up to 140
2005
Up to 200
2004
Open range
>150
Lafarge; (Chanvilliard;
Rigaud; Behloul)
France
Rossi et al.
LCPC
(France)
Many researchers
worldwide
(Ulm, Graybeal,
Rossi)
Karihaloo
(UK)
Jungwirth
(Switzerland)
Fehling & Schmidt
(Germany)
2005
Open
2008
Open range
>150
2011
2011
>150
Up to 290
120 to
250
Up to 200
Up to
200
2011
2012
Open range
>150
Source/Ref.
Yudenfreund, Skalny,
et al.
Roy et al.
(US)
Birchall et al.
(UK)
Bache; Hjorth
(Denmark)
Bache; Young;
Jennings; Aitcin
(Denmark; US;
Canada)
Many researchers
worldwide
(Shah; Zia; Russell;
Swamy; Malier;
Konig; Aitcin;
Malhotra)
Lankard; Naaman
(US)
Bache
(Denmark)
Naaman
(US)
Name
MDF (Micro-Defect-Free)
DENSIT; COMPRESSIT
DSP (Densified Small
Particles)
Special Conditions
Paste; vacuum mixing; low porosity;
small specimens.
Paste; high pressure and high heat;
small specimens.
Paste; addition of polymer; bending
strength up to 150 MPa
Mortar and concrete; normal curing;
use of microsilica
Improved particle packing; use of
microsilica; use of superplasticizers;
High Strength Concrete;

High Performance
Concrete
(HSC; HPC)
Concrete with special additives and

aggregates for structural
applications; use of
superplasticizers; normal curing;
better durability
SIFCON (Slurry Infiltrated

Fiber Concrete)
Fine sand mortar with high volume

fractions of steel fibers (8% to 15%
by volume)
Concrete with high volume of steel
fibers used with reinforcing bars
Mortar and concrete with fibers
leading to strain-hardening response
in tension
CRC (Compact Reinforced

Concrete)
HPFRCC
(High Performance Fiber
Reinforced Cement
Composites)
HPFRCC
(First International
Workshop)
ECC (Engineered
Cementitious Composites)
Concrete
(UHPC)
RPC (Reactive Powder
Concrete)
DUCTAL
CEMTEC;
CEMTEC-multi-scale
Toward reducing the fiber content.

Mostly mortar with synthetic fibers;
strain-hardening behavior in tension
Optimized material with dense
particle packing and ultra fine
particles
Paste and concrete; heat and
pressure curing; particle packing
90oC heat curing for 3 days; steel
fibers up to 6%
(commercially available)
Up to 9% fibers; hybrid combinations
UHPC and UHP-FRC
Many formulations based on

DUCTAL
CARDIFRC
Optimized particle packing and

mixing procedure
Formulation similar to DUCTAL,
larger fibers, larger aggregates
Many formulations similar to
DUCTAL with and without heat
curing; with and without fibers.
German DFG funded broader
initiative (2005-2012)
Many formulations similar to
DUCTAL with and without heat
curing; with and without fibers.
First US Workshop
No heat curing; optimized packing;
record direct tensile strength
First meeting: Oct. 2011
Also: PCI working group
CERACEM
First International
Symposium on UHPC
Schmidt et al.
(Germany)
Fehling & Schmidt
(Germany)
Sustainable Building with

UHPC
Second International
Symposium on UHPC
Accorsi & Meyer (US)

Wille & Naaman
(US-Germany)
UHPC Workshop
UHP-FRC
Fehling & Schmidt

(Germany)
Third International
Symposium on UHPC
ACI UHPC Committee 239
German Research Program: Sustainable Building with UHPC

4 Summary of Key Mechanical Properties Achieved to Date
This section provides a summary of the composition, mixing procedure, and key mechanical
properties achieved using particular UHP-FRC composites developed by the authors and their
collaborators. Several references can be consulted for additional details [44 to 52].
4.1
Mixture Composition
Examples of mixture compositions for UHPC and UHP-FRC composites developed by the
authors in prior investigations [45, 48] are provided in Table 3. The ratio for each material is
given by weight of cement. The compressive and tensile strengths observed from tests are
given in the last rows of the table. A typical composition of UHPC by volume is illustrated in Fig.
1 and is compared to a conventional normal concrete (NC) with the same air content . It can be
observed that the paste phase in UHPC is more than 2.5 times that of NC while the inert
particle phase is much smaller to essentially compensate for the difference. A description of the
particle sizes of the various materials used and some of their recommended characteristics are
shown in Fig. 2. The average particle size of each material is compared in Fig. 3 to the ideal
theoretical particle sizes that would optimize packing density [44]; the theoretical particles sizes
are shown as distribution functions around average diameters d1, d2, d3, where d1 is
assumed to be equal 0.5 mm, and the other diameters are derived for optimum packing.
Table 3: Examples of mixtures developed for UHPC and UHP-FRC.
UHPC
Cement
A
1.00
B
1.00
C
1.00
D
1.00
A
1.00
B
1.00
UHP-FRC
C
1.00
Silica Fume
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
Glass Powder
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.220
0.195
0.190
0.180
0.212
0.200 0.185-0.195 0.18-0.20
0.207
Superplasticizer 0.0054 0.0108 0.0108 0.0114
0.0054
0.0108
0.0108
0.0108
0.0108
Type
Water
D
1.00
SIFCON
1.00
Sand A
0.28
0.30
0.31
1.05
0.27
0.28
0.29
0.92
0.76
Sand B
1.10
0.71
0.72
0.00
1.05
0.64
0.67
0.00
0.00
ratio Sand A/B
20/80
30/70
30/70
100/0
20/80
30/70
30/70
100/0
100/0
Fiber
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.00
0.15/0.25
0.22
0.18-0.27
0.22-0.31
0.71
1.5/2.5
2.5
2.0-3.0
2.5-3.5
5e/8f
194
207
207/213
219
227-261
e
f
251-291 270 /292
6.1-7.4g ; 6.9-7.8g ; 7.4-8.5g ; 8.2-9.0g 8.2/14.2
15
16-20
Fiber Vol.%
f 'c [cube,28d ] MPa
ft [tension ] MPa
220-240 232-246
20-30
37e
solid content; b max. grain size 0.2 mm (1/128 in.); c max. grain size 0.8 mm (1/32 in.);
d
non vibrated, non surface cut; e twisted (T) fiber; f straight (S) fiber; g at first cracking followed by immediate
failure
Figure 1: An example of mix proportions by volume comparing UHP-FRC with normal concrete (NC).
Figure 2: Materials used in the mixtures developed and their particular characteristics [Ref. 48].
4.2
Mixing Procedure
In UHPC, the number of ingredients is higher and the fineness of the particles is smaller
compared to normal strength concretes. Therefore, it is important that all particles, especially
the very fine ones, are uniformly distributed. Because very fine particles tend to agglomerate
and form chunks, the minimal shear force for breaking these chunks can be reduced by keeping
the particles dry; it is thus recommended to mix all dry particles first before adding the water
and highrange water reducing (HRWR) additives.
In this investigation [45, 48], silica fume was first mixed with all the sand for about 5 minutes,
similar to [40]. Afterwards, cement and glass powder were added and mixed dry for at least
another 5 minutes before water was added. The whole amount of HRWR was added at once
after the water. The UHPC became fluid after approximately 5 minutes of adding the water and
HRWR. Fibers, if any, were then added during the following 5 min. A horizontal pan mixer
8
(capacity of around 60 Liter, 1.8 kW), with constant mixing speed (60 rpm), was sufficient for
mixing the UHPC described in this research.
d3
d5
0.36 m
18 nm
d 2 d1
d4
25 m
0.11 mm
0.5 mm
micro-meter, mm
1000
10
100
WATER
10
1000 Cement
100
nano-meter
2
Legend:
10%
50%
90%
0.001
30
8m
Silica fume
2 .3
0.1
0.4 m
Glass powder
4
0.8
1.7 m
0.01
0.1
milli-meter, mm
0.4
Sand 1
0.8
0.5 mm
Sand 2
0.08
0.2
1 mm 103 m
0.11 mm
1 micron m 106 m 103 mm

1 nanometer = 109 m
Figure 3: Comparison between particle sizes of materials used with theoretical sizes (di) obtained t o optimize
packing density [Ref. 44].
Figure 4: Comparison of compressive strength of UHPC and UHP-FRC mixtures developed versus existing
data reported in the technical literature [Ref. 48].
4.3.
Compressive Strength and Stress-Strain response
The average compressive strength at 28 days (using 50 mm cube specimens) of the various
mixtures described in Table 4 is compared to equivalent cubic compressive strengths of various
UHPC composites reported in the technical literature. It can be observed that they compare
very favorably to existing data, particularly given the fact that they were obtained with no heat
treatment, no special mixer, and using materials commercially available on the US market.
Details can be found in [45, 48].
4.4
Bond Stress-Slip at the Fiber-Matrix Interface
In order to optimize the response of UHP-FRC after first percolation cracking, that is, to
essentially improve simultaneously its post-cracking tensile strength, the corresponding strain
capacity, and its fracture energy, a thorough attempt was made to optimize the bond at the fiber
to matrix interface, and to use deformed steel fibers of tensile strength as high as can be
practically obtained from manufacturers of steel wires. The objective was to achieve the highest
possible bond without failing the fiber. Extensive pull-out tests were then carried-out on single
fibers with different characteristics [50, 51]. Examples of bond shear stress versus slip curves
obtained using smooth brass-coated steel fibers embedded in various matrices are shown in
Fig. 5. The shear stress was obtained from the pull-out load and the embedded length of fiber at
the slip considered. It can be observed that even with smooth fibers, very high local shear
stresses of up to 30 MPa can be obtained; unlike what is observed with conventional concrete,
this behavior seems to be particular to UHPC and is likely due to the very dense transition zone
around the fiber and the very fine particles it contains. Details of the study can be found in Ref .
[50].
Figure 6 illustrates for a given fiber, the influence of the twist ratio on the pull-out load versus
slip response. Thus the higher the twisted ratio, the higher the maximum pull-out load, up to a
level where the fiber fails. Tensile stresses exceeding 3000 MPa are induced in the fiber. On
the right side of Fig. 6, the photograph shows the damage on the surface of the fiber where the
brass coating is abraded, likely due to the compactness of the zone around the fiber and the
presence of glass powder.
Figure 5: Typical bond stress versus relative slip relationships using different matrices [Ref. 50].
4.5
Tensile Response
Examples of stress-strain curves obtained from specimens tested in direct tension are shown in
Figs.7 and 8. Figure 7 compares the tensile stress strain response of UHP-FRC composites
using premixed twisted steel fibers with typical data reported in the literature from Ductal and
Ceracem [16, 35, 36, 37, 41]. It can be observed that for about the same fiber content, the
composite tensile strength is about doubled, and the strain at peak stress is about tripled. Note
that, to the best of the authors knowledge, test series T12-1% (using high strength twisted steel
fibers with an equivalent diameter of 0.12 mm) gives the highest tensile strength (15.9 MPa) per
10
unit volume of composite recorded to date in the technical literature and also the highest strain
capacity, for any fiber reinforced cement composite using discontinuous fibers [49].
Figure 6: Typical effect of twist ratio of a steel fiber on its pull-out load versus slip response [Ref. 49].
Figure 8 also provides a comparison of the response of various UHP-FRC composites in

tension. In particular, it shows the best results obtained in Ref. [49], for a composite using a
Sifcon (slurry infiltrated fiber concrete) process, and an composite using a hybrid fiber mixture.
Although the fiber content by volume is 5.5% and 6% respectively, to the best of the authors
knowledge, the post-cracking tensile strength achieved (about 37 MPa) and its corresponding
strain capacity are the highest so far reported in the technical literature for a fiber reinforced
cementitious matrix subjected to direct tension. The tensile post-cracking strains at peak stress
(Figs. 7 and 8) exceeding in some cases 1% are also the highest observed to date for steel
fiber reinforced cement composites.
Similarly, to the best of the authors knowledge, the energy absorption capacity g obtained
per 1% volume fraction of steel fibers for series T12 1% (Fig. 7) is the highest value (g = 128
kJ/m3) achieved to date for a cement composite with discontinuous fibers. It exceeds at least 5
times the energy values reported by other researchers for UHP-FRC composites [49].
Figure 7: Comparison of tensile stress-strain response of UHP-FRCs developed with composites from other
researchers [Ref. 49].
11
Figure 8: Tensile stress-strain response curves showing highest tensile strengths recorded to date [Ref. 49].
4.6
Fracture Energy
Figure 9 illustrates typical values of fracture energy obtained from direct tensile tests of different
UHP-FRC-B (Table 3) varied by amount and type of fiber [47]. How the average fracture energy
Gf (in kJ/in2) of each test series was calculated is described in Ref. [47]. It comprises the
dissipated energy per unit volume during strain hardening gf,A, the dissipated energy per unit
ligament area Gf,A to open one crack up to pc and the dissipated energy per unit ligament area
Gf,B to completely separate the critical (localized) crack during softening.
The values shown in Fig. 9 are among the highest reported in the technical literature and
exceed the values of comparable UHP-FRC by a significant margin [47]. For instance, test
series UHPFRC-T1-1.5 obtained with no heat curing shows Gf = 31 kJ/m2, that is,
Gf = 20.67 kJ/m2 per 1% volume of fibers. In comparison, a fracture energy of 40 kJ/m2 is
reported by Richard and Cheyrezy (1995) for Reactive Powder Concrete using 2.5 % steel
fibers with 90C thermal treatment; that is equivalent to 16 kJ/m 2 per 1% volume of fiber.
Figure 9: Examples of fracture energy values obtained for some of the UHP-FRC developed [Ref. 47].
12
5 Concluding Remark
This paper summarized in a first part some historical developments since the 1960s that led to
ultra-high performance (UHPC) and ultra-high performance fiber reinforced concrete (UHPFRC) as we understand them at time of this writing. The second half of the paper was devoted
to describing key information on several UHPC and UHP-FRC mixtures that led to composites
with record breaking tensile properties. Indeed by combining an ultra-high strength cementitous
matrix and very high strength fine diameter steel fibers with tailored bond properties, tensile
strength up to 37 Mpa, strain at maximum stress up to 1.1%, and energy absorption capacity
prior to softening up to 304 kJ/m3 were realized for the composite. These values exceed by a
significant margin the current tensile properties of UHP-FRC reported in the technical literature.
Multiple cracking with crack spacing as small as 1 mm and crack widths as small as 4 microns
prior to localization of tension failure were observed.
Today the technical challenge for the use of ultra high performance fiber reinforced concrete
in structural applications is not through increased compressive strength (which can easily be
made to exceed 200 MPa) but rather through an increased combination of tensile strength,
tensile ductility and energy absorption capacity. Moreover, on the practical side, the challenge
is to achieve the desired properties for design, in both the fresh and hardened state, at le ast
cost. Technically the record-breaking results mentioned above on tensile strength shall be
exceeded in the future, but the real success of the composite in practice will greatly depend on
its cost-benefit ratio in a given application.
References
The following list of references is very limited due to space limitation and does not do justice to the
thousands of studies available at time of this writing.
[1] Russel, H.G., ACI Defines High Performance Concrete, Concrete International, Feb. 1999, pp. 5657.
[2] Naaman, A.E., and Reinhardt, H.W., Proposed Classification of FRC Composites Based on their
Tensile Response Materials and Structures, Vol. 39, page 547-555, 2006.
[3] Naaman, A.E., "High performance fiber reinforced cement composites," Proceedings o f the IABSE
Symposium on Concrete Structures for the Future, Paris, France, September 1987, pp. 371-376.
[4] Reinhardt, H.W., and Naaman, A.E., Editors, "High Performance Fiber Reinforced Cement
Composites," RILEM, Vol. 15, E. & FN Spon, London, 1992, 565 pages.
[5] Naaman, A.E., and Reinhardt, H.W., Editors, "High Performance Fiber Reinforced Cement
Composites: HPFRCC 2, RILEM, No. 31, E. & FN Spon, London, 1996, 505 pages.
[6] Naaman, A.E., and Reinhardt, H.W., "Characterization of High Performance Fiber Reinforce d
Cement Composites," in "High Performance Fiber Reinforced Cement Composites - HPFRCC 2,'
A.E. Naaman and F.W. Reinhardt, Editors, RILEM Pb. 31, E. and FN Spon, England, 1996; pp. 1 -24.
[7] Reinhardt, H.W., and Naaman, A.E.,, Editors, "High Performance Fiber Reinforced Cement
Composites - HPFRCC 3," RILEM Proceedings, PRO 6, RILEM Pbs., S.A.R.L., Cachan, France,
May 1999; 666 pages.
[8] Naaman, A.E., and Reinhardt, H.W., Editors, "High Performance Fiber Reinforced Cement
Composites - HPFRCC 4," RILEM Proc., PRO 30, RILEM Pbs., S.A.R.L., Cachan, France, June
2003; 546 pages.
[9] Reinhardt, H.W., and Naaman, A.E.,, Editors, "High Performance Fiber Reinforced Cement
Composites - HPFRCC 5," RILEM Proceedings, PRO 53, RILEM Pbs., S.A.R.L., Cachan, France,
June 2007; 518 pages.
[10] Parra-Montessinos, G., Reinhardt, H.W., and Naaman, A.E., High Performance Fiber Reinforced
Cement Composites, HPFRCC6, Rilem Bookseries, Springer, 2011, 559 pages.
[11] Naaman, A.E., and Reinhardt, H.W., Setting the Stage: toward Performance Based Classification of
FRC Composites, in High Performance Fiber Reinforced Cement Composites (HPFRCC-4), A.E.
Naaman and H.W. Reinhardt, Editors, RILEM Publications, Pro. 30, June 2003, pp. 1-4.
13
[12] Naaman, A.E., and Reinhardt, H.W., High Performance Fiber Reinforced Cement Composites
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[16] Schmidt, M.; Fehling, E.; Geisenhanslke, C. (Editors): "Ultra High Performance Concrete (UHPC)",
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[17] Fehling, E, Schmidt, M., and Sturwald, S., Editors, Ultra High Performance Concrete (UHPC),
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[18] Rossi, P, 2000, Ultra-high Performance Fibre Reinforced Concrete (UHPFRC): An Overview, in
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[22] Naaman, A.E., Half a Century of Progress Leading to Ultra High Performance Fiber Reinforced
Concrete, Rilem Proceedings PRO 81, Strain Hardening Cementitious Composites (SHCC2-Rio),
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E.M.R. Fairbrairn, December 2011, Parts I: Overall Review, Part II: Tensile Stress Strain Response,
pp. 17-36.
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of Low Porosity, II. Exploratory Studies. Dimensional Changes, Cement and Concrete Research,
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[26] Bache, H. H., 1981, Densified cement/ultrafine particle-based materials, 2nd Int. Conference on
Superplasticizers in Concrete, Ottawa, Canada, 10-12 June.
[27] Hjorth, L., 1983, Development and application of high-density cement-based materials, Phil. Trans.
R. Lond., A 310, pp. 167 173.
[28] Bache, H.H., Compact Reinforced Concrete: Basic Principles, Aalborg Portland Cement-og
Betonlaboratoriet, CBL Report No. 41, 1987.
[29] Lankard, D., Slurry Infiltrated Fiber Concrete (SIFCON): Properties and Applications, Very High
Strength Cement-Based Materials, J. F. Young, Editor, Materials Research Society, Symposia
Proceedings Volume 42, Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, 1985, pp. 277-286.
[30] Homrich, J., and Naaman, A.E., "Stress-Strain Properties of SIFCON in Uniaxial Compression and
Tension," Report No. UMCE 87-7, Department of Civil Engineering, University of Michigan, Ann
Arbor, October 1987, 138 pp. Also published as AFWL-TR-87-115, August 1988.
[31] Naaman, A.E., and Homrich, J.R., "Tensile Stress-Strain Properties of SIFCON," ACI Materials
Journal, Vol. 86, No. 3, May-June 1989, pp. 244-251.
[32] Naaman, A.E., "SIFCON: Tailored properties for structural performance," in High Performance Fiber
Reinforced Cement Composites, RILEM Proceedings 15, E. and FN SPON, London, 1992, pp.1838.
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[33] Li, V.C., & H.C. Wu, "Conditions for pseudo strain-hardening in fiber reinforced brittle matrix
composites," J. Applied Mechanics Review, V.45, No. 8, August, pp. 390-398, 1992.
[34] Behloul, M., Tensile Behavior of Reactive Powder Concrete, 4 th International Symposium on the
Utilization of High Strength High Performance Concrete, Paris, France, 1996, pp. 1375-1381.
[35] Orange, G., Dugat, J., and Acker, P. DUCTAL: New Ultra High Performance Concretes. Damage,
Resistance and Micromechanical Analysis, BEFIB 2000, Fifth RILEM Symposium on FiberReinforced Concretes (FRC), Ed. By P. Rossi and G. Chanvillard, Lyon, 2000, pp. 781-790.
[36] Chanvillard, G., and Rigaud, S., Complete Characterization of Tensile Properties of Ductal
UHPFRC According to the French Recommendations, in High Performance Fiber Reinforced
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Pro. 30, June 2003, pp. 95-113.
[37] Ulm, F.-J.; Acker, P., 2008, Nanoengineering UHPC Materials and Structures, in Fehling, E,
Schmidt, M., and Sturwald, S., Editors, Ultra High Performance Concrete (UHPC), Proceedings of
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GmbH, Germany, May 2008, pp. 3-9.
[38] Graybeal, B.A. and Davis, M., Cylinder or cube: strength testing of 80 to 200 MPa (11.6 to 29 ksi)
ultra-high-performance fiber-reinforced concrete. ACI Materials Journal, Vol. 105, No. 6, 2008, pp.
603609.
[39] Benson, D.S.P., and Karihaloo, B.L., CARDIFRC Development and Mechanical Properties, Part
I, Magazine of Concrete Research, Vol. 57, 2005, pp. 347-352. See also Part III, Vol. 57, 2005, pp.
433-443.
[40] Jungwirth, J., 2006, Zum Tragverhalten von zugbeanspruchten Bauteilen aus Ultra-HochleistungsFaserbeton, EPF Lausanne, Ph.D. thesis, 2006.
[41] Accorsi, M., and Meyer, C., Ultra High Performance Concrete Workshop, Columbia University,
New York, Jan. 2011; unpublished report.
[42] Kim, D.J., Naaman, A.E., and El-Tawil, S., High Tensile Strength Strain-Hardening FRC
Composites with Less Than 2% Fiber Content, in Proceedings of 2nd International Symposium,
Ultra High Performance Concrete (UHPC), Edited by E. Fehling, M. Schmidt and S. Sturwald,
Universitat-Kassel, Germany, March 2008, pp. 169-176.
[43] Naaman, A.E., and Wille, K., Some Correlation Between High Packing Density, Ultra-High
Performance, Flow Ability, and Fiber Reinforcement of a Concrete Matrix; BAC2010 2nd Iberian
Congress on Self Compacting Concrete, University of Minho Guimaraes, Portugal. July 1-2, 2010 ,
Proceedings Edited by J. Barros, J. Sena-Cruz, R.M. Ferreira, and A. Camoes, pp. 3-18.
[44] Wille, K., Naaman, A.E., and Parra-Montesinos, G. Ultra High Performance Concrete with
Compressive Strength Exceeding 150 MPa: A Simpler Way, ACI Materials Journal, Vol. 108, No.
No. 1, Jan. Feb., 2011, pp. 46 54.
[45] Wille, K., Kim, D. and Naaman, A. E., Strain-Hardening UHP-FRC with Low Fiber Contents,
Materials and Structures, published online Aug. 4th 2010, in Journal Vol. 44, No. 3, 2011, pp. 583.
[46] Wille, K. and Naaman, A. E., Fracture Energy of UHPFRC under Direct Tensile Loading,
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[47] Wille, K., Naaman, A.E., and El-Tawil, S., and Parra-Montesinos, G., Ultra-high performance
concrete and fiber reinforced concrete: achieving strength and ductility with no heat curing,
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Concrete: Mixtures with Twisted Fibers Exhibit Record Performance under Tensile Loading,
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[49] Wille, K., and Naaman, A.E., Bond-Slip Behavior of Steel Fibers Embedded in Ultra High
Performance Concrete, Proceedings of 18 European Conference on Fracture and Damage of
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[50] Wille, K. and Naaman, A.E., Pull-Out Behavior of High Strength Steel Fibers Embedded in UHPC,
ACI Materials Journal, accepted for publication, in press.
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on the Flexural Behavior of Ultra High Performance Concrete, ACI Materials Journal, in press,
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Washington, D.C., 1991.
15
16
Sustainable Building with Ultra-High-Performance Concrete

(UHPC) Coordinated Research Program in Germany
Michael Schmidt
Institute of Structural Engineering, University of Kassel, Germany
In Germany, a 12 Mio. Research Program on UHPC has just been finished. It started in 2005, covering
a wide range of topics related to UHPC. The program was funded by the German Research Foundation
(DFG) and coordinated by the University of Kassel. More than 20 research institutes were involved. Its
purpose was to elaborate the basic knowledge necessary to draft reliable Technical Standards covering
materials, material adequate design principles and innovative construction and fitting technologies to
make UHPC a reliable, commonly available, economically favorable, regularly applied material. This
paper describes the intention and the background of the program, and it gives an overview over the
topics being dealt with and the results recently available. It is part of a series of articles during this
conference presenting some topics of the program in more detail.
Keywords: Ultra-High Performance Concrete, materials, design, construction, state-of-the-art
1 Introduction
In Germany, a comprehensive 12 Mio. Research Program on UHPC is practically completed
covering a wide range of topics related to UHPC. The program was funded by the German
Research Foundation (DFG) and coordinated by the University of Kassel. More than 20
research institutes were involved, striving to elaborate the basic knowledge necessary to draft
reliable technical standards covering both materials and design principles to make UHPC a
reliable, commonly available, economically favorable, and regularly applied material. The fields
of interest that the individual research projects concerned themselves with include the suitability
and performance of raw materials including cements, inert or reactive mineral fillers, artificial
nanoparticles, and improved plasticizers. Basic research on appropriate mix designs for
different applications, the rheological specifics of the fresh concrete and its hydration were
evaluated as well as the time dependent strength and deformation behavior of hardened UHPC
with and without fibers. Also involved were scientists and engineers working on adequate
design and construction procedures including new appropriate technologies to build high
performance light and slender and thus sustainable structures.
The Program was subdivided in 8 main topics, each being coordinated by a working group
combining several intertwined projects:
Raw Materials and Rheology
Hydration and Microstructure
Time-Dependent Behavior (shrinkage, creep)
Fiber Efficiency and Interaction with Conventional Reinforcement
Failure and Fatigue Behavior
Durability
Design and Construction
Testing
The paper will present the overall aims and visions of this project as well as the background
aspects that led to its installation, and the main results elaborated from 2005 to 2011. In 2009,
the last of three two-year-periods of research was started, primarily consisting of projects
researching design and construction.
This contribution is a keynote introduction to a series of articles at this conference
presenting some results of the last research period in more detail [10-16].
17
2 Objectives and technical background

The most notable characteristic of Ultra-High Performance Concrete (UHPC) is its extremely
dense microstructure resulting in a steel-like compressive strength of about 180 to 250 MPa
combined with a significantly improved durability. The structural density results primarily from a
high packing density of fine and ultra-fine particles 125 m in the cement matrix, and a
comparatively low w/c-ratio of about just 0.20.
The technological basis was already laid by Bache [1] in Denmark in the 1980s. Among
others, Okamura et. al contributed to the theoretical background of particle optimization [2,3,4].
The large scale practical application did not begin until the 1990s when new
superplasticizers based on polycarboxylate ethers (PCE) with a significantly improved
performance were developed. For about 10 years, dry mixed UHPC products have been
commercially available and have already been successfully applied for bridges and other
visually and technically appealing, spectacular structures in several countries.a, e.g. for the very
first bridge made of UHPC in Sherbrook in Canada.
The first German large scale application was the Gaertnerplatzbridge in Kassel [5,6] built in
2007 (Figure 1). This very slender structure consists of a 3D steel truss in combination with
longitudinal girders and deck slabs, both made of prefabricated, prestressed, fiber-reinforced
UHPC elements. Due to the high adhesive tensile strength of the material, the slabs were glued
to the girders with an epoxy resin without any additional mechanical fitting device [7]. The
bridge has been intensively monitored since its construction. This data is used to validate the
assumptions that had to be made concerning the mechanical behavior of the material, the
design and the load-bearing behavior of the whole structure in practice. Up to now, the
collected data comply with the expectations.
Figure 1: Gaertnerplatzbridge in Kassel, under construction (left) and in use (right) a hybride bridge of
132 m span, longitudinal girders and deck plates fitted by gluing with an epoxy resin mortar. Slab
thickness 85 mm only.
Apart from a small number of pilot projects, the application of UHPC has been restricted due to
the fact that neither the material itself nor the material-specific design of the structures are
covered by technical standards that already exist for ordinary or even high performance
concrete, e.g. the European Standard EN 206 or the design codes for concrete structures.
Thus, each application requires a single case approval from the Building Authorities.
18
Sustainable Building with Ultra-High-Performance Concrete (UHPC) Coordinated Research Program in Germany
In Germany, since about 1998, another strategy is pursued, which is to make UHPC a
commonly available and standardized material based on individual regionally available raw
materials. Each experienced and well-equipped producer of concrete or precast concrete
elements shall be enabled to produce and apply UHPC on a sound basis of scientifically proven
technical knowledge and on approved technical regulations covering both the material as well
as the design and construction of structures made of UHPC.
Therefore, the primary objective of the priority program was to gather all information
necessary to assure the long-time load-bearing capability and thus the structural safety
structures consisting of UHPC elements. To promote the utilization of the material, other
aspects have to be considered and approved as well, like the improved durability and the
prolonged service-life, and also the challenge to make concrete structures more sustainable by
designing them much more slender to reduce the raw materials needed. UHPC even inspires
new fitting technologies like gluing of structural load-bearing members or to spark an idea to
allow for new and modern industrialized construction technologies.
Trying to achieve the afore mentioned goals, the German Research Foundation initiated an
extensive research program in 2005, coordinated by the University of Kassel, and funded with
about 12 Mio. . All together about 20 different research groups of universities and industrial
research institutes worked on about 40 different projects. The projects covered fundamental
research, e.g. on the interaction of fine particles due to surface forces, or the morphology of the
cement phases in a dense microstructures, as well as more application-oriented problems, e.g.
developing the appropriate mixing technology, or fitting slender UHPC elements b y gluing or by
small steel implants. The topics to be worked on had been identified in advance based upon a
comprehensive survey [8] on recent research on and applications of UHPC, covering more than
200 papers, reports and other information available. A comprehensive list of all research
projects, finished and still in progress, is given in abbreviated form in Table 1. It would break the
mold by far to report on all the theoretical and experimental research and the information tha t
has already been gathered. A more extensive survey on the research project being performed
in the first two periods is given in the Proceedings of the 2 nd International Symposium on UHPC
[9], held in Kassel in 2008, being available on the internet.
3 Examples and points of interest

As can be seen from Table 1, the projects dealt with the main problems connected with the new
material and its adequate application. The following examples shall shed some light on the wide
field that was worked on, from micro- and nanostructures and the UHPC properties that differ
from ordinary concrete to characteristics of whole building elements made of UHPC.
Raw materials, rheology and microstructure
Depending on the maximum grain size of the aggregates, UHPC contains between 550 and
1000 kg cement per m3, up to about 250 kg/m 3 of microsilica and a significant amount of other
mineral fillers to improve the packing density, and to increase the amount of cement phases
densifying the microstructure. Thus, the autogenous shrinkage is much more pronounced than
with ordinary concrete, and the high amount of fine and microfine particles dominates the
rheological behavior due to interparticle forces and the significantly higher particle surface. The
prevention of particle agglomerations by the addition of PCE superplasticizer and a material
adequate high energy mixing technology are of great importance. As can be seen from Figure
2, one of the projects dealt with direct measurement of interparticle forces by using AtomicForce-Microscopie (AFM) technology to evaluate the efficiency of superplasticizers. Figure 2 as
an example shows the adhesion forces acting between microscaled SiO2- particles in water
without and with PCE with differently designed structures of the polymers. In another project, it
19
was discovered that the real shape and the texture of the fine particles may significantly
increase the effective surface of the particle mix. Considering this fact allows for a much better
theoretical optimization of the packing density and gives a much better correlation between the
packing density, the water demand, the flowability, and the viscosity of the fresh concrete
compared to conventional models and algorithms merely based on spherical particles.
Table 1: Working groups inside the priority program and their individual research topic.
Working group
# of projects Topics of the individual projects

2005-2011
Raw materials, rheology,
4
- Influence of shape and texture of fine grains and of
interparticle forces on packing density and rheology
processing,
Life
cycle inventory on UHPC
sustainability
- UHPC with low-energy binders
- Optimization of the mixing process
Hydration and
2
- Characterization of the microstructure
- Micro- and nanostructure of UHPC with nanotubes and
microstructure
pyrogene SiO2
Time-dependent
6
- Early age behavior of UHPC
- Reduction of crack formation by internal curing
behavior (shrinkage,
- Shrinkage-reducing chemical admixtures
creep, cracking)
- Time-dependent stress-strain behavior
- Early age cracking and durability
- Autogenous shrinkage and microstructure
Fiber efficiency and
3
- Load-bearing capacity of elements reinforced with fibers
and bars under tension and bending
interaction with
Ductility
of UHPC with fibers and nanoparticles
conventional
- Self-compacting UHPC with fiber meshes
reinforcement
Strength and
2
- Fatigue under uni- or multiaxial loads
- Modelling of multiaxial strength
deformation
Durability
Design, construction,
and application
11
Testing
Resistance to freezing and deicing agents

Resistance to chemical attacks (acid, sulphate)
Fire safety of UHPC under load
Corrosion of steel fibers and influence on the
microstructure
Prestressed beams
Performance of steel fitting elements for hybrid structures
(UHPC/steel)
Loadbearing of extensively loaded columns
Fitting of elements by gluing
Thin fiber-reinforced UHPC layers on conventional
concrete structures
UHPC under transverse (biaxial) forces
Anchorage and overlapping joints of reinforcing bars
UHPC/steel pipes for truss structures
Thin-walled pipes
Structural connection of precast elements
Miniaturized fitting devices for slender slabs
Adjusted test procedures for rheology and strength
Fiber distribution and orientation
Microstructure
Electron microscopy investigations by Mser [10] using a NanoSEM microscope confirmed that
the hydrate phases in UHPC are significantly shorter owing to the high packing density, the low
w/c ratio of about 0.20 only and the high superplasticizer content of UHPC. Figure 3 gives an
image showing some unhydrated microsilica particles surrounded by dense CSH-phases.
20
Due to the dense matrix, the modulus of elasticity is significantly higher compared to ordinary
concrete. As a rule, the UHPC matrix shows brittle rupture. To prevent uncontrolled cracking,
steel fibers are of great importance for nearly all applications of UHPC. Usually, high strength
steel fibers are used to provide the brittle material with sufficient ductility, and they improve its
tension and bending tension strength up to about 15 to 40 MPa respectively. Thus UHPC
members are able to carry tension forces even without additional reinforcing bars. For the
realization of wide-span structures, fibers can be combined with non-prestressed or prestressed
reinforcement in the tensile zone. As a result of the interaction of both types of reinforcement,
the stiffness of tensile members with mixed reinforcement is significantly improved as
exemplified in Figure 4.
Figure 2: Interparticle forces between silica surfaces without (grey) and with four superplasticizers
measured with AFM with different designed polymer-structures in nN [11].
UHPC
Matrix
Quartz
particle
Figure 3: Matrix of UHPC, (left) compared to ordinary concrete (right). SEM pictures of same scale.
Leutbecher [12] developed a mechanical model, which combines the mechanical relationships
of the crack formation of reinforced concrete and the stress-crack opening-behavior of the fiberreinforced concrete considering the equilibrium of internal and external forces and the
compatibility of deformations. Experimental results confirmed that crack distribution and thus
the crack width can obviously be controlled much more effectively by a combination of fibers
and rebars than exclusively by high fiber content.
21
Figure 4: Load-deformation-behavior of tensile members (fibers high strength steel, diameter 0.15 mm, length
17 mm); (a) stress-strain-relationship, (b) contribution of fiber concrete [12].
Multiaxial strength
At the TU Dresden, behavior under multiaxial stress was examined [13]. The tests were
performed in a triaxial test machine, as shown in Figure 5, which compressive or tensile forces
can be introduced with in all three spatial directions independently. The results indicate d that
the multiaxial strength related to the uniaxial strength is considerably smaller than at normal
concrete. There was, for example, no strength increase whatsoever in some stress ratios under
biaxial compression, compared to the uniaxial strength (
Figure 6). Despite a steel fiber
content of up to 2.5 volume percent, UHPC exhibits very brittle behavior under uniaxial and
biaxial compression. An all-side confinement due to increasing pressure components in both
lateral directions works against the progressive crack growth and so it leads to increasing
strength, to increasingly ductile behavior and to an early indication of failure ( Figure 7). Related
to the uniaxial strength the strength increase of UHPC under triaxial compression is smaller
than for normal concrete.
s 3/f c'
1.5
1.07
1.0
0.99
s3
0.5
Normal
strength
concrete
UHPC,
2.5 Vol.-%
steel-fibres
UHPC,
0.9 Vol.-%
steel-fibres
UHPC,
without
steel-fibres
0.99
s2
(edge length 10 cm)
0.0
0.0
Figure 5: Triaxial experimental setup.
0.5
1.0
1.5
Figure 6: Strength under biaxial compression.[13]
22
s 2/f c'
0.17
0.17
0.16
0.15
-500
Stress s 3 [MPa]
0.16
0.15
s 1/s 3 = s 2/s 3 = 0.12

0.09
-400
triaxial compression
s1=s2>s3
s3
0.12
0.09
0.06
0.03
0.00
-300
0.06
0.03
-200
0.00
s1
s2
(edge length 10 cm)

-100
shortening e 3
Strain e []
lateral extension e 1=e 2

0
-30
-25
-20
-15
-10
-5
10
15
Figure 7: Stress-strain-behavior on compressive meridian (s1 = s2 > s3).[13]
Shear Capacity
In the following projects [14,15], special design aspects were investigated: the anchorage
behavior of strands in UHPC, and the shear behavior. This knowledge is required basically for
an economic and safe design of material adequate slender pretensioned beams. Due to the
high tensile strength of fiber-reinforced UHPC, the height of such a beam can be reduced to
approx. 50 %. The remaining dead load amounts about 1/3 compared to normal strength
concrete and the steel fibers serve as shear reinforcement. The fiber action is illustrated in
Figure 8 by the red tensile forces in the simplified shear model. Nevertheless additional shear
reinforcement in solid beams as well as in beams with openings leads to further increase of
the shear capacity.
Figure 8: Crack pattern [14], simplified shear model and additional shear reinforcement [15].
23
4 Conclusions
Ultra-High Performance Concrete (UHPC) is a high performance material with steel-like
compressive strength of about 200 MPa and reinforced with steel fibers significantly
increased tensile, bending, and shear strength, therefore allowing for much lighter, longer
lasting and even more economic concrete structures it is sustainable material. To endorse
widespread and regular use of this material, the German Research Foundation (DFG) fund ed
an 12 Mio. research program. About 20 research institutes were investigating in about 40
projects open scientific and technical questions covering the best fitting raw materials, their
mixing and processing, rheological aspects and the specifics of the hydration process, as well
as strength and deformation behavior of UHPC under uni- and multiaxial static and dynamic
loads, and the resistance to chemical and frost attacks. The wide arc of topics ends in the load bearing behavior of differently reinforced UHPC members and the development of new fitting
technologies for slim precast elements. In the end, the research results provided a safe
foundation to develop Technical Regulations for UHPC, enabling concrete producers to create
mixtures and structural members using regionally available raw materials, and to allow
designers and construction companies to build safe, long lasting, and economic UHPC
structures.
References
[1] Bache, H. H., Densified cement/ultra fine particle based materials, 2nd International Conference on
Superplasticizers in Concrete, Ottawa, Canada, June 10-12, 1981.
[2] Okamura, H., Kazumasa, O., Mix Design of Self-Compacting Concrete, Proc. of JSCE,V. 25, No. 6,
1995, pp. 107-120.
[3] Geisenhandlke, C., Schmidt, M., Methods for Modelling and Calculation of High Density Packing
for Cement and Fillers in UHPC, Proc. of the 1st International Symposium on UHPC, Sept. 2004,
Kassel University Press, pp. 303-312.
[4] Teichmann, T., Schmidt, M., Influence of the packing density of fine partickles on structure, strength
and durability of UHPC, Proc. of the 1st International Symposium on UHPC, Sept. 2004, Kassel
University Press, pp. 313-323.
[5] Fehling, E., Bunje, K., Schmidt, M., Schreiber, W., The Grtnerplatzbrcke, Design of First Hybrid
UHPC-Steel Bridge across the River Fulda in Kassel, Germany, Proc. of the 2nd Internat. Symp. on
UHPC, March 05-07, 2008, Kassel, pp.581-588.
[6] Schmidt, M., Jerebic, D., UHPC: Basis for Substainable Structures the Gaertnerplatz Bridge in
Kassel, Proc. of the 2nd Internat. Symp. on UHPC, March 05-07, 2008, Kassel, pp. 619-625.
[7] Krelaus, R., Freisinger, S., Schmidt, M., Adhesive Bonding of UHPC Structural Members at the
Gaertnerplatz bridge in Kassel, Proc. of the 2nd Internat. Symp. on UHPC, March 05-07, 2008,
Kassel, pp. 597-604.
[8] Wiens, U., Schmidt, M., State of the Art Report on Ultra High Performance Concrete of the German
Committee for Structural Concrete (DAfStb). Proc. of the 2nd Internat. Symp. on UHPC, March 0507, 2008, Kassel, pp. 629-637.
[9] Fehling, E., Schmidt, M., Strwald, S. (eds.), Ultra-High Performance Concrete Proc. of the 2nd
International Symposium on UHPC, Structural Materials and Engineering Series, V. 10, Kassel
University Press, March 2008 available online under www.upress.unikassel.de/publi/abstract.php?978-3-89958-376-2
[10] Mser, B., Pfeiffer, C., Microstructure and Durability of Ultra-High Performance Concrete, Proc. of
the 2nd Internat. Symp. on UHPC, March 2008, pp. 417-424.
24
[11] M. Schmidt, M., Stephan, D., Krelaus, R., Geisenhanslke, C.: The promising dimension in building
and construction: Nanoparticles, nanoscopic structures and interface phenomena pt.1, Cement
International, V. 5, 2007, pp. 86-100.
[12] Leutbecher, T., Fehling, E., Crack Formation and Tensile Behaviour of UHPC Reinforced with a
Combination of Rebars and Fibres, Proc. of the 2nd Internat. Symp. on UHPC, March 2008, pp. 497504.
[13] Curbach, M., Speck, K., Ultra-High Performance Concrete under Biaxial Compression, Proc. of the
2nd Internat. Symp. on UHPC, March 2008, pp. 477-484.
[14] Bertram, G., Hegger, J., Anchorage Behavior of Strands in Ultra-High Performance Concrete,
Proceedings, 8th International Symposium on Utilization of High-Strength and High-Performance
Concrete, Tokyo, Japan in 2008, CD S3-3-6.
[15] Bertram, G., Hegger, J., Pretensioned Concrete Beams made of Ultra-High Performance Concrete,
Proceedings, International fib Symposium, London, The United Kingdom in 2009, CD (Mon 16001730 D2).
25
26
State of the art of design and construction of UHPFRC

structures in France
Jacques Resplendino
Chief engineer, Chairman of the AFGC working group on UHPFRC, President of the AFGC Mediterraneen
delegation, Director South Est SETEC TPI Vitrolles, France
After a fast reminder of the main caracteristics and compositions of UHPFRC, the paper makes a fast
presentation of the new AFGC recommendations on UHPFRC by emphasizing the evolutions which
benefit from experience feedback and from researches made on the last decade.The presentation
continues by a general presentation of diverse recent realizations. Every project will be presented by
trying to emphasize two essential points: the specific points of the design which justified the use of
UHPFRC, the delicate points of the realization which bring out of the fields of traditional structures.
The article ends by a synthesis of the technological breaks engendered by these materials as long in the
methods of conception than in the processes of implementation; breaks which impose on the engineers
and the designers to go out of the reflexes attached to the traditional reinforced or prestressed concrete
structures.
Keywords: AFGC recommendations, design method, construction process
1 Introduction What is an Ultra High Performence Fiber-Reinforced

Concrete (UHPRFC)
Ultra High Performance Fiber-Reinforced Concrete are materials with a cement matrix, and a
characteristic compressive strength between 150 MPa and 250 MPa. They contain steel fibers,
in order to achieve ductile behavior in tension and overcome if possible the use of passive
reinforcement.
UHPFRC differ from high performance and very high performance concretes:
- the systematic use of fibres ensures that the material is not brittle and can allow to avoid
any classical active or passive reinforcements,
- their compressive strength generally greater than 150 MPa,
- their composition with a high binder content that leads to the absence of any capillary
porosity,
- their direct tensile strength of the matrix systematically higher than 7 MPa.
The aim of UHPFRC development is to achieve high tensile strenths through the
participation of the fibres which provide tensile strength after the cement matrix has cracked.
When the tensile strength is sufficiently high, it may be possible, depending on the way the
structure works and the way the loads to which it is subject, to dispense with conventional
reinforcement.
In general, one removes any traditional passive reinforcement cage in order to keep only the
main passive or active reinforcement bars required when the resistance to major forces cannot
be provided by the fibers.
2 Major research and feedback from the 2002 recommendations

Reinforcement in the need to produce proofs of convenience
To use UHPFRC structural material, the AFGC recommendations introduced in 2002 the
concept of suitability tests to validate the methodologies of implementation. The principle of
these tests was to perform a suitability test upstream of the actual structure: realize a specimen
representative of the real structure, made of the same materials and following the same
procedures as those proposed for the execution of the actual structure.
27
In the case of industrialized products, the process corresponds to the phase of development of
industrial production processes. During completion of real structures, we were able to measure
how this approach was valid and necessary, including when companies in charge of the
construction were very experienced in the use of UHPFRC. Indeed, these suitability tests lead
almost invariably to optimize implementation process initially planned, or to adapt the original
design when technological and/or economical aspects prevent an adjustment of the process.
Sometimes suitability tests lead to slightly change the formula to better control the rheology of
the material.
Confirmation of the relevance of the K coefficient philosophy
The influence of the UHPFRC implementation on the tensile strength of the material in the
actual structure is dealt with in the recommendations through a coefficient noted K that weights
the theoretical behavior laws issu from laboratory tests. This coefficient is determined from the
results of flexural tests performed on specimens sawn in the element built for suitability test
described above. This notion of K coefficient validated though suitability test does not exist in
Eurocodes but has been introduce in the last draft of the fib Model Code (MC2010 final draft
september 2011, article 5.6.7). This notion is essential for UHPFRC, and shall be taken into
account in any fiber-reinforced concrete in which the structural strength is provided by the
fibers.
Fire behavior UHPFRC
Many recent tests [3] [4] (CERIB, CSTB) have determined for several UHPFRC materials all
temperature mechanical properties in order to achieve numerical simulations of fire resistance
(thermal conductivity, specific heat, thermal expansion, compression and tensile strength,
Young's modulus). The new recommendations make a synthesis of these tests and provide
values in order to make a first preliminary design of a UHPFRC structure subject to precise
specifications of stability under fire.The UHPFRC behaviour under high tempatures depending
strongly of the material, the recommandations remind that for a final design one must
absolutely use the actual behaviour law of the material used to build the structure.
Punching resistance
Several recent research on punching [5] [6] [7] [8] allow to propose formulations in accordance
with the philosophy of Eurocodes.
Abrasion
The new version of the recommendations provides the main results of abrasion tests (CNR test)
made under the realization of hydraulic works. The results confirm the interest of UHPFRC used
as a shield in case of strong mechanical stresses.
Shear resistance
In the context of drafting the new guidelines, a compilation of all existing international literature
on shear testing was performed. In addition, LCPC performed 12 additional tests beams made
with two different materials, with or without active and/or passive reinforcement.
The entire investigation on the reported results and additional testing campaign has allow to
adjust and consolidate the formula proposed in the recommendations.
Tensile strength
Numerous tests were conducted to examine the tensile behavior of traditionnal reinforced
UHPFRC (tension stiffening) [9] [10].
The new recommendations have been improved to better integrate the research results.
These considerations have led to distinguish:
28
UHPFRC with a hardening characterictic law in direct tension (only very few material are
hardening in pure tension knowing that this requires a very high fiber content),
UHPFRC with a hardening average law in direct tension, but with a softening
characteristic law (the majority of UHPC available in the market),
Softening material which have a softening average law in direct tension (UHPFRC with a
low fiber content, which generally do not respect the non-brittleness criterion required for
structural concrete).
3 Overview of recent applications

3.1. Structural applications in BCV
The PS34 is one of a the most remarkable structural applications made in BCV. It is an
overpass on the A51 highway [22] [24] [25]. The structure is a single span road bridge 47m40
long made of a prestressed box beam. The deck is made of 22 UHPFRC match-cast pasted
prefabricated segments. The geometry of the cross section is specially adapted to UHPFRC
(Figure 1): Presence of curved surfaces to facilitate the implementation of concrete and fiber,
removal of all geometric constraints related to the shaping of reinforcement frame which are
found in traditional structures. This project demonstrated that it was possible to eliminate any
watertight layer or carriageway on an UHPFRC structure, at the condition to work the
roughness of the top surface to ensure adhesion of vehicles, and to wear special care to
achieve joints between prefabricated components.
Figure 1: Cross section of PS34 (A51).
3.2. Structural applications in BSI / Ceracem

Since the important achievements of the beams of Civaux and Cattenom EDF power plant
(1997-1998), the first global UHPC Highway Bridge in Bourg-ls-Valence (2000-2001) [11], [12],
[13], [18] that served to support the development of the AFGC-SETRA recommendations on
UHPFRC [1], the group Eiffage has conducted numerical structural applications made of BSI /
Ceracem. We mention here only the most important.
The cover of Millau toll
This is a bulky structure, representing a total weight of 2300 tons implemented on site [20].
29
Figure 2: Overview of the coverage of Millau toll.
The structure measures 98m long and 28m wide (Figure 2). It is made of two thin slabs of 10cm
thick souls connected by 12 prestressed beams. It was built using 53 match-cast pasted
prefabricated segments assembled on a hanger with a longitudinal prestressing.
This project has highlighted the following points:
- The UHPC are able to produce complex shapes and thin membrane,
- The production of UHPFRC parts in high volume requires a perfect control of the rheology
and a following-up by thermal metering method to apprehend the best internal thermal effects
that develop in various parts of the structure during placement operations,
the realization of large prefabricated parts of structure needs special provisions for handling and
assembly elements in order to control deflections and stresses during erection process,
UHPFRC materials are generaly hardened in pure bending, but softening in pure tension. Any
design which occurs parts under tensile membrane behaviour requires prestressing or
significant reserves compared to the tensile strength,
- The presence of shuttering increases thermal gradient effects on thin shells. Depending on
weather conditions, and complexity of the design, it may be necessary to provide special
thermal control devices to limit the effects of these gradients.
A canal bridge made of UHPFRC: a more economical and sustainable variant solution
During the completion of Lot 18 of the TGV Est (East High Speed Line), Eiffage built a canal
bridge about 27 meters length made of BSI / Ceracem. This alternative solution was
economically interesting and has given a very significant weight gain compared to the
traditionnal reinforced concrete solution. The structure is a u-shaped beam made of three
Figure 3: View of the aqueduct.
30
longitudinal precast elements joint together in situ by a longitudinal post-tension presstressing

(Figure 3). This solution has shown the ability of UHPFRC to assembly precast elements by
prestressing without any match-casting during manufactory. This design needs only particular
care to geometric tolerance and rigidity of the formwork masks used for precasting.
A new concept of pretensioning precast beams: the ITE beam
The ITE beam (poutre en I Talon Elargi) [21] [23] is a prestressed precast inverted T-beam
made of UHPFRC (Figure 4). This innovation received in 2009 the first prize category of large
companies Innovation Awards from the French National Federation of Public Works (FNTP).
Apart from the steel connection to the upper slab, the beam has no reinforcing steel.
Figure 4: Cross section of the ITE beams deck.
The performance of ITE beams in terms of slenderness are identical to coated metal beams
but their implementation has additional benefits:
- Significant reduction of the deck weight (reduction of 40 per cent),
- Shape and stiffness of the beams have a very insensitive behaviour to the phenomenon of
lateral torsional buckling which significantly simplifies suggestions for implementation.
3.3. Bridges and footbridges made of Ductal
Several remarkable road bridges has been made of Ductal in the early 2000: Shepherds
Bridge built in Australia [14], the bridge of Wapello, Iowa (USA) and the bridge of the
expressway in Japan Kuyshu [26] and five pedestrian bridges: Sherbrooke in Canada, Korea
Seonyu [15], Sermaises in France, Sakata Mirai and Akakura in Japan.
More recently, a bridge was built in Calgary, Glenmore gateway and a road bridge in France,
the Saint-Pierre-la-Cour bridge [22] [28] [29] .
12,60
7,60
Piste cyclable
Route en bton continu renforc
Dalles prfab. en Ductal 10 Poutrelles en Ductal
Pont en bton ordinaire

ralis sur site
Figure 5: Cross section of the bridge.
31
The latter is a road bridge made of precast prestressed I-girder beams made of Ductal ,
connected to a traditional reinforced concrete slab, poured in a second stage onto 83 precast
panels in DUCTAL of 25 mm thickness (Fig. 5).
In addition to the relief of the structure compared to a traditional solution (reduced weight of
the deck by a factor of 2.2), the interest of the design is to fully utilize UHPFRC for its
performance in terms of sustainability. Indeed, all surfaces of the deck in contact with ambient
air are either made of UHPC (beams and underside of the slab) or protected by watertight layer
(upper slab).
More recently, a footbridge with remarkable geometric characteristics and aesthetics was
built in France. It is the Passerelle des Anges footbridge in the Herault [30]. It is an isostatic
67.5m span, 1.80 m in height representing a twinge of 1/38me. It was built using 15 precast
segments made of Ductal , prestressed by post tension (Figure 6).
As for the canal bridge presented in paragraph 3.2., the precast segments were performed
without any match-casting during manufactory. The design fully utilizing the mechanical
properties of UHPC has led to a slender structure requiring the implementation of a dynamic
damper tuned to the first mode of vibration to avoid any risk of aeroelastic instability and to
improve users comfort.
Figure 6: Overview of the Angels Gateway.
3.4 Use of UHPC for repair or strengthening work

Using CEMTECmultiscale in repair work
In the framework of European project SAMARIS, the Ecole Polytechnique de Lausanne (EPFL)
studied with the help of LCPC the possibility of using UHPC to repair a reinforced or
prestressed concrete deck.The study has been to implement a thin layer of UHPC on the upper
surface of a slab to increase the rigidity of the structure, its mechanical strength and its
durability, knowing that one of the interests of this repairing method is to remove and to avoid
any waterproofing membrane on the structure.
These studies realized by the EPFL have shown the effectiveness of this method of
strengthening that has been implemented since on several bridges using various UHPFRC
formulations developed by the EPFL.
Using BSI for underpinning work of building
As part of the rehabilitation of the Credit Foncier building located rue Volney in Paris significant
transformation of the building were carried out [16].
32
To accommodate larger interior volume, the project involved removal of columns and walls and
their replacement by finer elements. The project included columns with metallic appearance,
sharp corners, a 120x300mm section and an hour stability in fire.
Given these constraints, plus difficulties of a rehabilitation in situ (reduced access, delicate
handling ...) a solution of columns made of fireproof UHPFRC cast inside a steel tube of 3 tenth
of a millimeter thickness used as a lost formwork has proven advantageous. This solution has
the advantage of being much lighter than the all-metal solution (the weight of the elements is
approximately divided by 3) and allows to keep the demanded steel aspect (Figure 7).
Figure 7: Drilling of the facades and creation of new columns.
Using BSI to strengthen a VIPP bridge

The presence of the future tramway in the city of Le Mans has imposed to reinforced the Huisne
bridge on the MANS. This bridge is a VIPP (Isostatic prestressed I-shaped beams) with two
span of 31.60m built in 1976. The classical solution consisted of the implementation of external
prestressing, supplemented by local reinforcements in flat carbon fiber. To find a more simple
and powerful solution of strengthening, the idea was to use UHPFRC (BSI / Ceracem) to
increase the inertia of the most sought side beams not only by increasing the section (Figures
8 and 9) [31] but also by taking advantage of the high value of Young's modulus of BSI /
Ceracem which is twice than the value of conventional concrete (65 GPa).
Figures 8 and 9: Cross-cut anchor and current building.
33
This principle of reinforcement avoids of course any passive reinforcement cage in the
reinforcement braces, reinforcement cages which always cause some important issues du to
the difficult access conditions and the difficulties to know and control the actual geometry of the
elements to strengthening.
Using BSI for the repair and protection of structures subject to torrential flow
Repair and protection of structures subject to torrential flows are issues that can find very
economical and efficient solutions using UHPFRC.
The effectiveness of UHPFRC towards these attacks can be quantified through "CNR" tests
(CNR ie Compagnie Nationale du Rhne) which consist of comparing the fingerprint formed in
the material subjected to a sandblasting projected under pressure. The results obtained for
UHPFRC compared with values obtained for normal or HP concrete show the high interest of
these solutions.
CNR coefficient
C30/37
4
HPC
2,8
UHPFRC
1,1 1,3
The group Eiffage has used BSI / Ceracem to repair and protect footings and supports of the
Valabres bridge. After removal of degraded concrete parts, a thin UHPFRC protective shell was
cast in place against the existing structure (Figure 10 and 11).
Figure 10 and 11: Repair and protection of foundations and supports of the Valabres viaduct.
Uses of Ductal for repair, strengthening

Ductal was used in several applications focusing on the durability or fire such as beams and
girders (over 2000) integrated into the cooling tower power plant of Cattenom in France, the
anchor plates (more than 6000) to the island of Reunion and Ductal -AF used for the
construction of composite columns of the Museum of Queen Sofia in Madrid (Spain). Ductal
was used for making trenches of the treatment plant wastewater Gold Bar (Figure 12 & Fig. 13).
Ductal was also used to build hydraulic structures (photo 8 - Repair of River Tunnel
Hosokawa) [32]. The material allows for a very small building that does not cause significant
decrease in the hydraulic opening. The solution is very interesting
for its performance in terms of abrasion resistance and reduced the
roughness to ensure a maintenance or an overall improvement of
the hydraulic performance of the work.
34
Figure 12: Cross section.
Photo 13: View from the trenches after installation.
Firgure.14: Using Ductal in the building of hydraulic structures.
3.5 Use of UHPC in the field of building equipment

In the areas of building equipment, UHPC have been the subject of numerous applications [33],
which may include:
- Perforated panels to ensure cost-effective and sustainable structures with varied
architectural forms (Figure 15-16). The UHPC interest in this area is clear, related to the
finesse and variety of geometric shapes allowed by the absence of passive reinforcement
Sunshades. In such structure, UHPC solutions competing with steel or aluminum alloy and can
produce very slender, durable, aesthetic, and durable structures (Figure 17).
Figure 15-16: Examples of UHPFRC perforated panels.
35
Figure 17: Example of UHPFRC sunshade.
3.6 Major projects under way in Japan

The largest UHPFRC project underway in Japan is Haden Airport. It sees the construction on
the sea of a huge slab of Ductal based on metal ferrules (Figure 18) [34]. This slab is carried
out using precast elements, prestressed in both directions and built in a factory on site.
Compared to a conventional solution, the material can significantly reduce the weight of the
structure and ensures the sustainability of the structure subjected to a particularly aggressive
atmosphere.
This achievement shows that the maritime sector is certainly one of the most relevant to the
use of UHPFRC.
Indeed marine structures are generally subjected to considerable strain, and are located in
environments chemically and mechanically very aggressive. Conventional solutions are very
massive and pose significant maintenance problems associated with accelerated aging of
traditional materials.
UHPFRC should allow to change significantly the design of these structures by providing
much lighter solutions , mechanically efficient and sustainable. These solutions should present
economical and environmental interest since the initial investment stage , and strengthen their
interest in time through a significant reduction in maintenance costs.
Figure 18 View of the construction of the structure of Ductal airport Haden.
3.7 Major projects under way in France

Some major UHPFRC projects are on the making in France: the MuCEM in Marseille, and the
coverage of the Jean Bouin stadium in Paris.
36
The MuCEM (Museum of Mediterranean and Europeen Civilization) designed by the architect
Rudy Ricciotti and the consulting firm SICA is being built by Dumez and Freyssinet [35].
The structure which is a cube of approximately 72x72m and more than 30m in height uses
Ductal for all peripheric support structure made of treelike-shaped columns (Figure 19), for
the perforated panels of the south-east and the south-west facades and above the roof, for the
peripheric gateway and its support structure.
Ductal is also used to build the footbridge connecting the new museum and the Fort SaintJean. This three-span footbridge with a central span of more than 70m, has a similar design
than the Passerelle des Anges footbridge presented in paragraph 3.3.
Figure 19: MuCEM overview of the amphitheatre.
The coverage of the the Jean Bouin stadium in Paris designed by architect Rudy Ricciotti and
engineer Romain Ricciotti is being implemented by the company Lon Grosse [36]. The
structure is a three-dimensional shell made of large triangular ribbed slabs (up to 9m long)
made of UHPFRC with glass inclusions (Figure 20). These elements are supported by a steel
support structure.
This achievement has shown that the inclusion of glass panels in an UHPFRC slab imposes
the implementation of flexible joints at the interface glass / UHPFRC to ensure sealing and
avoid the risk of cracking of the glass panels as a result of contact pressures at the interfaces.
Figure 20: test specimen of the Jean-Bouin stadium coverage.
37
3.8 Research and development in progress on the material

Much research on UHPFRC has been conducted in recent years, with more or less fiber, armed
or not, prestressed or not that led to better describe the combined effects of fiber and active or
passive reinforcement , and to better define the conditions for obtaining a sufficient ductility.
Research should be continued on:
- Flow modeling during the implementation to optimize the process of implementation and
the fibers orientation
- Optimization of formulations in order to control and / or limit the effects at the early age
(autogenous shrinkage)
- The methods of evaluation and the development of global solutions towards sustainable
development issues (CO2 balance, energy, recycling, life, overall cost investment and
maintenance),
- The search for optimized structural solution.
4 Prospects and future of UHPC

4.1. UHPFRC interest vis--vis sustainable development issues
UHPFRC has a volume of about two times more cement than conventional concrete, and
therefore produces twice as much CO2 and consumes twice as much energy to be produced.
As against the experience of UHPFRC achievements shows that when used appropriately, it
can divide the quantities of material used in a structure by two or three.
Compared to a conventional structure, a UHPFRC structure allows a slight gain in terms of
CO2 and energy, but also offers a significant gain in terms of durability, lightness and an overall
economy of material.
4.2. Areas of potential use of UHPC
As shown in the overview, UHPFRC are particularly suitable for precast structures, but their use
on site is possible and can be completely relevant.
The preferred areas of application may include:
- Structures or parts of structures subjected to aggressive environments (abrasive effects,
site works in marine chemical attack),
- Structures or structural parts for which weight gain is interesting (seismic zone, foundation
problems, slender structures and far-reaching ...),
- Structures under shocks effects (waste storage container , shields, ...),
structures in which one seeks a high quality, finesse, and the possibility of forging sidings,
- Composite structures: the UHPC has a ratio strength on elastic modulus very interesting for
use in combination with steel or carbon fiber. The near absence of delayed effects in the
material (creep, drying shrinkage) makes their use in Composite structures particularly relevant,
- Structures or structural parts for which the complexity and density of the traditional passive
reinforcement occur very difficult design and proper implementation (connecting to an existing
structure with an uncontrolled geometry and difficulties to access, mechanical connection to a
steel frame complex shape, ...).
4.3. UHPFRC: materials that are revolutionizing design and implementation methods
The design of UHPFRC structures requires to get out of reflex attached to traditional reinforced
or prestressed concrete structures.
The volumes are further modified with thicknesses that can become very small, which can
disturb uninitiated designers, but which is often very relevant : the thickness reduction tends to
favor fibers orientation and increases material strength. The production of very slender parts
38
requires to be vigilant, to reduce and check geometric tolerances, to control stresses and
distortions in transient phases of handling and assembly.
The shape of the forms must be completely reviewed. In a traditional structure one prefers
angles allowing the shaping of the reinforcement frames. With UHPFRC one should avoid any
corner and prefer curved surfaces that facilitate the implementation of the material and avoids
discontinuities of flow.
The absence of reinforcement allows to consider all forms of structures as long as the
geometry is consistent and relevant with the stresses in the structure, and compatible with a
successful implementation of the concrete.
The perfect match of these materials with precasting often requires rethinking the overall
design of a structure: for a large structure with a complex geometry a study should be
conducted on how to achieve the overall structure from an assembly of reduced size elements
which present a redundant geometrie, allowing an optimal resistance to external forces and an
easy implementation. This requires an unconventional new way to design and build structures.
The development of precasting is consistent with researches on the design of the connections
between elements to achieve most efficient forces transmission, sealing and durability of the
assembly.
Formwork technology evolves. We see the development of 3D formwork solutions: molded
plastic or polystyrene cut automatically to allow any three-dimensional shapes.
More performent the concrete is, more special care and controls for implementation are
required:
-Validation of processes through suitability tests,
-Monitoring and control of the rheology depending on weather conditions,
-Strict respect of the material performance tolerances (consistency, strength...),
-Compliance with dimensional tolerances and geometric tracking.
Design methods differ from traditional use of reinforced and / or prestressed concrete well
controlled by consultants: resistance calculations use theories developed for fiber-reinforced
concrete that are little known (1997 AFREM recommendations for ordinary fiber reinforced
concrete, 2002 AFGC-SETRA recommendations for UHPFRC).
Test methods for flexural tensile strength are not well known by laboratories and require
specific numerical tools operating (inverse method).
One of the main obstacles to the current development of UHPFRC is thus related to the lack
of specific skills in design offices, architects, laboratories and companies.
The material requires an important intellectual precondition investment. To date, the market
was relatively small, and only a few number of offices has been involved.
Given that a certain taking off of these material can be observed (particularly in Japan, but
also in Europe and in France) it is likely that a larger number of consulting firms and companies
will form teams on these materials in order to meet demand. This should strengthen the
development of material, knowing that it should lead to the emergence of a growing number of
UHPFRC solutions in alternative to traditional structures.
5 Conclusion and outlook

The design and construction of UHPFRC structures require us to dispose of the reflexes
attached to traditional reinforced or prestressed concrete.
UHPFRC are not revolutionary materials in the sense that their cost of production and
implementation is still high and require a optimization to ensure a significant financial gain.
Niches exist and powerful applications tend to increasingly grow as far as durability, aesthetic,
timeliness for erection, scalability, possible layouts, material gain are concerned.
39
These uses are growing and UHPFRC can bring real innovative responses.
Researches and important projects under way will further strengthen their development and
contribute to demonstrate their structural and architectural potential
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[9] J JUNGWIRTH, Zum Tragverhalten von zugbeanspruchten Bauteilen aus Ultra-HochleistungsFaserbeton, Thse de doctorat n3429, Ecole Polytechnique Fdrale de Lausanne, Suisse.
[10] T LEUTBECHER, E FEHLING (2008) Crack formation and tensile behaviour of UHPC reinforced
with a combination of rebars and fibres, Ultra High Performance Concrete (UHPC), 2nd int. symp. on
Ultra High Performance Concrete, Kassel (Germany), March 05-07, Kassel University Press,
Structural Materials & Engineering Series N10, Fehling et al. eds, pp. 497-504.
[11] J Resplendino, JM Roy, J Petitjean, P Blondeau, Z Hajar, A Simon, T Thibaux, "Ouvrages innovants
de Bourg-ls-Valence", Revue Travaux, No.783, pp. 42-47.
[12] T Thibaux , JA Tanner, "Construction des premiers ponts franais en bton fibr ultra hautes
performances/construction of the first french road bridges in ultra high performance concrete", in La
technique franaise du Bton, AFGC, The first fib congress 2002, Osaka 2002.
[13] Z Hajar, A Simon, D Lecointre, J Petitjean, "Construction of the first road bridges made of UHPC",
3rd International Symposium on HPC, Orlando 2003.
[14] B Cavill, G Chirgwin The worlds first Ductal road bridge Shepherds gully creek bridge, NSW;
21me confrence biennale de linstitut du bton dAustralie, Brisbane, 2003.
[15] M Behloul, KC Lee Ductal Seonyu footbridge. Structural Concrete 4 (4), 2003, 195-201.
[16] Genes P, Alexandre F, Novarin M, Simon A., "Restructuration dun immeuble parisien", Revue
Travaux Novembre 2004.
[17] J Resplendino First recommendations for Ultra-High-Performance Concretes and examples of
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40
[18] Z Hajar, D Lecointre, A Simon, J Petitjean Design and Construction of the world first Ultra-High
Performance Concrete road bridges , International Symposium on UHPC, Kassel 2004.
[19] Z Hajar, D Lecointre, J Petitjean, J Resplendino, A Simon UHPC First recommendations and
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(2004).
[20] Z Hajar, P Winiecki, A Simon, T Thibaux Realization of an Ultra High Performance Fibre
Reinforced Concrete thin shell structure covering the toll-gate station of MILLAU Viaduct. fib
Symposium: Concrete Structures: the Challenge of Creativity, Avignon (2004).
[21] Y El Gourari, N Fabry, Z Hajar, M Novarin, A Simon, T Thibaux, S Chanut, R Sale, D de Matteis, P
Marchand, A Petel "La poutre ITE, une alternative aux poutrelles enrobes Le triplement du pont
Pinel Rouen", Revue Travaux n849 Fvrier 2008.
[22] J Resplendino Ultra-High Performance Concretes recent realizations and research programs on
UHPFRC bridges in France , International Symposium on UHPC, Kassel (2008).
[23] D de Matteis, M Novarin, P Marchand, N Fabry, A Petel, S Chanut A fifth French bridge including
UHPFRC components, the widening of the Pinel Bridge, in Rouen (France), International
Symposium on UHPC, Kassel (2008).
[24] J Resplendino, S Bouteille, O Delauzun, E Maleco, C Dumont, P Cantrelle, G Chanliaud, C Clergue,
Y Lingard, A Capra, Ll Linger, J Martin, M Guilloud Construction of an overpass on the A51
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concrete, AFGC, The second fib congress, Naples (2006).
[25] J Resplendino, S Bouteille, O Delauzun, E Maleco, C Dumont, P Cantrelle, G Chanliaud, C Clergue,
Y Lingard, A Capra, L Linger, J Martin, M Guilloud Construction dun Passage suprieur sur
lautoroute A51, en caisson prcontraint Ralis en Bton Fibr ultra performant (BFUP), congrs
AFGC GC2007, Paris (2007).
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Japan; 7th confrence internationale sur les ponts de courte et moyenne porte, Montral,
Canada, 2006.
[27] J Hanoteau, M Behloul, O Bayard, J Resplendino , S Bouteille, L Boutonnet , S Vildaer, B Radiguet ,
S Bernhard, N Padovan Ductal : a new material, the bridge of St Pierre La Cour , in the French
technologie of concrete, AFGC, The second fib congress, Naples (2006).
[28] J Resplendino, S Bouteille Les derniers dveloppements dans lutilisation des Btons Fibrs Ultra
Performants en France , congrs AFGC GC2005, Paris (2005).
[29] J Hanoteau, M Behloul, O Bayard, J Resplendino , S Bouteille, L Boutonnet , S Vildaer, B. Radiguet
, S. Bernhard, N. Padovan Ductal : a new material, the bridge of St Pierre La Cour , in the French
technologie of concrete, AFGC, The second fib congress, Naples (2006).
[30] P Mazzacane, R Ricciotti, F Teply, "The Passerelle des Anges Footbridge", Designing and Building
with UHPFRC State of the Art and Developpement, ISTE Ltd 2011, chapter 9, pp. 111-124.
[31] T Thibaux, "Using UHPFRC for Structural Reinforcement of Buildings and Civil Works", Designing
and Building with UHPFRC State of the Art and Developpement, ISTE Ltd 2011, chapter 37, pp.
553 563.
[32] T Ono, "Application of UHSFRC for irrigation chanel repair works", Designing and Building with
UHPFRC State of the Art and Developpement, ISTE Ltd 2011, chapter 36, pp. 541 - 552
[33] D Stoeux, JF Batoz, L Jacques, L Guingot A material for perforated panels and lattice work",
Designing and Building with UHPFRC State of the Art and Developpement, ISTE Ltd 2011,
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[34] Y Tanaka and al, "The innovation and application of UHPFRC bridges in Japan", Designing and
Building with UHPFRC State of the Art and Developpement, ISTE Ltd 2011, chapter 12, pp. 149 187.
[35] G Gazon, R Ricciotti, J Portelatine, F Nicolas, P Rivillon, "The MuCEM", Designing and Building with
UHPFRC State of the Art and Developpemen, ISTE Ltd 2011, chapter 32 34, pp. 481 528.
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41
42
An Overview of UHPC Efforts through the North American

Working Group
Theresa (Tess) M. Ahlborn1, Eric P. Steinberg2
1: Civil and Environmental Engineering Department, Michigan Technological University, USA
2: Department of Civil Engineering, Ohio University, USA
The North American UHPC Working Group (NA-WG) was established in June 2010 to provide a forum for
UHPC experts to discuss and work toward implementation of UHPC in North America, along with the
purpose to develop a design guide. Over 90 individuals are listed as members, with volunteer
membership coming from academia, industry, and government sectors. The working group has identified
numerous challenges to implementation and is working with several professional organizations to
address these challenges. Recent efforts have also focused on disseminating information on UHPC. The
co-chairs of this working group present herein the efforts of this working group as well as the recent
efforts in North America.
Keywords: UHPC, implementation, challenges, North America
1 Introduction
All infrastructure, whether bridges, pipelines, or other critical lifeline systems, must be
maintained for daily health to functionally perform in a major disaster. As such, it is imperative
to significantly improve the resiliency of North Americas infrastructure while investigating and
developing protective systems for international security. The implementation of innovative
materials such as ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) will have a significant impact on the
resiliency of the infrastructure.
Ultra-high performance concrete is a relatively new and advanced material to North America.
First developed in France in the 1990s, the material was introduced on a very small scale in the
United States and Canada about a decade or so ago. The advanced material has been shown
to exhibit enhanced aesthetics, extreme strength and superior durability under a variety of
loadings and exposures, lending itself to an assortment of potential applications.
Whether Mother Nature or non-natural hazards threaten these nations, proper
implementation and enhanced performance of systems using UHPC can add robustness and
longevity to the infrastructure. The materials toughness increases its ability to absorb
environmental and man-made disturbances. And when properly designed in efficient systems,
UHPC can contribute to global sustainability efforts through its lower life-cycle costs and
reduced long-term impacts. Additional benefits of UHPC being widely used include added
resiliency and improved security, not only post-disaster, but every day. From repair and
replacement, to protection of the environment, UHPC provides the benefit of improving the
resiliency of our infrastructure.
However, as promising as UHPC appears, the material has numerous challenges before
widespread implementation in North America is possible. These challenges include:
no commonly accepted standard definition of the material
no commonly accepted test methods for material performance under varying
environmental conditions in North America
very few production standards for quality control in manufacturing facilities
no design guides (e.g. buildings, bridges, blast protection systems) for engineers and
owners to create confidence in system performance
43
and only a handful of large scale projects in North America for owners to reference for
lowering risk of implementation.
As with any new material, process, or application for use in the infrastructure within North
America, there are challenges that need to be overcome before widespread usage is
implemented. This paper summarizes the efforts of the North American UHPC Working Group
(NA-WG) along with several activities within North America to promote the widespread usage of
UHPC in the infrastructure and the efforts that are being undertaken to overcome the above
challenges.
2 North American UHPC Working Group

The North American UHPC Working Group (NA-WG) was established on June 1, 2010 in
Washington D.C., USA during the Third Congress & Exhibition of the Federation International
du Beton (fib) and Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute (PCI) 2010 Annual Convention. The
first meeting was organized by Mr. Vic Perry of LaFarge - North America. The primary idea was
to provide a forum for UHPC experts and users to discuss the implementation of UHPC in North
America. The group agreed that
development of a design guide was necessary,
all applications of UHPC should be considered (buildings, bridges, etc),
there was a need to develop a state-of-the-art report on UHPC along with a guide, and
the group may need to be associated with another professional organization to publish
guide specifications.
Drs. Tess Ahlborn and Eric Steinberg agreed to co-chair the efforts.
The group met again on September 24, 2010 in Chicago, Illinios, USA in conjunction with the
PCI Committee Days. A master email list had been established and 76 members had joined.
Presentations were provided by several members on possible professional organizations which
could work with the working group. The presentations focused on the positive and negatives of
each organization and the likelihood on being able to produce a recognized design guide in a
timely fashion. There was also discussion on starting with a state of the practice report rather
than detailed specifications so that the document could be produced in a timely practice and it
would likely not require a host organization for the group.
The third meeting was held in Chicago, Illinios, USA on March 26, 2011, which coincided
again with PCI Committee Days. Information on the activities of other organizations and
upcoming events including UHPC were discussed. Steinberg reported on the results of a
membership survey related to the preferred organization to work with the group. Based on
these results and other information, it was proposed to pursue initial collaborations with
the American Concrete Institute (ACI),
the Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute (PCI), and
the Department of Homeland Security (DHS).
Because the membership of the group had grown to 86 members, it was proposed that group
should have a Steering Committee of approximately 20 diverse and active members to lead
the group. A Membership Selection subcommittee was established in order to develop
membership criteria and to solicit or select people for the Steering Committee. A State of the Art
Report subcommittee was also established to oversee development of a report within six
months. A Design Guide subcommittee was created develop an outline and table of contents for
a design guide.
The fourth meeting of the group occurred in Salt Lake City, UT on October 24, 2011 at the
PCI Convention and National Bridge Conference. The total membership of the working group
had grown to 96 members. Activities occurring related to UHPC were reported on by members
44
An Overview of UHPC Efforts through the North American Working Group
participating. The membership subcommittee reported reviewing the membership criteria for
several other organizations. Proposed criteria would allow only one voting members from an
organization and the voting member would have been required to attend three meetings either
by being present or via conference call. For a diverse group of four classifications were
established:
Users,
Producers,
Owners,
Designers and Academia.
The membership subcommittee is working on the issue of a Steering Group with the goal of
establishing membership of the Steering Group by the next meeting in March 2011. Because of
the group size and the evolving purpose of the group to host collaborative efforts and act as a
clearinghouse for information, the group discussed the benefits of incorporating as a not-forprofit organization. This would require officers, bylaws, a charter, and an annual meeting.
Membership dues could generate revenue and multi-tiered membership level could be used.
This concept is currently being investigated in more detail. The State of the Art Report
subcommittee has a rough outline for a document, but based on the activities of other
organizations (see FHWA below) a temporary hold was requested before proceeding.
The NA-WG has continued to work with other professional organizations in North America. A
summary of some of these efforts is described below.
3 American Concrete Institute (ACI)

To pursue collaborative efforts with the American Concrete Institute (ACI) as indentified by the
North American UHPC Working Group, several avenues were taken, including approaching the
Concrete Industrys Strategic Development Council (SDC) www.concreteSDC.org and
presenting at the SDC meeting in Chicago, Illinios, USA on September 21-22, 2011. NA-WG
members Ahlborn, Mr. Brian Green and Dr. C. Kennan Crane gave three general presentations
on UHPC; one to introduce the material to those who were less familiar with UHPC (Green),
one presentation to show current and potential applications for innovation in concrete (Crane),
and one to present the challenges for widespread implementation in North America (Ahlborn).
The meeting forum provided an opportunity for the leaders in the concrete industry, government,
academia, and customers to discuss the key issues and challenges that impact the concrete
industry. A well attended break-out session on UHPC indentified similar challenges to those
indentified by the NA-WG (above). The SDC expressed support in establishing an ACI Technical
Committee to begin to address these barriers to technology acceptance and implementation.
With progressive efforts from several NA-WG members, ACI formed Technical Committee
239 Ultra High Performance Concrete in the summer of 2011. The first meeting of ACI 239
occurred on October 17, 2011 in Cincinnati, Ohio with 46 people in attendance. The committee
mission is to develop and report information on Ultra-High Performance Concrete. The
committees scope is to:
Develop the definition of UHPC
Identify the current state of practice
Identify gaps in knowledge
Lay out long-term plans for addressing knowledge gaps
Three groups were formed within the committee to develop the following:
A definition of UHPC (Eckart Buhler, Fred Meyer, Kay Willie, Mark Luther)
An outline for a report on UHPC (Sue Lane, Karen OBrian, Brooks Bucher, Jim Milligan)
45
A long range plan for the committee (John Myers, Jim Hicks, Eric Steinberg, Kay Willie)
The next ACI 239 committee meeting is March 19, 2012 at the ACI Fall Convention in Dallas,
TXexas, USA.
More information on the committee activities can be found at:
www.concrete.org/committees
There will be an upcoming session UHPC Experience and Developments during the Fall
ACI Convention October 21-25, 2012 in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. The session is cosponsored by ACI Committees 234 (Silica Fume in Concrete), 239 (Ultra High Performance
Concrete), and 363 (High Strength Concrete).
4 Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute (PCI)

The Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute (PCI) is an organization dedicated to fostering
greater understanding and use of precast and prestressed concrete www.pci.org, and has the
potential to be a leader in the widespread use of UHPC. Collaborative efforts with PCI and the
North American UHPC Working Group have begun as recommended by the NA-WG
membership. Strategic planning discussions with the PCI Executive Committee and the PCI
Foundation will begin to identify critical industry challenges and address these challenges for a
variety of precast and prestressed concrete applications. Such support affords the ability of the
PCI community to embrace the innovation opportunities of UHPC.
5 U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS)

The U.S. Department of Homeland Security (DHS) Science and Technology Directorate was
identified by the NA-WG as a potential collaborator for UHPC implementation efforts. The Office
of Infrastructure Protection within DHS in partnership with the Engineer Research and
Development Center (ERDC) of the US Army Corps of Engineers has an effort to develop
UHPC material that is affordable and competitive in the US market. The final goal is to provide
a UHPC material that exhibits high performance standards for explosives and other natural
hazards. It is expected that the material be easy to use when a hazard/integrated approach is
required. The benefits of this product include high durability and less reinforcement
requirements. ERDC is the lead of this project, and this effort will be significant in the protection
of the US critical infrastructure. The main challenge of the project is to eliminate the barriers
that are an impediment for the commercialization and decrease the cost of producing UHPC, a
challenge similar tot hat identified by the NA-WG. In addition, DHS sponsored an UHPC Critical
Roadmap Workshop on the campus of Columbia University in New York City, New York, USA
on January 11-12, 2011. A report was published by DHS on the pathway to commercialization
of UHPC and is available on-line:
http://www.dhs.gov/xlibrary/assets/ultra-high-performance-concrete-roadmap.pdf
DHS is also working through the National Institute of Building Sciences (NIBS) to form a
UHPC committee to address and set forth the path that was developed as the critical roadmap.
6 Federal Highway Administration (FHWA)

The U.S. Federal Highway Administration showed interest in UHPC nearly two decades ago,
and in 2002 sponsored a study tour of ultra-high performance concrete bridges in France [1].
The primary mission was to develop international relationships for future collaborative research
efforts necessary to allow implementation of the virtually indestructible material into bridges
throughout the United States. Since the tour, Drs. Joey Hartmann and Ben Graybeal have been
involved in research of UHPC for FHWA at the Turner Fairbank Highway Research Center ,
McLean, Virginia, USA. The most recent project involves the use of UHPC in Connections for
46
Modular Concrete Bridge Components. This project involves the development and testing of
connection details for facilitating the use of modular prefabricated concrete components in
bridge construction. Other projects include the development of UHPC precast bridge deck
elements, flexural behavior of minimally reinforced UHPC beams, and flexural fatigue behavior
of UHPC beams. [2]
FHWA has also been supportive in bridge projects utilizing UHPC in the United States. The
Mars Hill Bridge in Wapello County, Iowa was the first bridge in the U.S. to use UHPC. This
110-ft bridge opened to traffic in 2006 and included UHPC in modified Iowa Bulb-Tee Girders.
The Cat Point Creek Bridge in Richmond County, Virginia was the second bridge in the U.S. to
utilize UHPC. This ten-span bridge was constructed with UHPC in precast prestressed BulbTee girders and opened to traffic in 2008. Both of these first two bridges eliminated the mild
shear steel reinforcement by taking advantage of the tensile capacity of UHPC. The Jakway
Park Bridge in Buchanan County, Iowa used UHPC in optimized pi-girders (shaped like the
Greek letter ) to take advantage of the superior mechanical and durability properties of UHPC.
The shape of the girders also allowed for accelerated construction of the bridge which opened
to traffic in November 2008. Two bridges in New York State incorporated UHPC as cast-inplace joints between prefabricated bridge decks in 2009. The Route 31 Bridge over
Canandaigua Outlet used UHPC as the closure material between decked Bulb-Tee elements.
Straight epoxy coated bars protruded from the deck-bulb tees and were lapped into the
connection. The deck of this bridge included a waterproofing membrane and an asphalt overlay.
The Route 23 Bridge over Otego Creek in Oneonta, N.Y. included UHPC at the joints between
8-in thick precast concrete deck panels on steel stringers. UHPC was cast into the connections
of the deck panels. The deck panels contained 180 o hooked bars that extended into the
connection. NYSDOT also performed pullout tests of No. 4 through No. 6 steel reinforcement
cast into cylinders of UHPC. Very minimal depths were used to determine the UHPC bond
capacity. A UHPC waffle slab system has also been utilized recently in the Little Cedar Creek
bridge of Wapello County, Iowa. The slabs were supported on Iowa Type B prestressed
concrete girders spaced 74 on center. The 8 thick deck panels spanned from near the center
of the bridge to one side and were supported by three girders. Each panel was 16 2.5 wide by
8 long. This project was finishing up in late October of 2011.
The FHWA recently hired a consultant to develop a state of the art report on UHPC for the
transportation industry in the United States (slated for completion in June 2012). The goal to is
provide the state of current practice, looking nationally and internationally at work that has been
done, consider codes that have been developed worldwide, research needed to be done, and to
consider what else needs to be accomplished for innovative transportation applications.
7 Ministry of Transportation of Ontario, Canada

The Ministry of Transportation of Ontario (MTO) has recently implemented field-cast UHPC
connection technology in nine bridges. Another seven bridges using UHPC connections were to
be completed by the end of 2011. Some details of the bridges details are summarized below:
The Sunshine Creek Bridge, constructed in 2007 near Thunder Bay, Ontario, is a 34.5 ft.
single span bridge containing 10 adjacent PC box beams with a 35 o skew. The beams are
23.62 deep by 46.8 wide and contain 30 grade 270 strands. The shear keys between the
beams are diamond shaped with overlapping hairpin glass fiber reinforced polymer (GFRP)
bars that extended from the boxes (see Appendix A Figure 2). Two longitudinal GFRP bars
exist between the hairpin bars. No transverse tie rods or post-tensioning exist.
47
The Hawk Lake Bridge, constructed in 2008 between Kenora and Dryden, Ontario, is an
89.24 ft. single span bridge with 12 adjacent PC box beams. The beams are 31.5 deep by
45.2 wide and contain 30 grade 270 strands. The shear keys are diamond shaped with
overlapping straight GFRP bars and one longitudinal GFRP bar between overlapping bars. No
transverse tie rods or post-tensioning exist.
The Buller Creek Bridge, constructed in 2009 between Ear Falls and Vermillion Bay, Ontario,
is a 92.26 ft. single span bridge with no skew. The bridge consists of 10 adjacent PC boxes that
are 35.43 deep by 48.19 wide. The beams contain 36 - grade 270 strands of which some
are harped. The shear keys are diamond shaped with a 2-4 (5-10 mm) gap between beams.
Straight GFRP bars extend into the shear keys that also contained one longitudinal GFRP bar.
Transverse tie rod or post-tensioning did not exist.
The Wabigoon River Bridge, also constructed in 2009 between Ear Falls and Vermillion Bay,
consists of three spans with the outer spans being 54.13ft and the center span being 90.22ft.
Each span contains 10 adjacent PC box beams that are 35.43 deep by 48.19 wide. The
beams contain 28 and 12 - grade 270 strands for the center span and end span beams,
respectively. The shear keys are diamond shaped with a 2-4 (5-10 mm) gap between beams.
Straight GFRP bars extend into shear key that also contained one longitudinal GFRP bar.
UHPC was also placed in connection over piers. The pier connection had both transverse and
longitudinal GFRP bars in the top and threaded inserts in the bottom. The bridge did not contain
any transverse tie rods or post-tensioning.
The Log River Bridge, constructed in 2009 between Fort Francis and Kendra, Ontario, is a
69.17 ft. single span bridge consisting of 8 adjacent PC box beams that are 24 deep by 50.39
wide. Each beam has 30 - grade 270 strands some of which are harped. The shear keys are
diamond shaped with little or no gap between beams. Straight transverse GFRP bars extend
into shear key which also contains one longitudinal GFRP bar. No transverse tie rods or posttensioning.
The Eagle River Bridge, constructed in 2009 and 2010 between Dryden and Vermillion Bay,
Ontario, has three spans with outer spans of 86 ft. and a center span of 112 ft. Each span has
12 adjacent PC box beams that 43.31 deep. The shear keys are diamond shaped with a small
gap between beams. The shear keys contain one longitudinal GFRP bar but transverse bars in
shear key are unknown from drawings obtained. UHPC was also placed in connection over
piers. The pier connection has both transverse and longitudinal GFRP bars in the top and
threaded inserts in the bottom. No transverse tie rods or post-tensioning exist.
8 Other Efforts and Activities

National Precast Concrete Association (NPCA)
The National Precast Concrete Association (NPCA) www.precast.org has drafted guidelines for
the NPCA Quality Control (QC) Manual on the architectural applications of UHPC. The
Architectural subcommittee drafted several sections and intends that the sections be added at
numerous locations throughout the QC Manual. The guidelines are currently under review by
the NPCA Technical Committee.
ASTM International (ASTM)
As a part of addressing the identified challenges, NA-WG and ACI members worked to
introduce the relevant challenges (e.g. material standards and tests) to ASTM. It was suggested
that ASTM host a symposium at an upcoming ASTM meeting where the issues regarding UHPC
testing could be discussed in open forum, thereby enabling ASTM to support the needs of the
UHPC community in the best manner. A symposium is tentatively scheduled for June 2013.
48
Other Department of Transportations

Numerous State Department of Transportations have shown interest in using UHPC in some
type of transportation application. Iowa, New York, Virginia, Michigan, Georgia and more have
sponsored some type of research. For example, the New Mexico Department of Transportation
has sponsored a research project entitled A Feasibility Analysis of Ultra High Performance
Concrete for Prestressed Concrete Bridge Applications. (Information can be found on their
respective state research web site).
Other Academic Institutions
Many universities are involved in some form of research on UHPC. Some of these universities
and the faculty member(s) involved are listed below in Table 1. This list is not inclusive.
Table 1 Some UHPC Research Universities in the United States
University
Faculty
Florida International University
Amir Mirmiran
Iowa State University
Sri Sritharan and Terry Wipf
Georgia Institute of Technology
Lawrence Khan and Kimberly Kurtis
Massachusetts Institute of Technology
Franz Ulm
Michigan Technological University
Tess Ahlborn and Devin Harris
Missouri University of Science and Tech.
John Myers
Ohio University
Eric Steinberg and Ken Walsh
University of Alberta
Adam Lubell and Sadegh Kazemi
University of Arkansas
Micah Hale
University of Calgary
El-Hacha Raafat and Thomas Brown
University of Central Florida
Kevin Mackie
University of Connecticut
Michael Accorsi and Kay Willie
University of Michigan
Antoine Naaman (Retired)
Virginia Tech University
Carin Roberts-Wollmann and Thomas Cousins
9 Conclusions
UHPC is growing in use and application in North America and the trend in the past few years
has been increasing. Whether for bridges, buildings, water systems and pipelines, blast
protection systems, or other innovative applications, many challenges must be addressed. The
North American UHPC Working Group will continue its grass roots efforts to encourage UHPC
experts and users to develop design guides, establish a broad definition, and collaborate on
filling the research needs for UHPC implementation, while involving a variety of stakeholders
with a broad perspective on widespread implementation of UHPC in North America.
10 Acknowledgements
The authors wish to thank the members of the North American UHPC Working Group for their
hard work and continued dedication to supporting the implementation of UHPC in North
America.
49
References
[1] Ahlborn, T.M., Steinberg, E.P., J. Hartmann, B. Graybeal, J. Volgi and J. Potter, Ultra-High
Performance Concrete Study Tour 2002, 3rd PCI / FHWA International Symposium On High
Performance Concrete, Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Orlando Florida, October 19-22,
2003.
[2] Graybeal, B., Technote Ultra High Performance Concrete, Federal Highway Administration, FHWA
Publication No. FHWA-HRT-11-038, McLean, Virginia, USA, www.fhwa.dot.gov/research
50
On the way to international design recommendations for

Ultra High Performance Fibre Reinforced Concrete
Joost Walraven
Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands
Ultra High Performance Fibre Reinforced Concrete is a material with a large potential for innovative
structures. However, in order to enable large scale application of this material internationally recognized
design codes are necessary. Such codes should take due notice of societal developments. In future the
major design criteria for structures will not only be limited to structural safety and serviceability, but will
regard as well durability. Moreover, a design recommendation for ultra high performance fibre reinforced
concrete should not be edited as a stand alone document, but should be harmonized in the field of fibre
concrete design in general. Moreover harmonization with general code recommendations for structural
concrete is required, in order to facilitate hybrid structures as well. In this paper the development of code
recommendations for UHPFRC is shown, with different levels of sophistication.
Keywords: Ultra High Performance Fibre Reinforced Concrete Design Recommendation
1 General considerations about codes for structural design

Structural design codes have a history of centuries. They should guarantee that the buildings in
which we live and work, and the bridges and tunnels that we use for transportation, are safe
and serviceable. Experience gained during the last decades has convinced us, that not only the
criteria safety and serviceability, but as well durability need adequate attention. Therefore a
change in code objectives during the years is noticed. The newest codes differ from their
predecessors, in that the aspect time has become an integral part of design: structures have
to be designed for safety and serviceability for a time span (service life). In the new Model
Code for Concrete Structures [1] this has been adopted as a leading principle. That means that
more attention than before has to be given to material properties, especially those which
determine the rate of deterioration. Another important influencing factor in the development of
structural design codes is internationalisation. After a long period of national codes there is a
development to international codes, like the Eurocode, but as well the ACI code and the Asian
Model Code. International codes have to be written in such a way that they apply to a variety of
conditions and cultures. It means as well, that compromises have to be reached between the
countries involved, with different geographical conditions, climates and resources and different
ideas with regard to structural design. During the discussions between the parties involved, it
turned out that there are not only differences in view, which have to be discussed, but
fortunately also common ideas. These ideas are [2]:
-
Codes should be well founded.

Codes should be based on clear and scientifically well-founded theories and models,
corresponding to a good representation of the structural behaviour and the material
physics.
- Codes should be flexible
Code recommendations should not be limited to on one single model. Preferably a code
should offer alternative models with different complexity. Simple models can be used in
daily business and more complex models in cases that non-traditional structures have to
be designed, or where large financial investments have to be made (e.g. production of
large series of prestressed bridge beams).
51
The models used in a code should be transparent

This is necessary because in engineering practice a wide spectrum of complications can
occur, which have to be solved based on understanding the phenomena and not by blind
application of intransparent code rules.
The models should reflect the state of the art
New developments should be involved, but not on the cost of unnecessary complexity.
The need for an integral approach to requirements such as service life design criteria
should be respected.
Codes should allow as much as possible an integral approach
Combination of technologies offer special chances. Hybrid structures and hybrid material
combinations are an example. Therefore harmonisation between structural design in
different structural materials is a must.
2 Considerations about a design code for ultra high performance fibre

reinforced concrete
The history of ultra high performance fibre reinforced concrete is remarkable. The development
of its basis, conventional fibre reinforced concrete, goes back to about 1970. Many code
committees have dealt with this material and have produced design rules. Even international
codes have been edited, such as the recommendations developed by RILEM TC162-TDF. The
focus of these recommendations is on concretes in the traditional strength classes to about
C80. For reasons of workability the fibre content was seldomly larger than 80 kg/m 3. Contrary to
most technical developments, which are characterized by a gradual progress, the development
of fibre concrete was characterised by a remarkable jump. Publications on UHPFRC appeared
from about 1990 and concentrated on concrete with cylinder strengths of about 180-200 MPa.
The large difference in properties between conventional FRC and UHPFRC led initially to a
treatment of those fibre concrete species in different study committees. An example is the work
on fibre reinforced concrete in fib, where conventional fibre concrete (FRC) is treated in TG 8.3
and UHPFRC in TG 8.6. It was logic that soon the question of the scope of the two task groups
came up. The initial idea, to limit the work of TG 8.3 to an upper strength class of C80 and to
limit the work of TG 8.6 to a lower strength class of C180 appeared not to be a good solution,
since then there would be no design recommendation for the range of intermediate strength
classes, were many interesting applications are possible as well. Fig. 1 shows the difference in
the focus of the two task groups in relation with some very interesting and actual applications in
the intermediate range. Such an application is for instance the strengthening of old steel
bridges with new fibre concrete reinforced bridge decks. Ultra high strength fibre concrete,
which would lead to very thin overlays, would not be the best solution, since it would have the
disadvantage of not sufficiently reducing the stress variations in the steel girders, which would
not solve the problem of fatigue. Structural overlays in strength classes C120 - C140 yield the
optimum solution between mass, durability, abrasion resistance and cost. Similar arguments
apply for UHPFRC precast prestressed sheet piles as shown at the bottom right in Fig. 1, which
are produced in a concrete strength class C130.
In order to solve the problem of the intermediate strength range it was suggested not to use
a strength class criterion but to distinghuish two types of fibre reinforced concrete: one
characterized by softening and one by hardening behaviour. However, also this distinction
turned out to be unpractical, as evidenced by Fig. 2. Softening in uniaxial tension may
correspond with harding in bending; moreover even softening in bending might go along with
hardening on the level of the structural behaviour. Finally, softening in uniaxial tension loses its
significance if fibres are combined with reinforcing bars.
52
On the way to international design recommendations for Ultra High Performance Fibre Reinforced Concrete
Figure 1: Scope of fib Task Groups 8.3 (conventional fibre reinforced concrete) and 8.6 (ultra high strength
fibre reinforced concrete) with lost applications in the intermediate area like bridge decks (top picture and
bottom left) and sheet piles (bottom right) in concrete strength classes C100 C 150.
Figure 2: Softening versus hardening behaviour in uniaxial tension (left), bending (middle) and on a structural
level (right) [1].
The next option considered was to develop one integral code for all types of fiber reinforced
concrete in all strength classes, so valid from C20 to C200. This, however, was not acceptable
to many members of both Task Groups, for different reasons. Members of TG 8.3 argued, that
over many years considerable effort was invested in developing a reliable design code for
conventional fibre reinforced concrete, with which meanwhile a lot of experience had been
gained and which was already in a far stage of harmonization with the Eurocode for structural
53
concrete. Members of TG 8.6 argued that ultra high performance concrete differs substantially
from conventional concrete, both in properties and in production technology. The high-tech
properties and sensitive production procedures would not match well with the more mass-type
character of conventional FRC. Moreover, it was feared that the harmonization of UHPFRC with
all other types of fibre concrete would harm the market position, due to a conservative
generalisation of properties.
In fib meanwhile the Model Code 2010 was produced, in which one of the principles was to
offer different levels of sophistication in methods for design and analysis. Simple methods
should be sufficient for simple daily applications, but more advanced methods should pay-off
when, for instance, the analysis should lead to a decision whether considerable amounts of
money should be invested in strengthening of a structure or not. The decision was therefore to
develop a general design recommendation for all types of fibre concretes in Model Code 2010
and to develop additionally an approach tailored to UHPFRC in the TG 8.6 recommendation.
3 General recommendation for all fibre concrete types in Model Code 2010
In the fib Model Code for Concrete Structures 2010, the recommendation for fiber reinforced
concrete is integrated in a more general code for structural concrete. So, fibers can be used
as the only reinforcement, but also in combination with reinforcing or prestressing steel.
Moreover the method applies to any concrete strength, so no difference is made b etween
conventional fiber concrete, high performance and ultra high performance concrete. A new
aspect is that fiber concrete is classified in a system of behavioural classes. As such, the
designer can assume a certain design class and make the design calculations, based on the
properties given for this class. As a part of the production, it should be proven by standardized
control tests on the mixture used, that the mixture indeed satisfies the design assumptions.
Basically, such a procedure is for many years already - common practice in conventional
concrete structures, where it should be demonstrated by cylinder or cube tests that the concrete
satisfies the strength class assumed in the design. Fig. 3 shows the standard specimen used
for the bending test on fibre reinforced concrete (according to EN 14651 (dimensions in mm).
Fig. 4 shows the load-deflection relation obtained with a number of reference values
(Fi,CMODi), where Fj is the force applied at a certain stage of loading, and CMOD i the
corresponding value of the Crack Mouth Opening Displacement CMOD j (measured crack
opening at notch A).
Figure 3: Standard bending test on a notched FRC beam.
54
Figure 4: Typical load F CMOD curve for FRC.
From the F CMOD relation, flexural tensile strength values fRj are derived for a set of CMODj
values, according to:
f R, j
3F j l
2bhsp2
where fR,j [MPa] = residual flexural tensile strength corresponding to CMOD = CMODj , Fj [N] =
load corresponding to CMOD = CMODj, l = span length in mm, b = specimen width in mm
and hsp distance between the notch tip and the top of the specimen (125 mm). The classification
of fiber concrete is based on the values for fR,j obtained for CMOD1 (= 0.5 mm) and CMOD3 (=
2,5 mm).
In order to classify the post-cracking strength of FRC a linear elastic relation can be
assumed, by considering the characteristic residual strengths for serviceability (fR1k) and
ultimate (fR3k) conditions. In particular two parameters are relevant, namely fR1k (representing
the strength interval) and the letter a, b, c, d or e(representing the ratio fR3k/fR1k).
The strength interval is defined by two subsequent numbers in the series:
1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, 4.0, 5.0, 6.0, 7.0, 8.0, [MPa]
whereas the letters a, b, c, d, e correspond to the residual strength ratios:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
If 0,5
If 0,7
If 0,9
If 1,1
If 1,3
fR3k/fR1k 0,7
fR3k/fR1k 0,9
fR3k/fR1k 1,1
fR3k/fR1k 1,3
fR3k/fR1k
For instance, a material denoted as 3b has a tensile strength ranging between 3 and 4 MPa
and a fR3k/fR1k ratio ranging between 0.7 and 0.9.
From the bending tests two simplified stress-crack opening laws can be deduced (Fig. 5): a
rigid-plastic relation, or a linear post-cracking relation (hardening or softening) as schematically
shown in Fig. 5, where fFts represents the serviceability residual strength, defined as the postcracking strength for serviceability crack openings, and fFtu represents the ultimate residual
strength. The solid and dashed lines refer to softening and hardening post-cracking behaviour
respectively.
It is mentioned that the behaviour observed in standard tests can deviate substantially (in a
beneficial and a non-beneficial way) from the behaviour of the corresponding FRC in the
structural element. Thus the manufactoring method and the concrete consistency should be
taken into account by the designer.
55
Figure 5: Simplified post-cracking constitutive laws: stress-crack opening.
If wished so, the stress crack width relations can be converted to stress strain relations by
w / lcs
where w = crack width and lcs = structural characteristic length for the situation considered,
defined as:
lcs min{smin , y}
where smin = mean distance between cracks and y = distance between neutral axis and tensile
side of the cross section.
A special aspect considered is the orientation factor K, taking into account that due to the way
of producing fibre reinforced concrete structural members a non homogeneous orientation of
the fibres can occur, which has its influence on the mechanical properties of the material.
By providing simplified relations for the effect of fibres, as given before, it is not only possible
to design structures with only fibres as reinforcement, but as well with combinations of fibres
and conventional reinforcement. The equations are familiar to structural engineers and can also
be used if fibres are combined with other reinforcing and/or structural materials, so that the
promising area of hybrid structures invites for application. Additionally chapter 7.7 of Model
Code 2010 Verification of safety and serviceability of FRC structures shows how the effect of
fibres can be considered in a way harmonized with the design principles for structural concrete
in general.
4 Recommendation for UHPFRC according to fib TG 8.6

Task Group 8.6 focuses on a recommendation tailored to the design of UHPFRC structures.
Use is made of experience especially gained with this material. The draft document starts with
extended information of the mechanical and physical properties of ultra high performance fibre
reinforced concrete. Among these data, adequate attention is given to all aspects which give
UHPFRC its credit for designing innovative structures. E.g. special attention is given to fatigue
resistance, since it is expected that UHPFRC will be used in slender structures where the traffic
load has a larger significance than in conventional reinforced concrete structures, for which the
permanent load plays a more dominant role. Moreover special attention is given to aspects like
porosity and pore size distribution, alkalinity, diffusion and permeability, carbonation and
sulphur resistance and resistance to freezing and thawing, since it is expected that particularly
thoses aspects may give UHPFRC additional chances in cases where life cycle criteria govern
the design.
It is expected that the effect of fibre orientation, as a consequence of the rheological
properties of UHPFRC, is stronger than for conventional fibre concretes. This may particularly
be expected to play a role in thin structures. For the determination of the propertie s of the
56
materials, and even the structural members, therefore a distinction is made between thin and
thick structures. For thin structures, which are defined as structures with a cross-sectional
height equal or smaller than 3 times the fibre length L f , basically two methods exist:
a. Standard tests are carried out on thin standard specimens, as shown in Fig. 6. By
carrying out this testing method, the stress - strain relations obtained are expected to
include implicitely the effect of fibre alignement by the boundary conditions, which is
expected to occur in the structural elements as well. This test is not regarded as
absolute truth: Therefore it is advised to apply a correction factor 1/K to the results
obtained from a test on the actual structural element.
b. The structural member can be tested as a whole, according to the principle of design by
testing. This method has the advantage that the effect of casting and mechanical
vibration is implicitely considered and even can be used to optimize the behaviour of the
structural element. An example of such an approach is the design and testing of the
precast slab elements for the platform, supporting the offshore runway of the new
Haneda Airport inTokyo.
Figure 6: Standard test on thin element

Airport new Runway platform.
Figure 7: Test on slab element for Haneda.
For the design of thick elements (h 3Lf) the following procedure is advised: Cast and notch a
prism. Perform a flexural test. Conduct inverse analysis to determine a post-cracking stress
crack width (-w) relation. Correct this relation derived from this test as to integrate size and
boundary effects associated with the specimen shape and casting method. Weight this law with
a reduction coefficient 1/K representing the difference between a flexural test result for a cast
prism and what is obtained on prisms sawn from an actual structural element. To determine an
exact factor K for the particular application considered, make components that are
representative for the actual geometry and manufacturing method used for the structure, and
take specimens along the directions of principal stress.
For the stress-crack width relations and the stressstrain relations in tension, a bilinear
descending curve is foreseen. Also in this case a harmonized implementation in structural
design recommendations for conventional structural concrete are developed.
The table of contents for the fib TG 8.6 Recommendation for UHPFRC (draft version 2011) is
given below:
1.
2.
3.
Scope
Terminology and notations
Basis of design
2.1 General
2.2 Performance based design principles (SLS, ULS, Service Life, Sustainability)
2.3 Reliability
2.4 Quality control and management
57
4.
Material properties
4.1 Material components for UHPFRC mix design
4.2 Behaviour in compression
4.3 Behaviour in tension
4.4 Behaviour under multi-axial loading conditions
4.5 Behaviour under dynamic loads
4.6 Time dependant effects
4.7 Temperature effects
4.8 Durability
4.9 Interface properties
5. Design
5.1 General requirements
5.2 Safety concept
5.3 Structural analysis
5.4 Stress strain relationships for UHPFRC
6. Design for structural safety (ULS)
6.1 Bending with and without normal force
6.2 Shear
6.3 Torsion
6.4 Punching
6.5 Design with strut and tie models
6.6 Design of interfaces in hybrid structures
6.7 Fitting technology
7. Design for serviceability (ULS)
7.1 Crack width control
7.2 Deformation
8. Detailing
8.1 Anchorage of reinforcing bars and prestressing strands and wires
8.2 Splices
8.3 Bar spacing
8.4 Allowable bending radius in reinforcing steel
8.5 Cover
9. Construction and quality management
10. References
5 Conclusions
International recommendations for UHPFRC are in a far state of development. In the fib Model
Code for Concrete Structures 2010 a general method is given, valid for all types of fibre
concrete, valid from C20 to C200. Simplified expressions are given which allow designers to
use fibres as reinforcement in a way they are familiar with.
The fib task group TG 8.6 writes a recommendation especially for UHPFRC, which is a
tailored approach in order to take, on the one hand, notice of the particularities of this material
and take, on the other hand, full advantage of its superior mechanical and physical properties.
References
[1] fib Model Code for Concrete Structures: First complete draft. fib Bulletins 55 and 56, March 2010,
International Federation of Concrete Structures, Lausanne.
58
Surendra P. Shah1, Shiho Kawashima1, Pengkun Hou1,2, David Corr1
1: Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Northwestern University, Evanston, IL, USA
2: College of Materials Science and Engineering, Chongqing University, Chongqing, P.R. China
This paper is a summary of recent work on the application of nanoparticles in cement-based materials.
Through proper processing, nanoparticles can enhance many properties of concrete. Small additions of
nanoclays can increase the fresh-state stiffness of self-consolidating concrete (SCC) with little
compromise to initial flowability. Such properties make applications such as reduced SCC formwork
pressure and slipform paving possible to increase efficiency in construction. Nanoparticles such as
nanoSiO2 and nanoCaCO3 can accelerate rate of hydration and improve the early-age mechanical
properties of cementitious materials, including those with fly ash to lead to a more environmentallyfriendly material. The future potential of concrete as a smart material will be discussed, as well. Carbon
nanotubes can introduce piezoresistivy to concrete, making it a self-sensing material, and TiO2
nanoparticles can introduce self-healing and smog-eating capabilities through photocatalysis.
Keywords: nanomodification, nanoparticles, clays, nanoSiO2, nanoCaCO3, carbon nanotubes, TiO2
1 Introduction
Due to the recent innovations in nanotechnology, nanomodification and nanocharacterization of
cement-based materials has generated much research interest. The focus of this paper is on
nanomodification: the manipulation of the structure at the nanoscale (less than 100nm) to
develop cement composites that exhibit enhanced properties. Among the types of nanoparticles
that have been studied are ZnO2 [1], TiO2 [2], CaCO3 [3,4], clays [5], SiO2 [6] and carbon
nanotubes [7].
This paper is a summary of the current work being done on the application of nanoparticles
in cementitious systems, highlighting those performed at the Center for Advanced CementBased Materials at Northwestern University (ACBM-NU). Small additions of nanoclays can
significantly increase the fresh-state stiffness of self-consolidating concrete (SCC) with little
compromise to initial flowability. Such properties make it possible to increase efficiency
construction in applications such as reduced SCC formwork pressure and slipform paving.
Through filler and/or seeding effects, nanoparticles can accelerate rate of hydration and
improve early-age mechanical properties of cementitious materials, including those with fly ash
to lead to a more environmentally-friendly material. The influence of the method of dispersion of
nanoCaCO3 powder for this application will be evaluated. And an in-depth study on the
mechanisms underlying the influence of nanoSiO2 on the compressive strength gain of fly ashcement systems will be explained.
Nanomodification can introduce novel properties and functions, as well. The future potential
of nanomodification in making concrete a smart material will be discussed. Carbon nanotubes
can introduce piezoresistivity to concrete and make it a self-sensing material, and TiO2
nanoparticles can introduce self-healing and smog-eating capabilities through photocatalysis.
2 Highly thixotropic clay-modified cementitious materials

Work at ACBM has demonstrated that through proper proportioning of fly ash, superplasticizers,
and a small addition of clays (<1% by mass of binder), it is possible to design an SCC mix that
experiences high flowability during casting and high green strength immediately after placement
[8-11]. Such properties can effectively reduce SCC formwork pressure. Fig. 1 shows the results
of a study where a lab-scale formwork pressure device was used to simulate casting by
59
applying a vertical pressure and measure the lateral pressure of SCC over time [12]. Although
both mixes had a slump flow of 60 2cm, it is apparent that the SCC with a 0.33% nanoclay
addition (NC0.33) exhibited significantly reduced lateral pressure compared to the SCC without
nanoclays (NC0). (The nanoclay was a purified magnesium aluminosilicate with a rod-like
shape 1.75 m in length, 3nm in diameter). This behavior has been tied to flocculation, where
studies have shown that clays increase flocculation strength [13] and floc size [14].
Figure 1: Formwork pressure response of SCC with (NC0.33) and without (NC0) 0.33% nanoclay addition [12].
In the most recent study, the contribution of water adsorption by the clays on stiffening was
examined through a shear rheological approach. The nanoclays have a high water adsorption
of 200% by mass, making it a possible governing factor. The water content of cement pastes
with and without a 1% nanoclay addition were adjusted for clay water adsorption. The mix
compositions are given in Table 1. Each mix was subjected to a constant applied shear rate of
300 s-1 for 60 min, during which the viscosity was recorded. Tests were performed in a
temperature controlled rheometer, set at room temperature, with a coaxial cylinder geometry.
Table 1: Mix composition of pastes (200% water adsorption by mass assumed).
Mix
Cement (g)
Water (g)
Nanoclay (g)
NC0
500
215
NC1
500
217.6
NC1H
500
227.6
NC0H
500
205
Fig. 2a shows the viscosity evolution up to 5min, during which each mix reached equilibrium. If
the loss of free water by clay water adsorption is a governing stiffening mechanism, mixes NC0
and NC1H and mixes NC1 and NC0H should exhibit similar viscosity evolutions. However, it is
apparent that the viscosities of these mixes did not coincide adjusting water content was not
sufficient in negating the effect of the clays on stiffening. Also, both mixes with clays exhibited a
significant decrease in viscosity upon the introduction of shear due to deflocculation. This
shows that the clays had an immediate stiffening effect through flocculation, resulting in a highly
thixotropic material.
After equilibrium, at which the flocs cannot be broken down any further under the given shear
condition, each paste goes on to experience a similar increase in viscosity, as shown in Fig. 2b
the change in viscosity from equilibrium to final (60min) is 0.18 0.001Pa-s for all mixes. This
60
Application of Nanoparticles HIPERMAT Keynote paper
indicates that although the clays have an immediate stiffening effect, they have little or no
influence over time under a given constant shear condition.
a)
b)
Figure 2: Viscosity evolution of cement pastes a) before and b) after equilibrium.
3 Potential of nanomodification to facilitate cement replacement with fly ash

The use of fly ash in concrete introduces many advantages, namely increase in workability and
later-age strength, and reduction in carbon footprint. However, its delayed rate of hydration,
setting, and low early-age strength gain are major drawbacks. The potential of nanomodification
as a strategy facilitate the use of fly ash is demonstrated in the following studies.
Nano-CaCO3
Although limestone powder is typically considered to be inert, recent studies have found that
they can accelerate rate of hydration when introduced as nanoparticles. However, few in-depth
studies have been done thus far [3,4]. This study focuses on processing, where dry nanoCaCO3
powder is dispersed through ultrasonication. Through effective dispersion, the motivation is to
enhance the effect of the nanoparticles and to decrease the addition level.
The effect of sonicated versus blended nanoCaCO3 on rate of hydration, setting time, and
early-age compressive strength gain were compared in ordinary Portland cement (OPC) and
type F fly ash-OPC pastes. NanoCaCO3 was sonicated for 30 min in an aqueous solution at
15% concentration with a 0.06% polycarboxylate superplasticizer addition by weight of water.
Blended suspensions were prepared in a household blender for 3min. The nanoCaCO3 had a
particle size range of 15-40nm but were agglomerated to the micron scale as-received.
The rate of hydration of OPC pastes with and without a 5% nanoCaCO3 addition, measured
through semi-adiabatic calorimetry, are shown in Fig. 3. It is apparent that for both samples with
a nanoCaCO3 addition, there is an acceleration in rate of hydration. However, the effect is much
more pronounced for the sonicated sample, where the peak is much higher and occurs earlier.
The setting time of 50% fly ash-OPC pastes and a plain OPC paste are shown in Fig. 4a. In
both blended and sonicated samples, the addition of 5% nanoCaCO3 helped accelerate setting.
Further, the sonicated nanoCaCO3 completely offset the delay caused by the 50% fly ash
replacement, where it exhibited the same setting times as the plain OPC paste sample.
The compressive strength gain (1, 3, 7d) of 50mm cube samples of plain OPC paste and
30% fly ash-OPC pastes with and without a 5% nanoCaCO3 addition are shown in Fig. 4b. At 3
and 7d, the sonicated sample showed a greater improvement than the blended sample.
61
Figure 3: Rate of hydration of OPC pastes (w/c =0.4) with 5% nanoCaCO3 addition,blended versus sonicated.
a)
b)
Figure 4: a) Setting time of 50%FA-OPC pastes (w/b = 0.4) and b) compressive strength gain of 30%FA-OPC
pastes (w/b = 0.43) with and without a blended (B) or sonicated (S) 5% nanoCaCO3 (nLS) addition
NanoSIO2
With the incorporation of nanoSiO2, the strength gain of cement-based materials can be
improved due to its hydration seeding effect and high pozzolanic activity [15-18], which result in
a higher amount of C-S-H gel and more densified bulk structure [19]. When considering the
enhancing effect of nanoSiO2 on strength gain, most studies thus far have focused on the earlyage strength gain [17,20] and only a few contradicting results have been reported for the laterage strength development [21,22]. Thus, their effect on the later-age mechanical properties
needs further investigation.
The compressive strength evolution of CNS-added cement-fly ash mortars is shown in Fig. 5.
For the 40% fly ash-cement mortar, the addition of CNS significantly increased the strength gain
early on. However, the enhancing effect decreased over time after 3 months the strength of
CNS-added mortar was equal to (CNS-20nm mortar) or less than (CNS-10nm mortar) the
control fly ash-cement mortar. This implies that nanoSiO2 has no positive effect on the strength
gain of fly ash replaced cement-based material at later ages. To determine why, the hydration
and morphology of CNS-modified fly ash-cement systems were closely examined.
Ca(OH)2 content
For fly ash replaced cement-based materials, calcium hydroxide (CH) generated by cement
hydration is critical for later-age pozzolanic reaction. It can be seen in Fig. 6 that CNS addition
has a great influence on the CH content of fly ash-cement paste. At each age, the CH content
of the 5% CNS-10nm paste was lower than that of the 0% CNS paste. This is due to the
additional pozzolanic reaction by the CNS. Also, more CH was consumed in the 0% CNS paste
62
at later ages (28d-56d), indicating further pozzolanic reaction of fly ash. Although it has been
reported that nanoSiO2 is beneficial for the hydration of fly ash in the early age [22], a lack of
CH prohibits the hydration of fly ash in the later age and is likely a contributing factor to the
reduced rate in long-term compressive strength gain of CNS-modified fly ash cement mortar.
Figure 5: Effect of CNS on the compressive strength of fly ash mortar
Figure 6: Ca(OH)2 content vs. time (CNS-10nm)
a) 0%CNS
b) 5%CNS-10nm
Figure 7: Interface of cement paste and fly ash particle (7 month old) with a) 0% CNS and b) 5%CNS-10nm
Morphology
The effect of nanoSiO2 on the hydration of fly ash particles and its interface with cement paste
after 7 months is shown in Fig. 7. It is apparent that the fly ash particles in the control paste are
severely eroded and an abundance of hydration products can be found coating the fly ash
63
particle surface. This implies that a high degree of pozzolanic reaction had occurred. For the
CNS-added fly ash paste, the fly ash particles are smoother and featureless, indicating less
pozzolanic activity. A distinct difference in morphology can be seen at the interface of the fly
ash particle and cement paste between the two samples. For 0% CNS paste, the hydrates
covering the fly ash surface are well-compacted rods and grains, which is typical for hydration
products of mature cement pastes. However, for 5% CNS-10nm paste, there is a double-layer
shell structure coating the fly ash particle. A close examination of the double-layer shell reveals
that it is composed of an outer layer of finely compacted grains and a fibrous inner layer. The
EDS results at 15 different areas of the compacted shell structure revealed an average Ca/Si
ratio of 1.38, which is smaller than that of the adjacent C-S-H gel of 1.66. It has been reported
that C-S-H gel with a low Ca/Si ratio is less permeable [23]. Thus, it can be deduced that the
outer layer of compacted hydrates, which is formed by the pozzolanic reaction of CNS and CH,
acts as an ion penetration barrier that hinders the hydration of fly ash particles. The inner
fibrous hydrates can be formed by the pozzolanic reaction of fly ash.
4 Future of nanomodified concrete as a smart material

TiO2 nanoparticles
Through photocatalysis, TiO2 particles can introduce smog-eating capabilities to concrete and
increase its environmental friendliness [24-26]. The reaction can introduce self-cleaning
capabilities, as well, by helping to prevent bacteria and dust from sticking to the surface of the
material TIO2 was used for the construction of the Jubilee Chruch (Rome, Italy) to keep its
appearance white. More recently, it has been found that when introduced as nanoparticles, TiO2
can help accelerate rate of hydration and improve compressive strength through filler effects. In
a study by Jayapalyan et al., the rate of hydration of OPC pastes with nanoTiO2 was found to
be faster than OPC pastes with microTiO2 [2,27]. Other work has observed some improvement
in the compressive and flexural strength of concrete with nanoTiO2 additions, as well [28,29].
Such work demonstrates the possibility of a nanoTiO2-modified cement composites with
depolluting, self-cleaning capabilities and enhanced mechanical properties.
Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) and carbon nanofibers (CNFs)
The ability of CNTs and CNFs to control cracks at the nanoscale, induced by both flexure and
autogenous shrinkage, brings researchers closer to achieving a crack-free cement composite.
Konsta et al. demonstrated that highly-dispersed CNTs can significantly improve the flexural
strength of cement pastes at dosages as low as 0.025%, Fig. 8 [7,30]. Other studies have found
similar results [31-33]. And 0.048% CNT/CNF additions can lead to a substantial reduction in
the autogenous shrinkage of low w/c ratio cement pastes (w/c = 0.3), Fig 9 [30]. In addition to
having superior mechanical properties, CNTs are highly conductive and when subjected to
stress/strain, their electrical properties change and express a linear, reversible piezoresistive
response. Studies have demonstrated the potential of CNTs to introduce piezoresistivity to
concrete [34-36]. Such properties can make applications such as health monitoring of concrete
structures, damage evaluation and traffic monitoring possible. With proper processing, CNTreinforced cement composites can exhibit not only superior mechanical properties but also selfsensing capabilities.
64
Figure 8: Flexural strength of highly-dispersed CNT-reinforced cement composites [30].
Figure 9: Autogenous shrinkage of highly-dispersed CNT-reinforced cement composites (w/c = 0.3) [30].
5 Conclusions
This paper is a summary of recent work on the application of nanoparticles in cementitious
materials. Clays can help manipulate the properties of SCC to improve constructability. Welldispersed nanoCaCO3 can enhance various early-age properties of fly ash-cement systems.
NanoSiO2 improves the early-age compressive strength of fly ash-cement materials but reduces
the rate of later-age strength gain, due to their high CH consumption in the early age and the
formation of a less-permeable gel coating on the fly ash particle surface, both of which can limit
the hydration of fly ash. Although these studies demonstrate the potential of nanoparticles to
enhance the properties of cement-based materials, continued investigation is needed. Similarly,
more research can lead to the development of smart concrete, where nanomodification
introduces novel properties and functions. TiO2 nanoparticles can improve mechanical
properties while exhibiting depolluting and self-cleaning capabilities. And CNT-reinforced
cement composites can potentially become a crack-free, self-sensing material.
Acknowledgements
The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support from both the Infrastructure
Technology Institute at Northwestern University and Tennessee Valley Authority (TVA) and Oak
Ridge Associated Universities (ORAU) (Award 105866). The third author would also like to
thank the financial support from the China Scholarship Council.
65
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67
68
Part Two
NANOTECHNOLOGY
69
70

Ehsan Ghafari1, Hugo Costa2, Eduardo Jlio3, Antnio Portugal4, Luisa Dures4
1:
2:
3:
4:
ICIST & DEC - University of Coimbra, Portugal

ICIST & DEC ISEC - Polytechnic Institute of Coimbra, Portugal
ICIST& DECivil IST-Technical University of Lisbon, Portugal
Dept. of Chemical Engineering, University of Coimbra, Portugal
Ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) is characterised by a dense microstructure, which presents

both ultra-high compressive strength and ultra-high durability. Due to the growing interest in using nanosized materials, the experimental study herein presented was conducted aiming to evaluate the influence
of nano-SiO2 addition on both mechanical and fluid transport properties of UHPC. The porosity and other
parameters were assessed through different transport mechanisms and techniques. Mercury intrusion
porosimetry (MIP) was performed to characterize the size distribution of capillary pores in the specimens
matrix. Moreover, the microstructures of the specimens were analysed by scanning electron microscopy
(SEM). Results point out that the incorporation of nano-SiO2 leads to a denser microstructure of UHPC,
resulting in an enhancement of both mechanical and durability properties .
Keywords: UHPC, nano-SiO2, transport properties
1 Introduction
Ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) is one of the most promising types of concrete, which
has been developed in the last decade. The efficiency of UHPC is particularly dependent on its
density. This can be maximized by optimizing the particle packing, thus resulting in ultra-high
consolidation of the concrete matrix. The optimized particle packing can be obtained through an
almost perfect grain size distribution, by incorporating a homogeneous gradient of fi ne and
coarse particles in the mixture. In this scope, the use of nanomaterials, as pozzolanic additions,
is highly effective. In fact, due to their extremely small size, nanomaterials can fill the voids
between cement and silica fume particles, leading to higher packing level and also generating a
denser binding matrix, with more calcium silicate hydrate (C-S-H). Thus, this causes a
significant improvement on both durability and mechanical properties of concrete. In the
following paragraph, conclusions from previous studies on this subject are presented.
Qing et al. [1] reported that the pozzolanic activity of nano-SiO2 is much higher than that of
silica fume. It was concluded that the bond strength of the paste-to-aggregate interface,
incorporating nano-SiO2, is higher than that of specimens with silica fume. Ji [2] also reported
that nano-SiO2 has pozzolanic effect, which can react with Ca(OH)2 crystals, making the
interfacial transition zone (ITZ), between the aggregates and the binding paste matrix, denser.
Li et al. [3] showed that both the compressive and flexural strengths of concrete can be
enhanced by incorporating nano-SiO2 and nano-Fe2O3. A concrete with addition of silica fume,
fly ash and nano-silica was studied by Collepardi et al [4]. It was concluded that concrete with
this ternary combination has a better performance, in terms of both strength and durability, than
those just with fly ash, but similar to those just with silica fume. Li [5] showed that the
pozzolanic activity of fly ash significantly increased after incorporating nano-SiO2. Li [5] also
found that an addition of nano-SiO2 resulted in an increase of both early-age strength and longterm strength. Moreover, the incorporation of nanomaterials also proved to improve the
durability. He et al. [6] studied the chloride permeability and microstructure of Portland cement
mortar with four different types of nanomaterials. This study confirmed that an addition of nanoSiO2 and nano-clay significantly improved the chloride penetration resistance as well as the
general ionic permeability of cementitious mortar. An experimental study performed by Ji [2]
71
showed that the addition of nano-SiO2 to the mixture improved the water permeability
resistance of concrete. The higher specific surface area of the nano-SiO2 implies an increase in
water demand of concrete mixture, which can somewhat affects the workability. However,
Collepardi et al [7] studied the properties of self-compacting concrete with nano-SiO2 and found
out that the presence of nano-SiO2 makes the mixture more cohesive and reduces bleeding
water and segregation, which finally improves the rheological behaviour of concrete in fresh
state.
The present study aims to give a contribution in this field. In this scope, the mechanical
properties of several UHPC mixtures were characterized, namely by measuring the
compressive and flexural strengths. The evaluation of the fluid transport properties of concrete
specimens, including the water absorption under vacuum, capillary water absorption, and water
absorption by immersion, were also performed. Mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP) tests were
conducted to characterize the size distribution of capillary pores in the specimens. Moreover,
the microstructures of the samples were analysed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM).
2 Experimental study
Materials and mixture proportion
The following main constituents were used to prepare the UHPC mixtures: ordinary Portland
cement type I:52.5 R, silica fume (SF), quartz flour (P600), used as a micro filler (particle sizes
less than 10 m), siliceous sand, with maximum aggregate size of 0.6 mm, polycarboxylate
ether based superplasticizers (SP), and two types of nano-SiO2. The properties of nanoparticles
are shown in Table 2. The SEM images of nano-SiO2 particles are presented in Fig.1.
Figure 1: SEM micrograph of nano-SiO2 particles with (left) and without (right) carbon coating.
From Fig. 1, it can be seen that both particles present a spherical shape. The particle coating
is the main difference between the two types of nano-SiO2 used in this study. One type of nanoSiO2 particle was coated with a thin layer of carbon (NSC), which enables the particle to be
dispersed easier in the mixture, while the other type was non-coated (NS). The mixture
procedure involved several steps. First, in order to prevent agglomeration and also to promote
uniform distribution of very fine particles, all powder and siliceous sand were mixed dry for 5
minutes at low speed. The Incorporation of dry nano-SiO2 was not possible, since the particles
were dispersed in the air due to its very low density. Therefore, the nano-SiO2 was first
dissolved in water, with the superplasticizer already diluted, and then gradually added to the
mixture. After 5 minutes, the mixtures became fluid. After mixing, the concrete was poured in a
mold and, 24 hours later, it was demolded. Then, the specimens were cured in water at 20 C
until the day of the test. The two types of nano-SiO2 were incorporated as a cement
replacement by 5 wt %. The large difference between the density of nano-SiO2 and cement
resulted in an increase in the paste volume. The total content of powder was kept in volumetric
72
constant. In addition, the water/powder ratio was kept constant for all mixtures and the dosage
of SP was then adjusted for each mixture, in order to achieve the same consistency. Table 1
shows two series of mixtures, prepared with nano-SiO2, and a reference mixture without nanoSiO2.
Table 1: Proportion of UHPC mixture (by weight).
Materials
Mixture
UHPC
UHPC-NSC
UHPC-NS
cement
1.00
1.00
1.00
sand
1.40
1.40
1.40
silica fume
0.25
0.25
0.25
quartz flour
0.30
0.30
0.30
water
0.27
0.27
0.27
SP
0.03
0.05
0.03
nano-SiO2
0.00
0.05
0.05
Experimental test
The axial compressive strength and flexural strength tests were performed at 7 and 28 days of
age, using cubic (404040 mm3) and prismatic (4040160 mm3) specimens, respectively.
The water sorptivity tests were performed according to the ASTM C-1585 standard [8]. At 28
days of age, three specimens, with standard dimensions of 100 mm diameter and 5 mm height
were prepared. After that, the concrete specimens were dried in the oven, at 105 C, until a
constant mass was achieved, following the dry procedure described in ASTM C 642 06 [9].
The specimens were sealed and placed on the support at the bottom of the board container.
The water level was maintained 1 to 3 mm above the top of the support device. The mass
increase of the specimens was measured at several times (0, 5, 10, 20, 30, 60, 180, 360, 1440
min), then the sorptivity coefficient was measured using expression (1):
I=A+Kt
(1)
where K [mm/s1/2] is the water sorptivity coefficient, I [mm 3] is the total volume of water
absorbed, A [cm2] is the area of the specimen surface exposed to water. The initial rate of water
absorption (mm/s) is dened as the slope of the line that best ts to I, plotted against the square
root of time (s1/2). The initial slope of the straight line is taken as the water absorption
coefficient.
Table 2: Properties of nano-SiO2.
Formula
Colour
Purity
Crystal Phase
Morphology
Bulk density
BET
SiO2(NS)
White
>98.0 (%)
Amorphous
Spherical
0.05
64(m2.g-1)
SiO2(NSC)
Grey
>98.0(%)
Amorphous
Spherical
0.06
57(m2.g-1)
The absorption of water was measured by immersion under vacuum of concrete specimens ,
using a test method similar to the one described in RILEM CPC-13 [10], which allows the
calculation of a permeable porosity. For each mixture, three specimens with a diameter of
100 mm and a thickness of 50 mm were cut and dried to constant mass (<0.1% mass change
within 24 h) at (105 5 C). The specimens were then placed, for at least 24 h, under 1 bar of
vacuum pressure in a desiccator, which was filled with distilled water. The porosity was
measured using expression (2).
73
P=
(2)
in which P is the vacuum saturation porosity (%), M1 is the weight of oven-dried specimen, and
M2 and M3 stand for the mass under water and for the water saturated mass (after vacuum
saturation), respectively.
Water absorptions of specimens were measured also by immersion procedure, according to
the ASTM C-642 standard [9]. After conditioning the specimens to 105 5 C (mass A), the
specimen was soaked until a constant mass in water (mass B) was reached. The water
absorption corresponds to the difference in mass, expressed as a percentage of the mass of
the dry specimen. Thus, the absorption after immersion, in %, is given by expression (3):
(B-A)/ (A) x100
(3)
The volume of permeable voids (VPV), expressed as a percentage of the volume of the solid,
was determined according to ASTM C-642 standard [9]. In this procedure, after boiling the
specimens for 5 hours, these were allowed to cool with natural loss of heat for 14 hours until a
final temperature of 20 to 25C was reached. Then, the moisture of the specimens surface was
removed with a towel and the mass of the specimen was determined (mass C). Placing the
specimen suspended in water, the apparent mass in water was determined (mass D). The
volume of permeable voids is then obtained from expression (4):
VPV %=[( C A) / (C D)] x100
(4)
3 Results and discussion
160
18
140
16
Flexural Strenght (MPa)
Compressive Strenght (MPa)
Compressive and flexural strengths

The average values of compressive strength at 7 and 28 days are shown, for all the specimens,
in Fig.2. It can be seen that the addition of nano-SiO2 significantly increased the early-age
compressive strength. The higher compressive strength might be due to larger specific surface
area of nanoparticles, which can react more quickly with Ca (OH) 2, making the microstructure
denser. At the age of 28 days, the highest compressive strength was obtained for the UHPCNS. The effect of nano-SiO2 coated with carbon was not as effective as not-coated silica, which
may result from the fact that this coating reduces the activity of nanoparticle. From Fig. 3, it can
be observed that the flexural strength was enhanced by incorporating nano-SiO2, at the ages of
7 and 28 days.
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
7 Days
28 Days
UHPC
105
135
UHPC-NSC
98
129
Figure 2: Compressive strength.
UHPC-NS
117
143
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
7 Days
28 Days
UHPC
UHPC-NSC
UHPC-NS
7.7
14
8.3
13.8
9.9
16
Figure 3: Flexural strength.
Transport properties
Most aspects of concrete durability are directly related with its porous structure, since capillary
pores are responsible for fluids migration in the concrete matrix. Different mechanisms of liquid
transport in the concrete were evaluated in this study. The results obtained for water absorption
and for volume of permeable voids (VPV) are presented in Table 3. Both types of nano-SiO2
74
were found to be effective in reducing the volume of permeable voids as well as water
absorption. It can be seen that an addition of nano-SiO2 (NS) reduced VPV in 21 % and water
absorption in 36 %. Table 3 also presents the results concerning the sorptivity coefficient and
the porosity measured by vacuum saturation. The UHPC-NS specimen gave the lowest value of
porosity (2.12%). This can be due to the discontinuity of capillary pores by formation of more CS-H gel.
Table 3. Transport properties of UHPC mixtures.
Water absorption
Sorptivity Test
Vacuum
MIP Test
absorption* VPV* Sorptivity Coef.** Porosity* Total porosity* Capillary Pores*

UHPC
1.212
2.91
0.044
3.11
6.35
2.65
UHPC-NSC
1.110
2.75
0.041
2.94
4.74
2.56
0.808
2.28
0.038
2.12
4.3
1.72
UHPC-NS
*
Percent (%) ;
**
In unit Kg/m /h
0.5
In addition, the nano-sized particle acted as filler in the mixture design of UHPC, leading to an
improvement in the pore structure. The sorptivity coefficients of all specimens were determined
after 24 hours. The very low sorptivity coefficient of 0.044 (Kg/m 2/h0.5) was obtained for the
UHPC-NS mixtures, 14 % lower than the reference mixture coefficient. In Fig. 4, the water
absorption versus the square root of time is plotted for all mixtures.
0.5
Water Absorption ( Kg/m2)
0.45
0.4
0.35
0.3
0.25
0.2
UHPC
0.15
UHPC-NS
UHPC-NSC
0.1
0.05
0
0
10
12
14
16
time t ( h 0.5)
Figure 4: Water absorption of UHPC mixtures.
Table 4 presents two different regression equations, determined for the time 6 h before and the
time 24 h after. A nonlinear correlation was used in the first case, while a linear correlation was
determined for second one.
The pore size distribution of UHPC specimens is shown in Fig.5. Both MIP plots of UHPC
containing NS and NSC stand slightly below the UHPC, particularly in the range 0.3-20 m.
Results show that pore structures of UHPC-NS and UHPC-NSC are finer than those of UHPC.
All the specimens have much more pores ranging from 0.01 m to 0.05 m which correspond to
the gel pores [11]. The incorporation of nano-SiO2 resulted in a slightly lower amount of
capillary pores. The UHPC-NS showed the lowest value of the capillary pores (1.7 vol.-%)
which is 35% lower than the capillary pores content of UHPC mixture. The amount of total pore
volume and capillary pores is also presented in Table 3.
Table 4. Regression equations for water absorption, of UHPC mixtures, before 6h and after 24h.
75
UHPC
UHPC-NSC
UHPC-NS
Regression 6h
Wa (t0.5)
Regression > 24 h
Wa (t0.5)
correlation
coefficient
Wa (t0.5) = -0.0365.t2 + 0.1718.t + 0.0365
Wa (t0.5) = 0.0209.t + 0.1633
R = 0.99
0.5
Wa (t ) = -0.0299.t + 0.1456.t + 0.0313

0.5
0.5
R = 0.99
0.5
R = 0.99
Wa (t ) = 0.0196.t + 0.1422
Wa (t ) = -0.0115.t + 0.0817.t + 0.045
Wa (t ) = 0.0178.t + 0.1272
The results obtained with the MIP test, presented in Fig. 5, are in good agreement with the
porosity value measured by absorption under vacuum saturation method.
0.08
0.07
dV/dlogD (ml/g)
0.06
0.05
0.04
UHPC
0.03
UHPC-NS
0.02
UHPC-NSC
0.01
0
0.001
0.01
0.1
10
100
1000
Diameter (m)
Figure 5: Mercury intrusion porosimetry results.
The microstructures of the specimens were analysed by scanning electron microscopy (SEM).
Figures 6.(a) and 6.(b) show an overview of the microstructure of UHPC-NSC and UHPC using
the same magnification. In general, the analysis of all images did not reveal any substantial
differences in the microstructure of all specimens. However, it should be noted that the
incorporation of nano-SiO2 led to a further densification in the microstructure and to a
concurrent reduction in capillary porosity of concrete mixtures. The SEM observation on the
cement paste matrix, containing nano-SiO2, revealed that the extreme fine particles of nanoSiO2 acted not only as a filler, but also as an effective pozzolanic material to react with
Ca (OH)2 crystals, resulting in the formation of an additional C-S-H gel (Fig. 6(c)).
It is well know that portlandite, an oxide mineral, has a detrimental effect on bond strength of
aggregates-paste [2], which causes a significant reduction in mechanical properties. Results
showed that nano-SiO2 can effectively reduce the amount of portlandite, leading to a denser
microstructure of interfacial transition zone (ITZ), between aggregate and paste. Fig. 6(d)
shows a perfect bond adhesion between the binding paste and the aggregates in UHPC-NS
specimens.
76
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Figure 6: SEM micrograph of UHPC mixtures at age of 28 days: (a) microstructure of UHPC-NS;
(b) microstructure of UHPC ; (c) formation of C-S-H gel in the cement and NS paste ; (d) interfacial
transition zone (ITZ) microstructure between aggregate and paste in UHPC-NS specimen.
4 Conclusions
The effect of two types of nano-SiO2 on the mechanical and water transport properties of UHPC
was studied. The experimental results pointed out that the incorporation of nano-SiO2 leads to a
denser microstructure resulting in an enhancement of both mechanical and durability properties.
MIP measurements revealed that the pore structure of UHPC can be effectively refined by
adding nano-SiO2. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) proved that nano-SiO2 can also
efficiently improve the microstructure of the interfacial transition zone (ITZ) between the
aggregates and the binding paste.
5 Acknowledgement
The authors thank the financial support of the Portuguese Science and Technology Foundation
(FCT) for the project PTDC/ECM/098497/2008 entitled Intelligent Super Skin (ISS).
References
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nano-SiO2. Cement and Concrete Research 2005. 35: p. 1943 1947.
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77
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
Conference on Fly Ash, Silica Fume, Slag and Natural Pozzolans in Concrete. 2004. Las Vegas,
USA.
Li, G., Properties of high-volume fly ash concrete incorporating nano-SiO2. Cement and Concrete
Research 2004. 34 p. 10431049.
Shi, X.H.a.X., Chloride Permeability and Microstructure of Portland Cement Mortars Incorporating
Nanomaterials. Journal of the Transportation Research Board,, 2008: p. 13-21.
Collepardi, M., Ogoumah-Olagot, J.J., Skarp, U., Troli, R. Influence of Amorphous Colloidal Silica on
the Properties of Self-Compacting Concretes, . in Proceedings of the International
ConferenceChallenges in Concrete Construction , Innovations and Developments in Concrete
Materials and Construction,. 2002. Dundee, UK.
ASTM, Standard Test Method for Measurement of Rate of Absorption of Water by HydraulicCement
Concretes. 2004.
ASTM, Standard Test Method for Density, Absorption, and Voids in Hardened Concrete 97.
RILEM TC 14-CPC, C., Absorption of water by immersion under vacuum. Materials and Structures
1984(17 ): p. 391394.
78
UHPC Containing Nanoparticles Synthesized by Sol-gel

Method
Genady Shakhmenko 1, Aleksandrs Korjakins 1, Patricija Kara1, Janis Justs1, Inna
Juhnevica2
1: Institute of Materials and Constructions, Riga Technical University, Latvia
2: Institute of Silicate Materials, Riga Technical University, Latvia
Sol-gel technology is an alternative method for producing nanoparticles. This paper deals with preparing
UHPC mixes by using amorphous silicium dioxide nanoparticles specially synthesized by applying the
sol-gel method. Grading of used micro and nano components was carried out by Dynamic Light
Scattering (DLS) method. The studied micro and nanoparticles have dimensions in the range from 30 to
600 nm. Proportions of filler components were selected by taking into account optimal packing models.
Experimental part of research includes preparation of the mix containing traditional UHPC ingredients
(Portland cement, quartz filler, silica fume) and nanoparticles synthesized by sol-gel technology in
amount up to 1% of cement. Influence of nanoparticles on concrete properties was studied.
Mineralogical composition of UHPC matrix was examined by X-ray method. After summarizing the
results it may be concluded that incorporation of the small amount of nano sized silicium dioxide
nanoparticles synthesized by sol-gel technology slightly decreases compressive strength in early
hardening period (7 days in normal conditions) and increases strength after intensive curing (+90 C for
3 days).
Keywords: UHPC, nanoparticle, sol-gel method
1 Introduction
It is necessary to ensure ultra-dense particle packing at macrostructure and microstructure
levels in order to obtain the UHPC concrete. The concrete mix particles should be within a wide
range of particle size distribution. Ground mineral materials and amorphous silica fume (as
pozzolanic admixture) are normally used as micro fillers. Particle size of the commercially used
silica fume is in range of 0.1 1 m. A new generation of UHPC concrete provides the use of
special nano sized amorphous nanoscale pozzolanic particles [1, 2] with the dimensions less
than 100 nm. Nano silica allows achieving more dense structural packing and better physical
and mechanical properties. Nowadays, pyrogenic nano silica products as an effective filling
agent are commercially available.
Sol-gel technology is an alternative method for production of silica nanoparticles. The first
silica sol-gel synthesis carried by J.J. Ebelmens was described 150 years ago. He proved that
silicon esters are slowly hydrolyzed in the presence of hydrated silica. The term "sol-gel
process" refers to chemical reactions between the colloidal particles and/or connections
between the polymers in solution leading to a gelatine type structures. The liquid phase (or
solvent) is removed by drying thereby obtaining a porous dry gel or xerogel, which can be
sintered to a dense amorphous (or crystalline) solid. Metal alcoxides, which easily react with
water, are often used as reagents for sol-gel chemistry. Silicate alcoxides, such as
tetramethoxysilane (TMOS) and tetraethoxysilane (TEOS), are most widely used, as well as
liquid glass - sodium hydrous. Sol-gel process is also used for other additives which provide
the possibility to obtain particles with the required composition and structure [3, 4]. Sol-Gel
synthesis is the chemical method carried out at a moderate temperature and by using
moderate reagents. The method is based on molecular synthesis of nanoparticles [5]. The
scheme of the used sintering method is shown in Figure 1. The synthesis of oxide
nanoparticles in aqueous is based on the hydrolytic ion condensation process that leads to
79
formation of extremely small primary particles. The further aging process in nanodispersed
system leads to a sol - gel or settlings formation.
Change of aging conditions (temperature, pH, constituent relations, their concentrations,
etc.) allows regulating the phase compositions, created nanoparticle size and shape within a
wide range [6].
2 Used Materials, Mix Composition and Methods

Raw Materials
Experimental UHPC concrete mixtures were produced by using commercially available binding
agents, pozzolanic admixtures and local mineral fillers.
White, rapid hardening Portland cement CEM I 52.5 R was used as a binding agent.
Undensified commercial silica fume product (SF) Elkem microsilica 971U was used as
pozzolanic micro filler. Nanosilica (NS1) applied in reference mix is a high-purity pyrogenic
silica industrial product in the form of powder with a high specific surface of 50 m2/g.
Other silica materials were specially synthesized in the laboratory in accordance with the
scheme shown in Figure 1. NS2 is synthesized non-calcined nano silica. NS3 material was
calcined at the temperature 500oC and additionally ground for 1 hour in a laboratory ball mill.
NS4 material was calcined at the temperature 650C and additionally ground for 1 hour. The
last type of nanosilica NS4 was used in the form of sol (silicon dioxide particle concentration
25%). Nanosilica materials were incorporated in concrete as water suspension by mixing with
water and superplasticiser. Characteristics of used pozzolanic materials are summarized in
Table 1. Micro and nanoparticle size distribution were determined in water environment by the
Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS) method, using Brookhaven Instrument (USA). Grading
diagrams of used fillers and cement are shown in Figure 2.
C2H5OH +H2O
NH3
sonification 10
min
TEOS
sonification 2 h
TEOS+C2H5OH +H2O
sonification 5 h
SiO2 settlings
Drying 80C/24h
Calcination 2h
Aglomerate grinding
Figure 1: Method of synthesizing SiO2 nanoparticle.
80
Table 1: Characteristics of cement, micro and nanosilica.
Parameter
CEM I 52.5 R
SF
NS1
NS2
NS3
NS4
<1
Loss of ignition
<1
0.8
<0.01
<1
<1
Particle effective
diameter
1-50
<1
0.184
0.099
0.600
Density
kg/m
3150
2200
2200
2200
2200
2200
Bulk density
kg/m
1100
200
100
100-150
150-200
150-200
SiO2 content
>97
99.9
99.9
99.9
99.9
Calcination temp.
500
650
Three types of local fractionated quartz sand (fractions 0/0.5 mm, 0.3/0.8 mm and 0/0.3 mm as
micro filler) act as mineral aggregate fillers. The content of quartz is about 97%.
100
90
70
Particle volume, %
80
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0.01
0.1
Particle size, m
10
100
1000
CEM I 52.5 R
Quartz 0.3/0.8
Quartz 0/0.5
Quartz 0/0.3
SF
Fuler's IDEAL
Real mix
NS1
NS2
NS3
Figure 2: Particle size distribution.
Mix composition
Typical fine graded UHPC mix composition was selected as the basic (reference) mix.
Proportions of the components are the same for all mixes, while the types of nanosilica vary.
Cement content is 950 kg per cubic meter and nanosilica content of 10 kg/m 3 was assumed.
Concrete mix compositions are summarized in Table 2. Water content and water/cement ratio
(0.19) are kept constant for all mixes. The first mix (SF) was prepared without nanosilica (the
corresponding amount was replaced by the additional content of microsilica). The second mix
NS1 contains standard commercial nanosilica. The rest mixes were prepared by using specially
synthesized nanosilica (NS2, NS3, NS4 and NS5 correspondingly).
81
Table 2: UHPC concrete mix compositions (kg/m3).
Materials
SF
NS1
NS2
NS3
NS4
NS5
Portland cement CEM I 52.5 R

Quartz sand 0.3/0.8 mm
Quartz sand 0/0.5 mm
Quartz filler 0/0.3 mm
Silica fume 971U
Nanosilica Elkem
Nanosilica NS2 (non-calcined)
Nanosilica NS3 (500C)
Nanosilica NS4 (650C)
Nanosilica NS5 (sol)
Superplasticiser
Steel fibre 13 mm/0.16 mm
Water
Mix properties:
Cylinder flow, mm
950
470
200
340
150
30
30
180
950
470
200
340
140
10
30
30
180
950
470
200
340
140
10
30
30
180
950
470
200
340
140
10
30
30
180
950
470
200
340
140
10
30
30
180
950
470
200
340
140
10
30
30
180
220
223
200
208
230
255
Concrete density, kg/m 3:
2400
2390
2370
2370
2370
2360
Methods
Concrete compositions were mixed in the high speed paddle mixer according to the following
procedure: dry components were mixed for 1 minute, 2/3 of water amount was added and
mixed for 1 minute. During the second step of mixing the remaining water was incorporated
together with superplasticiser and nanosilica suspension. This mixing method was applied to
achieve a more effective usage of the superplasticiser (otherwise superplasticiser can be
absorbed by the dry aggregate thus reducing the plasticising effect). The mixing time was
determined with the purpose to provide a homogenous mixture (approximately for 5 min).
Mix flowability was determined by means of cylinder flow test. Cylinder with the internal
diameter 50 mm and height 100 mm was filled with UHPC concrete mix and lifted up. The
diameter of the cylinder flow was measured after 1 minute.
Concrete cube specimens (10x10x10 cm) were made by using steel moulds. There were
prepared 6 specimens for each composition. The specimens were cured in the water
environment. The compressive strength was determined in accordance with the standard [7] at
the age of 7 days in normal curing conditions (+20oC), then additionally in accelerated curing
conditions (in 90oC hot water) for 3 days. Thus, the curing time of the specimen series are 7
and 10 days accordingly.
X-Ray analysis was carried out for hardened specimens by using the equipment with Rigaku
Optima Plus diffractometer with Cu K.
3 Results and discussions

It should be stressed that addition of nano silica into the mix has no particular effect on the
flowability of the mix (Tab. 2); at the same time, mixes with nano silica were more plastic and
homogeneous. The mixture with not calcined sol-gel nano silica N2 was with the lowest
consistency.
Compressive strength results within the age of 7 days of the mixes with only silica fume and
standard nano silica (NS1) were similar. The results for the mixes with nano silica that was
synthesized by sol-gel method were even slightly lower.
It should be noted that the specimens with sol-gel nano silica were also marked by lower
density (Table 2). It can be explained by insignificant air entraining effect, which can be caused
82
by residue of some organic solvents from sol-gel process. The lower strength results were
registered by the mix NS5 containing nano silica sol. The mix had the highest cylinder flow
(hence the amount of water could be reduced). Weak influence of this nanosilica sol may be
explained by considerable amount of organic solvents.
After intensification of the hardening process (aging in hot water for 3 days) the results were
completely different. Mixes with calcined sol-gel nano silica showed more increase in strength
compared to the reference configurations SF and NS1. The highest result was for the mix with
nano silica calcined at 500 C. The hardening effect of these compositions may be explained
by activation of the pozzolanic reactions between silica and calcium hydroxide. Superdisperse
particles of sol-gel nanosilica could be as initiating centres of formation of new concrete
minerals.
It must be emphasized that statistically proved effect of nano particles cannot be discussed
taking into account the values of standard deviation. In spite of obtained tendencies of strength
development, the differences between strength results are low (within 5%). In order to obtain
objective results it is necessary to conduct further research with more amounts of nanoparticles
as well as number of specimens.
200
104.1
100
136.6
138.8
171.4
176.6
138.7
170.1
170.3
141.0
120
145.5
140
162.2
160
145.4
Compressive strength, MPa
180
80
60
40
20
0
SF
NS1
NS2
7 days
NS3
NS4
NS5
7 days + 3 days 90 C
Figure 3: Compressive strength results.
X-Ray analysis was carried out for 3 mixes containing standard nanosilica (NS1), not calcined
nanosilica (NS2) and calcined in 500C nanosilica (NS3). Obtained results (Fig. 4) do not
indicate any significant difference in mineralogical composition among those 3 specimens. The
following minerals were recorded in the course of analysis of X-Ray diagrams. One of them is
Quartz, which is the main component of aggregate. Minerals Hatrurite (also is known as Alite)
and Larnite (also is known as Belite) are non-hydrated part of cement. The last recorded
mineral is Portlandite (calcium hydrate) is the products of cement hardening. It should be
mentioned that X-Ray analysis indicates only minerals in crystalline form while amorphous
phases of material are not visible. It is possible to obtain more detailed results by using other
methods of examination, for example SEM-microscopy.
83
Figure 4: X-Ray analysis results (above: NS3, on the middle: NS2, below: NS1).
4 Conclusions
The effect of incorporation of nano silica particles synthesized by sol-gel method in UHPC mix
has been examined in this study. Experimental results indicate that strength for mixes with
synthesized nano silica was even slightly lower compared to the reference mix based on
standard micro and nano silica in the early age concrete. It was found that mixes with sol-gel
nano silica after accelerated hardening in hot water showed slightly increase in strength of up
to 4 % compared to the reference mix. The highest result was achieved for the mix with
calcined nano silica at 500C. The hardening effect can be explained by activation of
pozzolanic reactions between nanosilica and calcium hydroxide. It must be emphasised that
effect of adding nano-particles, obtained by sol-gel method, is insignificant since strength
characteristic of concrete mix differs only by some per cents (about 3-5 %). Ranges of standard
deviation are overlap.
Synthesized nano silica produced by the sol-gel method may have some benefits compared to
standard micro and nano silica:
1) the regulation of the parameters of sol-gel process makes it possible to provide the
definite particle sizes in accordance with required the grading composition (thus, it becomes
possible to achieve the optimum particle packing);
2) sol-gel technology can be implemented in a simple way since this process does not
require very high temperatures compared to traditional pyrogenic nanosilica.
Initial investigation showed positive impact of non-traditional synthesised nano admixture by sol
gel method. In further studies it is worthwhile: 1) to synthesize particles with defined sizes; 2)
to solve the problem of nano particles uniform dispersion and, 3) to perform detailed
examination of microstructure and mineralogical composition of concrete specimens.
84
5 Acknowledgement
The financial support of the ERAF project Nr. 2010/0286/2DP/2.1.1.1.0/10/APIA/VIAA/033
High efficiency nanoconcretes is acknowledged.
References
[1] Korpa A., Reinhard T.: Ultra high performance cement-based composites with advanced properties
containing nanoscale pozzolans. Proc. of the Second International Symposium on Ultra high
performance concrete, Kassel, Germany, March 05-07, 2008, pp. 391-400.
[2] Ramezanianpour M., Moravej Jahromi M., Elmaili R.: Mechanical properties and durability of
concrete incorporating nanosilica. Proc. of the 8th International Symposium on Utilization of HighStrength and High-Performance Concrete, Japan, 2008, pp. 252-256.
[3] Fallet M., Madhdjoub H., Gautier B., Bauer J.P.: Electrochemical behavior of ceramic sol-gel
coatings on mild steel. Non-Cryst. Solids, 2001, 293, pp. 527533.
[4] Meinskis G.: Sola-gla tehnoloijas attstba un perspektvas Latvij. Latvijas mijas urnls,
1997, 2, pp. 7281 (in Latvian).
[5] Silvia S.C.: Nanoparticles, and a method of sol-gel processing. Pat. EP 1971550 (24.09.2008).
[6] Popovs V.V., Shabanovs N.A., Sarkisov P.D.: Nanodispersal oxides chemistry and technology,
Moscow, Akademkniga, 2007, pp. 309 (in Russian).
[7] LVS EN 12390-3:2002. Testing hardened concrete - Part 3: Compressive strength of test
specimens. Riga, 2002. pp. 16.
85
86
Cavitation Treatment of Nano and Micro Filler and Its Effect

on the Properties of UHPC
Janis Justs1, Genady Shakhmenko1, Viktors Mironovs2, Patricija Kara1
1: Institute of Materials and Constructions, Riga Technical University, Latvia
2: Institute of Building Production, Riga Technical University, Latvia
The effect of cavitation treatment of micro and nano fillers in relation to ultra-high performance concrete
(UHPC) was investigated in this paper. Specially designed and patented apparatus was applied to create
turbulent flow and employ hydrodynamic cavitation process as a tool for silica fume micro and nano
particle agglomerate disaggregation and surface activation. Silica fume/water slurry at the ratio 1 : 2 was
subjected to the impact of the hydrodynamic cavitation process.
UHPC mixes with optimized particle packing were designed in order to evaluate effect of specially treated
silica fume on the mechanical properties of the UHPC. Due to the cavitation treatment the agglomerates
disaggregated into nano and micro particles and uniform suspension in water was obtained and
incorporated into the UHPC mix.
Keywords: UHPC, microsilica dispersion, cavitation
1 Introduction
Pozzolanic additives are used in the concrete production to enhance mechanical properties and
durability of the material. Silica fume, metakaolin, rice husk ash and nanosilica are some of the
additives that can be beneficial and improve performance of the concrete. As pozzolanic
additive particle sizes normally are less than those of cement (average silica fume particle size
is around 0.15 m), pozzolans in concrete can have dual effect to improve physical particle
packing and to react chemically with calcium hydroxide forming calcium silicate-hydrates [1].
However, sometimes desired effect is not reached due to the fact that smaller particles have
increased surface energy and during the storage time aggregate more easily to secondary
particles, having sizes on the order of hundreds of micrometres. It is not possible to break such
agglomerates in conventional mixing process due to the low shear forces. As agglomerates can
be bigger than cement particles, packing of the mix is not improved and chemical reaction is
hindered due to the reduced active surface area of pozzolan. Moreover undispersed silica fume
agglomerates can react as alkalisilica reactive aggregates in concrete [2] (See Figure 1).
Cavitation
treatment
of
pozzolanic
materials before concrete mixing is proposed
in this paper in order to disaggregate
agglomerated particles and therefore reach
better particle dispersion in concrete mixture.
A novel hydrodynamic dispersion method for
fine particles was developed and patented in
Germany (patent number 20 2007 914 913.1),
Latvia (patent number 13592), Russia (patent
number 2297876) and EU (patent application
number P-11-67).
Hydrodynamic cavitation phenomena occur
if the fast flowing liquid (e.g. water)
encounters obstacles in its way. In some
Figure 1: Silica fume agglomerate causing
alkali-silica reaction [2].
areas of disturbed flow continuity of water is
broken and rapid pressure drop below the
87
water vapour pressure is encountered. Vapour cavities in the water are created. Source of
cavitation nuclei is gas that is dissolved in the water. If the liquid pressure exterior to a bubble
will be lower than the saturated vapour pressure, the nucleus will be activated and the radius of
the bubble will increase. The increase of the liquid pressure results in the cavitation bubble
collapse. Cavitation bubbles collapse violently generating either the micro-jets or shock
pressure waves featured by high velocities, pressures and temperatures [3]. The temperature
inside the cavitation bubble during collapse can reach 5075 K, but such extreme temperature
exists for the very short time [4; 5]. Impacts of shock pressure waves and micro-jets are the
source of the noise and the material damage. The impulse pressure might reach the pressure of
approximately 1 GPa and impact velocity of 1000 m/s [6].
Cavitation is specifically avoided in the design of machines such as turbines or propellers
because of possible damage risk. However, in this study it proved to be beneficial as a tool for
silica fume agglomerate disjoining.
2 Materials and methods

Traditionally there are two types of UHPC mixtures - coarse grained with maximum aggregate
size 4-8 mm and fine grained with maximum aggregate size 1-2 mm. To evaluate effect of silica
fume cavitation treatment, fine-grained UHPC mixture was designed. Materials used in this
study were the following:
cement CEM I 52,5 R UHPC;
silica fume;
nanosilica;
quartz sand 0 0.3 mm;
quartz sand 0.3 0.8 mm;
quartz sand 0 1 mm;
polycarboxylat based superplasticizer;
steel fibers =0.6mm L= 13 mm;
water.
The chemical composition of cementitious materials is presented in Table 1.
Table 1: Chemical composition of cementitious materials.
SiO2
Al2O3
Fe2O3
CaO
SO3
MgO
Na2O
CEM I 52.5R
25%
2.1%
3%
69%
2.3%
0.7%
0.2%
Silica fume
97.5%
0.4%
0.1%
0.2%
0.1%
0.1%
0.1%
Nanosilica
99.9%
Specially designed and patented apparatus was applied to create turbulent flow and employ
hydrodynamic cavitation process as a tool for silica fume micro and nano particle agglomerate
disaggregation and surface activation (Figures 2, 3) [7].
88
Figure 2: Setup for silica fume dispersion

using cavitation phenomena. 1. reservoir,
2. cavitation chamber, 3. engine,
4. frequency converter.
Figure 3: Silica fume suspension preparation scheme.

1. reservoir, 2. tube, 3. dispenser, 4. dispergator, 5. pipe.
The setup consists of four main components:

1) Cavitation chamber where high speed flow is created and cavitation phenomena occurs
2) The reservoir, where materials can be added and collected after treatment.
3) The electrical engine.
4) Frequency converter to adjust engine speed and choose most effective working regime.
The slurry was produced by adding silica fume and water in proportions 1:10 and 1:2. The
volume of slurry was 3 liters and it was processed for 10 minutes. Device speed was 6000 rpm.
The concrete mixing procedure was organised in a following way: all dry materials were
mixed for 1 minute in the high speed paddle mixer. Then silica fume slurry and 70% of total
water amount were added. After 2 minutes of mixing rest of water and superplasticizer was
added and mixing was continued for 5 minutes.
Mix consistency was determined by cylinder flow test. Cylinder with the internal diameter of
50 mm and height of 100 mm was filled with UHPC concrete mix and lifted up. The diameter of
the flow was measured after 1 minute.
Specimens with dimensions 100x100x100 mm were cast and stored in climatic chamber
(t=20C, RH=90%) At the age of 1 day specimens were demoulded and stored in water bath
(t=20C). Specimens were tested according to standard [7] at the age of 7 days. The second
testing was performed at the age of 12 days. Accelerated curing conditions (t=90C) were
applied for last 48 hours. Five concrete mixtures were produced. All mixtures had cement
content of 950 kg/m3. Two mixtures with silica fume content of 20 kg/m 3 were produced. One of
them was reference mix (REF-1) without cavitation treatment and for second (CAV-1) cavitation
treatment was applied. Three other mixtures had silica fume content of 100 kg/m 3. First was
reference mix (REF-2) without treatment, second (CAV-2) was treated by cavitation and third
(CAVNS-2) additionally to cavitation treatment had nanosilica addition 1% of cement mass.
Prepared concrete mix compositions and cone flow values are summarized in the Table 2.
89
Table 2: UHPC mix compositions and cone flow values.
Materials
REF1
CAV-1
REF-2
CAV-2
CAVNS-2
Portland cement CEM I 52.5

R
950
950
950
950
950
Quartz sand 0.3/0.8 mm
470
470
470
470
470
200
200
200
200
200
Quartz filler 0/0.3 mm
400
400
340
340
340
Silica fume 971U
20
20
100
100
100
Nanosilica Elkem
9.5
Superplasticizer
25
25
25
25
25
Steel fibre 13 mm/0.16 mm
20
20
20
20
20
Water
200
200
200
200
200
Cavitation:
10 min
10 min
10 min
Cone flow, mm
226
260
260
250
255
Concrete density, kg/m 3:
2285
2285
2365
2365
2374.5

The effect of cavitation treatment first can be evaluated visually. For untreated silica fume
suspension larger agglomerates can be noticed even without microscope, while for processed
suspension without microscope no visible particles are found. If untreated suspension
(manually mixed) and cavitation treated suspension (silica fume/water ratio 1 : 10) is left
undisturbed in the clear vessel, segregation can be observed for untreated suspension after 15
minutes, while processed suspension does not show any segregation (see Figure 4a). After
two hours both suspensions are segregated (Figure 4b). And for untreated suspension large
agglomerates are visible (Figure 4c).
a)
b)
c)
Figure 4: a) Suspension segregation after 15 minutes. Left untreated, right - cavitation treated. b)
Suspension segregation after 2 hours. Left untreated, right - cavitation treated. c) Agglomerates in untreated
slurry after 2 hours.
Consistency was measured by means of cylinder flow test (see Figure 5). Results (see Table 2)
have shown that cylinder flow increase from 226 to 260 mm after silica fume treatment for
mixes with silica fume content of 20 kg/m 3. Reason could be better particle packing (that
reduces necessary water amount and improves flowability of mixture. For mixes with silica
90
fume content of 100 kg/m 3 after cavitation treatment cylinder flow decreased from 260 to 255
and 250 mm. This effect could be explained by significantly increased silica fume surface area
after agglomerate disaggregation that absorbs extra water and reduces flowability.
Compressive strength was tested at the age of 7 days (normal curing) and 12 days (10 days
normal curing and 48 hours accelerated curing at the temperature of 90C). For the mixtures
with silica fume content 20 kg/m 3 results (see Figure 6) show compressive strength increase of
6% at the age of 7 days in normal curing regime and 4% increase at the age of 12 days in
accelerated curing regime compared to those of reference mix.
Figure 5: Cylinder flow test. Mix REF-1 (on the left), Mix CAV-1 (on the right).
Figure 6: Compressive strength results for mix with silica fume content 20 kg/m 3..
Mixture with silica fume content 100 kg/m 3 show similar strength increase after silica fume
cavitation treatment (see Figure 7). At the age of 7 days compressive strength increase is 4%
and at the age of 12 days 5%. Mixture with the nanosilica addition shows best performance
with the strength increase of 9% at the age of 7 and 12 days and reaches compressive strength
of 164.5 MPa.
5
91
Figure 7: Compressive strength results for mix with silica fume content 100 kg/m 3.
4 Conclusions
Cavitation treatment of silica fume with the aim of agglomerate disaggregating and surface
activating proved to be simple, fast and effective way to improve UHPC properties. Average
compressive strength increase for both normal and accelerated curing was 5%. In case of
nanosilica addition compressive strength increased for 9%. Also risk of alkali silica reaction
due to silica fume agglomerates was minimized. Silica fume suspension in water (ratio 1:10)
after cavitation treatment has shown higher stability. Cylinder flow value for higher silica fume
amount decreased due to the higher cavitation treated particle surface area that can absorb
more water.
The cavitation treatment apparatus can be easily upscaled for the purposes of industrial use.
5 Acknowledgement
The financial support of the ERAF project Nr. 2010/0286/2DP/2.1.1.1.0/10/APIA/VIAA/033
High efficiency nanoconcretes is acknowledged.
References
[1] Goldman A; Bentur A: Effects of pozzolanic and non-reactive fillers on the transition zone of high
strength concrete. International Symposium on Interfaces in cementitious composites. Toulouse,
1992, Proceedings, E&FN SPON, London pp. 5362, 1993.
[2] Mser B; Pfeifer C: Microstructure and Durability of Ultra-High Performance Concrete. Proceedings of
the Second International Symposium on Ultra High Performance Concrete Kassel, Germany March
05-07, 2008.
[3] Krella A. K: The new parameter to assess cavitation erosion resistance of hard PVD coatings.
Engineering Failure Analysis 18 p. 855867 (2011),
[4] Knapp R.T; Daily J.W; Hammit F.G: Cavitation. New York: McGraw-Hill; 1970.
[5] Suslick K.S; Mdleleni M.M; Ries J.T: Chemistry induced by hydrodynamic cavitation. J Am. Chem.
Soc.,119:93034, 1997.
[6] Bourne N.:. On the collapse of cavities. Shock Waves;11:44755, 2002.
[7] LV 14364 B Int.cl.C01B33/00 RTU, 20.10.2011. Auth. V.Mironovs, A.Polakovs, A.Korjakins: Method
and apparatus for suspension preparation.
[8] LVS EN 12390-3:2002. Testing of hardened concrete - Part 3: Compressive strength of test
specimens. Riga, 2002. pp. 16.
92

Gerrit Land, Dietmar Stephan
Dept. of Civil Engineering, Building Materials and Construction Chemistry, Technische Universitt Berlin, Germany
Nanoparticles are known to have an influence on the kinetics of cement hydration. Therefore they have
the potential to substitute conventional setting and hardening accelerators and their undesired side
effects. There are two different approaches for nanoparticles as accelerators for cement hydration. Either
stimulation of the nucleation processes during early cement hydration by nanoparticle addition or
redundantize nucleation processes by direct addition of the nuclei to the cement paste. We have chosen
one typical material for each method, nanosilica respectively C-S-H-seeds, to follow and compare their
effect on the kinetics of cement hydration and the properties of the hardened cement paste. While
nanosilica was found to be a hardening accelerator, C-S-H-seeds accelerate setting and hardening.
Furthermore both kinds of nanoparticles result in enhanced mechanical properties of the hardened
cement paste.
Keywords: nano-silica, nucleation seeding, cement hydration
1 Introduction
Within the last decade significant progress has been made in technologies for production of
nanoparticles. Today a wide variety of nanoparticles of different materials, sizes or shapes can
be produced in large quantities. Therefore these particles get more and more in focus for the
use in construction materials, especially those who have a similar chemical composition as
materials that are already common in construction. Nanosilica was one of the first nanomaterial
that was used in cementitious systems and a lot of methods for the synthesis of nanosilica are
known [1]. But also nanoparticles made of Al2O3, Fe2O3, TiO2 or ZrO2 were studied [26]. A
large variety of effects was found when nanosilica is added to cementitious materials:
Filler effect [7]
Acceleration of cement hydration [8]
Formation of additional C-S-H- by pozzolanic reaction [9]
Denser microstructure [10]
Higher compressive strength [11]
Lower permeability [12]
Reduced calcium leaching [13]
Another type of nanobased accelerators for cement hydration is C-S-H-seeds. In contrast to
nanosilica and other nanoparticles they are not added to stimulate nucleation processes but to
supersede the time-consuming nucleation processes because the seeds already are the nuclei
for further crystal growth [14]. Significant acceleration effects could be found when C-S-H-seeds
were added to pure C 3S or ordinary Portland cement [15] resulting in higher compressive
strengths and denser microstructures [16]
The model on the influence of nanoparticles on cement hydration
Thomas et al. [17] introduced a model to describe the effects that occur when nanosilica or C-SH-seeds are added to C3S. They assume that in the case of nanosilica addition an early
pozzolanic reaction with calcium hydroxide from C 3S hydration at the particles surface covers
the particles with C-S-H-nuclei. In the middle period of cement hydration [18] these nuclei start
to grow and form the C-S-H-gel as the main hydration product. Due to the early pozzolanic
reaction of the silica particles more C-S-H-nuclei are present when this period of hydration
starts resulting in an acceleration of the hydration processes (predominantly C 3S-hydration) in
93
this period. When C-S-H-nuclei are directly added to the cement paste as a seeding additive,
nucleation reactions that form C-S-H-nuclei are not essential anymore and the added nuclei can
instantly grow to form C-S-H-phases.
In pure cement lime the formation of C-S-H-gel is limited on the cement grain surface
wherefrom it grows into the pore space. In contrast to this the model assumes that the C-S-Hgel may also be formed onto the nanoparticles, which are spread over the pore space as
showed in figure 1. Therefore the cement paste should show a faster compressive strength
development and less porosity when compared to pure hydrated cement.
Figure 1: hydration of pure cement (A) and with addition of nanosilica (B) or C-S-H-seeds (C) at different times
after mixing (1-3) according to [19].
If the assumption that the accelerating effects of nanosilica is based on an early pozzolanic
reaction of the silica surface, the magnitude of the acceleration should depend on the total
surface area of the added silica particles. Therefore we followed the accelerating effects of
nanosilica of different size and dosage on the cement hydration. Furthermore commercial C -SH-seeds were tested and compared to the nanosilica to evaluate which type of accelerating
nanoparticles has the largest potential to substitute conventional accelerators for cement
hydration.
Experimental procedure
White cement (Dyckerhoff white, CEM I 42.5 R) was used in all experiments. Nanosilica
particles of four different sizes were used in the experiments. The larger ones (295 nm and 86
nm in diameter) were synthesized by the Stber-method [19, 20] using tetraethyl orthosilicate
(TES28, Wacker Chemie) as a precursor in an Ethanol/Ammonia solution. Furthermore the
addition of commercial nanosilica particles of 18 nm (Kstrosol 1530) and 7 nm (Kstrosol
0730, both Chemiewerke Kstritz) in diameter was followed. X-Seed 100 (BASF) was used for
experiments with C-S-H-seeds.
94
For heat flow calorimetry 4g of cement and a water-cement ratio of 0.5 were used. The
nanoparticles were dispersed in the water before mixing. All samples were mixed for 90
seconds and then were put into the calorimeter (MC-CAL, C3 Prozess- und Analysentechnik).
The hydration heat was followed for 7 days at 36C (nanosilica) or 20C (C-S-H-seeds) and was
ensured by double determination.
Compressive strength tests were done on 222 cm cubes using a Z150 (Zwick/Roell) and
were ensured by repeat determination (3x). The cubes were demoulded one day after mixing
and then were stored at 20C and 65% RH.
In the remains of compressive strength testing the hydration reactions were stopped by
freeze drying. For SEM-pictures (XL30, Philips) pieces of this were sputtered with gold.
For mercury intrusion porosimetry (Poremaster 60GT, Quantachrome Instruments) the
following classification of pores was used: gel pores 1-10nm, capillary pore 10nm-10m, air
voids >10m.

As mentioned above the model by Thomas et al. assume that the accelerating effect of
nanosilica on the cement hydration is based on a reaction of the silica surface. Therefore the
acceleration should be the more pronounced the larger the total surface area of the added
particles is. Basically this total surface can be either controlled by the dosage of nanosilica in
relation to the cement weight or by the addition of smaller particles that have mu ch larger
surfaces in relation to their weight.
Figure 2: Calorimetry of cement at 36 C when 5 wt.% of nanosilica are added (left) or different dosages of the
7nm nanosilica (right).
The effect of different particle sizes on the cement hydration is shown on the left side of figure 2
where 5 wt.% of nanosilica were added to the cement paste. The particles have diameters from
256nm down to 7nm and surface areas of 17m2/g up to 285m2/g. While the first intense heat
output right after mixing cant be shown, since the samples were mixed outside the calorimeter,
just the middle period of hydration is presented. There is a significant increase of hydration heat
of the first peak (primarily C3S-hydration) which can be determined when nanosilica is added. At
the same time the second peak which is allocated to the formation of sulfate-type AFm shows a
shift to earlier times. Both effects show a direct correlation to the particles diameters and
surface areas respectively. Similar effects can be observed when the nanosilica dosage in the
cement paste is changed instead of the particles diameter. This is shown on the right side in
figure 2. The larger the nanosilica dosage is the more the thermal power during the middle
period of cement hydration increases. The results indicate that there is a direct dependency of
the nanosilica surface area and the magnitude of cement hydration acceleration. Whether this is
an effect of an early pozzolanic reaction as described in the model or rather is caused by other
95
effects like the adsorption of ions from pore solution on the highly charged particles surface,
cannot be answered here.
When C-S-H-nanoparticles are added to the cement paste instead of nanosilica, the first
maximum of hydration heat in the middle period of cement hydration increases as it did under
nanosilica addition. At the same time the maximum shifts to earlier times with increasing C-S-Hseed dosages. As seen in the case of nanosilica addition the maximum caused by the formation
of sulphate type AFm also shifts in time with increasing C-S-H-seed addition (figure 3).
Figure 3: Acceleration of cement hydration by addition of C-S-H-seeds in different dosages.
All the results of the calorimetry are in accordance to the model described above. The larger the
amount of nuclei, either by addition of C-S-H-seeds or by the formation on the silica surface, the
higher the heat output during the middle period of hydration is, because all the nuclei can grow
simultaneously to form the C-S-H-phase. In the case of C-S-H-nuclei addition the middle period
also starts earlier, because the time consuming nucleation processes became redundant so
that the dormant period before C3S hydration shortens significantly the more C-S-H-seeds are
present.
The acceleration of cement hydration which was found in the calorimetry should also result in
faster development of the mechanical properties of the hardened cement pastes. The results of
the compressive strength tests are shown in figure 4, where 5 wt.% of nanoparticles were
added. In all samples the compressive strength was increased by nanoparticle addition. While
samples with larger nanosilica particles doubles the compressive strength, when compared to
pure cement paste, the smallest nanosilica results in a tripled and C-S-H-seeds in a quadrupled
compressive strength after one day. After 3, 7 and 28 days the three larger silica particles still
slightly enhance compressive strengths. At the same time samples with the smallest nanosilica
show the best performance and even outperform the C-S-H-nanoparticles. Unlike the one-day
results this improved strength development is not conform to the described hydration model, but
we assume that it is a result of pozzolanic reaction of silica particles. Thereby additional C -S-Hphase is formed, giving additional compressive strength and less porosity. The 7nm particles
might be more accessible for this reaction than the larger nanosilica particles because of a
significantly increasing solubility of silicic acid in colloidal silica of sizes below 10 nm [21]. This
is confirmed by a higher total heat of hydration after 7 days of the samples containing 7nm silica
when compared to pure cement or C-S-H-seed addition.
96
Figure 4: Compressive strength development within the first 28 days with 5 wt.% of nanoparticles added to the
paste.
The results of the compressive strength test are also confirmed by mercury intrusion
porosimetry, which is shown in table 1. In all samples containing nanoparticles the capillary
porosity decreases for the benefit of gel pores, when compared to pure hardened cement paste.
The results for 7nm silica and the C-S-H-particles hardly do not differ from each other. While CS-H-seeds reduce capillary porosity slightly better after one day, it is reversed after 28 days.
Since gel pores are unavoidable in hardened cement paste and have little effect on the
mechanical properties of it (unlike capillary pores), the reduction of capillary porosity is a
positive side effect of nanoparticle accelerators.
Table 1: Porosity of hardened cement paste compared to cement pastes with 5 wt.% nanoparticles added.
Sample
days
Reference
Nanosilica 7nm
C-S-H-seeds
28
28
28
air voids [vol.%]
0.85
1.59
1.13
0.98
1.28
1.16
capillary pores [vol.%]
37.42
21.06
25.49
12.37
23.62
13.87
gel pores [vol.%]
9.02
12.19
13.18
18.96
14.98
17.69
The acceleration of cement hydration causes larger amounts of hydration phases at a certain
time after mixing and therefore reduces capillary porosity of the hardened paste at this time.
Furthermore the particles themselves may fill voids between the cement grains and the
formation of hydration phases may take place on the particles in the pore space, whereby the
pore space is faster filled out with the hydrated phases. SEM picture of four one-day old
samples are shown in figure 6. Only little differences between pure cement and a sample
containing 295nm silica can be seen (top left and right). The cement grains are covered with
short C-S-H needles and long Ettringite needles which bridge the pore space. However cement
paste containing 7nm nanosilica (bottom left) has a much denser structure and most of the pore
space is already filled with hydration phase. This is even more pronounced in samples
containing C-S-H-seeds. The structure of the hardened cement paste is very dense. Ettringite-
97
needles are not visible anymore because they are either overgrown by C-S-H-phase or are not
formed in the typical needle-like shape.
Figure 5: SEM Image of cement stone after 1 day of cement hydration of pure white cement (top left) and with
respectively 5 wt.% of nanosilica 295 nm (top right), nanosilica 7 nm (bottom left) and C-S-H-seeds (bottom
right).
4 Conclusions
Two different ways of accelerating cement hydration by nanoparticles were explained, the
addition of seeds or the addition of nucleation stimulating particles. The accelerating potentia l of
C-S-H-seeds and nanosilica as typical representatives for one of these ways were respectively
investigated. Nanosilica was found to be a hardening accelerator and it was shown that the
acceleration is substantially dependent on the total surface area of the added particles. C-S-Hseeds, on the other hand, are both setting and hardening accelerators. They manifold early
strength development when compared to pure cement but are outperformed by the nanosilica in
late strength because of additional C-S-H-formation by pozzolanic reaction. Both nanoparticles
reduce the capillary porosity of the hardened cement paste and result in much denser
structures. Also here C-S-H-seeds show better performance during the early hydration while
nanosilica give better results in the long term.
98
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Al2O3 nanoparticles. Journal of American Science 6;2010(4):947.
[4] Nazari A, Riahi S, Riahi S, Shamekhi SF, Khademno A. The effects of incorporation Fe2O3
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[5] Nazari A, Riahi S, Riahi S, Shamekhi SF, Khademno A. An investigation on the Strength and
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[6] Campillo I, Guerrero A, Dolado JS, Porro A, Ibanez J, Goni S. Improvement of initial mechanical
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for beneficial calciumsilicatehydrate formation in cement. Chemical Physics Letters 2004;392(13):2428.
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American Concrete Institute Special Publication 2009; p. 87100.
[10] Korpa A, Trettin R. Nanoscale pozzolans for improving ultra high performance cementitious binders.
Cement International 2007;5(1):7483.
[11] Shih J, Chang T, Hsiao T. Effect of nanosilica on characterization of Portaland cement composite.
Materials science & Engineering A 2006;424:26674.
[12] Ji T. Preliminary study on the water permeability and microstructure of concrete incorporating nanoSiO2. Cement and Concrete Research 2005;35(10):19437.
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Anwendungsspektren von Erhrtungsbeschleunigern. BWI 2011(05):4650.
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99
100
Using Atomic Force Microscopy to Evaluate

Superplasticizers
Christoph Glotzbach1, Dietmar Stephan2, Michael Schmidt1
1: Dept. of Structural Materials and Construction Chemistry, University of Kassel, Germany
2: Berlin Institute of Technology, Germany
Recent concretes like UHPC can comprise large quantities of fines to fill the voids between coarser
particles like the cement and displace water which positively influences the flowability. Together with a
very low water-binder ratio of about 0.20, the density of the formed matrix prevents the migration of
corrosive agents like chloride ions and results in compressive and tensile strength that supersedes that
of traditional concrete by far. As the rheological properties of these fresh concretes depend mainly on the
forces acting between the fines due to their high specific surface area, understanding of these forces has
become crucial. At the University of Kassel, atomic force microscopy technique of colloidal probes have
been used to study these forces, focusing on silica because these exhibit the largest fraction of inner
surface in common UHPC mixtures. During these measurements, two individual silica particles were
submerged in electrolyte solutions with added superplasticizer where they were approached and
retracted from each other. The sum of the resulting forces that act between the particles while they were
close could be measured with an accuracy of few nano-Newton. Using this technique and silica particles
as a model system, several commercial superplasticizers could be evaluated regarding their influence on
the interparticle forces and the range of interaction.
Keywords: aggregation, silica fume, surfactant, rheology, atomic force microscopy
1 Introduction
The rheological properties of highly concentrated suspensions are governed by the direct
interaction of their particles. Under given boundary conditions, increased attractive forces
between the particles lead to a higher viscosity and hinder the flowability of the paste.
Regarding ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC), many of its raw materials have been
characterized and the influence of their properties on flowability has been studied. While the
effects of interparticle forces are usually visualized macroscopically by spread value and
flowability, it is necessary to find more direct means to measure the acting forces in order to
understand the basic mechanisms involved in the flow of cementitious pastes.
Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) has now been used for two decades to study the forces
between surfaces. Crystalline silicon dioxide surfaces belong to the most widely studied AFM
samples as they are inert against a wide variety of conditions and as such permit easy handling
of the samples. On the other hand, silica surfaces exhibit the largest surface in UHPC mortars.
As can be seen in Table 1 [1], esp. silica fume, while only constituting about 6 wt.-% of all the
solid materials in the mortar, is responsible for about 85 % of the surface of the solids. The
interactions of these fines dominate the rheological behavior of the mortar at large. Because of
this, we have focused our research on silica surfaces.
In our experiments, we have approached two spherical particles in a closed cell flooded with
different additive solutions. The forces acting between the particles could be measured in a fluid
environment that could be adapted to simulate a real mortar.
The flow behavior of suspensions like concrete depends mainly on the forces that act
between individual particles. A wide range of superplasticizers has come to use in the recent
decades which help disperse the particles by overcoming adhesive forces, and ease tangential
movement of the particles by hindering contact between them. Understanding how these
polymers adsorb onto different material surfaces and change the adhesive forces is therefore
101
important. It is understood that modern polycarboxylate esters mainly act via steric repulsion.
Though limited to silica surfaces for the time being, our method allows analyzing these forces
directly over a wide range of experimental conditions.
laser
cantilever
fixed glass
beads
Figure 1. SEM model of the AFM test setup with glass beads of about 60 m, larger than those used in the
study. The laser path is shown for illustration purposes.
Table 1. Typical composition of ultra-high performance concrete [1]
Mass fraction
[%]
Mass fraction
[kg/m3]
Surface area
[m2/m3]
Surface fraction
[%]
Fine sand 0/0.5
45.4
975
Cement
38.7
832
386,880
12.2
Quartz powder
9.6
207
86,319
2.7
Silica fume
6.3
135
2,700,000
85.1
value below measurement threshold
2 Experimental study
Materials
For the force measurements, the surfaces that are to be studied have to be of known geometry,
asperities must be only minimal. Also, the particles have to be easy to handle for sample
preparation. Therefore, glass beads (SiLi 5210 S, Sigmund Lindner GmbH, chemical
composition see Table 2) with a typical diameter of 10 m were used as a sample system for
silica fume as depicted in Figure 1: For each measurement, one bead was fixed onto a glass
substrate, another bead was fixed onto the tip of a tipless cantilever (Mikromasch CSC-12
tipless/NoA, typical spring constant k = 0.1 N/m) by means of a two-component methacrylate
epoxy resin (Uhu plus endfest 300). All beads were subject to ultrasonic treatment to separate
glass splinters from their surfaces. Before the tests, the smoothness of the surfaces was
validated by measuring their topography over an area of 5 m x 5 m via contact mode AFM
(see Figure 2 as an example). After fitting the surfaces to a second order polynom to
accommodate for the surface curvature of the beads, the roughness was quantified as the root
mean square of the height over the base plane (see Figure 2). All used beads had an rms
102
roughness of up to 6 nm (ref. Table 3). Beads with higher roughness or large asperities were
rejected. The radius of the beads was measured by SEM imaging.
Table 2. Chemical Composition of the glass beads acc. to supplier
Component (oxide)
SiO2
Na2O
CaO
MgO
Al2O3
wt.-%
72.50
13.00
9.06
4.22
0.58
Four polymers were used in this study: a commercially available PCE superplasticizer (PV, Mw
= 81,000 kDa), a custom-synthesized polymer [2] (CS, methacrylic acid and (methoxypolyethylene glycol)-methacrylate with methallyl sulfonic acid as a chain transfer agent,
Mw = 29,200 kDa, side chains 12 nm, backbone 13 nm), a melamine sulfonat (MS), and
polyacrylate acid (PAA) for comparison.
The test solutions were prepared with water purified by reversed osmosis and CDI (VWR
GPR Rectapur). Polymer solutions as provided by the manufacturer were diluted to mass
concentrations of 1, 0.1, 0.01, 0.001, and 0.0001 %, thus taking into account that only a small
fraction of the polymer molecules in a mortar may be available for a given pair of particles.
Determination of cantilever spring constants
The spring constants were determined by the Cleveland method [3] and additionally taking
further origins of errors into account. For this, the resonance frequency of the cantilevers was
measured before and after modifying them with a bead, yielding the spring constant k. The
inclination of the cantilever was measured to be 12. Also, resulting spring constant after
Cleveland would only be valid it the center of the bead was just beneath the outer end of the
cantilever. As this could not be achieved, the distance L by which the bead was off the end
position of the cantilever was used to correct the spring constant by the terms similar [4] as
described by Gibson [5], thus resulting in the effective spring constant keff.
Figure 2. AFM image of a bead surface after fitting the curvature of the sphere to a polynom of 2nd order.
Force measurement
A glass substrate with a bead fixed onto it was inserted into the sample holder of the atomic
force microscope (Veeco MultiMode, Nanoscope IV), a cantilever with another bead was put
into the chip holder of the fluid cell. Both beads were placed atop each other (see Figure 1), but
103
were kept at distance at first. The fluid cell was sealed off with an o-ring. Then the test fluids
were drawn into the cell using a syringe through tubing. This was repeated until no air bubbles
were left in the fluid cell. The tubing was then removed from the fluid cell and replaced with two
caps to prevent CO2 from the air diffusing into the test solution. The system was left for 5
minutes to reach an adsorption equilibrium. Afterwards, the beads were brought into contact at
their outermost points, meaning that both centers as well as the contact point between them
were in one straight line. Around this position, a matrix of 10 x 10 matrix points was defined in
an area of 50 nm x 50 nm, resulting in a series of 100 measurements for one test solution. After
moving the bottom bead to each of these matrix positions, the force was measured by pushing
the beads together with a defined force of 42 nN and pulling them apart again. The
measurement frequency was 0.5 Hz. This was repeated for all solutions of one polymer, starting
with the lowest concentrations. Each pair of top bead and bottom bead was used for one
polymer series only.

During the force measurements, the deflection of the cantilever was measured while the
distance between the particles was gradually changed. While the beads were apart from each
other, the cantilever deflection was zero as no force was acting on the bead. The cantilever
base was moved down along the z axis by piezo actuators. As soon as the beads contacted
each other and were pushed together with a force of 42 nN, the cantilever was deflected. Then
the cantilever was pulled away again. The two beads were then in contact and would not
separate, deflecting the cantilever in the opposite direction. The cantilever was pulling the top
bead away from the fixed bottom bead. Only if the pulling force exacted from the deflected
cantilever was at least as large as the adhesive force between the beads, they could be
separated again. This leads to a theoretical measurement cycle as depicted in Figure 3.
C
F
Figure 3. One optimal single force measurement cycle.
The adhesive force F between the beads is then calculated as the maximum deflection x
multiplied by the effective spring constant keff.
F depends on the size of the conjoint areas of the beads. When the radii of the particles
increase the resulting contact area between the two beads gets larger. As not all beads are of
the same size, all resulting adhesive forces were normalized by division by the reduced radius
104
R'
R1 R2
R1 R2
(1)
as described by Butt, Capella and Kappl [6], taking both individual bead radii R1 and R2 into
account and yielding the normalized adhesive force
F'
F
R'
(2)
While evaluating the adhesive forces worked fine for saline solutions, polymer solutions could
not be measured as there was often no single point of failure in the adhesion of the beads, but
rather a gradual failure where the beads separated slowly away from each other. This was
interpreted as the beads being held together by the chains of the polymers, only gradually
desorbing from the silica surfaces. Thus, for evaluating the adhesion when polymer molecules
were present in the solution, the force pulling the beads apart was integrated over the course of
the separation of the beads:
zi
E A F ' dz
(3)
ze
where zi is the initial z position of the moving cantilever base at the beginning and also the end
of the cycle (position A in Figure 3), and ze is the z position when both beads are in contact, but
no force is exacted on them by the cantilever (position D in Figure 3). dz is an infinitesimal
movement of the cantilever base along the z axis. This yields the adhesion energy EA that has
to be overcome to separate the two beads, but normalized by the reduced radius R as the
normalized forces F have been integrated. Therefore EA is measured in
nN nm pJ
.
m
m
The indicated values are averaged over all 100 measurements for one sample and test
solution.
Comparison of predictions and experimental results
Measuring the adhesive force between two beads in deionized water resulted in a normalized
force of 11 nN/m. Using the equation from [7]
AH
F
12 D 2
R'
(4)
to calculate the Hamaker constant AH for two silica particles in contact (distance between
particles D = 0.2 nm when the particles are in direct contact) yields AH 5.3 10 21 J , which is in
accordance with the range of values for two silica surfaces in water in literature [7, 8]. This
indicates that the resulting forces measured by this method are valid.
Experimental results and discussion
Though the adhesion forces showed the same tendency as the calculated adhesion energies,
we evaluated the adhesion energies only, because the gradual failure of the adhesive bond
between two beads did not show one single pull-off, but sometimes several. The normalized
adhesion energy thus offers more substantial data.
The calculated adhesion energies that were normalized by the reduced radius of the used
bead combinations show similar values for all used combinations when they were submerged in
equal liquid environments, i.e. in pure water. This indicates that the results for all used bead
105
combinations are comparable, and that the screening of beads was appropriate and also
successful.
Table 3. The bead combinations used for the polymers, and their characteristics
Additive
Cantilever spring
constant [N/m]
Cant. bead size

[m]
Bottom bead size

[m]
Reduced radius
[m]
CS
0.14
13.1 (rms = 4.5 nm)
15.3 (rms = 2.2 nm)
7.06
PV
0.12
12.2 (rms = 5.8 nm)
14.2 (rms = 3.4 nm)
6.56
MS
0.15
16.8 (rms = 5.0 nm)
13.1 (rms = 3.7 nm)
7.36
PAA
0.14
14.4 (rms = 6.0 nm)
14.2 (rms = 5.7 nm)
7.15
rms values are the root mean square of surface height and indicate surface roughness
The normalized adhesion energies differ significantly between the studied polymers (see Figure
4). The rather large polymers PV did not reduce the energy necessary to separate the beads for
a concentration of 10-4 wt.-%. The values rather show a slight increase in adhesion energy. But
this small rise is not significant and can as well be attributed to statistical spread. Only after
reaching a concentration of 0.1 wt.-%, the adhesion energy is reduced to a level that was
reached with much lower concentrations for the other polymers.
norm. adhesion energy [pJ/m]
700
600
PV
CS
PAA
MS
500
400
300
200
100
0
DI water
1E-4
1E-3
0,01
0,1
polymer mass concentration [%]

Figure 4. Normalized adhesion energy between two beads for four polymers in increasing concentration.
Polymer PV is a commercially available additive for concrete fluidization. It is rather large

(Mw 80.000 kDa) with long side chains in comparison with CS and its shorter side chains. The
main difference between CS and PV is in architecture of the molecules. The latter shows a
significant reduction in adhesion energy already at the lowest tested concentration, i.e. 10-4 wt.%. Increasing the concentration does not lead to a further decrease in adhesion energy.
PAA and MS show a similar behavior like CS, i.e. a strong decrease in adhesion at small
concentrations. PAA generally show higher adhesion. This polymer is in principle just the
backbone of a superplasticizer with no ester groups as side chains. Therefore, there is only one
functional group that can adsorb on a beads surface, and this group is equally distributed along
the whole chain of the polymer. When two beads are in contact, there are many polymer
106
molecules that are in contact with both beads and can therefore bridge them, leading to a more
pronounced bond between them.
The large molecules of PV on the other hand have a long backbone together with long side
chains. One would assume this to lead to a strong steric repulsion. But as can be seen in Figure
4, these molecules do not disperse the silica beads as well as the others. In fact there is still a
pronounced adhesion energy that has to be overcome to separate the particles. This might be
due to the protruding side chains strongly adsorbing to the surface of the adjacent bead, and
thus bridging the particles and holding them together.
While shearing a suspension, many particles come into contact with each other throughout
the suspension and have to be separated again for the motion to continue. If they are strongly
bound to each other, this will hinder the suspension flow. This would mean that strong adhesion
energies will lead to a worse workability. From the presented results, one can easily deduce
that PV is not the perfect plasticizing agent for silica surfaces, e.g. silica fumes.
In concretes though, there are many chemically different surfaces that have to be dispersed,
where these molecules might again prove more efficient. For the studied combination of two
silica particles, PV seams the least efficient while CS and MS are more effective.
4 Conclusions
Based on the experiments and gathered results, the following conclusions can be drawn:
Atomic force microscopy can be used to measure the forces not only between specialized
and custom made cantilever tips as they are common in the AFM community. Rather, real
particles can be measured, though some obstacles have to be overcome. Well defined surfaces
are of utmost importance to the success of the measurements.
Because of this, the measurements show a significant margin of error. Only small differences
in adhesion energy cannot be resolved. But the studied polymers show significantly different
behavior.
Adhesion energies describe the whole process of two contacted particles being completely
separated again from each other. Gradual desorption of polymers is taken into account.
Large polymers may bridge the gap between two particles and bind them together if their
constituents have a high affinity to the neighboring bead surfaces.
Acknowledgments
The presented study is part of a research project about UHPC generously supported by the
DFG for which we are thankful. We would furthermore like to thank Wolfgang Peukert and
Bettina Winzer from the University of Erlangen-Nrnberg, Germany, who helped us to set up
the experiments. We also deeply appreciate the help and work of Sandra Schink [9] who carried
out part of the shown AFM measurements, and Dr. Christof Schrfl [2] who provided us with
custom superplasticizer polymers.
References
[1] Stephan, D., Krelaus, R., Schmidt, M.: Direct measurement of particle-particle interactions of fines
for UHPC using AFM technology. Proceedings of the 2nd International Symposium on Ultra High
Performance Concrete. S. 375-381. Kassel University Press, Kassel, Germany (2008).
[2] Schrfl, C.P.: Omega-Methoxypoly(ethylenoxid)-Methacrylsureester-co-Methacrylsure-coMethallylsulfonsure-Polycarboxylate als Fliemittel fr ultra-hochfesten Beton: Synthese,
Wirkmechanismus und Untersuchungen zum Synergismus von selektiv adsorbierenden
Polymergemischen, (2010).
[3] Cleveland, J.P., Manne, S., Bocek, D., Hansma, P.K.: A nondestructive method for determining the
spring constant of cantilevers for scanning force microscopy. Rev. Sci. Instrum. 64, 403-405 (1993).
107
[4] Glotzbach, C.: Interpartikulre Wechselwirkungen in wssrigen Medien an einem Modellsystem fr

Feinstoffe (diploma thesis), (2008).
[5] Gibson, C., Smith, D., Roberts, C.: Calibration of silicon atomic force microscope cantilevers.
Nanotechnology. 16, 234-238 (2005).
[6] Butt, H.-J., Cappella, B., Kappl, M.: Force measurements with the atomic force microscope:
Technique, interpretation and applications. Surface Science Reports. 59, 1-152 (2005).
[7] Butt, H.-J., Graf, K., Kappl, M.: Physics and Chemistry of Interfaces. Wiley-VCH, Weinheim (2006).
[8] Lee, I.: Friction and adhesion of silica fibres in liquid media. Journal of Materials Science. 30, 60196022 (1995).
[9] Sandra Schink: Untersuchung der Vernderung der interpartikulren Krfte zwischen silikatischen
Modellpartikeln durch Betonfliemittel mit Hilfe der Rasterkraftmikroskopie, (2010).
108
Investigation the Effects of Nano-Silica Colloidal Solutions on

Properties of Mortars
Aliakbar Ramezanianpour1, Shabnam Firoozmakan2, Hamed Bahrami Jovein2
1: Head of Concrete Technology and Durability Research Center, Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran, Iran
2: Dept. of Civil Engineering, Amirkabir University of Technology, Tehran, Iran
Mechanical properties and durability of concrete may get improved using nano-silica as well as
increasing the useful life of the structure. This study aimed to consider the impact of various kinds of
nano-silica with different chemical and physical properties on compressive strength development and
water absorption of concrete. The experiments were conducted in two stages. In the first stage, four
mortar mixtures encompassing control and three mixtures containing three types of colloidal nano -silica
were fabricated. In the second stage, to clarify the effect of nano-SiO2 particle size, three mortar mixtures
were made by silica powders with different size distributions. The nano-silica replacement level of all the
mortars in the two stages was constant at 5%. It was found that the amount, particle size, colloidal
potential and stability of SiO 2 particles in solution were effective factors in improvement of compressive
strength and water capillary absorption.
Keywords: Mortar, Nano-sio2, compressive strength, Capillary water absorption,Zetasaizer
1 Introduction
Nanotechnology is a new method; in addition it is a novel scale in the technologies and a
modern approach in all fields which makes the human able to improve the structure of
materials. Nano-particles have been gaining increasing attention and been applied in many
fields to fabricate new materials with novelty function due to their unique physical and chemical
properties [1].
Recently, nano technology has attracted considerable scientific interest due to the new
potential uses of particles in nanometer (10 -9 m) scale. The nano scale-size of particles can
result in dramatically improved properties from conventional grain-size materials of the same
chemical composition. There are few reports on mixing nano-particles in cement-based building
materials [2, 3]. Nano-particles of SiO 2 (nS) can fill the spaces between particles of CSH gel,
acting as a nano-filler. Furthermore, by the pozzolanic reaction with calcium hydroxide, the
amount of CSH increases. Thus, the size and amount of calcium hydroxide crystals are
significantly decreased [1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9].
Nano-SiO2 can behave as a nucleus to tightly bond with cement hydrates. The stable gel
structures can be formed and the mechanical properties of hardened cement paste can be
improved when a smaller amount of nano-SiO2 is added [1, 3, 5, 6]. Higher densification of the
matrix improves the strength and durability of the material when nano-silica is used in cement
mortar. For constant w/c ratio and cement content, increasing nano-silica from 1 to 2 percent of
cement weight improved the infiltration resistance [10]. It has been reported that the higher
dosage of nano-SiO2 lead to higher mechanical strength [3].
It can be concluded that the SiO 2 particles with average diameter of 15 nm can improve the
early age strength of the concrete more than particles with 80 nm, however, after 90 days of
moist curing the final strength of specimens made with 80 nm of SiO 2 particles was relatively
enhanced [11].
In this paper, compressive strength and capillary water absorption of mortars incorporating
different kinds of nano-silica with various chemical and physical characteristics are compared.
The water/binder (w/b) ratio and slump flow of all the mortar mixtures were kept constant at
0.485 and 14010 mm, respectively. The zetasizer test was used to analyses size of particles
109
and colloidal potential and XRF technique was used to determine chemical characteristic of
colloidal solutions.
2 Experimental program
Material
ASTM C 150 type I Portland cement was used in all the mortar Mixtures. Four different types of
nano-silica were used in this study. Type 1, 2 and 3 nano-silica denote Silica amorphous
colloidal based solutions with a solid content of 12.5%, 15%, 30% respectively. The type 4 silica
powders in three different particle sizes were used that 4-a, 4-b and 4-c refers to type 4 silica
with particles with diameter lesser than 50 nm, between 300 up to 500 nm and between 700 up
to 900 nm, respectively. The chemical constituent of these materials are, shown in Table 1. The
physical characteristics of four types of nano-silica are indicated in Table 3. Aggregate is
Standard packing sand and equivalent to DIN EN 196-1. The maximum size of sand particle is
between 2 and 2.5 mm. Physical characteristics of sand are introduced in Table 2. Very fine
size and high specific surface of nano-particles decrease the mortar workability. The
superplasticizer (SP) admixture was a polycarboxylic acid based was employed to aid the
dispersion of nano-particles in mortars and achieve proper workability of mortars.
Table 1: Chemical composition of cement and four types of nano-silica solutions.
Components
SiO2
MgO
CaO
SO3
Fe2O3
Al2O3
Na2O
K2O
Cement
Nano-SiO2
(type 1)
19.9
2.07
64.1
4.09
4.1
3.83
<10ppm
0.79
63.9
0.15
0.087
0.39
0.038
0.15
17.3
4.3
Nano-SiO2
(type 2)
91.5
0.085
0.065
0.26
0.021
0.085
0.97
0.013
Nano-SiO2
(type 3)
94.06
0.09
0.1
0.026
0.037
0.13
1.13
0.002
Nano-SiO2
(type 4)
92.1
0.076
0.192
0.185
0.093
0.066
1.07
0.08
Components
Cl 2
TiO2
P2O5
MnO
LOI
C2S
C3S
C3A
C4AF
Cement
Nano-silica
(type 1)
0.008
0.47
0.064
0.23
0.04
6.92
66.45
3.21
12.47
0.18
0.047
0.019
0.009
13.27
Nano-silica
(type 2)
0.045
0.04
0.008
0.003
6.79
Nano-SiO2
(type 3)
0.076
0.013
0.11
0.004
4.27
Nano-SiO2
(type 4)
0.044
0.064
0.129
0.006
5.88
Table 2: Physical characteristics of sand.

Characteristics
Water
absorption (%)
SSD
Density(gr/cm3)
Sand
0.1
2.62
Fineness
modulus
2.67
110
Table 3: Physical characteristics of two types of nano-silica solutions.
Phase
Color
PH
Density
(gr/cm3)
Nano-silica
(type 1)
liquid
transparent
13
1.05-1.4
>10
12.5
Nano-silica
(type 2)
liquid
transparent
10
1.1
>10
15
Nano-SiO2
(type 3)
liquid
transparent
10.5
1.2-1.22
12.5-13
30
Nano-SiO2
(type 4)
poweder
white
10
1.05
Characteristics
Viscosity
(cps)
Solid
particles
(Percent)
Mix proportion
Seven mix proportions of mortars are presented in Table 4. The percentage of nano-silica in
mortar specimens is 5% by weight of cement. Mortar mix proportions were selected according
to ASTM-C109 with water/binder ratio (w/b) of 0.485 and aggregate/cement ratio of 2.75. The
amount of superplasticizer was adjusted in nano-SiO2 mortars to achieve similar slump flow as
control mortar.
Table 4: Mix proportions of specimens (g/lit).
mixture
no.
Cement
(gr)
Water
(gr)
Sand
(gr)
w/b
OPC
NS1
1000
950
485
485
2750
2750
0.485
0.485
Type
of
nanosilica
1
NS2
950
485
2750
0.485
NS3
950
485
2750
NS4-a
950
485
NS4-b
950
NS4-c
950
nanoSiO2
(gr)
SP
(%
binder)
Slump
flow(mm)
50
1.3
138
140
50
4.2
141
0.485
50
1.3
142
2750
0.485
50
140
485
2750
0.485
50
0.8
145
485
2750
0.485
50
0.5
149
Preparation of specimens
To fabricate mortar specimens, nano-silica, water and superplasticizer (if used) were mixed in
Ultrasonic cleaner for the period of 15 minutes. Ultrasonic cleaner was used for uniformly
disperse and prevent agglomeration silica nano-particles in colloidal based solutions and
superplasticizer. To fabricate mortar specimens, after mixing cement and prepared solution in
the mixer at low speed for about 30 seconds, the sand were added into the auto-stirred mixture
afterwards mixing resumed at high speed for about 30 seconds. After ceasing the mixing
process for 2 minutes, blending the mixture was started again for another 60 seconds. The
slump flow of achieved mortar was measured by flow table test according to ASTM C-230. The
well mixed Mortar was poured into molds to form the cubes of size 505050 mm for all mixing
proportion. The samples were demolded after 24h and then cured in lime-saturated water at 23
2C to prevent possible leaching of Ca(OH) 2 from these specimens for 7 and 28 days.
Test methods
Zetasizer System
The Zetasizer system determines the size by first measuring the Brownian motion of the
particles in a sample using Dynamic Light Scattering (DLS) and then interpreting a size from
111
this using established theories. When a particle moves (e.g. due to gravity), ions within the
liquid layer surrounding the particle (boundary) move with it, but any ions beyond the boundary
do not travel with the particle. This boundary is called the surface of hydrodynamic shear or
slipping plane. The potential that exists at this boundary is known as the zeta potential. The
magnitude of the zeta potential gives an indication of the potential stability of the colloidal
system. If all the particles in suspension have a large negative or positive zeta potential then
they will tend to repel each other and there is no tendency to flocculate. However, if the
particles have low zeta potential values then there is no force to prevent the particles coming
together and flocculating.
Compressive strength
Mortar cubes of 505050 mm dimension were cast for compressive strength using OPC and
5%nano-silica by weight of cement as replacement material. They were tested for compressive
strength after 7 and 28 days of water curing and the average strength of three specimens was
used as an index.
Capillary water absorption
The Capillary water absorption was measured on 50 mm mortar cubic specimens, which were
dried in a 50C oven for 10 days. After mass stabilization, the specimens were coated with the
epoxy resin on their lateral surfaces only, in order to ensure uniaxial water absorption. The
specimen was rested on rods to allow free access of water to the surface and the tap water
level was kept no more than 5 mm above the base of the specimen. The masses of the
specimens were measured after 0, 3, 6, 24 and 72 hours of absorption.
The Capillary water absorption coefficient (S) according to BS EN-480-5:1997 [12] was
obtained using the following expression:
(1)
Where Q is the amount of water adsorbed; A is the cross section of specimen that was in
contact with water; t is the time (second); c is the constant coefficient; and S is the Capillary
water absorption coefficient of the specimen (m/s1/2). Density of water is 1 gr/cm3 hence this
unit declared in
or
3 Results and Discussion

Zetasizer System
The general dividing line between stable and unstable suspensions is generally taken at either
+30mV or -30mV. Particles with zeta potentials more positive than +30mV or more negative
than -30mV are normally considered stable [13]. Colloidal based solutions containing silica
particles of type1, 2 and 3 were measured by Zetasizer system. Moreover, for determining
exact size of silica particles of type 4 which was uniformly dispersed in water by ultrasonic,
Zetasizer system was used.
The results of size distribution showed that 90.4% of particles solutions type1in volume had
847 nm diameter, 99.8% of particles solutions type2 in volume had 1.97 nm diameter and
whole particles of type 3 Colloidal solutions was with diameter of 78 nm. Also 100 % particles
of type 4-a, 4-b and 4-c solutions in volume was with diameter 13.23, 390.3 and 829.2 nm,
respectively.
Furthermore zeta potential of colloidal particles was determined by Zetasizer system. Zeta
potential of colloidal particles in type 1, type 2 and type3 nano-silica solutions are -8.7 mV, -44
112
mV and -53.2 mV, respectively. To investigate the effects of zeta potential on the results of
mortar tests, potential of type 4-a silica particles in water solution was measured and indicated
Zeta potential of type 4-a silica particles was 18.8 mV.
Figures 1 and 2 show strength development and Table 5 presents compressive strength of
mortar specimens at 7 and 28 days.
Figure 1: Compressive strength of type 4 nano-silica mortar specimens.
With the particle size reducing, there exist many uneven atom steps which increase chemical
reaction area. For this reason, the nano-meter particles, such as NS, have high surface energy
and atoms in the surface have a high activity, which leads the atoms to react on outer ones
easily. Consequently, the pozzolanic activity of NS is high at early ages [8]. According to Figure
1, it can be concluded that the compressive strength progressively increases with decreasing
the size of particles. As explained before, the reason of this increase is the more pozzolanic
activity of finer particles. However with increase of samples age, the difference will decrease in
compressive strength. So that in type 4 nano-silica, the difference between earned strength in
age 28 days limits just to 3.7% while the difference in age 7 days has been 21.3%. The reason
can be attributed to the progress of pozzolanic reactions in each three samples at that age.
If all the particles in suspension have a large negative or positive zeta potential then they will
tend to repel each other and there is no tendency to flocculate. However, if the particles have
low zeta potential values then there is no force to prevent the particles coming together and
flocculating [13]. Based on the results of compressive strength test between NS2 and NS4-a
mortar specimens (see Table 5), considering the amount of silica and almost equal size of
particles in both solutions, it can be said that the reason of higher earned strength in NS2
samples compare to NS4-a samples is the larger zeta potential and stability of particles
according to ASTM D418-82 standard in the related solution and instability of particles in the
type 4-a nano-silica solution which result in improper homogeneity silica particles in NS4-a
mortar specimens compare to NS2 samples and making weak zones in that.
113
Table 5. Compressive strength test results.
Mixture
Id
OPC
NS1
NS2
at 7 days
Target(MPa) Improvement
(%)
32.7
0
22
-32.7
42.5
29.9
at 28 days
Target(MPa)
Improvement
(%)
54.4
0
31.8
-41.5
61.5
13
NS3
42.2
29
65.28
20
NS4-a
36.6
11.9
57.12
NS4-b
33.35
1.9
55.11
1.3
NS4-c
29.6
-9.4
56.67
4.1
Figure 2: Compressive strength of type 1, 2 and 3 nano-silica mortar specimens as compared to OPC.
Nano-SiO2 can behave as a nucleus to tightly bond with cement hydrates. The stable gel
structures can be formed and the mechanical properties of hardened cement paste can be
improved when nano-SiO2 is added [1, 3, 5, 6]. Consequently, compressive strength of OPC is
enhanced when nano-silica is added (see Figure 2). According to Figure 2 and Table 5, the
maximum compressive strength in mortar specimens at 28 days was 62.3 MPa corresponding
to the NS3 mixture and improved 20% when compared with samples without NS.
The nano-particles are more difficult to be dispersed uniformly in cement paste by increasing
their content in the solution. The aggregation of nano-particles will form weak zones in cement
paste. As a result, the enhanced extent of compressive strength of concrete decreases [3, 4, 5].
Regarding the zeta potential test results for NS1 specimens and unstable colloidal particles in
related solution, homogeneity of nano-particles in mortar does not occur. Because of
agglomeration of particles and creation of weak zone, compressive strength reduction is
reduced. The minimum compressive strength in mortar specimens at 28 days was 31.8 MPa
corresponding to the NS1 mixture and improvement was -41.5% when compared with samples
without NS (see Figure 2 and Table 5). According to Zetasizer and XRF tests, the reduction in
compressive strength is explained as the results of colloidal instability, lower amount and larger
size of SiO2 particles in related solution compare to others.
Capillary water absorption
Amount of absorbed water can be related to void capillary spaces form and its arrangement.
High quantity of capillary water absorption can be alluded to weakness of structural cement
114
matrix, high permeability and destructive exposure of chloride diffusion. Capillary water
absorption coefficient(s) are shown in Table 6.
Table 6: Assessment of capillary water absorption coefficient.
OPC
NS1
NS2
Capillary water absorption coefficient

at 7 days
Reduction
Target (mm/hr0.5)
(%)
16.27
0
15.53
4.54
9.77
39.79
Capillary water absorption coefficient

at 28 days
Reduction
Target (mm/hr0.5)
(%)
14.75
0
14.53
1.49
8.20
44.41
NS3
NS4-a
NS4-b
NS4-c
9.28
11.05
13.33
14.22
7.52
9.50
10.90
11.75
Mixture no
42.96
32.08
18.07
12.60
49.02
35.59
26.10
20.34
According to the result obtained for type 4 nano-silica mortar specimens (NS4), capillary water
absorption decreased specially at 7 days, due to fineness, high pozzolanic activity of silica
nano-particles and formation of dense hydration products at early ages. However difference
between the capillary water absorption of specimens decrease at 28 days. This trend deals with
pozzollanic activity of specimens containing silica more than nanometer scale in diameter, as
the hydration progress.
Based on the results of capillary water absorption test between NS2 and NS4-a mortar
specimens, considering the amount of silica and almost equal size of particles in both
solutions , it can be said that the reason of lower water absorption in NS2 samples compare to
NS4-a samples is the larger zeta potential (-44 mV) and stability of particles according to
ASTM D418-82 standard in the related solution and instability of particles in the type 4-a nanosilica solution due to lower zeta potential (-18.8 mV) of related solution.
Nano-SiO2 particles can react with calcium hydroxide Ca(OH) 2 crystals, which are mostly
formed in the interfacial transition zone (ITZ) between hardened cement paste and aggregates
and produce secondary CSH gel. Thus, the size and amount of calcium hydroxide crystals
are significantly reduced, and more C-S-H fills the voids in interfacial transition zone (ITZ) to
improve the density of matrix [3, 4, 5, 7, 8, 9]. Uniformly disperse of silica particles improve
bonding between cement paste and aggregate and enhance compaction of mortar, hence
capillary water absorption of specimens decrease due to capillary void reduction. Mortar
specimens containing type 1 and type 3 solutions show maximum and minimum sorptivity
coefficient, respectively. This issue is related to colloidal stability, amount and size of SiO 2
particles in solution.
4 Conclusions
From the results obtained in this study, the following conclusions can be drawn:
[1]. The result of compressive strength and capillary water absorption tests of mortar
specimens containing silica type 4 (4-a, 4-b and 4-c) which have similar chemical
characteristics and different particles size, show that compressive strength and sorptivity
improved specially at 7 days due to fineness, high pozzolanic activity of nano-silica
particles and formation of dense hydration products at early ages. However, difference
between the tests results of specimens decrease at 28 days. This trend deals with
pozzollanic activity of specimens containing silica more than nanometers scale in
diameter, as the hydration progress.
115
[2]. According to the test results of mortar specimens containing two types of nano-silica
considering the amount of silica and almost equal size of silica particles in both
solutions, Colloidal potential can be recognized as effective factor on dispersion of silica
particles in the mortar.
[3]. According to zetasizer and XRF tests, the reduction in compressive strength in all seven
mixtures of mortars, NS3 has shown best performance in compressive strength and
capillary water absorption tests. Some possible reasons have been represented to:
More pozzolanic reaction of NS3 mortar specimens compare to other mixtures due to
higher amount of SiO 2 in type 3 silica solution than others.
The fine silica particles accelerate the pozzolanic activity and act as a filler to
enhance the density of mortar.
The particles in suspension have a large negative zeta potential then they will tend to
repel each other in mortar and there is no tendency to flocculate.
[4]. The minimum compressive strength and maximum capillary water absorption was
observed in NS1 mixture specimens. This issue can be explained as the results of
colloidal instability, lower amount and larger size of SiO2 particles in solution compare
whit other mixtures.
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116
Mechanical Properties and Durability of Self Consolidating

Mortars containing Nano SiO 2
Ali Akbar Ramezanianpour, Mahdi Mahdikhani, S.Sina Yousefian Moghaddam, Morteza
Nikravan, S.Rahimeh Mousavi
Concrete Technology and Durability Research Center, Dept. of Civil Engineering, AmirKabir University of
Technology, Iran
The use of Nano particles in developing materials has gained its popularity and being applied in many
fields. More specifically, such particles can lead to improvements in the nanostructure of building
materials such as cement, mortar and concrete. On the other hand, it is well recognized that the use of
mineral admixtures such as silica fume enhances the compressive strength of cementitious materials. In
addition, self-consolidating concrete (SCC) and self-consolidating mortars (SCM) have been used
increasingly over the last two decades, because of their ability to consolidate without vibration even in
congested areas.
In this paper, the influence of Nano silica addition on mechanical properties cementitious materials as
compared with silica fume has been studied. Four mortar mixtures are prepared containing zero to 6
percent Nano silica and silica fume. The rheological properties of fresh SCMs mixtures are investigated
by mini-slump and mini V-funnel flow tests. In order to evaluate the static stability of the fresh mortar
mixtures, the mini-column segregation test is also performed on all the mixtures. In addition, compressive
strength of the hardened mixtures is determined. The results show that Nano silica can improve
compressive strength of concrete. In addition, using Nano silica and silica fume increase stability of
SCMs and decrease workability of fresh mixtures.
Keywords: self-consolidating mortars (SCM), Colloidal nano silica, Silica fume, Compressive strength,
Fresh Mortar, Reology of Mortar
1 Introduction
Up to now, research performed over the years has been largely aimed at achieving high
mechanical performance with cement replacement materials in micro size. Recently, nano
technology has attracted considerable scientific interest due to the new potential uses of
particles in nanometer scale. Due to the high specific surface area for the nano-meter sized
particles, they constitute a highly reactive siliceous material. When ultra-fine particles are
incorporated into Portlandcement paste, mortar or concrete, materials with different
characteristics from conventional materials were obtained [1]. The performance of th ese
cementitious based materials is strongly dependent on nanosized solid particles, such as
particles of calciumsilicatehydrates (CSH), or nano-sized porosity at the interfacial
transition zone between cement and aggregate particles. Luciano Senff [2] reported that the
addition of Nano-SiO2 modified the characteristics of fresh mortars. The addition of nano-SiO2
can shorten the setting time and also beneficial for the compressive strength of the mortar with
different ash particle sizes [3]. The influence of nano-SiO2 on consistency and setting time are
different. Nano-SiO2 makes cement paste thicker and accelerates the cement hydration
process. It can be explained by the fact that, in formulations having fixed values of W/B, the
presence of nano-SiO2 decreases the amount of lubricating water available in the mixture [4].
Bond strengths of pasteaggregate interface incorporating NS are higher than those of control
sample and than those incorporating SF. With increasing the NS content, the rate of bond
strength increase is more than that of their compressive strength increase [5]. SF belongs to the
category of highly pozzolanic materials because it consists essentially of silica in non -crystalline
form with a high specific surface, and thus exhibits great pozzolanic activity. But the activity of
117
SF at early ages is low according to the literature [69]. With additions of pozzolanic materials
such as slag, fly-ash and silica fume added, the interface structure has been improved,
especially in HPC [1013]. Nano-silica decreased the setting time of mortar when compared
with silica fume (SF) [4] and reduced bleeding water and segregation, while improving the
cohesiveness of the mixtures in the fresh state [14]. The pozzolanic activity of nano-SiO2 is
much greater than that of silica fume. Nano-SiO2 consumes CH crystals, decreases the
orientation of CH crystals, reduces the size of CH crystals at the interface and improves the
interface structure more effectively than silica fume [5]. In view of these advances, th e aim of
this study is to investigate the influences of silica particles in self-consolidating mortars (SCM).
This work showed that by reducing the cement content in the presence of the silica particles,
the mechanical properties of SCMs was improved. In view of this, it is concluded that both nano
SiO2 and silica fume can be used to increase the mechanical properties of mortar mixtures.
2 Experimental Programs
The experimental program undertaken in this study aimed at the evaluation of stability and
rheology of mortar mixtures reinforced with Nano silica and silica fume with different
percentages. Therefore, in this study, four SCM mixtures have been designed by modifying the
volume fraction of fiber.
Characterization of Materials
ASTM Type II, normal Portland cement and a type of local silica fume were used in all mixtures.
The properties of cement and SF are shown in table 1. The colloidal Nano silica solution used
contained 50 wt% of solid material. The Average particle size was 35 nm with 99.9% SiO2.
Well-graded silica sand with specific gravity of 2.6, absorption value of 0.6% and maximum
aggregate size of 2.36 mm, was employed in all mixtures. The aggregate size distributions are
shown in Figure 1. A high range water reducing admixture (HRWRA) based on chains of
modified polycarboxylic ether was used and had a specific gravity of 1.1. Optimum dosage of
these admixtures is about 2% of cement weight as stated by the admixtures suppliers.
Table 1: Chemical and physical properties of cement and SF.
Items
Chemical composition (%)

Cement
Silica Fume
SiO2
21.38
93.6
Al2O3
4.65
1.3
Fe2O3
3.51
0.9
CaO
63.06
0.5
MgO
3.2
SO3
1.8
0.1
10 m
0.1m
0.33
20
Physical properties
Avg. particle size
2
SSA(m /g)
118
Figure 1: sand size distribution.
Test Methods
All specimens were fabricated according to ASTM C 192/C 192M-02, Standard Practice for
Making and Curing Concrete Test Specimens in the Laboratory.
Spread measurement (mini-slump)
The mini-slump test is based on the measurement of the spread of mortar placed into a coneshaped mould. The truncated cone (diameters: 100 and 70mm, height: 60mm) is placed on a
smooth and non-absorbing plate, filled with paste and lifted. The resulting final diameter of the
fresh paste sample is the mean value of two measurements made in two perpendicular
directions as shown in Figure 2. [15].
Mini V-funnel test
This test consists of measuring the time required for a given volume of mortar (1 liter) to flow
through the nozzle. This test is often used to measure the viscosity of the mortar which may be
related to properties such as cohesiveness, pumpability and finishability. It should be noted that
due to instability or inadequate flowability of mortars, the V-funnel values of some mixtures
could not be measured. The instrument used in this test is shown in Figure 2.
Mini column segregation
As previously mentioned, static stability refers to the resistance of SCC to bleeding and
segregation after the SCC is cast until it is hardened. Currently, the most commonly used
methods to evaluate segregation resistance are the visual examination method, the column
segregation test (ASTM C 1610). The internal diameter of cylinder is 75 mm (Figure 3). In the
column segregation method, the contents of the top and bot-tom section of column are washed
on No. 50 sieves after 15 minutes of casting. The remaining material on the sieve is dried in an
oven and weighed. The static segregation (SI) is given by the following formula in percent. The
induced bleeding is also measured after 5, 10 and 15 minutes. The acceptable segregation
index for fresh concrete in most applications obtained from standard column segregation test is
SI 15[13]. However, mortar mixture with SI30 that obtained from mini-column segregation
test show satisfactory stability conditions. Mortars with a segregation index between 30 -130
may exhibit segregation. Severe segregation is expected in mortar mixtures if the segregation
index is above 130.
CAB CAT
SSI 2
100
CAB CAT
(1)
119
Where:
CAB=Mass of aggregate retained on No. 50 sieve from bottom pipe section
CAT= Mass of aggregate retained on No. 50 sieve from top pipe section
Figure 2: Configuration of mini-slump cone and mini V-funnel.
Figure 3: Dimensions of column segregation used in mortar experiments.

120
Mixture proportions
Four mixtures were prepared. In all mixtures water-cement ratios are 0.5. Mix proportions are
summarized in Table 2.
Table 2: Mix proportions of Mortars.
Nano
silica
(%)
Silica
fume
(%)
Cement
(gr)
Nano
silica
(gr)
Silica
fume (gr)
W/C
Water
(gr)
Aggregate
(gr)
1000
0.0
0.5
500
600.0
Nano
silica
940
60
0.5
500
600.0
Silica
fume
940
0.0
60
0.5
500
600.0
Control
(CTL)

Fluidity
The results of mini-slump test are presented in Table 3. The control mixture achieved one of the
highest slump flow values. As Nano silica and silica fume was added, slump values generally
became lower. Bleeding is evaluated indirectly in the mini-slump flow test. This interesting
finding can easily be validated by viewing the specimen under mini-slump flow test. The results
clearly show that by using the Nano silica and silica fume bleeding of the mixtures was
completely controlled.
Table 3: mini-slump test.
Diameter 1 (cm)
Diameter 2 (cm)
Average (cm)
Control
28.5
28
28.25
Nano silica
28
28
28
Silica fume
24.5
23.5
24
Viscosity
The results of mini V-funnel test are presented in Table 4. In general, an increase in Nano silica
and silica fume content increases the viscosity. Increasing the Nano silica from 0.0% to 6.0%
increases the flow time by about 42% while increasing the silica fume from 0.0% to 6.0%
resulted in 25% increment in the flow time. Obtained results clearly show that the effect of Nano
silica on viscosity seems to be more significant than fluidity content.
Table 4: mini V-funnel test.
flow time (sec)

Control
10
Nano silica
Silica fume
121
Stability
The required flowability of SCC, however, is difficult to achieve without decreasing the viscosity
of the cement matrix, which reduces the ability of SCC to resist the segregation of large and
dense coarse aggregate particles. In other words, both the yield stress and viscosity of the
cement paste have direct bearing on the segregation of aggregate. For maximum segregation
resistance, the yield stress and viscosity of the paste should be high. Nano silica and silica
fume alter the rheological properties of the SCM such as viscosity and yield stress. The stability
measurement consists of determining the segregation resistance of the mixtures and the
resistance to bleeding when flowing across narrow sections.
The results of mini-column segregation test are summarized in Table 5. Based on these results,
increasing Nano silica leads to a decrease in segregation index of the mixtures. For instance,
control mixture with a W/C of 0.5 have a segregation index of 10.9%. The addition of Nano
silica by 6% by weight leads to a decrease in segregation index to 2.7%. The results of the
cylinder-segregation test agree well with the visually detectable distribution of coarse aggregate
in hardened concrete.
Table 5: mini-column segregation test.
SI
Control
10.9
Nano silica
7.6
Silica fume
2.7
Compressive Strength
Figure 6 demonstrates results of compressive strength at 3, 5, 7 and 28 days, for all mixtures.
As can be seen the compressive strength of NS samples were higher than CTL samples, in all
cases; the higher the NS content, the higher strength was achieved. With the same content of
addition, NS samples had a higher compressive strength than SF samples. These results show
that the compressive strength of HPC is enhanced with NS, even at early ages. After 28 days
compressive strength of NS samples was about 37% higher than SF.
Figure 6: Strength improvement by time.
122
4 Conclusions :
The influence of Nano silica and silica fume on the workability and stability of fresh selfconsolidating mortars (SCM) was investigated. Based on the results presented in this paper, the
following conclusions can be drawn:
1. In constant water-cement ratio, increasing the Nano silica and silica fume causes
rheological properties such as viscosity and yield stress to increase considerably.
2. Nano silica and silica fume can have rheological and mechanical synergistic effects and
can better increase mechanical performance while maintaining adequate flow properties
for self-compacting mortar. The results show that adding Nano silica to SCMs reduced
its workability and ability to flow.
3. Compressive strength of SCM increases with increasing the NS content, especially at
early ages.
4. Using nano-silica as an additive in concrete can improve the concrete microstructure
and reduce the water permeability of concrete through filling pores and pozzolanic
activity. Therefore, it is effective to add nano silica particles to concrete mixtures for
making high-performance concrete.
Refrences
[1] Luciano Senff, Joo A. Labrincha, Victor M. Ferreira, Dachamir Hotza a, Wellington L. Repette.
Effect of nano-silica on rheology and fresh properties of cement pastes and mortars. Construction
and Building Materials 23, 2009, p 24872491.
[2] Luciano Senff, Joo A. Labrincha, Victor M. Ferreira, Dachamir Hotza, Wellington L. Repette, Effect
of nano-silica on rheology and fresh properties of cement pastes and mortars, Construction and
Building Materials, Volume 23, Issue 7, July 2009, Pages 2487-2491.
[3] K.L. Lin, W.C. Chang, D.F. Lin, H.L. Luo, M.C. Tsai ,Effects of nano-SiO2 and different ash particle
sizes on sludge ashcement mortar, Construction and Building Materials, Volume 23, Issue 7, July
2009, Pages 2487-2491.
[4] Mounir Ltifi, Achraf Guefrech, Pierre Mounangua, Abdelhafid Khelidj - Experimental study of the
effect of addition of nano-silica on the behaviour of cement mortars. Science Direct Procedia
Engineering , Vol. in press , pp , 2011.
[5] Y Qing, Z Zenan, K Deyu, C Rongshen, Influence of nano-SiO2 addition on properties of hardened
cement paste as compared with silica fume, Construction and Building Materials (2007) Volume: 21,
Issue: 3, Pages: 539-545.
[6] Mitchell DRG, Hinczak I, Day RA. Interaction of silica fume with calcium hydroxide solutions and
hydrated cement pastes. Cem Concr Res 1998;28:157184.
[7] Larbi JJ, Fraay ALA, Bijen JM. The chemistry of the pore fluid of silica fume blended cement
systems. Cem Concr Res 1990;20:506.
[8] Papadakis Vagelis G. Experimental investigation and theoretical modeling of silica fume activity in
concrete. Cem Concr Res 1999;29:7986.
[9] Li S, Roy DM, Kumar A. Quantitative determination of pozzolanas in hydrated systems of cement or
Ca(OH)2 with fly ash or silica fume. Cem Concr Res 1985;15:1079.
[10] Duval R, Kadri EH. Influence of silica fume on the workability and the compressive strength of high performance concretes. Cem Concr Res 1998;28:53347.
[11] Zhang MH, Lastra R, Malhotra VM. Rice-husk ash paste andconcrete: some aspects of hydration
and the microstructure of the interfacial zone between the aggregate and paste. Cem Concr Res
1996;26:96377.
[12] Bentur A, Cohen MD. Effect of condensed silica fume on the microstructure of the interfacial zone in
Portland cement mortars. J Am Ceram Soc 1987;70:73843.
[13] Taylor HFW. Cement chemistry. London, UK: Academic Press; 1990. p. 3057, 3748.
123
[14] Collepardi M, Ogoumah Olagot JJ, Skarp U, Troli R. Influence of amorphous colloidal silica on the
properties of self-compacting concretes. In: Proceedings of the international conference in concrete
constructions innovations and developments in concrete materials and constructions, Dundee,
Scotland, UK; 911 September 2002. p. 47383.
[15] Roussel N, Stefani C, Leroy R (2005) From mini-cone test to Abrams cone-test: measurement of
cement-based materials yield stress using slump test. Cem. Conc: 817-822.
[16] EFNARC (2002) Specification and Guidelines for Self-Compacting Concrete. 32 pp.,
http://www.efnarc.org.
[17] ASTM C 1610/C 1610M-06, Standard Test Method for Static Segregation of Self-Consolidating
Concrete Using Column Technique. ASTM International.
124
A comparison between the pozzolanic reactivity of nanosilica

sols and pyrogenic nanosilicas
Madani hesam1, Bagheri Alireza1, Parhizkar Tayebe2
1: Dept. of Civil Engineering, K.N.Toosi University of Technology, Tehran, Iran.
2: Building and Housing Research Center, Tehran, Iran.
Nanosilica sols which are manufactured through polymerization of silisic acid and pyrogenic nanosilicas
are two kinds of synthetic amorphous nanosilicas which have in recent years attracted considerable
research effort as super pozzolanic materials for enhancement of properties of cement based materials.
These materials have high surface area due to their nanosize particles. Nanosilica sols which are
produced through polymerization of silicic acid are almost monodispersed particles and dont form
aggregates and agglomerates. However, in the production process of pyrogenic nanosilicas the particles
fuse together and form aggregates up to a few hundred nanometers in length. The aggregates also bind
together and form agglomerates up to about one hundred micrometers in length. Despite similar specific
surface area of these two types of nanosilcas, their vastly different agglomeration state can influence
their performance in cement based materials. This article presents the results of an in vestigation on the
pozzolanic reactivity of the product Aerosil 200 (a pyrogenic nanosilica with surface area of 200 m 2/g)
and Levasil 200/30 (a nanosilica sol with surface area of 200 m 2/g and concentration of 30%). The results
show that despite the high agglomeration state of the pyrogenic silica its rate of pozzolanic reactivity with
hydrated lime is higher than that of the silica sol. The 24 hour pozzolanic reactivity of the nanosilica sol is
comparable with the 3.5 hour pozzolanic reactivity of the pyrogenic nanosilica in the lime-nanosilica
mixtures. The pozzolanic reactivity of these materials in cement pastes also confirms the higher rate of
reactivity of the pyrogenic nanosilica. The hydration degree of cement and the amount of hydrate water in
the pastes containing the nanosilicas and the plain paste were also investigated.
Keywords: Pyrogenic nanosilica, nanosilica sol, pozzolanic reactivity, calcium hydroxide, Hydration
degree.
1 Introduction
Pozzolanic materials have long been used as Portland cement replacement in concrete. Among
these materials silica fume which is a by product of silicon and ferrosilicon industries has found
a wide spread application in improving the durability and mechanical properties of cement
based materials. In recent years by development of nano sience, a considerable research effort
is attracted to the investigation of the influence of nanosilicas on the properties of cement based
materials. These materials appear to have advantages over silica fume as super pozzolanic
materilals for enhancement of properties of cement based materials. Some of these
characteristics are finer particles, higher purity of silica and higher proportion of non-crystaline
silica than silica fume.
Different types of nanosilicas are produced by a variety of methods. Two of the main kinds of
these materials which have been used in the studies of cement based materials include the
pyrogenic nanosilicas (also called fumed silica) and nanosilica aquasols. Pyrogenic nanosilicas
are produced through reaction of silicon tetrachloride, hydrogen and oxygen in high temperature
furnaces and are in powder form with specific surface area ranging from about 50 to 500 m 2 / g .
Monodisperse nanosilica aquasols are stable dispersion of discrete, amorphous silica
nanoparticles in water and are mainly produced through nucleation and growth of silicic acid in
the aqueous medium. Like pyrogenic nanosilicas, nanosilica sols have a wide range of specific
surface areas. The different production process leads to differences in some characteristics of
these materials. For instance, nanosilica sols are almost monodispersed particles and dont
125
form aggregates and agglomerates while, in the production process of pyrogenic nanosilicas
the particles fuse together and form aggregates up to a few hundred nanometers in length. The
aggregates also bind together and form agglomerates up to about one hundred micrometers in
length. Despite similar specific surface area of these two types of nanosilcas, their different
agglomeration state can influence their performance in cement based materials.
Some researches have studied the pozzolanic reactivity of the aformentioned nanosilicas.
Chandra and Bergqvist 1997 reported the faster pozzolanic reactivity of nanosilica sols in th e
cement pastes compared to silica fume. Korpa et al 2008 and Wu and young 1984 also
reported faster reaction of pyrogenic nanosilicas in contrast to silica fume. The higher degrees
of hydration of C3A and C3S phases of cement by use the pyrogenic nanosilica was reported by
Stein and Stevels 1964, Kurdowski et al 1982 and Beedle et al 1989.
Considering the different characteristics of the two aforementioned kinds of nanosilicas,
particularly their vastly different agglomerated state, differences in the pozzolanic reactivity of
these materials is expected. In this study, the pozzolanic reactivities of a pyrogenic nanosilica
and a nanosilica sol with the same surface area of 200 m 2 / g was studied. The hydration degree
of cement and the amount of hydrate water in the pastes containing the nanosilicas and the
plain paste were also investigated.
2 Materials and Methods

Materials and apparatus
In the current study Aerosil 200 and Levasil 200/30 were respectively utilized as representative
of pryrogenic nanosilicas and nanosilica sols. Aerosil 200 was supplied by Degussa Corporation
and according to manufacturers data, has surface area of 200 m 2 / g and mean particle size of
12 nm. To utilize Aerosil 200 in cement pastes, this material was mixed with water in mass
concentration of 10%, the required amounts of NaOH for adjusting the pH of suspension to 10
was added, and the suspension was mixed for 1 hour with a high shear mixer. The aqueous
suspension of Aerosil 200 prepared to utilize in lime pastes had a mass concentration of 15%
Table 1: the properties of materials.
Properties
cement
Levasil 200/30
Aerosil 200
SiO 2
21.85
30
99.8<
Fe 2 O3
4.6
Al 2 O3
4.55
CaO
60.36
MgO
3.8
SO3
1.78
Na2O .658K 2O
0.8
0.15*
L.O.I
1.19
2.5>
1>
Moisture content
0.5
70
1.5>
Surface area( m 2 / gr )
0.314
200
200
Density( gr / l )
3150
1205
50
pH
*According to manufacturers data the additive includes only NaOH.
126
A comparison between the pozzolanic reactivity of nanosilica sols and pyrogenic nanosilicas
with adjusted pH of 10 and was mixed with a 3000rpm shear mixer for 1 hour. The silica
aquasol, Levasil 200/30 with the surface area of 200 m 2 / g and mean particle size of 15nm, was
supplied by H.C.Stark GmbH & Co.KG Corporation in a mass concentration of 30%.
The cement used in this study was a PC equivalent to ASTM type II. The properties of the
nanosilicas and cement are shown in table.1.
The thermal analyses (TGA/DSC) were conducted by a NETZCH STA449C instrument on
50-75 mg of paste samples in N 2 atmosphere. The samples were heated to 1005C at a heating
rate of 10C/min.
Preperation of mixtures
Lime pastes were prepared by mixing of nanosilica and lime in mass ratio of 1.85 (molar ratio of
1.5) and water to solid ratio of 2. The pastes were mixed in a mechanical mortar mixer for 3
minutes followed by 1 minute stopping and further 3 minutes of mixing. The specimens were
cast into plastic bottles which were sealed air tight and were allowed to react at a temperature
of about 25 C for designated periods of time. Prior to the test the specimens were washed by
acetone and were dried under N 2 flow.
The cement pastes were prepared at a water to solids ratio (cement + nano silica) of 0.27
containing 3 percent nanosilica (Levasil 200/30 or Aerosil 200) as cement replacement. The
higher replacement content was not reachable because of severe reduction of flowability. No
dispersing agent or superplastisizer was used. The pastes were mixed in a mechanical mortar
mixer for 3 minutes followed by 1 minute stopping and 4 minutes of further mixing. After casting
into cubic 505050 mm steel molds, all specimens were vibrated on a vibration table and then
covered to minimize water evaporation. The molds were stripped after 24 h, and the specimens
immersed in water (CH-saturated) at 24C until testing. At predetermined ages the specimens
were crushed and the hydration was stopped by washing them with acetone and oven drying at
105C for 18hours.
3
Determination of the pozzolanic reactivity of the nanosilicas in lime pastes

TGA/DSC was used to evaluate the pozzolanic reactivity of the nanosilicas in nanosilica-lime
pastes. In this respect the pozzolanic reactivity is calculated through measuring the ratio of the
consumed CH to the initial CH by considering the carbonation effect.
Determination of the degree of hydration of cement and calcium hydroxide content in cement
pastes
TGA/DSC was used to determine the evolution of the nonevaporable water content W n(t) and
the Ca(OH)2 content in cement pastes during hydration. In this study it is assumed that
amorphous silica do not consume water chemically to react with calcium hydroxide and the
hydration of 1g cement produces about 0.23g non-evaporable water. The non-evaporable water
content (Wn) was obtained as the difference in mass between the sample heated at 105C and
1005 C normalized by the mass after heating to 1005 C. The non evaporeable water was
corrected by considering the carbonation effect.
The following formula is used to calculate the hydration degree of cement:
Hydration deg ree of cement
Wn (t )
100
mc .Wn ()
(1)
Wn (t ) : the non evapoeable content of cement paste at any time t.
Wn () : the nonevaporable water content at t corresponding to full hydration of 1 g of

cement.
127
mc = the mass ratio of cement to cementitious materials

Weight loss due to Calcium Hydroxide (CH) decomposition is estimated by the TG graphs.
The DSC graphs were used to determine the onset and the end of decomposition of CH. The
normalized CH content was calculated by considering the carbonation effect, using the following
formulas:
CH norm (t )
CH (t )
mc CH plain paste (t )
(2)
mc = the mass ratio of cement to cementitious materials

CH plain paste (t) = CH content of plain paste at any time t.
CH (t ) : CH content of paste at time of t.
Determination of the hydrate water in cement pastes
Hydrate water content is the difference between the non-evaporable water content (w n) and the
water associated with CH (W CH), both of which can be obtained from the TGA curves.
Measuring the hydrate water can provide an indication of the amount of hydrated phases such
as CSH other than CH. In the current study the carbonation effect is considered in calculating of
the hydrate water.
3 The results
The pozzolanic reactivity of the nanosilicas in lime pastes
The pozzolanic reactivity of Aerosil 200, Levasil 200/30 are compared in fig.1. As shown,
Aerosil 200 had faster reactivity compared to Levasil 200/30. Both products consume a
considerable amount of lime in the first 3.5 hours. The pozzolanic reactivity of Aerosil 200 at 3.5
hour was more than 60%. This content is about 50% higher than pozzolanic reactivity of Levasil
200/30 that consumed less than 40% of lime at this age. At 24 hour the reactivity of Levasil
200/30 was comparable to 3.5 hour reactivity of Aerosil 200. At this time the consumed lime by
Aerosil 200 was 82% which was 15% higher than the reactivity of Levasil 200/30. After 72 hour,
both nanosilicas appear to have completed their reactivity and have consumed more than 90%
of lime.
100
Pozzolanic reactivity (%)
90
80
A200
70
L200
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
1
10
100
1000
Age (hours)
Figure 1: the pozzolanic reactivity of the nanosilicas in the lime pastes.
128
10000
The pozzolanic reactivity of nanosilicas in cement pastes

The normalized calcium hydroxide contents of cement pastes containing the nanosilicas at
different ages are presented in fig 2. As shown, the pyrogenic nanosilica consumed some of the
lime at the first 24 hour. However, the considerable reduction of lime in cement paste containing
Levasil200/30 was observed at 72 hour. This indicates that the pyrogenic nanosilica had a
faster pozzolanic reactivity compared to the nanosilica sol and confirms the results of
pozzolanic reactivity of the nanosilicas in the lime pastes. At all of the ages the cement paste
containing Aerosil 200 had less lime than the cement paste containing Levasil 200/30, showing
the higher pozzolanic reactivity of the pyrogenic nanosilica.
The difference between the amount of lime in the pastes containing the nanosilicas became
smaller at the age of 100 days which indicates that Levasil 200/30 show more reactivity than
Aerosil 200 between the ages of 28 and 100 days.
Control
normalized lime content
0,9
L200
0,8
A200
0,7
0,6
0,5
0,4
0,3
0,2
0,1
0
1
28
100
Age, days
Figure 2: the normalized lime content of cement pastes.
The hydration degree of cement pastes

The hydration degrees of cement pastes at different ages are shown in fig 3. It is revealed that
the pastes show considerable proportion of their hydration in the first day. The pastes
containing Aerosil 200 and Levasil 200/30 have similar hydration degrees in 1, 3 and 100 days.
However, the paste containing Aerosil 200 showed higher hydration degree than paste
containing Levasil 200/30 in 7 and 28 days.
50
Control
Hydration degree ,%
45
L200
40
A200
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1
28
100
Age, days
Figure 3: the hydration degree of cement in the cement pastes.

129
The pastes containing the nanosilicas had similar hydration degrees in the early ages of 1 and 3
days with the plain paste. After 7days, reduction in the hydration degree in contrast to the plain
paste is observed. The less degree of hydration of cement pastes containing nanosilicas
compared to plain paste may be due to the low water/cementitious materials, ie, nanosilicas
adsorb a huge amount of water in their structure and consequently the reachable water to
hydration of cement decreases. Therefore the degree of hydration of cement reduces.
The hydrate water of cement pastes
The hydrate water contents of pastes at different ages are presented in fig.4. As shown, the
paste containing Aerosil 200 had higher amounts of hydrate water in contrast to plain paste until
28 days. At age of 100 days the reduction of hydrate water in this paste compared to plain
paste was observed. The hydrate water amount of paste containing Levasil 200/30 was similar
with the hydrate water content of the plain paste at ages of 1 and 3 days and was lower than
the plain paste at the age of 7days and after this age. The higher or similar content of hydrate
water of cement pastes containing the nanosilicas in the early ages is due to pozzolanic
reactivity of these materials and similar hydration degrees of the cement of these pastes in
contrast to plain paste which leads to higher contents of chemically bound water in the CSH
phase. The reduction of hydrate water of pastes containing the nanosilicas at the later ages is
due to lower hydration of these pastes compared to plain paste and inability of pozzolanic
reactivity to produce enough CSH to compensating for lower hydration of cement.
8
Control
Hydrate water, %
L200
A200
5
4
3
2
1
0
1
28
100
Age, days
Figure 4: hydrate water contents of cement pastes.
4 Conclusions
Thermogravimetric analysis of nanosilica-lime pastes shows that despite the agglomerated
state of the pyrogenic nanosilica, Aerosil 200, it has faster pozzolanic reactivity than
Levasil200/30. This material also shows higher reactivity than the nanosilica sol in the cement
pastes.
Replacing part of cement by both types of nanosilicas caused acceleration of cement
hydration during the early ages up to three days. However, with the progress of hydration and
from 7 days lower hydration of cement due to nanosilicas was observed.
130
5 Acknowledgments
Support from the building and housing research center (bhrc) is gratefully acknowledged.
Authors also express their gratitude to Mrs jafarpoor and Mrs firoozyar for termogravimetric
analysis of the samples.
References
[1] Chandra,S.; Maiti,S,C. :Improved properties of cement mortar and concrete with colloidal silica.
Six'th NCB international seminar on cement and building materials,XII-58, 1998.
[3] Stein,H,N.; Stevels,J,M. :Influence of silica on the hydration of 3CaO.SiO 2, Journal of Applied
Chemistry 14, pp 338-346, 1964.
[4] Korpa,A.; Trettin,R.; Bottger,K,G.; Thieme,J.; Schmidt,C. :Pozzolanic reactivity of nanoscale
pyrogene oxides and their strength contribution in cement-based systems, Advances in Cement
Research 20, pp 35-46, 2008.
[5] Wu,Z,Q.; young,J,F. :The hydration of tricalcium silicate in presence of colloidal silica: , J. Mat. Sci
79, 1984.
[6] Kurdowski,W.; Nucun-Wczelik,W. :The tricalcium silicate hydration in the presence of active silica,
Cement and Concrete Research 13, pp 341-348, 1983.
[7] Beedle,s,s.; Groves,G,W.; Rodger,S,A. :The effect of fine pozzolanic another particles on hydration
of C3S, Advances in Cement Research 2(5), pp 3-8, 1989.
131
132
Fluid Catalytic Cracking Residue additions such an

alternative to Silica Fume in UHPFRC
Esteban Camacho1, Juan ngel Lpez 1, Pedro Serna Ros2
1: PhD student, Universitat Politcnica de Valncia, Spain
2: Professor, Universitat Politcnica de Valncia, Spain
In UHPC some condensed silica fume (CSF) additions imply a remarkable decrease of the workability,
requiring a high increase of water to reach selfcompacting properties. In some conditions the
aglomerates doesnt disperse efficiently, even with an intensive mixing. In this cases, FC3R (Fluid
Catalytic Cracking Catalyst Residue) can be a good alternative. This residue from the petrol industry has
pozzolanic properties. Its particles are not condensed and the reduction on workability can be lower than
with CSF. Its reactivity can be higher at short term and its white colour provides wider posibilites.
In this study different UHPFRC with these two additions are casted. The mixing process, the rheology,
the time evolution of the compressive strength and the flexural strengh are contrasted. Microstructure is
also observed to compare the size of the pozzolanic particles inside the concrete.
Keywords: Fluid Catalytic Cracking Catalyst Residue, condensed silica fume, compatibility, UHPFRC.
1 Introduction
Silica fume is a subproduct from industrial synthesis of silicon alloys considered nowadays
necessary in every UHPC dosage. It provides stability in the fresh state, and higher compacity
and compressive strength in hardened state. However, condensed silica fume (CSF)
composition and particle distribution can significantly vary depending on the provider. Some
CSF can strongly decrease the workability of the mixture, being sometimes impossible mix a
dosage with low W/B content and the typical high content of CSF (15-30%) in UHPC.
The main parameters that vary depending on the CSF industrial origin are the degree of the
particles condensation and the content of unburned carbon. This last parameter should be as
low as possible due to its high water adsorption capacity. In previous works [9], the content of
CSF with 4% of unborn carbon in the UHPC developed couldnt be higher than 10% over
cement weight.
For this reason Fluid Catalytic Cracking Catalyst Residue (FC3R), a pozzolanic residue from
petrol refinery processes, is suggested here such an alternative to CSF. This product is a
zeolite type inorganic silica-alumina compound. The particles size range between 0.1 and 30
m. Particles have a high degree of roughness with irregular shapes due to the previous
process of grinding. Its special geometry implies a decrease in the workability of the mixtures if
it substitutes Ordinary Portland Cement [4], but this effect is less marked than with some CSF.
FC3R has an activity index in the same range as CSF and it is commercialized in a not
condensed state, what means that no intensive energy mixing is required to develop the
potential efficiency of the addition. As CSF [3], FC3R could also produce a significant reduction
of the thickness of the Interfacial Transition Zone (ITZ), improving the mechanical strength and
durability [4]. Besides, its white colour can provide additional aesthetic possibilities.
The FC3R has not been used in concrete for structural applications. Only research has been
developed adding it to Ordinary Concrete (OC) in laboratory conditions with successful results.
As far as we know, this is the first experience of FR3R with UHPC-UHPFRC in any conditions.
On the other hand, fly Ash (FA) is a residue from thermoelectric power plants, and its particle
morphology is spherical. This provides an enhancement of the workability of the fresh concrete
when substitutes cement, and also reduces the bleeding risk. The costs are lower than the
cement and the Activity Index is near to 1 when the W/B ratio is very low, as in UHPC. Thats
133
why its interesting to substitute cement such a second pozzolan. In some cases its combination
with more active additions (CSF or probably with FC3R) can develop a very interesting synergy
to reach higher mechanical strengths. The key point for FA suitability is that its particle size
range complements the granulometric curve and that shows compatibility with the other binder.
2 Objectives
The main purpose of this paper is to study the possibilities of use FC3R as an alternative of
CSF addition in UHPC, analyzing the effect on the rheological and mechanical differences. This
effect was studied on concretes made with different cement types, additions and admixtures.
A secondary objective is to evaluate the effects of using a Fly Ash (FA) as secondary
pozzolan with CSF or FC3R on the rheological and hardened state UHPC properties.
A two steps program was developed. The first one compare the FC3R effectiveness with other
pozzolanics binders and its interaction with different cements, working with no fibers mortar
mixtures. Flowability and compressive strengh are the analysed. The second fase study the
effect of these admixtures in higher volumes of UHPFRC, adding also other CSF, and including
in the analysed properties the concrete flexural behavior.
Binders effectiveness for UHPC analysis
In the first step the binder composition of on the UHPC was analysed. To do that a program of
50 different mortar dosages was composed modifying the binder proportions (considering as
binder: cement, CSF, FC3R and FA). Mortars were prepared with 1:1 sand/binder weight ratio.
The same 0-2 mm silica sand provided by Caolines Lapiedra was used for all mortars. PCE
admixture Glenium ACE 32 (BASF) was used, keeping constant the content in 4.5% respect to
binder, so fluidity suffered logic variations due to the binder proportions. This phase variables
were: Two sulphate resistant cements were used: a I - 42.5 R/SR and a I - 52.5 R/SR from
Lafarge, according with the Spanish standard [11]; and the pozzolanic additions: a CSF from
Ferroatlntica S.A., a FA from Andorra Thermal Station, and a FC3R provided by Omya
Clariana S.A. Chemical composition of the additions is shown in table.
Table 1: Chemical composition of the active additions used (* : Guaranteed from the provider).
Material
SiO2
CaO
Al2O3
Fe2O3
Na2O+K2O
LOI
CSF*
>85%
<1%
<1%
<4%
FC3R [4]
48.2%
<0.01%
46%
0.95%
0.5%
1.5%
FA [6]
40.9%
9.8%
24.7%
13.6%
1.74%
25 of the dosages were done with cement I - 42.5 R/SR (W/B ratio fixed in 0.18) and the other
25 with cement I - 52.5 R/SR (W/B ratio of 0.2). This difference in the water binder ratio was
established due to the higher specific surface of the 52.5, reaching with this change comparable
fluidity for the same binder combinations. Table 2 shows the solids mix design of all mixes.
Each dosage was done with both I-42.5 R/SR and I-52.5 R/SR cement.
1 litre of UHPC was cast with each dosage in a mortar mixer according to [10]. With the
mixer working at the normal mixing speed all dry materials were mixed during 90 s., adding
after the water with the half of the PCE. The mixing was stopped at the 3rd min. and restarted at
the 4th min. with the addition of the remaining PCE. In general between the min. 5 and 8 the
consistency changed from dry to plastic, and later to liquid. Only between the min. 8 and 9 high
mixing speed was applied and the process finished at normal speed in the min. 10.
134
Fluid Catalytic Cracking Residue additions such an alternative to Silica Fume in UHPFRC
Table 2: Experimental program of the first phase. Solids mix proportions.
Dosage n
Cement
Silica Fume
FC3R
Fly Ash
Sand
% over total weight of solids, [% over cement weight]

1
45
4.5 [10]
50
41.7
4.2 [10]
4.2 [10]
50
38.5
3.8 [10]
7.7 [20]
50
35.7
3.6 [10]
10.7 [30]
50
41.7
4.2 [10]
4.2 [10]
50
43.5
6.5 [15]
50
40
6 [15]
4 [10]
50
37
5.6 [15]
7.4 [20]
50
34.5
5.2 [15]
10.3 [30]
50
10
40
6 [15]
4 [10]
50
11
45.5
4.5 [10]
50
12
41.7
4.2 [10]
4.2 [10]
50
13
38.5
3.8 [10]
7.7 [20]
50
14
35.7
3.6 [10]
10.7 [30]
50
15
43.5
6.5 [15]
50
16
40
6 [15]
4 [10]
50
17
37
5.6 [15]
7.4 [20]
50
18
34.5
5.2 [15]
10.3 [30]
50
19
41.7
8.3 [20]
50
20
38.5
7.7 [20]
3.8 [10]
50
21
35.7
7.1 [20]
7.1 [20]
50
22
33.3
6.7 [20]
10 [30]
50
23
45.5
4.5 [10]
50
24
41.7
8.3 [20]
50
25
38.5
11.5 [30]
50
Fluidity was measured using the Mini-slump test [12] and 3 40x40x160 mm specimens were
casted with no vibration. Curing process was at 20 C with RH 100%. Flexural and compressive
strength were determined in one 40x40x160 mm prism at 2, 7 and 28 days according to [10].
UHPFRC dosages
16 mixtures of UHPFRC were casted in an intensive mixer (EIRICH R08 W). Variables modified
in this phase were:
-Cement type as in previous phase and cement content (varied between 700-1000 Kg/m3)
-Active addition type: The same as in the previous stage were used, adding another CSF
(ELKEM 940-D) to compare the rheological and mechanical differences that can produce the
use of a richer Si2O product. Its composition was Si2O>90%, LOI<3%.
-The active additions (CSF and FC3R) content of 10%-15%. 15% of FA was used in mix n
14 as it seemed the optimum content in the previous step.
-Three different PCE were used (A: BASF SKY 575, B: BASF GLENIUM ACE 32, C: SIKA
VSC 20 HE). According with previous studies PCE A was selected for mixes with cement I-52.5
R/SR as deduced the most efficient, while B,C were used with I-42.5 R/SR cement mixtures.
Different PCE were used for each cement. The % of each PCE was determined in previous
study, providing all them similar workability to the same dosage. It is clear that effectivity
depends on the admixture solid content, but also on its specifics properties and compatibility
135
with the binders. Only with ELKEM CSF the B PCE dosage was reduced as the low carbon
content lead to a much more fluid concrete (mix. 13 and 16). W/B ratio was modified with the
purpose of have similar workability except mixtures 10-11, where the W/B effect was analyzed.
Every mixture contained 2% in volume of high strength steel fibers: 1% of 13 mm straight
fibers with a 0.16 mm diameter from Bekaert (Dramix OL 13/0.16), and the other 1% of 30 mm
length hooked end fibers an aspect ratio of 80 (Dramix RC-80/30-BP).
The dosage of every mixture casted can be seen in table 3, except the sand content. The
same 0-2 mm silica sand than in the first phase was used. Its dosage was adapted for each
dosage to reach the cubic meter of UHPFRC volume.
Table 3: Experimental program of the second phase. (* : Mixtures made with CSF ELKEM 940-D).
Mix n
Cement
CSF
FC3R
FA
Type
Kg/m3
52.5 R/SR
700
10%
52.5 R/SR
700
10%
52.5 R/SR
850
10%
52.5 R/SR
850
42.5 R/SR
W/B
PCE
Type
0.27
3%
0.27
3%
0.21
3%
10%
0.21
3%
850
10%
0.22
4.5%
42.5 R/SR
850
10%
0.21
4.5%
42.5 R/SR
1000
15%
0.21
3.5%
42.5 R/SR
1000
15%
0.2
3.5%
9 (x2)
42.5 R/SR
1000
15%
0.195
4.5%
10 (x2)
42.5 R/SR
1000
15%
0.19
4.5%
11
42.5 R/SR
1000
15%
0.18
4.5%
12
42.5 R/SR
1000
15%
0.175
3%
13
42.5 R/SR
1000
15%(*)
0.175
2.5%
14
42.5 R/SR
850
10%
15%
0.175
3%
15
42.5 R/SR
800
25%
0.22
4.5%
16
42.5 R/SR
800
25%(*)
0.19
2.5%
% over cement weight
With every 50 litres batch were casted 16 specimens of 100x100x100 mm for compressive tests
and 3 specimens of 100x100x500 mm for un-notched three point bending tests. For some
batches slump-flow and T500 were measured according to ASTM C143.

Binders effectiveness for UHPC analysis
Figure 1 shows the mixtures rheology. The mini-slump-flow decreased with the increasing
quantity of FC3R or CSF as was expected. It was appreciated that for dosages with CSF the
decrease of flowability is much stronger than for similar contents of FC3R. This effect is more
significant when the mixture contain cement I-52.5 R/SR.
It was noticed that the amount of FC3R over cement weight can reach 20% without mixing
problems unlike with CSF, which hardly decrease the workability with quantities over 10%. An
addition of 20% of CSF was tried (as it was done with FC3R) but the decrease of flowability was
so hard that it was impossible to reach a plastic-liquid mix even with longer mixing times.
It was also confirmed that increase the FA content implies an increase of flowability. This
effect is stronger with I-52.5 R/SR cement, because in this case FA substitutes finer cement.
136
Figure 1: Mini-Slump-flow diameter for mixtures with cement I-52.5 R/SR (left) and I-42.5 R/SR (right).
Relatively to the hardened state, in the table 4 can be seen the 28 days compressive strength
depending on the mixture composition. The absence of fibers produce a brittle failure which
limits the strength. The value for 10% of FC3R mixtures is slightly higher (5%) than the ones
with 10% of CSF. For 15% of content over cement weight, this difference turns more
remarkable, being of 14% and 16% with I-52.5 R/SR and I-42.5 R/SR cements respectively.
This difference is partly associated to the decrease of workability with 15% CSF content, which
implies a more porous matrix because the air cant rise to the surface. The higher strengths with
FC3R are also due to its higher FC3R activity and the incapacity of the mixer to disperse with
total efficiency the CSF particles.
Table 4: 28 days compressive strength of the different dosages (MPa).
CSF
Only FA
52.5
0% FA
10% FA
20% FA
30% FA
10% FC3R
126
127
130
10%
FC3R
15%
10%
15%
20%
42.5
52.5
42.5
52.5
42.5
52.5
42.5
52.5
42.5
52.5
42.5
142
128
133
127
123
134
117
127
122
122
121
109
126
124
127
128
126
125
112
139
131
131
131
131
126
125
125
123
149
144
136
142
148
139
138
146
144
144
132
147
134
153
133
125
132
123
123
On the other hand, in general the effect of the FA didnt decrease the strength, showing even
increases for some cases. This can be explained because a good activity but even more
because of the fluidity that provides to the mix, which let the air to go out, creating then a more
compact matrix. From other point of view, if the selfcompactability of a mixture is adequate, FA
can be added and the W/B ratio reduced, for increase the strength maintaining the flowability.
It can be seen that combination of active additions with FA provides good results: Concretes
with 711 Kg/m3 of cement (mix. 22) reach similar strengths than others with 1000 Kg/m 3, as mix.
11, with advantages of less shrinkage, better compacity, lower costs and more sustainability.
20% of content of FA seemed to be the optimum one.
Compressive strength was also determined at 2 and 7 days. The first was 60%-70% of the
28 days strength, depending of the FA substitution but without noticeable differences between
the FC3R and CSF mixes. At 7 days CSF mixes showed a strength ranged in 80-85% of the 28
days strength, while the FC3R mixes had between 87%-94%, depending on the FA content.
This difference is due to the higher activity of the FC3R at short term, while the CSF develops
137
more its pozzolanic activity the following weeks. Increasing content of FA produced, in general,
noticeable lower strengths at 2 days and slightly lower ones at 7 days.
As can be deduced from the results, the strength values with cement 42.5 R/SR and 52.5
R/SR are very similar, what means that the use of one or other cement would depend of each
situation (prices, compatibility of materials, etc).
Finally, a study with Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) was done to mixes 5, 8 and 24
with cement 52.5 R/SR 90 days after casting. Figure 2 shows the presence of an agglomerate
powdered silica fume particle, what demonstrate that this CSF is not fully dispersed, so the
potential of this active addition is only partially developed. Figure 3 shows the high degree of
compacity of the mixtures. Active additions improved the interfacial transition zone, so the
failure with compressive efforts is developed with a crack that breaks the silica arids.
Figure 2: CSF particle, dosage 5.
Figure 3: Interfacial Transition Zone (ITZ), dosage 5.
UHPFRC dosages
In the mixing process, some differences were noticed between concretes made with FC3R and
those made with CSF. Concretes with FC3R needed longer times (9-11 min.) to change from a
mass of solids to a suspension. At this moment the mixer required the maximum power to keep
the programmed rotational speed. The stabilization time (time required until particles are
homogeneously mixed) was also 2-3 minutes longer for FC3R than for CSF dosages.
The primary ettringite formation in the sulphate resistant cements is limited, because its low
content of C3A. In the UHPFRC made with FC3R the primary ettringite formation may increase
due to its high Al2O3 content. In an alkaline medium it changes to AlO2-, and forms ettringite
crystals of seizes between 300 and 500 nm [2]. These are the first molecules of the Rapid
Forming Ettringite. The admixture particles, with sizes 20 or 30 times smaller, are overgrown by
these crystals or are chemically incorporated to these new formed hydration products, losing its
efficiency. That is why FC3R needed longer mixing times than mixtures with CSF. To solve this
problem part or all the PCE addition can be delayed, taking higher advantage of its properties,
but requiring therefore higher mixing times.
Slight addition of water could reduce this time, but when the mass becomes a suspension
fluidity increase radically showing a tendency to segregation. Then, FC3R seemed to be more
sensible to the water addition than the CSF, which provided more stability. A qualitative
measure of the segregation can be assigned to the mixtures by the Visual Stability Index (VSI)
[5], based in a visual evaluation of the segregation of the UHPFRC during the slump flow test
(0: high stable SCC, 3: Totally segregated SCC). VSI for mixtures with CSF was 0, while for
138
FC3R was 1. From a practical point of view this implies that the use of FC3R requires even
more control of the humidity and water added to reach the desired fluidity in the mix.
Slump flow diameters and T500 were measured for some of the mixtures according to [1]
(table 5). Most of them were SF3 according to the consistence classification of [8] between
760 and 850 mm- having similar filling hability. Dosages with FC3R showed markedly higher
values of T500, what means higher viscosity than similar mixtures with CSF. Probably this is
due to the lower PCE efficiency in mixtures with FC3R previously discussed.
Its remarkable that mixtures 13 or 16, with ELKEM CSF has lower value of slump flow than
the equivalent concretes made with other pozzolanes, but also a lower of T500, flowing fast
when it is in movement, but with a short time slump increase. The lower water demand of the
FC3R when compared with CSF is clear from results of the 9 and 10 mixtures.
Table 5: Slump flow diameters and T500 of some of the mixtures.
Test
9 (x2)
10 (x2)
12
13
15
16
Slump flow (mm)
830
763
744
790
820
743
No SCC
600
T500 (sec)
4,8
12,2
6,8
8,9
9,6
6,1
4,8
Relative to the hardened state, its noticeable the different effect of the active additions
depending on the cement (figure 6). FC3R showed better compatibility with I-42.5 R/SR type
and CSF with I-52.5 R/SR. The type of PCE used could also had affected to this compatibility.
Its noticeable the strength increase respect to the previous phase due to the addition of 2% of
fiber in volume, which sews the micro-crack evolution.
Figure 6: Compressive Strength evolution of the mixtures. Squares enclose comparable dosages.
It can be noticed that mixtures with FC3R develop more strength at 2-7 days because of the
higher short term reactivity, while CSF is more active from second week. Dosage 14, with 15%
of FA, had, as expected, slightly lower strength at 24 h, but the increase from this moment was
marked, reaching 157 MPa at 28 days, 10 MPa more than the dosage 6, similar but without FA.
Mixtures 10 and 11 differed only in the W/B ratio, with 0.19 and 0.18 respectively. The
slump-flow of both resulted higher than 750 mm, and the 28 days strength of the second was 9
MPa higher. On the other hand, mixture 13 was casted also (mixture 13 b) with W/B ratio of
0.162 instead of 0.175. The slump-flow was reduced to 650 mm, the T500 was 8.1 sec., and the
28 days compressive strength decreased from 165 MPa to 143 MPa. This showed the
139
importance of not to reduce too much the water content, because it can avoid the rise of the
entrapped air and also its possible that the unhidrated binder quantity is too high. W/B should
be as low as possible provided that selfcompactability is adequate.
Dosages made with ELKEM CSF provided the best performances. Mixture 13, 7 and 12
differed only in the active addition (ELKEM CSF, Ferroatlntica CSF and FC3R). Even though
3,5% of PCE was used in mixture 7, the W/B ratio required for good workability was 0.21, while
for mixture 13 was 0.175. The only reason is the composition and microgranulometry of the
CSF. For mixture 12, the W/B required was also 0.175 and the level of strength was very
similar. This shows FC3R as a very efficient addition for UHPFRC.
In the mixes 15 and 16 typical contents of CSF in UHPFRC were added (25% with respect to
cement). Ferroatlntica CSF was not selfcompacting even thought the 0.22 W/B ratio, and
ELKEM CSF provided a suitable mixture with W/B of 0.19, generating consequently better
strength results. In the case of mix 15, increase W/B ratio to reach high fluidity is unacceptable
for produce a strong decrease of the performance, being out of the UHPC order. It was
observed that 15% in respect to cement of any addition provides better properties than 25%.
Flexural strength was not markedly affected by the active addition type, depending mainly on
the binder content. More information about flexural performance can be found in [7].
5 Conclusions
FC3R is an active addition that can be used successfully in UHPC-UHPFRC, providing more
fluidity and mechanical strength comparing with some CSF. The % with respect to cement can
be higher than 10% without that strong decrease of flowability. It seemed more active at short
term (2 and 7 days) than CSF. Flexural strength performance is similar than with CSF dosages.
On the other hand, FC3R composition probably implies different chemical reactions during
the mixing process, what can affect to the PCE efficiency, and this leads in higher mixing times.
This effect should be considered if used. Delayed addition of the PCE can improve its
efficiency. Results evidence that a good UHFRC mix design needs an important previous test
program to optimise the components selection as its compatibility is not easily foreseeable.
References
[1] EN 12350-8. Testing fresh concrete-Part 8. Self-compacting concrete-Slump flow test.
[2] Schiel, P.; Mazanec, O.; Lowke, D.; Plank, J.; Schrfl, C.; Gruber, M.; Schmidt, M.; Glotzbach, C.;
Stephan, D.: Rheology of UHPC-Effect of superplasticizer and silica fume on mixing and workability
of UHPC. 3rd fib International Congress, Washington D.C., USA, May-June 2010.
[3] Schie Rossignolo, J.A.: Effect of Silica Fume and SBR Latex on the Paste-aggregate Interfacial
Transition Zone. Materials Research. Vol 10, No. 1, 83-86, 2007.
[4] Pay, J.; Monz, J.; Borrachero, M.V.: FC3R: An excellent mineral by-product for improving earlystrength development of cement mixtures. Cement and Concrete Research 29 (1999) 1773-1779.
[5] AASHTO TP 80-10. Standard Method of Test for VSI of Self-Consolidating Concrete (SCC).
[6] Soriano M., L.: Nuevas Aportaciones en el Desarrollo de Materiales Cementantes con Residuo de
Catalizador de Craqueo Cataltico Usado. Doctoral Thesis. UPV, Valencia, 2007.
[7] Camacho , E.: Caracterizacin de HMAR: Estudio de las propiedades reolgicas y mecnicas para
dosificaciones de distintos niveles de rendimiento. Master Thesis, Valencia, February 2011.
[8] The European Guidelines for SCC: Specification, Production and Use. May 2005.
[9] Camacho, E.; Serna Ros, P.: Design and analysis of UHP-Hybrid-FRC ties for truss structures. 8th
fib PhD Symposium in Civil Engineering. Denmark, June 2010.
[10] EN 196-1: Methods of testing cement. Part 1. Determination of strength.
[11] Aenor UNE 80303-1. Cementos con carac. adicionales. Parte 1: Cementos resistentes a sulfatos.
[12] Kantro, D.L.: Influence of water-reducing admixtures on properties of cement paste-a miniature
slump test. Cement, Concrete and Aggregates, Vol.2, Issue 2. Pp 95-102. 1980.
140
Colloidal photocatalysts and their applications for air/water

purification under UV or visible light irradiation
Shuai Yuan, Meihong Zhang, Jianping Zhang, Yin Zhao, Zhuyi Wang, Liyi Shi
Research Center of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, Shanghai University, China
Based on our previous work, the visible-light (fluorescent lamp as light source) response colloidal
photocatalysts with high dispersity and stability in aqueous solution were prepared by Cu2+ or Fe3+ ions
doping. The samples were characterized by XRD and TEM. The absolute zeta potentials of the metal ion
doped TiO2/SiO2 hydrosols were much higher than 50.0 mV in neutral condition. Methylene blue was
taken as the simulated pollutants to study the adsorption and photocatalytic properties of the obtained
hydrosols. The prepared hydrosols show high photocatalytic activity under the irradiation of visible light.
Keywords: Cu2+, Fe3+, TiO2, hydrosol, visible-light photocatalysis
1 Introduction
Nanosized TiO2 crystals of less than 10 nm show significant differences with bulk TiO 2 in many
aspects due to the quantum size effect [1]. TiO2 hydrosols consisting of highly crystallized nanoparticles have been widely studied in the fields of photocatalytic degradation of pollutants and
self-cleaning windows [2]. However, the pure TiO 2 hydrosol is usually adjusted to acidic
conditions and stored at low temperature (~ 4 oC) to avoid sedimentation [3].
Neutrality of the hydrosol is one of the important requirements as acidic or basic hydrosol is
corrosive and harmful to the substrate materials. Recently, we investigated the preparation of
TiO2/SiO2 hydrosols with small grain size (~10 nm). The prepared TiO 2/SiO2 hydrosols are
transparent, stable and show high photocatalytic activity in neutral range [4].
In this work, a chemical precipitation-peptization method was used to prepare organic-free
TiO2 hydrosols with TiCl 4 aqueous solution as a precursor. The hydrosols take advantage of
both TiO2 with high photocatalytic activity and SiO 2 with high stability in neutral condition.
However, the TiO2/SiO2 hydrosol only shows high photocatalytic activity under UV light
irradiation. To extend the light response to visible range, Cu2+ and Fe3+ ions were doped in the
nanocomposites respectively. The photocatalytic properties of Cu2+ and Fe3+ ions doped
TiO2/SiO2 were investigated by the degradation of dye solutions.
2 Experimental section
Materials:
All reagents used were of analytical grade purity. Aqueous TiCl 4 solution was provided from
Sinopharm Chemical Reagent Co.Ltd. NH 3H2O, HCl, methylene blue, and oleic acid were
obtained from Shanghai Reagent Ltd. SiO2 sol (30wt %) were purchased from Shanghai
Hengsheng Ltd.
Preparation of TiO2 hydrosol.
The preparation process of Cu2+ and Fe3+ ions doped TiO2/SiO2 is similar to the process
preparing TiO2/SiO2 reported in our previous work [4]. The metal ions were added to the
reaction system during the acid-peptization stage.
Characterization
The powdered samples were prepared through rotatory evaporation of the colloids at 40 oC.
X-ray diffraction (XRD) was performed on a D/Max-2200 X-ray diffraction meter (Rigaku
Corporation, Japan) at room temperature, operating at 30 kV and 30 mA, using Cu k radiation
141
(=0.15418 nm). The crystal size was calculated by Scherrers formula. UV-vis diffuse
reflectance spectra were recorded with a UV-2501 PC spectrometer (Shimadzu, Japan)
Spectrumlab. The samples for UV-vis spectra were obtained with the same solid content of
0.05wt % TiO2.The zeta potential of the TiO 2 or SiO2-modified TiO2 nanoparticles was measured
on a Zetasizer 3000HS (Malvern Instruments Ltd.UK.)
Evaluation of photocatalytic activity
The photocatalytic properties of the metal ions doped TiO2/SiO2 were evaluated by the
degradation of methylene blue. Methylene blue is a cationic dye. For all the adsorptiondesorption experiments and photocatalysis experiments, the initial concentration of methylene
blue was 6.0 mg/L, equivalent to 1.0 g/L TiO2 in aqueous solution. The adsorption-desorption
experiment was operated by adding the photocatalyst to dye solution. The solution was
constantly aerated and magnetically stirred in the dark. The dye concentration of the solution
was measured every 10 min after removing colloids by centrifugation at 8000 rpm for 30 min.
The remaining methylene blue was detected by a Visible Spectrometer at wavelength of 664
nm.
The photocatalytic activities of different samples were evaluated in a tube, equipped with a
magnetic stirring bar. Before irradiation, the dye/sol mixture was magnetically stirred in dark for
30 min to establish an adsorption-desorption equilibrium, so the loss of the compound due to
adsorption can be taken into account. During the photoreaction process, the colloid solution
was irradiated by a fluorescent lamp (9 W, 400 nm) with constant aeration and magnetic
stirring. The dye concentration of the solution was measured every 30 min after removing
colloids by centrifugation at 8000 rpm for 30 min. The efficiency of degradation was calculated
from the following formula:
D= (A0-A)/A0100%
Where A0 and A are the initial and final absorbance at 664 nm for methylene blue.
2+
doped TiO2/SiO2
3+
doped TiO2/SiO2
Cu
Fe
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
2-Theta/ degree
Figure 1: XRD patterns of Cu2+ and Fe3+ ion doped TiO2/SiO2.
XRD patterns of Cu2+ and Fe3+ ion doped TiO2/SiO2 are shown in Figure 1. For each sample,
the peaks correspond to anatase phase according to PDF21-1276. There is no peak belonging
to Fe2O3 or CuO, which may be due to the Fe3+ and Cu2+ doping in the anatase lattice.
Compared to the undoped TiO 2/SiO2, the crystal sizes of Fe3+ and Cu2+ doped TiO2
nanocrystals are about 10 nm. The results indicate the metal ion doping didnt change the
crystal phase and crystal size of TiO2, due to the low dopant concentration.
142
Colloidal photocatalysts and their applications for air/water purification under UV or visible light irradiation
Figure 2: UV-vis spectra of Cu2+ and Fe3+ ion doped TiO2/SiO2 and photocatalytic degradation of methylene
blue under the irradiation fluorescent lamp.
The light absorption property of photocatalyst in the UV-vis range is one key factor affecting the
photocatalytic activity. From Figure 2, it can be observed that the absorption edge is around
365 nm. The Fe3+ and Cu2+ doping extend the response range to visible light. The absorption
edge of Fe3+ doped TiO2/SiO2 is around 400 nm. Compared to Fe 3+, Cu2+ dopant can shift the
absorption edge to longer wavelength. The ion radii of Fe 3+ ion, Cu2+ ion are 0.064nm and
0.072nm, respectively, which are close to the radius of Ti4+ ion (0.680 nm) [5]. So Fe 3+ and Cu2+
are easy to be doped in the TiO 2 lattice and replace partial Ti 4+. The acceptor doping can
reduce the bandgap and make the visible-light excitation to be possible. Cu 2+ doped TiO2/SiO2
shows higher photocatalytic activity than Fe 3+ doped TiO2/SiO2, which may be due to the wider
visible-light absorption range.
Figure 3: SEM image of Cu2+ doped TiO2/SiO2 coated stainless steel.
143
The Cu2+ doped TiO2/SiO2 colloid was coated on the stainless steel by spin-coating method.
The SEM image shows the porous structure of photocatalytic film on stainless steel (Figure 3).
This porous structure will benefit the adsorption and photocatalytic degradation of organic
pollutants.
To evaluate the self-cleaning property of the photocatalytic film under visible light irradiation,
we monitored the visible-light photocatalytic degradation of oleic acid adsorbed on the surface
by measuring the contact angle of water on the film during different stages. As shown in Figure
4, the surface of Cu 2+ doped TiO2/SiO2 coated stainless steel 15 are hydrophilic (contact angle
5.0). The contact angle increased to 47.7due to the adsorption of oleic acid. After irradiation
by fluorescent lamp (9 W, 400 nm) for 1h, 2h and 3h, the contact angle reduced to 30.7,
21.4, and 4.6 , respectively, reflecting the gradual decomposition of oleic acid. After the
complete removal of oleic acid, the surface property reverted to hydrophilic.
Figure 4 The contact angles of water on (a) stainless iron; (b) Cu 2+ doped TiO2/SiO2 coated stainless iron; (c)
Cu2+ doped TiO2/SiO2 coated stainless iron adsorbing oleic acid; (d) Cu 2+ doped TiO2/SiO2 coated stainless
iron adsorbing oleic acid after fluorescent lamp irradiated for 1h; (e) Cu 2+ doped TiO2/SiO2 coated stainless
iron adsorbing oleic acid after fluorescent lamp irradiated for 2h; (f) Cu 2+ doped TiO2/SiO2 coated stainless iron
adsorbing oleic acid after fluorescent lamp irradiated for 3h are 29.2, 5.0,47.7,30.7,21.4,4.6, respectively.
4 Conclusion
Based on our previous work, the visible-light (fluorescent lamp as light source) response
colloidal photocatalysts with high dispersity and stability in aqueous solution were prepared by
Cu2+ or Fe3+ ions doping. Furthermore, the colloidal photocatalysts with high dispersity and
stability can be easily applied for air purification coating by spin-coating or spray-coating
method.
5 Acknowledgement
The authors acknowledge the supports of Shanghai Leading Academic Discipline Project
(S30107), International cooperation fund of Shanghai Science and Technology Committee
(09520715400), and The Research & Innovation Projects of Shanghai Education Commission
(11YZ22). Science Foundation for The Excellent Youth Scholars of Universities (Shanghai) and
Innovative Foundation of Shanghai University.
144
Colloidal photocatalysts and their applications for air/water purification under UV or visible light irradiation
Reference
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
Y. Zhao, C. Li, X. Liu, F. Gu, H.L. Du, L. Shi. Appl. Catal. B: Environ. 79 (2008) 208.
J Liao, L Shi, S Yuan, Y Zhao, J Fang. J Phys. Chem. C, 113(2009), 18778.
T Liu, F Li, X Li. J Hazard. Mater. 152 (2008) 347.
M Zhang, L Shi, S Yuan, Y Zhao, J Fang. J Colloid Interf. Sci., 330(2009),113.
L Yu, S Yuan, L Shi, Y Zhao, J Fang. Micropor. Mesopor. Mater., 134(2010),108.
145
146
New Photocatalytic Cementitious Composites containing

Modified Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles
Vyacheslav Falikman1, Alexander Vajner2, Igor Zverev3
1: Moscow State University of Civil Engineering, Russia
2: Scientific Research Institute for Concrete and Reinforced Concrete, Moscow, Russia
3: Institute of Comprehensive Exploitation of Mineral Resources of the RAS, Moscow, Russia
Cementitious building materials containing TiO 2 nanoparticles find the increasing application in processes
of organic and the inorganic compounds photomineralization representing a new resource of opposition
to pollution. With use of a new synthesis procedure TiO 2 nanoparticles having anatase structure with high
specific surface 300 m2/g or so were prepared.
Photocatalytic cementitious composites were developed and tested (concrete, mortars, plasters, cement
paints, etc.); relation was found between physical and chemical parameters and conversion processes
occurring on their surface. The cement based matrix appeared to assist in conversion of the noxious
pollutants and their removal from surrounding air. Influence of radiation intensity, relative humidity, and
concentration of a contaminant and its stream speed on photocatalysis of nitrogen oxides, vapors of
benzene and acetone was studied. It is established that efficiency of the composites with synthesized
samples in 1,5 - 1,7 times higher that for known commercial samples.
Keywords: titanium dioxide, photocatalytic properties, cementiuos building materials, pollutants
1 Introduction
Nanodimensional titanium dioxide is widely used as a photocatalyst in photochemical
decomposition reactions of many organic and non-organic pollutants by virtue of its high
efficiency, biological and chemical inertness and relatively low cost [1, 2].
In the recent years one observes the increasing interest to application of cement composites
comprising titanium dioxide nanoparticles. Building materials possessing photocatalytic
properties allow noticeably reducing the environment polluting effect being particularly important
in megalopolis conditions [3, 4]. Further achievements in their use expansion to a considerable
extent depend on appreciable rise in nanocatalyst efficiency in decomposition reactions of the
basic urban pollutants nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, volatile organic substances, etc.
To date a variety of different methods to increase photocatalytic activity of nanodimensional
titanium dioxide has been offered. In particular, recently it has been shown that higher activity is
exemplary for mesoporous nanoparticles of TiO 2, which are characterized by predominance of
the anatase phase, small sizes of crystals and high specific surface area [6].
The behavior of such nanocatalysts in cement systems may have certain peculiarities
associated with high pore volume and high specific area. Such a research along with
development of the simple and handy way of mesoporous anatase titanium dioxide synthesis
has become the aim of this work.
2 Synthesis and characteristics of mesoporous nano-TiO 2

The synthesis of TiO2 nanoparticles was carried out by adaptation of the previously described
methods [7, 8]. As an initial titaniferous precursor the tetraisopropyltitanate (TTIP) was used. To
inhibit the hydrolysis rate and subsequent condensation the 30% aqueous solution of H2O2 was
introduced into the reaction mix. Cetyl trimethylammoniumbromide (CTMABr) was chosen as a
template, a structure-forming and pore-forming agent. The initial sol-gel reaction of TiO2
synthesis was conducted in the presence of tetramethylammonium hydroxide. The
peroxytitanium acid solution obtained represented a clear and stable liquid with pH = 7. Then
147
this solution was subjected to autoclave crystallization under hydrothermal conditions at 80 oC

during 48 hours with subsequent air calcination of the product at 500 oC during 4 hours, thereby
resulting in formation of nano-TiO2 with the anatase structure.
The analysis of TiO2 nanoparticles obtained was made in conformance with established
methods. For instance, the X-ray phase analysis of the specimens was made using DRON-3
diffractometer (Russia) with monochromatic Cu K a emission. The dimensions of the anatase
and rutile phase coherent-scattering region were determined by Sherrer formula [9] using halfwidths of anatase (101) and rutile (110) diffraction reflections.
The total value of specific area S BET was determined by the traditional method of argon
thermal desorption according to four points of sorption equilibrium using SORBI-M instrument
supplied by META Co. (Russia). The specimen porous structure was studied by the method of
nitrogen low-temperature sorption at 77 oK using DigiSorb-2600 Micromeritics unit (USA). Prior
to this, the specimens were trained in 10 -4 Torr vacuum at 200oC during 5 hours. Pore
distribution by sizes was calculated by the stripping branch of nitrogen adsorption isotherm
using the classical Barrett Joyner Halenda (BJH) method [10].
With the purpose to optimize structural-sorption characteristics of TiO 2 nanoparticles when
being formed, the content of CTMABr template was varied in the initial reaction mixes. As is
seen from Table 1, the test specimen of TiO 2-0 obtained in the absence of the template is
characterized by the lower values of specific area and pore volume. The crystal grain sizes
calculated by Sherrer formula are in the range of 6.7 to 7.6 nm, while with increase of CTMABr
template content the crystal grain sizes decrease.
Table 1: Parameters of crystal grains, surfaces and pores of TiO 2 nanoparticles depending
on CTMABr content in the reaction mixes.
Marking
TiO2-0
TiO2-10
TiO2-20
TiO2-30
TiO2-45
CTMABr,
mass.% TTIP
0
10
20
30
45
SBET, m2/g
145
218
230
267
284
Pore volume,
Vpor , cm3/g
0,275
0,299
0,300
0,298
0,314
Pore size,
nm
3,8
4,2
4,8
5,1
5,6
Crystal grain
size, nm
7,6
6,8
6,7
6,4
6,1
It should be noted that all synthesized specimens including non-calcinated ones are
characterized by the presence of only anatase modification of TiO 2, though the calcinated ones
exhibit a more advanced crystalline structure. The nitrogen adsorption desorption isotherms of
synthesized TiO2 nanoparticles correspond to the IV isotherm type with H2 hysteresis loop
according to IUPAC classification [11], this being typical for mesoporous structures.
3 Preliminarily estimation of nano-TiO 2 photocatalytic efficiency

To preliminarily assess the photocatalytic efficiency of synthesized specimens in comparison
with P 25 commercial product supplied by Evonic-Degussa GmbH (Germany) the methods [12]
were used based on decomposition of rhodamine dye 6G aqueous solution (Table 2). When
conducting photocatalytic decomposition, 0.1 g of TiO 2 was added to 40 ml of the dye solution
with 10 mg/l concentration. The solution was exposed to polychromatic light of the Sylvania Par
38 100 W mercury vapor lamp The dye concentration was determined photometrically in the
UV-range using Unicam 8700 spectrometer and absorption band = 539 nm. It is believed that
photocatalytic decomposition of rhodamine 6G obeys the first-order chemical equation.
A
ln 0 kt
A
(1)
148
New Photocatalytic Cementitious Composites containing Modified Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles
where 0 initial dye absorption;

- dye absorption in time t;
k - rate constant for first-order equation.
Table 2: Estimation of nano-TiO2 efficiency.
Sample
P 25
TiO2-45
Modification
Anatase
Rutile
Crystal
Crystal
Content,
Content,
grain
grain
%
%
size, nm
size, nm
81
36
19
88
100
6,1
0
-
SBET,
m2/g
Pore
volume,
Vpor ,
cm3/g
Pore
size,
nm
k, min-1
51
284
0,165
0,314
20
5,6
0017
0,029
The rate of rhodamine 6G photodecomposition using TiO 2-45 almost doubles that of its
disappearance in the presence of P 25 photocatalyst. Thus, in the first case the dye in the
experiment completely decomposes in 18 minutes, while in the second case in 40 minutes.
4 Photocatalytic efficiency of nano-TiO 2 in cementitious composites

When studying cement compounds with titanium nanodioxide, the white cements of CEM I 5 2.5
class according to EN 197-1 from a number of manufacturers were used including those from
Aalborg plants (Denmark), as well as the domestic ordinary Portland cement of CEM I 42.5
class according to GOST 31108 from the Belgorod Cement Plant with the standardized
chemical composition (PC 500 D0). The actual activity of all cement samples conformed to the
class and was more than 50 MPa during tests in the test mortars according to GOST 310.4. In a
number of tests and compositions the Pikalyovo Portland cement PC 400 D20 was used
according to GOST 31108-2003.
Gypsum and the second-grade air-setting hydrated high-calcium pulverized lime without
additions were used in plastering and paint compounds according to GOST 9197.
Crushed granite stone from the igneous rock of the Lobskoye quarry (Republic of Karelia) with
5-20 mm fraction according to GOST 8267 was used as a coarse aggregate.
The quartz sand from the Mansurovsky deposit with M f=2.5 (bulk density 1632 kg/m 3) was
used as a fine aggregate for concrete and mortars according to the requirements of GOST
22263. In a number of compounds the quartz sand of 0.0-0.63 mm fraction with Mf=1.8 was
used.
The efficiency of photocatalysts in cement systems was evaluated in relation to nitrogen
oxide degradation as well as to volatile organic compounds gasoline and acetone vapors. The
concrete composition was assigned with account of the requirements of GOST 27006 and
GOST 30459, that of cement mortars according to GOST 28013, that of dry pack mortars
according to GOST 31357. TiO2 proportioning, as a rule, was 5% of cement mass.
The studies of NO phototransformations in the presence of titanium nanoxide were
conducted with consideration of recommendations of WG 33 ISO 206/SCN at 50% of air
relative humidity, 25 OC and 3 l/min of air speed, while the initial content of nitrogen oxide in the
air was 1 ppm, the photometric intensity was 10 W/m 2 under polychromatic exposure with
wavebands 300-400 nm and the maximum emission of 365 nm. The exposure duration was 30
min. NO content in the air mixture was determined using adapted MX6 Multi-Gas Monitor
supplied by ISC (USA).
The synthesized nanoparticles of mesoporous TiO 2 have demonstrated much higher
efficiency of NO transformation as compared with P 25 commercial product (Table 3).
It is noteworthy that the phototransformation efficiency is somewhat decreases with the age
of concrete specimens, this being rather connected with the course of hydration processes in
149
the cement matrix. The recent work [13] has established that introduction of TiO2 nanoparticles
with 15 nm average size into the concrete mix accelerates C S H gel formation and
increases quantity of Ca(OH)2. These products block up active centers on surfaces of TiO 2
nanoparticles, while calcium hydroxide can also react with titanium dioxide reducing its
photocatalytic activity. With the initially higher photocatalytic activity the mesoporous TiO 2
specimens are seemed to be more affected, this being the cause of its more dramatic drop with
the concrete age.
Table 3: Comparative assessment of TiO 2 photocatalytic efficiency
in Portland cement concretes under NO conversion.
Sample of TiO2
Concrete curing time, days

3
25
TiO2-45
NO change ratio, %
25
24
28
23
42
39
28
35
Decorative elements from composite materials for architectural finish of building facades as well
as landscaping elements and small architectural forms are more frequently used in modern
construction practice. They shall answer architects concepts and structural peculiarities of
buildings. To improve their decorative properties, as a rule, white and color cements are used.
In this connection of interest is the assessment of TiO 2 photocatalytic activity in relation to
the white cement whiteness (Table 4).
Table 4 Effect of cement whiteness on NO conversion efficiency in
concretes with TiO2 -45 nanoparticles (concrete age 28 days).
Sample
Producer
Cement mark
1.
2.
Aalborg, Denmark
Aalborg, Egypt
3.
imsa, Turkey
4.
Shchurovo Cement,
Russia
Aalborg White
Aalborg White
Super White
Portland Cement
PCB 1 500 D0
Cement
whiteness, %
95
87
NO change ratio,
%
52
42
85,5
44
80
39
As it is seen from the table, NO conversion is most efficient in white Danish cement matrices
characterized by the highest whiteness. The efficiency is somewhat decreases with Egyptian
and Russian cements, this seems to be explained by pollution of these cements with transition
metal ions Fe3+ and Mn3+ [14].
The high photocatalytic activity of synthesized mesoporous TiO 2 nanoparticles was
confirmed in the course of decomposition of volatile organic compounds (VOC), while plastering
mortars and cement paints were used as catalyst carriers.
In the course of measurements the kinetic characteristics of pollutant content variation in the
air were determined under effect of the photocatalytic reaction on the specimen surface being
exposed to soft ultra-violet radiation. Gasoline and acetone were used as VOC-pollutants of the
air environment. The gas-air mixtures comprising the outdoor air and pollutant vapors with 5 x
10-4 g/l concentration were analyzed. The air stream speed was 1.1 l/min, relative humidity was
64%, duration of photocatalytic decomposition of VOC in each test 6 hours. Free volume of
150
New Photocatalytic Cementitious Composites containing Modified Titanium Dioxide Nanoparticles
the reaction chamber was

1.3
l.
Exposure
was
conducted at illumination
intensity of 10 W/m2. The
specimen
surface
o
temperature was 26 C. The
cylindrical specimens 15
cm in diameter and 5 cm
high coated with cement
dye or plastering mortar
with TiO2-45 content 1.93.3% were used (See
Fig.1).
Figure 1: Specimen coated with cement paint with TiO2-45

placed in the test box
The preliminary tests for optimization of photocatalyst concentration in the specimens studied
have shown that photocatalytic activity of TiO 2-45 nanoparticles grows with the rise of their
content in cement composites up to 3.8%, after that it stabilizes. Thus, plastering mortar
specimens with 1.9 and 3.8% content of TiO 2-45 nanoparticles allow in the above conditions
implementing gasoline decomposition by 52.3 and 63.1% accordingly, while the gasoline
concentration in the air decreases down to the values of 0.73 and 0.68 MAC, accordingly.
The photocatalytic activity of synthesized mesoporous TiO 2 nanoparticles is essentially
reduced with the rise of relative humidity of the air environment (Table 5). Irrespective of the
relative humidity value, replacement of mesoporous TiO 2 nanoparticles by P 25 commercial
product reduces the photodecomposition rate by 1.5-1.7 times.
Table 5: Effect of relative humidity on photocatalytic activity of mesoporous TiO2-45 nanoparticles
in plastering mortars. TiO 2 content 3.8%.
Duration of exposure, hours

1
2
3
4
5
6
Decomposition rate, %, under relative humidity, %

64
95
0
0
24,74
15,43
47,42
31,91
55,67
40,43
63,40
52,13
69,07
54,79
The gasoline photodecomposition rate increases with the exposure intensity growth, though the
nature of this relationship varies depending on the exposure dose. For instance, in the range of
exposure doses from 3.5 to 15 W/m 2 the gasoline decomposition extent increases non-linearly
and only afterwards, in the range of 15 40 W/m2 it acquires the linear nature.
It should be also emphasized that the gasoline decomposition rate in the presence of
synthesized mesoporous TiO 2 nanoparticles depends on quite a number of other factors, e.g.
pollutant concentration and its stream speed. Thus, with the double growth of gasoline content
in the gar-air mixture its decomposition extent decreases by 22%. The double growth of
gasoline vapor flow rate results in reduction of the pollutant decomposition extent by 17%.
151
As to acetone vapors in the air environment, the gypsum-cement plasters comprising 2.2%
of mesoporous nano-TiO2 provide 62% of conversion extent in two hours of exposure, this
being 1.6 times higher than when using P 25.
5 Conclusions
Thus, the authors have developed the improved method of producing nanoparticles of anatase
mesoporous TiO2 with a high specific surface area in the order of 300 m 2/g and for the first time
have shown an opportunity to use it as components of cement and gypsum composites as a
highly efficient photocatalyst in the processes of nitrogen oxide and VOC conversion. The effect
of structural parameters of nanoparticles and various physical and chemical factors on
photocatalytic processes is considered. It is established that efficiency of synthesized
mesoporous TiO2 nanoparticles is 1.5-1.7 times higher than that of the titanium nanodioxide
commercial specimen.
References
[1] Falikman, V.R., Vainer, A. Ya.: Photocatalytic active building materials with titanium dioxide
nanoparticles - the new concept of ecology enhancement for megacities. Application of
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152
Synthesis of Photoactive Silica Spheres with Titania Nano

Coating as Potential Nano-Composites for Mortar and
Concrete
Sameena Kamaruddin 1, Dietmar Stephan2
1: Institute of Structural Engineering, University of Kassel, Germany
2: Dept. of Civil Engineering, Technische Universitt Berlin, Germany
In this work, monodisperse silica spheres around 440 nm in diameter, prepared via the Stber-Process,
were coated with a nano-scaled layer of titania via hydrolyzing tetrapropylorthotitanate (TPOT). This
procedure yielded in a continuous layer of titania on the silica support. The success of the coating was
verified via scanning and transmission electron microscopy (SEM/TEM) as well as via zeta-potential and
X-ray fluorescence analysis (XRF). In order to evaluate the photoactivity of the samples, the degradation
of an aqueous methylene blue solution and NO-gas under UV-A light were studied. The results showed
that the composite particles consisted of only 4-5 wt.-% titania and their photocatalytic efficiency was
close to that of P25.
Keywords: Photocatalysis, Nanomaterials, Sol-Gel-Method, Core-Shell-Particles, NO-Degradation
1 Introduction
Nano-crystalline TiO2 is widely used for decomposing organic and inorganic substances [1-4]. It
is already applied as an additive for paints, ceramics, roofing tiles and cement -containing
products like plaster, paving stones or concrete for the decomposition of pollutants and green
vegetation on their surfaces [5-8]. In addition to the photocatalytic properties, TiO 2 has also
superhydrophilic characteristics. Decomposed material and dirt can therefore be very easily
washed away by water [9-11].
However, nano-particles tend to agglomerate, which leads to a reduction of the active
surface area and a higher dosage has to be employed to yield the mentioned effects.
Composite materials consisting of a core and just a thin photoactive titania shell may be used
as an alternative material to nanosized pure photocatalysts [12, 13]. Such systems can be
tailored according to the purpose of their application, as the size of the particles, as well as the
thickness of the shell can be altered. By using cores beyond the nanoscale, agglomeration can
be reduced to a great extent.
There are different methods to encapsulate or modify the surface of a substrate. For
instance, it is possible to use electrostatic attraction forces between the core and the shell
component to combine them [14, 15]. The layer by layer (LBL) method also allows to apply
multiphases on particles via electrostatic attraction forces by using polycations and polyanions
respectively to adjust the surface charge [16, 17].
In this work, an organometallic titania precursor was directly hydrolysed and condensed on
cores of monodisperse Stber particles. A continuous titania shell was obtained via this method.
In comparison with other research works in this field [18, 19] a more facile setup of preparing
core-shell particles was used here, by mixing the titania precursor with the silica stock in a glass
beaker instead of supplying the precursor into a reactor. However, gradual addition of the
precursor was also studied. Additionally, photocatalytic activity was tested via the degradati on
of an aqueous methylene blue solution and also of NO x in air. The degradation of methylene
blue reflects the self cleaning properties of the composite materials. The degradation of NO x
represents their capability to degrade air pollutants and remarks their potential for the
development of construction materials with environmentally beneficial properties.
153
2 Experimental
The spherical silica cores were synthesized by hydrolysing tetraethylorthosilicate (TEOS,
Wacker silicones) in a solution of ethanol, ammonia and distilled water under continuous stirring
at room temperature (20 C) (Table 1). This method is well known as the Stber procedure
[20].
Table 1: Amounts of reactants used to prepare silica particles of 435 nm diameter
TEOS [ml]
Ethanol (99.9 Vol.-%) [ml]
Ammonia (29 wt. -%) [ml]
Water [ml]
44
1000
93
15
After 24 hours the precipitate was repeatedly centrifuged and washed with ethanol. In a glass
beaker the washed precipitate was immediately redispersed in 270 ml of an ethanol/water
mixture with a water content of 1 mol/L. To coat the silica particles with titania, 65 g of a solution
of tetrapropylorthotitantate (TPOT) in ethanol with a concentration of 15 wt.-% were introduced
to the silica sol under continuous stirring. The TPOT-solution was gradually supplied with a feed
rate of 0.5 ml/min to obtain sample A and added all at once to obtain sample B. The preparation
was stirred for 24 hours at room temperature (20 C) and then centrifuged and washed with
ethanol until the supernatant was clear. The coated particles were then dried at 40 C and
calcined at 650 C.

Scanning and transmission electron microscopy
To characterize the morphology of the coated and uncoated particles SEM and TEM analysis
were performed. Fig. 1 shows uncoated silica particles, which are spherical and have a smooth
surface.
Figure 1: Uncoated silica particles. (Left: SEM-picture, right TEM picture).
In contrast to the uncoated ones a textured surface was observed for the coated particles (Fig.
2). The left micrograph in Fig. 2 was obtained on a sample prepared with a gold coating to
enhance electric conductivity.
154
Synthesis of Photoactive Silica Spheres with Titania Nano Coating as

Potential Nano-Composites for Mortar and Concrete
Figure 2: SEM image of coated particles. Left: sample A (with Au); Right: sample B (without Au).
In spite of the gold coating, the smoother coating of the particles generated with the slower field
rate can be easily distinguished from the rougher coating of the particles, yielded when adding
the precursor at once.
The analysis with the TEM allowed a closer look at the texture of the shell (Fig. 3). In the
right picture of Fig. 3 a cristalline titania shell (sample A) can be observed on the particles in
contrast to the uncoated particles in the left picture.The crystallinity of the shell was achieved by
calcination at 650C.
Figure 3: Left: uncoated particle; Right: coated particles (Sample A)
BET measurements
The water content and the feed rate are important factors, which can lead to secondary
nucleation of the titania precursor. A slower feed rate leads to a lower concentration of the
precursor in the silica sol and therefore to lower concentrations of titania monomers in the
solution. It is more likely that titania monomers then bind to the core particles instead of forming
individual titania particles which agglomerate and loosely precipitate on the silica to give a
rough surface. This on the other hand causes a higher specific surface area as a more
structured surface is obtained. BET values were analyzed, which are in agreement with the
postulation given here. BET of sample A prepared with lower feed rate was 8.5 m/g, BET of
sample B was 25 m/g.
155
Zeta potential measurements

Electro-acoustic zeta potential measurements showed a shift of the isoelectric point (IEP)
towards higher pH values for the core-shell particles. According to the zeta potential
measurements, pure silica had an IEP of 3.9, pure titania of 5.8 and the core-shell particles had
IEPs of 5.8 (sample A) and 5.2 (sample B), see Fig. 4. Due to the fast addition of TPOT during
the preparation of sample B, it is possible that the surface of the particles was not completely
covered by titania. We suspect that the IEP of that sample was therefore between those of SiO2
and TiO2.
40
SiO2
30
TiO2
Sample A
Sample B
20
zeta-potential [mV]
10
0
-10
-20
-30
-40
-50
-60
-70
1
10
11
pH
Figure 4 Profiles of the zeta potential with pH dependency of SiO 2, TiO2 and the core-shell samples A and B.
X-ray fluorescence analysis

A quantitative analysis was performed via X-ray fluorescence analysis (XRF) to identify the
quantity of titania in the entire sample. According to that, sample A consisted of 4 wt.-% TiO2
and sample B consisted of 5 wt.- % TiO2. During the synthesis an excess amount of TPOT was
added, as loss of titania particles during the washing steps was expected as well as that not all
particles bind to the core surface. In case of complete conversion to the oxides the amounts of
titania and silica precursors used here equate to 80 wt.-% silica and 20 wt.-% titania.
Photocatalytic activity
For the evaluation of the photocatalytic activity of the samples the degradation of an aqueous
methylene blue (MB) solution was examined. For this purpose an apparatus designed after DIN
52980 was used [21]. 30 mg of the sample sedimented in 40 ml of a 10 mol/L MB-solution.
The solutions were kept in the dark for two hours after which the samples were irradiated with
UV-A light having an intensity of about 1.7 mW/cm for another 18 hours. Illumination was
provided by two 20 W UV-lamps (Philips Cleo).
The relative concentrations as functions of the irradiation time for sample A and B, calcined
at 650C are shown in Fig. 5. Both samples show similar degradation properties (rate constant
k = 46.910-3h-1). Fig. 6 shows exemplarily the discoloured MB-solution containing sample A in
comparison with the sample containing the uncoated particles, after illumination with UV -light.
156

1,0
c/c0
0,8
0,6
0,4
uncoated particles
Sample A 650C
Sample B 650C
dark
14
20
Irradiation time [h]

Figure 5: Comparison of MB degradation of samples A and B, calcined at 650C.
Figure 6: Methylene blue solutions containing uncoated particles (left) and sample A (right) after illumination
with UV-light.
Additionally photonic efficiency was verified via degradation of NO-gas, based on ISO 22197-1
[22, 23]. For this purpose, a NO-gas stream with a concentration of about 1 ppm overflew a
definite surface area covered by the core-shell samples (see Fig 7). Prior to the measurements,
the samples were pre-exposed to UV-A light of 1 mW/cm intensity over a time period of five
hours. This ensured that pollutants, which were already on the sample, were degraded. NO
degradation in the dark was analysed for one hour and under UV-light (1 mW/cm) for another
5 hours. Exemplarily, the result of sample A is shown in Fig. 8. Photonic efficiencies were
calculated according to Kandiel et al. [24]. In this case photonic efficiency was defined as the
ratio of the NO degradation rate and the incident photon flux, for a mean irradiation wavelength
of 350 nm. The photonic efficiency of sample A was 0.35 %, that of sample B 0.39 %. In
comparison, the photonic efficiency of industrial P25 nano titania powder (Evonic), measured
under the same conditions, was 0.50 %. In contrast, uncoated particles showed for this case
negligible photonic efficiency of 0.02 %.
157
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
light source;
optical window;
test specimen;
gas containing the
pollutant;
purified air;
mass-flow controllers;
gas mixers;
humidifier;
analyzer for pollutants
Figure 7: Schematic of the setup for analysis of NO degradation based on ISO 22197- 1 [22].
1
1,0
light intensity [mW/cm]
concentration NO [ppm]
0,8
0,6
0,4
0,2
0,0
0
Irradiation time [h]
Figure 8: Profile of the NO degradation by sample A with the irradiation time.
4 Conclusions
Continuous titania shells in nanoscaled dimensions were successfully grown on silica particles
prepared via the sol-gel method. A comparative study between two samples was performed,
one prepared by gradual addition of the titania precursor and one by adding the precursor all at
once. Differences in the surface morphology were evident, as characterized via SEM and TEM
measurements. Sample A consisted of a smooth surface morphology, whereas particles of
sample B were textured roughly. Interestingly, the feed rate did not affect the quantity of
adsorbed titania significantly and therefore also not the photocatalytic activity.
TiO2 quantities of just 4 wt. -% (sample A) and 5 wt.-% (sample B) were found. Photonic
efficiencies were close to that of P25 (Evonik), which is frequently used as a benchmark in
158

photocatalysis and is worldwide applied for various photocatalytic products. The prepared core shell samples are therefore promising photocatalysts, as the total amount of titania is very low.
Further studies shall optimize this kind of composite material to make it applicable for different
kind of photocatalytically modified products, such as mortar, concrete or paints.
5 Acknowledgements
The work is part of the project HelioClean. The authors greatly acknowledge the financial
support of the German Bundesministerium fr Bildung und Forschung (BMBF) in the program
NanoTecture. We would like to thank KRONOS International, Inc. (Leverkusen) for performing
the TEM measurements and Markus Gnther at the Technical University of Dresden for
performing the SEM measurements as well as Sylvia Heinemann at the University of Kassel for
her assistance in the lab.
References
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photoreactor engineering. Research on Chemical Intermediates 2 (26), 207-220, 2000.
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Zukunftsperspektiven. Thesis, 2011.
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Colloid Particles, 2003.
[18] S. H. Lim, N. Phonthammachai, S. S. Pramana and T. J. White: Simple Route to Monodispersed
Silica-Titania Core-Shell Photocatalysts. Langmuir 24 (12), 6226-6231, 2008.
[19] J. Ida, T. Yoshikawa, T. Matsuyama and H. Yamamoto: TiO 2 coating on silica particles by deposition
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160
Photocatalytic Building Materials and Methods of

Measurement
Kai Amrhein1, Dietmar Stephan2
1: Institute of Structural Engineering, Universitt Kassel, Germany
2: Building Materials and Construction Chemistry, Technische Universitt Berlin, Germany
The introduction describes the basic concept of photocatalysis and shows the problem of air pollution in
inner cities. One way to reduce the pollutants is the usage of photocatalytic building materials on huge
surfaces, like facades, roofs, roads, and public places. To verify the aircleaning effect of these different
materials dependable methods to determine the photocatalytic activity
are necessary. Some
measurement methods shall be presented in the second chapter, including international standards
measuring air cleaning effects and national standards determining self cleaning properties of
photocatalytic materials. In the end some examples and measurements are shown and problems using
standards with porous materials are shown.
Keywords: TiO2, titanium dioxide, photocatalyst, photocatalytic building materials, NO degradation, air
cleaning, self cleaning
1 Introduction
The photocatalytic effect of TiO2 was discovered 40 years ago by Fujishima in Japan [1] which
resulted in increasing research activities in Asia, specially in Japan since then. But the last
years photocatalysis became more and more popular in Europe too. The most common
photocatalyst is crystalline titanium dioxide, to specify more precisely nanoparticles in rutile and
anatas modifikation. Titanium dioxide can be explained as semiconductor with a bandgap of
about 3.0 to 3.2 eV [2]. This complies with the wavelength of UV irradiation that enables TiO2 to
excite an electron from the valence bond to the higher energetic conducting bond. Organic and
inorganic molecules can be decomposed directly or indirectly by the activated electrons and
holes on the surface of the titanium dioxide now. Therefore the presence of oxygen and water is
necessary [3]. These both components can react to very reactive OH or oxygen radicals which
degrade for example air pollutants like nitrogen oxides [4]. Because reactions take place on the
surface of the photocatalyst, a high specific surface is essential. Therefore smaller particles with
a high ratio of surface to volume show the best effects. After full degradation of nitric oxide and
nitrogen dioxide which are harmful air pollutants, nitric acid is formed, which reacts with alkaline
constituents of the building surface, until only nitrates like Ca(NOO3)2 are left. In contrast to
harmful NO and NO2 which ere emitted by cars and combustion engines in general, nitrates are
water-soluble and harmless in occurring concentrations. Legal limits concluded by the EU are
regularly exceeded in German cities [5].
The problem are pollutants, mainly air pollutants like nitrogen oxides and small organic
molecules like formaldehyde, toluene etc. which put the population at risk. One possibility to
decrease the concentration of them is to ban cars with a high emission of pollutants in the inner
city where the problem is the highest. Another way to reduce air pollutants is the use of great
unused areas in the city area for photocatalytic aircleaning. Modified window glass that cleans
itself and the air is already known. The next step is to use roads and parking areas. Research
takes place in the modification of concrete road surfaces, paving stones, roof tiles and facade
paintings [4, 6] .
But another problem results from the development of photocatalytically modified building
materials. Dependable test methods to verify their activity are necessary because different
161
materials can hardly be compared with each other. Therefore some methods of measurement
should be introduced in the next section.
2 Methods of Photocatalytic Measurements

Overview of some national and international standards on photocatalysis
A variety of products is already developed like eyeglasses, mirrors or glazed ceramic tiles with
transparent TiO2 coatings with a thickness of just a few nanometres. More and more
construction materials with photocatalytic properties are developed. The modification of building
materials like roof tiles, facade paints and concrete leads to some new properties like high
porosities and higher pH values with cementitious materials. National and international
standards are under development but most do not regard typical properties of different building
materials like porosity but work fine for plain coated samples. An exception is the Italian UNI
standard, specially created for cementitious systems.
Another effect of titanium dioxide which is prominent during irradiation with UV light is the
superhydropilic property of the surface. This effect decreases the contact angle and spreads
water, resulting in surfaces which are easy to clean [2]. Especially on flad surfaces like tiles or
window glasses this so called self cleaning is successfully in service.
All methods and standards depend on the same principle. They all monitor the
decomposition of various kinds of model pollutants. These may be gaseous like nitric oxide and
toluene, liquid or dissolved in water like methylene blue or applied on the samples surface as
solid film like rhodamine B or stearic acid. Table 1 shows an overview of existing standards as
well as standards in concept phase.
Table 1: This table shows the different standards for proving photocatalytic activity of different kinds of
modified materials, national and international standards are considered, some are still drafts (D).
Measurement method
National / international standard
Nitric oxide
JIS R1701-1 / ISO 22197-1 / BS ISO 22197-1
Gas
Acetaldehyde
JIS R1701-2 / ISO 22197-2 / BS ISO 22197-2
Gas
Toluene
JIS R1701-3 / ISO 22197-3 / BS ISO 22197-3
Gas
Formaldehyde
Methylmercaptane
JIS R1701-4 / ISO/DIS 22197-4
Gas
JIS R1701-5 / ISO/DIS 22197-5
Gas
NO / NO2
UNI 11247
Gas
BTEX
UNI 11238
Gas
NOx
XP B44-011
Gas
VOC / odour
XP B44-013
Gas
DIN 52980 / ISO 10678 / BS ISO 10678
Dissolved in water
UNI 11259
Solid coating
Methylene blue
Rhodamine B
Organic pollutant mixture
Methyl stearate
Water contact angle
Antimicrobial
Antifungal
DIN EN 1096-5
Solid coating
Intended
Solid coating
ISO 27448 / BS ISO 27448
Solid coating
ISO 27447
ISO/DIS 13125D
International standards for gaseous air pollutants

The first standards to determine photocatalytic properties were established in Japan, were the
research activities started. These are the JIS R 1701-1 to JIS R 1701-5, all standards for
different degradation measurements in the gas phase. These were adapted for first international
162
standards. These are ISO 22197-1[7], ISO 22197-2 [8] and ISO 22197-3 [9]. Two further
standards are still in concept status. These are ISO/DIS 22197-4 [10] and ISO/DIS 22197-5
[11]. The three valid standards are also adopted in Great Britain as national standards BS ISO
22197-1 to BS ISO 22197-3.
All these measurement methods, developed for ceramic materials, use gaseous pollutants
and special flow through photo reactors with laminar flow shown in Figure 1. The sample has a
surface of 510 cm with a 5 mm thick channel for the gas flow above. Relativ humidity is set to
50 % and set by dividing the airflow into one dry flow and one flow humidified by a washing
bottle. The concentration of the different pollutants is set to a constant value too. The active
sample inside the photo reactor is irradiated through a quartz or borosilicate glas window with
UVA light of 10 W/m. The first international standard, ISO 22197-1, uses synthetic air mixed
with 1 ppm nitric oxide as inorganic pollutant and an air flow of 3.0 l/min [7]. The next two
standards use acetaldehyde and toluene as widespread organic air pollutants. ISO 22197-4 and
ISO 22197-5 which are still in concept phase track the decomposition of formaldehyde and
methylmercaptan to determine the photocatalytic activity.
Figure 1: diagram of the assembly for measuring the photocatalytic decomposition of nitric oxide containing
the following parts: UVA source (1), photo reactor (2), specimen (3), air pollutant in gas cylinder (4), synthetic
air (5), mass flow controller (6), mixing chamber (7), humidifier (8) and NO analyser (9).
National standards for decomposing air pollutants

Besides Japanese and international standards there are some more national standards for
determining the activity of photocatalytically modified materials to clean the air. As described
above, Great Britain has adopted three valid ISO standards for degrading NO, acetaldehyde
and toluene. France also has two national standards, XP B44-011 for decomposing nitrogen
oxide mixtures (NOx) [12] and XP B44-013 for decomposing volatile organic compounds and
odours in closed rooms [13].
Italy has developed their standards for photocatalytic measurements specially for
cementitious materials. Two of them use air pollutants in a bigger photo reactor than in ISO
standards described above and more turbulent flow inside. UNI 11238 [14] uses a BTEX
mixture as organic model. This is an acronym for a mixture of benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene
and xylenes [15], which are some of the harmfull volatile organic compounds (VOC) that can be
found in petrol for example.
UNI 11247 [16] is the second Italian standard for cementitious photocatalysts and uses a
mixture of NO/NO2 as pollutant which is decomposed in a photo reactor with turbulent flow. The
163
mixture consists of 0.4 ppm NO and 0.15 ppm NO2 which are decomposed parallel by UVA
irradiation with an intensity of 20 W/m.
Standards for decomposing organic dyes and self cleaning
The last of the three Italian standards for the determination of photocatalytical properties is the
UNI 11259 [17]. The pollutant here is not gaseous but a solid coating on the surface of a
cementitious specimen. The degradation of the red organic dye rhodamine B is visible as
decrease of the color intensity and measured by a reflexion photometer. The big disadvantage
of this method is, that it does not produce quantitative results but only qualitative information if
the material is active or not. In contrast to the methods using gas as indicator for the activity,
this method determines the ability of self cleaning.
Another way to show the self cleaning capability of materials is the only valid German
standard DIN 52980 [18], which describes the decomposition of methylene blue dissolved in
water by submerged material samples. The specimen is irradiated by UVA light with an intensity
of 10 W/m and the decrease in the methylene blue concentration is followed by a photometer
and compared to a reference solution. This method is described in the international standard
ISO 10678 [19] too.
A further standard for confirmation of the self cleaning effect is the ISO 27448 [20] which
tracks the contact angle between water and a specimen that is coated with an organic
hydrophobic substance. The coating causes a high contact angle of the droplet. After different
periods of UVA irradiation and partly degradation of the organic material, the contact angle
decreases and indicate the degradation of the organic film. This works for plane materials like
coated glass etc. but results in complications with porous materials like most of the self cleaning
standard procedures.
A draft of a German standard, DIN EN 1096-5, also tries to determine the effect of self
cleaning behaviours by coating them with a mixture of organic pollutants and irradiating them
after drying with UVA light and washing up the surface with water afterwards. Another method is
to coat surfaces with another organic substance, methyl stearate, irradiating it and flushing it up
with a defined amount of solvent and quantifying the remaining methyl stearat by gas
chromatography.
Further standards
Other standards drafts as well as valid versions define how to measure the antimicrobial (ISO
27447 [21]) and antifungal (ISO/DIS 13125) effect of photocatalytic materials by decomposing
defined bacteria and fungi strains under UVA irradiation, but should only be mentioned here, as
well as standards for photocatalytic watercleaning (ISO 10676).
3 Applying different measurement methods to building materials

Some of the methods to measure different photocatalytic materials shall be explained and
results and effects shall be shown in the following passages. For a better understanding the
order will be analogue to the previous chapter. Some of the methods lead to problems when
measuring building materials. These will be explained and the influence of factors like
temperature and relative humidity to photocatalytic reactions will be illustrated.
Degradation of NO according to ISO 22197-1
ISO 22197-1 has turned out to be a good method to determine and compare the photocatalytic
properties of modified materials. Therefore we built an assembly for measuring the degradation
of nitric oxide which can be seen in Figure 2 on the left side. It works like described
schematically in the diagram above Figure 1 and consists of the gas supply, the photo reactor
and the analysator. On the right side of Figure 2 a graph of a NO degradation is shown. The
164
black line (NO) starts at about 0.9 ppm and decreases after turning on the irradiation after 1000
seconds. When turning off the UV light again, the concentration of NO flowing through the
reactor rises again to the initial value. The graph shows the measured results of a modified
mortar specimen Figure 3 containing titanium dioxide particles and a stable decomposing over
a few hours.
1,0
0,9
concentration [ppm]
0,8
NO [ppm]
NO2 [ppm]
NOx [ppm]
0,7
0,6
0,5
0,4
0,3
0,2
0,1
0,0
0
2000
4000
6000
8000
10000
12000
time [seconds]
Figure 2: Assembly for measuring the degradation of nitric oxide by samples in a flow through reactor
according to ISO 22197-1 and on the right side a graph of the degradation of nitric oxide (black line) by a
modified mortar sample over a period of some hours. At the beginning without light and after approx. 1000 s
with UV irradiation, which leads to a decrease of the pollutants concentration. After 11000 s the light was
turned off again. Measurement according to ISO 22197-1.
Figure 3: Photo reactor irradiated by UVA light on the left and photocatalytic mortar specimen on the right side.
Degradation of methylene blue according to DIN 52980

Samples measured according to DIN 52980 were thin films of facade paint, mortar samples,
specimen out of roof tiles and coated glas. Except for the glas, measurements conforming to
DIN standard could not be measured in most cases. Most samples were so porous, they
adsorbed large amounts of the dye during the pretreatment in methylene blue solution with a
higher concentration. After inserting them to the solution for measurement desorption occured
and the concentration increased instead of decreasing like it is typical for photocatalytic
degradation. Reducing the concentration of the dye solution for pretreatment to the normal
concentration which is used during the test procedure avoided appreciable desorption
phenomena during the measurement but now caused absorption as if no pretreatment was
performed before. The only specimen with linear decrease in concentration were glas samples.
Sorption phenomena predominate the changing of the concentration caused by photocatalytic
165
degradation which complicates adopting this standard to porous building materials. Roof tiles
worked best out of the materials.
Degradation of rhodamine B according to UNI 11259
Thin film facade paint was coated with rhodamine B according to UNI 11259 as aqueos solution
with a brush instead of dipcoating. A reflexion photometer was used to measure the color in the
Lab color space [22] where a represents the intensity of red. The colour was measured after
different times of UVA irradiation and is shown on the above half of Figure 5 on the right side for
25C and 50 % relative humidity. Change of temperature and humidity influenced the
degradation rate.
Figure 4: Specimen of facade painting coated with rhodamine B before irradiation with UVA light.
Influence of temperature and humidity on photocatalytic effects

This is illustrated in the four diagrams in Figure 5. The two diagrams on the top show the
decrease in colour intensity of Rhodamin B coated thin film specimen of facade paint over 26
hours. Both show different temperature and humidity conditions. The two diagrams on the left
side show behaviour at 50 % relative humidity and different temperatures. The other diagrams
clarify that 50 % relative humidity stands for different absolute amounts of water in g/m at
various temperatures. The right side of Figure 5 illustrates measurements at different
temperatures and relative humidities but same absolute amounts of water in the air of about 10
g/m. The left above graph suggests dependency to temperature at same relative humidity but
the left graph shows identic decomposition rates at different temperatures and relative
humidities. But a closer look shows that the absolute amount of water available is the same.
Figure 5: The two diagrams above show the decrease in colour intensity of rhodamine B coated thin film
specimen of facade paint dependent to the irradiation time. The lower ones illustrate the total amount of water
in the air at different temperatures in g/m.
166
4 Conclusions
The development of more and more materials containing photocatalytic titanium dioxide
including building materials increases the need of methods for measuring their activitiy to create
possibilities to compare the materials to each other. Most standards are developed for ceramic
materials without porosities and lead to difficulties measuring building materials. The mentioned
Italian standards are specially designed for cementitious materials and therefore work. Although
the decomposition of rhodamine B produces at best qualitative results about the material it can
be used for building materials. Decomposing dissolved methylene blue however leads to some
problems with thin film paints and the other materials tested, but this problems can be reduced
by changing the pretreatment procedure. Measuring the photocatalytic decomposition of NO
works well with different materials, when some time is given for equilibration before starting the
UVA irradiation.
We thank the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) which funded the
HelioClean project.
References
[1] Akira Fujishima and K. Honda: Electrochemical Photolysis of Water at a Semiconductor Electrode.
Nature 238 (5358), 37-38, 1972.
[2] K. Hashimoto, H. Irie and A. Fujishima: Ti02 Photocatalysis: A Historical Overview and Future
Prospects. Japanese Journal of Applied Physics 44 (12), 8269-8285, 2005.
[3] P. Wilhelm, C. Zetsch and D. Stephan: Titania coated silica nano-spheres as catalyst in the
photodegradation of hydrocarbons. Progress in Colloid and Polymer Science 133 147151, 2006.
[4] M. M. Ballari, Q. L. Yu and H. J. H. Brouwers: Experimental study of the NO and NO2 degradation
by photocatalytically active concrete. Catalysis Today 161 175-180, 2011.
[5] Luftbelastungssituation 2010 - vorlufige Auswertung Report, 2011.
[6] J. Chen and C.-s. Poon: Photocatalytic construction and building materials: From fundamentals to
applications. Building and Environment 44 1899 - 1906, 2009.
[7] ISO 22197-1:2007: Fine ceramics (advanced ceramics, advanced technical ceramics) - Test method
for air-purification performance of semiconducting photocatalytic materials -- Part 1: Removal of
nitric oxide.Legal Rule or Regulation ISO 22197-1, 2007.
for air-purification performance of semiconducting photocatalytic materials - Part 2: Removal of
acetaldehyde.Legal Rule or Regulation ISO 22197-2, 2011.
for air-purification performance of semiconducting photocatalytic materials - Part 3: Removal of
toluene.Legal Rule or Regulation ISO 22197-3, 2011.
[10] ISO/DIS 22197-4:2011: Fine ceramics (advanced ceramics, advanced technical ceramics) - Test
method for air-purification performance of semiconducting photocatalytic materials - Part 4: Removal
of formaldehyde.Legal Rule or Regulation ISO/DIS 22197-4, 2011.
[11] ISO/DIS 22197-5:2011: Fine ceramics (advanced ceramics, advanced technical ceramics) - Test
method for air-purification performance of semiconducting photocatalytic materials - Part 5: Removal
of methyl mercaptan.Legal Rule or Regulation ISO/DIS 22197-5, 2011.
[12] XP B44-011:2009: Photocatalysis - Test method for assessing photocatalytic materials with respect
to NOx degradation - Tangential mode single pass process.Legal Rule or Regulation XP B44-011,
2009.
[13] XP B44-013:2009: Photocatalysis - Test and analysis method for determining the efficacy of
photocatalytic systems for eliminating volatile organic compounds/odours in recirculating interior air Confined chamber test.Legal Rule or Regulation XP B44-013, 2009.
[14] UNI 11238-1:2007: Determinazione dell'attivit di degradazione catalitica di microinquinanti organici
in aria - Parte 1: Materiali fotocatalitici cementizi per uso edile.Legal Rule or Regulation UNI 112381:2007, 2007.
167
[15] J. E. M. W.E. Wilson:Benzene, toluene, ethylbenzene, xylene.Book Section, 20, 1998.

[16] UNI 11247:2007: Determinazione dell'attivit di degradazione di ossidi di azoto in aria da parte di
materiali inorganici fotocatalitici. 2007.
[17] UNI 11259:2008: Determinazione dell'attivit fotocatalitica di leganti idraulici - Metodo della
rodammina. 2008.
[18] DIN 52980:2008-10: Photokatalytische Aktivitt von Oberflchen - Bestimmung der
photokatalytischen Aktivitt durch Abbau von Methylenblau. 2008.
[19] ISO 10678:2010: Fine ceramics (advanced ceramics, advanced technical ceramics) - Determination
of photocatalytic activity of surfaces in an aqueous medium by degradation of methylene blue.Legal
Rule or Regulation ISO 10678, 2010.
[20] ISO 27448:2009: Fine ceramics (advanced ceramics, advanced technical ceramics) - Test method
for self-cleaning performance of semiconducting photocatalytic materials - Measurement of water
contact angle.Legal Rule or Regulation ISO 27448, 2009.
[21] ISO 27447:2009: Fine ceramics (advanced ceramics, advanced technical ceramics) - Test method
for antibacterial activity of semiconducting photocatalytic materials.Legal Rule or Regulation ISO
27447, 2009.
[22] DIN 6174:2007-10: Farbmetrische Bestimmung von Farbmazahlen und Farbabstnden im
angenhert gleichfrmigen CIELAB-Farbenraum. 2007.
168

Jeffrey Chen, Matthieu Horgnies
Lafarge Central Research, Saint Quentin Fallavier, France
Ultra-High Performance Concrete (UHPC) such as Ductal offers an attractive mineral surface that is
particularly valued in design elements, building facades, and other architectural applications. A technical
challenge for these applications is how to keep the surface durably clean from the deposition of stains,
micro-particles, and micro-organisms. Our research has demonstrated two different fabrication strategies
to impart self-cleaning properties to a UHPC surface. The first approach, inspired by the Lotus effect
found in plants, uses a microtextured UHPC surface that is post-treated with a silicone compound to
create a superhydrophobic surface with water contact angles > 160 and contact angle hysteresis < 8.
These properties cause water drops to slide off the surface, carrying debris away. The second approach
uses a thin photocatalytic coating on a smooth UHPC surface. Upon UV-irradiation, water drops spread
completely on the superhydrophilic surface, thereby creating water films that flush debris away. Both of
the above strategies open up exciting new avenues for self-cleaning UHPC surfaces.
Keywords: aesthetic, self-cleaning, Lotus effect, photocatalytic, surface functionalization
1 Introduction
The deposition of stains, micro-particles, and micro-organisms on ultra-high performance
concrete (UHPC) leads to premature degradation of surface aesthetics. These phenomena can
have particularly damaging consequences to architectural applications such as faades, where
aesthetics have a major impact on the perception of a structure. To ensure a durably clean
surface, it is most desirable to have a self-cleaning surfacethat is, a surface that stays clean
without the need for human intervention. There are myriad examples in Nature that can do this,
such as certain plants leaves, bird feathers, and insect exoskeletons [1].
This paper outlines two different strategies that can impart self-cleaning properties to a
UHPC surface. The first one mimics the superhydrophobic effect found in plants, whereby a
microtextured and hydrophobic surface causes water drops to roll off the surface, while carrying
particulate debris away. This phenomena is called the Lotus effect. A superhydrophobic surface
is characterized by water contact angles that exceed approximately 150 [2,3]. Numerous
synthetic routes to creating superhydrophobic surfaces have been developed over the past two
decades [4-6].
The second strategy of imparting self-cleaning properties exploits the use of photocatalytic
coatings [7-9] applied on a smooth UHPC substrate. After exposure to UV radiation, the water
contact angles can reach extremely low values close to 0, thereby creating a superhydrophilic
surface. On these surfaces, drops of water spontaneously spread on the surface to create films
of water that flush debris off inclined surfaces.
This paper demonstrates how a careful control of particle packing, mold-concrete
interactions, and chemical functionalization can carry out the above strategies to create selfcleaning UHPC surfaces.

Concrete mix-designs
Two mix-designs were prepared in order to compare the surface properties of an ordinary
concrete (OC) and an ultra high performance concrete (UHPC). The OC samples were
prepared by pouring a fresh mix (water/cement ratio, w/c, of 0.4) comprised of ordinary Portland
cement (CEM I 52.5), limestone filler, sand (04 mm) and gravel (510 mm) into formwork
169
(15121.5 cm) made of polyvinylchloride (PVC) or polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS). The UHPC

samples were prepared by using a fresh mix (w/c = 0.26) comprised of Portland cement (CEM I
52.5), limestone filler, silica fume, fine sand, and superplasticizer. All the UHPC and OC
samples were removed from their formworks after 20 hours. They were cured for 28 days under
ambient conditions (20 C, 50% relative humidity) before being coated and characterized.
Coatings
Two coatings were applied by spray-gun on UHPC surfaces: i) a hydrophobic coating based on
a polysilane and ii) a photocatalytic coating using anatase titanium dioxide as a photocatalyst.
Surface characterization
The surfaces of concrete samples were characterized directly after demolding, as well as after
being coated. The topography of the concrete samples were examined in a scanning electron
microscope (SEM), using a high-resolution field-emission gun scanning electron microscope
(FEGSEM Quanta 400 from FEI Company) operating at an accelerating voltage of 15 keV.
Images of the cross-sections were obtained in back scattered electron (BSE) mode after being
impregnated and polished.
The roughness and microtexture of selected samples were studied by optical profilometry
(Micromesure full-field 3D confocal profilometer) with a spot size of 2.0 m, a working distance
of 4.5 mm and a sensor equipped with a 350 m light pen. The arithmetic mean of the profile
deviations from the mean line (Ra) were measured, as well as the 3D topographical profile.
The composition of the surface was characterized with a Fourier Transform-Infrared (FTIR)
spectrometer (Nicolet iS10 from Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc.). Attenuated Total Reflexion
(ATR) mode was used to analyze the samples over an area of approximately 1 mm. The
crystal used was made of diamond, and 32 scans were routinely recorded over the range 4000
650 cm-1 with a spectral resolution of 4 cm -1.
The wetting properties of the functionalized surfaces were studied by using the sessile drop
method with a Drop Shape Analysis DSA-100 from Kruss. This technique provides information
on the static water contact angle (WCA). The drop volume of distilled water was 2.5 l and the
contact angle was measured after 5 s. The contact angle hysteresis (CAH) was calculated from
the difference between the measured advancing and receding contact angles. For each sample,
the value was determined by averaging the data obtained on 10 different locations on the
surface. All the measurements were performed under 20C and 50 % relative humidity.
3 Impact of particle packing and molding conditions on surface

microstructure and wettability
SEM images of Figure 1 compare the surfaces as a function of mix-design (UHPC and OC) and
of mold type (PVC and PDMS). As shown in Figure 1a, the OC/PDMS sample showed a microtextured surface with rounded asperities, as well as large open pores. As shown in Figure 1b,
the UHPC/PDMS surface showed a similar micro-textured surface with rounded asperities, but
with a reduced open porosity. The UHPC/PVC induced a flat, smooth, and non-porous UHPC
surface (as shown by Figure 1c). The only defects notable on the surface were due to the
scratches on the PVC mold, which were subsequently transferred to the UHPC surface. The
differences in morphology between the PDMS and PVC molded samples were due to the
differences in textures of the molds themselves: the PDMS molds possessed an undulating
surface (presumably due to wear), while the PVC mold possessed a flat surface. Both of these
textures were accurately replicated in the UHPC surface, by a mechanism described below.
170
(a)
(c)
(b)
Figure 1: SEM images of the concrete surfaces: (a) OC/PDMS; (b) UHPC/PDMS; (c) UHPC/PVC.
Cross-sections of UHPC samples cast in PVC and PDMS molds were also characterized by
SEM in BSE mode. Figure 2a illustrates the undulating surface as seen in Figure 1, giving a
closer view of the rounded asperities that have a height of 5 m and an approximately regular
spacing of 30 m. Figure 2b shows that within these rounded asperities, there is a high
concentration of ultrafine particles, mostly silica fume, with particle sizes less than several
micrometers. In contrast, the UHPC/PVC sample (in Figure 2c) showed a flat, smooth surface,
with a considerably lower concentration of silica fume at the surface. Optical profilometry results
confirmed these observations by giving Ra values of 2.0 m ( 0.3) and 0.8 m ( 0.2) for
UHPC cast with PDMS and PVC mold, respectively.
(a)
(b)
(c)
Figure 2: SEM images in BSE mode of: (a, b) UHPC/PDMS cross-sections with micro-asperities enriched in
silica fume particles; (c) UHPC/PVC cross-section that shows a flat and smooth surface.
The different surface morphologies in Figures 1 and 2 between the OC and UHPC mixes can be
explained in terms of differences in particle packing in the cementitious matrix. It is well -known,
for example, that the particle packing at a hard surface is decreased due to the restricted
motion of the particles adjacent to the surface [10]. The porosity of this perturbed interfacial
zone will subsequently be higher than in the bulk. For monodispersed particulate systems, the
thickness of this zone is roughly equal to half the diameter of the grain [10]. Thus, for the OC
system, which lacks ultrafines and is characterized by a high w/c, we see a relatively porous
surface in Figure 1a. This high porosity is amplified in the PDMS mold, since the OC sample
lacks the small particles that can fit in the 5-m sized rounded asperities. In contrast to the OC,
the UHPC system, which possesses abundant ultrafine particles in the mix, has a dense
surface in Figures 1b and 1c due to the filling of the perturbed surface volume with ultrafine
particles. Moreover, fine surface details such as the 5-m asperities in the PDMS mold and the
surface scratches in the PVC mold can be accurately replicated by UHPC mixes.
171
The surface chemistry and properties of the UHPC surfaces were characterized by FTIR and
WCA measurements. As shown in Table 1, portlandite was strongly detected by FTIR (at 3640
cm-1) in the UHPC/PVC sample. Other strong FTIR bands were assigned to the presence of
CaCO3 (at 1410, 870 and 710 cm -1) and silicates/silica (at 1080 cm -1). The WCA measurements
performed on the UHPC/PVC surface showed moderately hydrophilic values of 42 (3).
Concerning the UHPC/PDMS surface, FTIR showed no portlandite, but revealed small peaks
assigned to Si-O-CH3 (at 2970, 1260 and 780 cm-1), which can be attributed to the transfer of
silicone oligomers. These silicone residues were not homogenously transferred across the
entire surface (as indicated by the presence of other strong FTIR bands assigned to CaCO 3 and
silicates/silica). However, the transfer was sufficient to induce a strongly hydrophobic surface
with WCA value of 144 ( 3) and contact angle hysteresis of 37. In contrast, the WCA
measurements performed on the OC/PDMS sample showed hydrophilic values (15 4),
presumably due to imbibition of the drop by the porous OC substrate.
Table 1: FTIR bands and water contact angles measured on UHPC surfaces cast in PVC or PDMS molds.
Wavelength and assignment of FTIR bands (cm-1)
UHPC/PVC
UHPC/PDMS
3640: O-H, Ca(OH)2
+++
No
29502850: CH3/CH2, methyl units
No
1450: CH3/CH2, methyl units
No
No
1410, 872, 710: C=O, CaCO3
+++
+++
1270, 780: Si-CH3, Si-O-CH3
No
1100970: Si-O, silicates, CSH
++
+++
Water contact angle ()
42
144
The above SEM observations, FTIR analyses, and WCA measurements clearly indicate that the
chemistry and the microstructure of the UHPC surface are influenced by the nature and texture
of the mold. Figure 3 summarizes the mechanisms involved in these processes. Figure 3a
compares the interface between the fresh concrete mix and the mold, while Figure 3b details
the different microstructures of hardened UHPC surfaces obtained after demolding. Due to the
prevalence of portlandite crystals at the surface of the UHPC/PVC mix (as detected by FT-IR
and SEM), it is believed that a film of water was present between the hydrophilic PVC mold and
the fresh UHPC mix. This water film would allow the precipitation of portlandite via a throughsolution mechanism, as is known to occur during the hydration of cement [11]. The presence of
portlandite and calcium carbonate (formed by carbonation) on the UHPC/PVC surface would
also explain the hydrophilic nature of this surface [12]. In contrast to the UHPC/PVC interface, a
film of water would not be expected between the hydrophobic PDMS mold and the fresh UHPC
mix. This absence of a water film would suppress the formation of portlandite at the surface,
which is consistent with the FT-IR and SEM results. The UHPC/PDMS surface was furthermore
altered and made more hydrophobic by the transfer of siloxane residues from the PDMS mold
to the UHPC surface as noted above.
172
PVC mold
(a) During molding
(b) After demolding
PDMS mold
Water film
Top surface of UHPC
Top surface of UHPC
Hardened UHPC
Hardened UHPC
Smooth surface comprised

of oriented, superficial
portlandite crystals (blue)
and a normal mix of hydrates
and ultrafines (circles).
Micro-textured surface
with asperities enriched
in ultrafines (circles).
Figure 3: Influence of mold type (a) on the nature of the UHPC/mold interface during molding and (b) on the
surface microstructure after demolding.
4 Self-cleaning properties obtained after chemical functionalization

Super-hydrophobicity after using micro-pillared mold and hydrophobic coating
In order to enhance the superhydrophobic properties of UHPC, a homogeneous micro-pillared
PDMS mold (Ra: 4 m, pillars of 10 m high, spaced by 100 m) was specifically
manufactured. A UHPC mix was cast in this mold, and subsequently post-treated with a
hydrophobic siloxane coating 28 days after demolding. The resulting surface showed a WCA
value of 160 (as shown by Figure 4a) and a contact angle hysteresis (CAH) of 8. These
properties induced a dramatic water-repellant effect, whereby water drops would
instantaneously slide off a slightly inclined surface. This superhydrophobic effect is the first
reported instance for a concrete surface with an integrated microtexture. The high contact WCA
and low CAH can be interpreted by the Cassie and Baxter mechanism of superhydrophobicity,
whereby drops of water sit on solid asperities and over pockets of air. For comparison, the
WCA values measured on UHPC/PVC sample coated by the same hydrophobic coating noted
above only reached a value of 130.
(a)
(b)
m
25
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
Figure 4: Image of a drop of water (a) deposited on a microtextured UHPC surface (b).
Characterization of the hardened UHPC by optical profilometry confirmed that a microtexture

can be accurately transferred from a micro-pillared PDMS mold to the UHPC surface (Figure
173
4b). This ability to replicate fine surface features is due to the abundance of ultrafines in the
UHPC mix. The integrated concrete microtexture shown here is believed to be mechanically
more robust compared to superhydrophobic, microtextured coatings, which suffer from weak
abrasion resistance and thus poor durability. Further research is ongoing in this area.
Super-hydrophilicity obtained through photocatalytic coatings
To exploit the smooth surface obtained by casting a UHPC mix in a PVC mold, we applied a
photocatalytic coating 28 days after demolding. A spray-gun application enabled a very smooth
coating (Ra of 0.5 m 0.2). Table 2 compares the different WCA measurements performed on
three UHPC/PVC samples: i) without coating, ii) with coating, but not exposed to UV, and iii)
with coating and exposure to UV for 1 hr (wavelength of 365 nm). The results show that UV
irradiation of the photocatalytic coating can indeed induce superhydrophilic properties, causing
drops of water to spread spontaneously over the surface.
Table 2: Water contact angles and images of water drops on UHPC surfaces without a coating, with a
photocatalytic coating but no UV irradiation, and with a photocatalytic coating with UV irradiation.
UHPC/PVC sample
without coating
UHPC/PVC sample
+ photocatalytic
coating, without UV
exposure
UHPC/PVC sample
+ photocatalytic
coating, after 1h of
UV exposure
42
16
Image recorded just

after deposition
Image recorded 2s
after deposition
WCA measured 5s
after deposition
As a test of the self-cleaning mechanism, UHPC samples covered with a photocatalytic coating
were stained with various solutions (e.g., wine, coffee, lemon juice, methylene blue, and oil). As
shown in Figure 5, after 10 days of exposure to sun and light rain, all of the stains were
eliminated from the surface. These results confirm the interest of using photocatalytic coatings
on UHPC to obtain self-cleaning facades.
Coffee
Wine
Lemon
juice
Methyle
-ne blue
Oil
(a)
(b)
Figure 5: UHPC (PVC) sample covered by a photocatalytic coating: (a) after staining; (b) after 10 days of
external weathering (sun + rain exposure).
174
5 Conclusions
Self-cleaning UHPC surfaces can be designed through a deliberate manipulation of particle
packing, mold-concrete interactions, and chemical functionalization. Two distinct strategies
were demonstrated. The first strategy produced a superhydrophobic surface (water contact
angle, 160) through the use of a micro-pillared PDMS template to fabricate a micro-textured
surface that was post-treated with a siloxane coating. As far as the authors are aware, this is
the first reported instance of a superhydrophobic concrete surface with an integrated
microtexture. The second strategy applied a photocatalytic coating on a smooth UHPC surface
cast in a PVC mold. Superhydrophilic behavior (water contact angle of 0) was confirmed after
UV irradiation. External aging tests confirm the efficacy of the self-cleaning mechanism.
6 Acknowledgement
The authors would like to thank S. Lombard, C. Bouillon, S. Brun and M. Dykman for their help
in sample preparation, SEM observations, profilometry, and wetting measurements.
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self-cleaning and air-purification. Cement and Concrete Research 34, pp. 22232236, 2004.
[10] De Larrard, F.: Concrete mixture proportioning. E & FN Spon, London, United Kingdom, 1999.
[11] Gartner, E.M.; Gaidis, J.M.; Grace W.R.: Hydration mechanisms I. Materials Science of Concrete,
pp. 95125, 1989.
[12] Gueit, E.; Darque-Ceretti, E.; Tintillier, P.; Horgnies, M.: Surfactant-induced growth of a calcium
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175
176
Efficient Photocatalysis in the Visible with

TiO2/Phthalocyanine-Hybrid Particles
Andreas Winzenburg, Rdiger Faust
Institute of Chemistry and CINSaT Center for Interdisciplinary Nanostructure Science and Technology,
University of Kassel, Germany
In efforts to extend the activity of TiO2-based photocatalysts into the visible we present a hybrid material
consisting of TiO2 that is surface-modified with a functional phthalocyanine (Pc). We reveal that the
hybrid particles photosensitise the formation of singlet oxgen and demonstrate that they exhibit a
significantly enhanced photocatalytic activity in NO photodegradation experiments with visible light.
Keywords: Visible-light photocatalysis, titanium dioxide, phthalocyanine, hybrid, nitric oxide degradation
1 Introduction
The continuing industrialisation in large parts of the world poses increasing environmental
burdens on Nature and its inhabitants. Water and air pollution by noxious substances often
reach levels that effect the well-being of life in many of its forms. Some of the major pollutants
in air are carbon monoxide (CO), sulphur dioxide (SO 2), nitrogen oxides (NO x), volatile organic
compounds (VOCs) and fine particulate matter. In Europe, the EU has regularly issued
increasingly strict directives with limiting concentrations for these pollutants [1] and EU member
states are obliged to adopt the directives and transform them into national environmental law.
Frequently, however, the communities struggle to comply with the regulations, a particular
problem in case of combustion-generated pollutants such as fine particulate matter and nitrogen
oxides (NOx) [2-4]. Hence, effective measures are sought that significantly reduce pollution
levels. One such measure makes use of the well-documented photocatalytic properties of TiO 2,
i.e. the UV-triggered generation of oxidising species on the surface of TiO 2 in the presence of
water and oxygen, which leads to substantial reductions of air- and waterborne pollutants
[5-10]. Due to the electronic band-gap of semiconducting titanium dioxide, photocatalysis is only
efficient when initiated with UV light. However, for many applications (shady areas, seasonal
sunlight fluctuations, indoors) an extention of the photocatalytic activity into the visible is highly
desireable. Immense efforts are therefore underway to establish Vis-active photocatalysts by
either doping the titanium dioxide crystal lattice or by modifiying the surface of TiO 2 [11-13].
We present here a surface modification of TiO2 particles with organic phthalocyanine dyes.
Phthalocyanines have intense absorptions throughout the visible spectrum and most
importantly sensitise the generation of singlet oxygen as an efficient oxidising species. Using
NO-photodegradation as a reference reaction, we will demonstrate that the hybrid material
derived from the irreversible attachment of phthalocyanines onto TiO2 particles shows an
enhanced photocatalytic activity when irradiated with visible light.
2 Background
Titanium Dioxide Photocatalysis
The term photocatalysis has first been mentioned in the 1930s and is now usually interpreted
as the acceleration of a photoreaction by the action of a catalyst [14]. The prime example of a
photocatalyst is titanium dioxide, whose properties have been intensely investigated [5-9,11].
Titanium dioxide occurs in the three crystalline forms brookite, rutile and anatase. Besides
slightly varying band gap energies (E g), these modifications exhibit different photocatalytic
177
activities. While anatas (E g = 3.2 eV) is known to be highly active, brookite (E g = 3.13 eV) and
rutile (Eg = 3.0 eV) are generally not efficient photocatalysts [12,15, but also see 16].
Figure 1: Simplified photocatalysis mechanism of pure TiO2 (anatase) upon UV irradiation.
The simplified mechanism of TiO 2 photocatalysis is visualised in Figure 1. UV irradiation

promotes an electron into the conduction band (CB) of TiO 2, leaving a vacancy in the valence
band (VB). The photocatalytical degradation of pollutants by TiO2 is usually an oxidative
process brought about by oxidising radical species, such as hydroxyl radicals ( OH) and
superoxide radicals (O2) derived from the reaction of water with electron holes and oxygen
with electrons, respectively. Secondary oxidising agents may also be involved [5-7,9,12].
Phthalocyanine Photosensitisation
Phthalocyanines (Pc) are chemically and photophysically robust organic dyes with strong
absorptions in the visible. Peripheral Pc-substitution and coordination of various metal ions in
the central Pc-core allow the tuning of the electronic, optical and photophysical properties of the
phthalocyanines, as well as a control over their aggregation and binding behaviour [17,18].
Most important in the context of photocatalysis is the fact that diamagnetic Pc-derivatives act as
efficient photosensitisers in the conversion of triplet oxygen ( 3O2, ground state) into singlet
oxygen (1O2, excited state), as shown in Figure 2 [19].
Figure 2: Simplified Jablonski-diagram (left) and a schematic drawing of Pc photosensitisation (right).
As an electronic prerequisite, phthalocyanines need to access the excited triplet state (T1) to
transfer energy onto molecular oxygen in the triplet ground state ( 3O2). Oxygen thereby is
excited into its singlet state (1O2) and referred to as singlet oxygen. Singlet oxygen is a highly
energetic and reactive species. It is able to oxidise a variety of organic [12,20] and inorganic
compounds [12]. Moreover, singlet oxygen is known to degrade efficiently biologic material
[21,22], such as proteins [23], viruses [24] and bacteria [25]. Diagnostic for singlet oxygen
formation is its NIR-emission at 1270 nm.
178
Efficient Photocatalysis in the Visible with TiO2/Phthalocyanine-Hybrid Particles
Visible Light Photocatalysis

The solar irradiance has significant intensities in the visible. For this reason, efficient
photocatalysis applications relying on solar irradiance require vis-responsive photocatalysts.
This requirement is even more significant for indoor photocatalysis applications. The two
principle modes by which the activity of TiO 2-based photocatalysts can be extended into the
visible are doping and surface modifications [12].
Doping generally means the insertion of atoms, or group of atoms or ions into a hosts crystal
lattice, in dopand concentrations ranging typically from ppms to percent. Doping of TiO2 with
suitable metal ions [12,27] such as chromium, iron or tin or with non-metallic atoms like sulphur
[28], nitrogen [29] or carbon [30] induces interband states (Figure 3). Hence, additional
absorptions of lower energy (i.e. longer wavelengths) lead to the promotion of electrons into the
conduction band of TiO2 [12,26]. In addition, the energy gap of doped TiO 2 can be slightly
reduced by crystal lattice deformations.
Figure 3: Simplified photocatalysis mechanism of doped TiO2 (anatase) upon irradiation with visible light.
Surface modifications are a valuable alternative to obtain Vis-active photocatalysts. Suitable

modifyers for the TiO2 surface are secondary semiconductors (SC) such as CdS or Bi2S3 [31] or
organic dyes such as erythrosin B, Rose Bengal, or corbocyanines [32] (not shown in Figure 4).
Both semiconductor and surface-bound dyes can act as electron donors, if the energy of their
excited state matches that of the conducting band of TiO 2 [12].
Figure 4: Simplified photocatalysis mechanism of sensitised TiO2 (anatase) upon irradiation with visible light.
Our approach delineated herein relies on a surface modification that benefits from the
independent action of a photosensitising dye irreversibly attached to the TiO2 surface. TiO2
surface modifications with organic dyes often bear the risk of dye photodegradation [12]. Due to
their chemical inertness, the phthalocyanines will resist photodegradations for extended periods
of time. We can therefore demonstrate that the hybrids derived from phthalocyanines and TiO2
are vis-active photocatalysts that use singlet oxygen and can photodegrade NO as a reference
chemical for noxious airborne pollutants.
179
3 Experimental
Electronic absorption spectra were recorded on a Perkin-Elmer Lambda 40 spectrophotometer.
Singlet oxygen quantum yields of phthalocyanines were determined using the singlet oxygen
luminescence at 1270 nm. The irradiation with visible light was performed with a 100 W QTH
lamp from Newport Physics light using appropriate optical filters (KG1 and OG570 from Merck).
The samples wer held in a temperature-controlled cuvette holder with integrated magnetic
stirrer from OceanOptics (CUV-QPOD). The detection system consisted of the monochromator
Cornerstone 260i 1/4m from Newport Physics with 600 lines/mm grating blazed at 1250 nm, a
cooled InGaAs single diode detector, a chopper-system and the Oriel Merlin digital lock-in
radiometry system from Newport Physics. Higher-order fluorescence around 1270 nm was
eliminated by a suitable filter system (780 nm cut-on, range: 800-2700 nm). More detailed
information is available upon request. The NOx degradation experiments were performed in
photoreactor systems provided by D-TOX in Hannover, Germany and by the Institute of
Construction Materials (Prof. Dietmar Stephan) at the University of Kassel. The synthesis of the
phthalocyanines and the preparation of the phthalocyanine/TiO2 hybrid materials will be
published elsewhere.

A novel hybrid material consisting of TiO2 (P25 from Degussa/Evonik) and phthalocyanines
(3 weight %) was prepared by adding a solution of the appropriately functionalised phthalocyanine to a suspension of TiO 2. In contrast to structurally simple dyes that have been used in
other studies [32-35], the phthalocyanines investigated here have specific anchoring groups for
the attachment onto the metal oxide surface. We therefore expected that the photocatalytic
activity of the hybrid system in the visible should be enhanced compared to that of pure TiO 2
and that photosensitisation of oxygen should produce oxidising species in addition to those
formed by standard TiO2. As discussed below, these expectations were met.
Figure 5: Diffuse reflectance spectrum of TiO 2 in BaSO4 at room temperature (left scale, dashed line);
electronic absorption spectrum of a Pc in dichloromethane at room temperature (right scale, straight line).
As the overlay of the phthalocyanine electronic absorption spectrum and the TiO 2 diffuse
reflectance spectrum reveals (Figure 5), there is significant overlap in the region arou nd 400 nm
that allows the hybrid material made up of these two components to extend its photocatalytic
180
activity well into the visible range. In addition, there are intense Pc-absorptions at the far red
end of the visible spectrum (around 700 nm) that can be used to trigger the photosensitisation
of singlet oxygen.
The use of phthalocyanines equipped with anchouring groups leads to an irreversible binding
of the Pc on the surface of TiO2. Figure 6 illustrates that a reextraction of the dye from the
hybrid material by organic solvents was not possible. In contrast, loosely adsorbed
phthalocyanines that lack peripheral binding groups, can be easily reextracted into solution.
Figure 6: Photograph of Pc/TiO2 suspensions in THF after 4 hours of centrifugation at 3000 rpm (a: Pc without
anchouring group and b: Pc with anchouring group).
The preparation and the photocatalytic activities of a range of Pc/TiO2 composites are
described in the literature [32-35]. In these contributions, the role of the Pc is primarly described
as that of an electron donor for TiO2 (i.e. the mechanism illustrated in Figure 4). Contrastingly,
a role for the Pc/TiO2 hybrids as a photosensitiser for singlet oxygen appearence was either
declared to be unprobable under the experimental conditions [33,34] or could simple not be
verified [34,35]. We can now reveal for the first time that the Pc/TiO2 hybrids investigated in this
study, produce 1O2 when irradiated with visible light. Experimental proof is depicted in Figure 7
in form of a diagnostic 1O2 emission signal at 1270 nm that is oberserved upon irradiation of
suspensions of the hybrid material in deuterated methanol (CH 3OD). While the hybrid
suspension exhibits a strong 1O2 luminescence signal, the control sample (the centrifuged
liquid) showed no emission.
Figure 7: NIR emission spectra of a hybrid suspension in d-methanol (straigth line) and its supernatant liquid
after centrifugation (dashed line) at room temperature upon irradiation with light of 700 nm wavelength.
The photocatalytic activity of the Pc/TiO2 hybrid material in the visible was studied by NO x
degradation measurements using a 455 nm LED-array. Figure 8 shows the photon efficiencies
() with which nitrogen oxides (NO x) are photochemically converted by either commercial TiO2
181
or by the Pc/TiO2 hybrids investigated here. It is evident that the photocatalytic activity of the
Pc/TiO2 hybrids in the visible is significantly enhanced by about 50 % compared to that of TiO 2
(P25). A more detailed analysis (not shown) reveals that the photodegradation of NO by the
hybrids is not accompanied by a substantial rise in NO2-levels, a fact that is usually oberved
with unmodified TiO2. It can therefore be assumed that 1O2 formed by Pc/TiO2 hybrid material
contributes to the photodegradation process.
Figure 8: Photonic efficiencies () of the NO-degradation by P25 (TiO2) and by Pc/TiO2 hybrid material at room
temperature upon irradiation with light of 455 nm wavelength.
5 Conclusions
We developed a modified phthalocyanine (Pc) suitable for irreversible binding to the TiO2surface. The corresponding Pc/TiO2 hybrid material has absorptions in the visible region. As a
result, the photocatalytic activity of the hybrid material upon irradiation with visible light is
enhanced. Furthermore, we present evidence for singlet oxygen ( 1O2) generation by Pc/TiO2
hybrids and thus assume that oxygen photosensitisation by the phthalocyanine is an additional
pathway in the photocatalysis process.
6 Acknowledgements
We thank the German Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF) for financial support
and Prof. Dietmar Stephan and his team as well as all our partners in the HelioClean
consortium for a fruitful collaboration.
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184
Part Three
MATERIALS
185
186
Synergistic Effect of Rice Husk Ash and Fly Ash on

Properties of Self-Compacting High Performance Concrete
Le Thanh Ha1,2, Karsten Siewert1, Horst-Michael Ludwig1
1: Institute for Building Materials Science, Department of Civil Engineering, Bauhaus-Universitt Weimar, Germany
2: University of Transport and Communications, Hanoi, Vietnam
In this study, the effect of rice husk ash (RHA) on properties of fresh and hardened self-compacting high
performance concrete (SCHPC) containing fly ash (FA) was investigated, and compared to that of
silicafume (SF). SCHPC mixtures were designed with ternary binders from cement and mineral
admixtures such as FA, RHA, SF. Filling ability, passing ability, segregation resistance, viscosity, air
content and compressive strength at 3, 7, 28 and 56 days were tested. The results show that an
economical SCHPC with very high compressive strength of about 130 MPa close to that of ultra high
performance concrete was successfully developed by combining RHA and FA. The combination of RHA
and FA improved not only self-compactability but also compressive strength of SCHPC. The increase in
RHA content led to lower filling ability and higher viscosity and then better segregation resistance. The
SCHPC containing RHA had similar self-compactability, but higher compressive strength than SCHPC
containing SF.
Keywords: Self-compacting high performance concrete, rice husk ash, silicafume, self-compactability,
compressive strength.
1 Introduction
Self-compacting high performance concrete (SCHPC) is considered as a new type of concrete,
which is defined based on the concept of self-compacting concrete (SCC) and high
performance concrete (HPC). As a result, SCHPC possesses adequate self-compactability
(filling ability, passing ability, segregation resistance) of SCC and high strength and good
durability of HPC [1]. Segregation resistance of SCHPC is controlled by using viscosity
modifying agents (VMA) or high amounts of powder or their combination [2]. At the same time,
mineral admixtures, such as silica fume (SF), are utilized to fulfil its high strength and durability
requirements [3, 1]. However, these admixtures are very expensive, and one of the main
reasons for the high cost of SCHPC, especially in developing countries. Therefore the limitation
of using VMA and the substitution for SF by less expensive mineral admixture such as RHA or
its combination with other admixtures, such as FA are necessary.
RHA is the residue of incinerating rice husk under controlled temperature conditions. Rice
husk is an agricultural waste from the milling process of paddy rice in developing countries i.e.
Vietnam. Similar to SF, RHA possesses high content of amorphous silica, and large specific
surface area. However, RHA has angular and highly porous particles with the average mean
size from 5m to 10m, and a very high BET surface area (even more than 250 m2/g).
Meanwhile SF particles are spherical with mean size of 0,1 m, and a BET surface area of
about 20m2/g [4, 5]. RHA is a very good replacement for SF in respect of compressive strength
and durability of concrete [5, 1]. In SCC, RHA is used to modify viscosity for good segregation
resistance [6]. Another mineral admixture, FA, is commonly used to produce SCC. Generally,
SCC incorporating FA has an increase in workability-slump flow, but a decrease in compressive
strength compared with those of the control concrete containing only cement as binder [3, 7].
However, the use of RHA combined with FA as a partial cement replacement, also as a mineral
admixture to modify viscosity, and to improve compressive strength of SCHPC has not yet been
studied.
187
In this study, the combination of RHA and FA was used in a ternary binder to develop SCHP C
with adequate self-compactability and very high compressive strength close to that of ultra high
performance concrete. The effect of RHA on filling ability, passing ability, viscosity, segregation
resistance and compressive strength of SCHPC was investigated to find out the optimal RHA
content in combination with FA. Besides, the effect of RHA on these properties was compared
to that of SF.
Materials
An ordinary Portland cement (PC - CEM I 52.5R), FA, SF and RHA were used. The PC, FA, SF
complied with DIN EN 197-1, DIN EN 450-1, DIN EN 13263-1, respectively. The rice husk was
burnt under controlled temperature conditions in a simple incinerator in Vietnam. The obtained
ash was ground in a ball mill. Crushed Basalt stone was used as coarse aggregate with a
maximum size of 16mm. Natural sand was used as fine aggregate with a maximum size of 2
mm. The physical properties and the chemical composition of cement and mineral admixtures
are summarized in Table 1. The sieve analysis and the physical properties of fine and coarse
aggregate are presented in Table 2. In addition, a polycarboxylate based super plasticizer with
specific gravity of 1.08 and 40% solid content by weight was used. The Fig.1 shows the
Scanning Electron Microscopic (SEM) images of RHA before and after grinding, SF and FA. It
can be found that particles of RHA are angular and still have porous surface structure after
grinding.
Table 1: Chemical composition and physical properties of cement and mineral admixtures.
Chemical analyses,%
Cement
RHA
SF
SiO2
Al2O3
Fe2O3
CaO
MgO
SO3
Na2O
K2O
L.O.I
Density, g/cm3
Mean particle size, m
BET (Blaine), m2/g
19.40
5.30
2.50
61.20
1.20
3.20
0.07
0.61
4.90
3.09
7.07
2.07 (0.595)
87.00
0.80
0.40
1.20
0.60
0.40
0.40
2.63
3.70
2.27
5.70
25.21
96.20
0.70
0.30
0.00
0.10
0.10
0.06
0.37
1.60
2.26
0.29
26.43
FA
56.60
25.80
6.40
2.50
1.30
0.60
0.62
2.08
2.90
2.27
16.39
2.14(0.405)
Table 2: Sieve analysis and physical properties of the fine and coarse aggregate.
Agg**
Fine
Coarse
0.125
3.0
0.0
0.25
20.1
0.0
0.5
66.2
0.8
Sieve size, mm
1
2
4
84.7 93.9 100
1.4 26.2 60.9
8
100
79.3
16
100
96.7
22
100
100
Fineness
modulus
2.32
6.14
Density,
g/cm3
2.65
3.05
Abs*,
%
0.08
0.80
* Water absorption; ** Aggregate.
Mixture proportions
The mixtures were designed based on the absolute volume of the constituent materials.
Proportions of aggregate blend were calculated relying on the theory of Funk and Dinger with
the factor of 0.25, as mentioned by the author [8], to reach the highest packing density. The
minimum paste volume for filling ability was computed from the void content in the compacted
aggregate blend. The superplasticizer (SP) dosages for the concretes were set based on the
SP saturation dosages of their own mortars, and fixed at 2.5% binder. The proportion of water
188
Synergistic Effect of Rice Husk Ash and Fly Ash on Properties of Self-Compacting High Performance Concrete
was calculated based on the water-binder (w/b) ratio, the absorption of fine and coarse
aggregates and the water contribution of SP [9]. In this research, eight mixtures were designed
with a constant w/b ratio of 0.26, constant paste volume of 38,5 % (which includes 2% of air)
and constant fine and coarse aggregate contents. Mixture proportions are shown in Table 3 in
which mixture types were designated based on the type and the percentage of mineral
admixtures replacement cement by weight. For instance, in the FA20R10 mixture, 30%
cement content was replaced by 20% FA, and 10% RHA.
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Figure 1: SEM images of RHA before grinding (a); RHA after grinding (b); FA (c); SF (d).
Table 3: SCHPC mixture proportions.
Mixture
w/b
FA0R0
FA20R0
FA40R0
FA20R5
FA20R10
FA20R15
FA20R20
FA20SF10
0.26
0.26
0.26
0.26
0.26
0.26
0.26
0.26
Water,
kg/m3
163
156
151
155
153
152
151
153
PC,
kg/m3
625
481
347
447
413
380
347
413
FA,
kg/m3
0
120
232
119
118
117
116
118
RHA
kg/m3
0
0
0
30
59
88
116
0
SF,
kg/m3
0
0
0
0
0
0
0
59
FA*,
kg/m3
790
790
790
790
790
790
790
790
CA**,
kg/m3
966
966
966
966
966
966
966
966
SP,
%B
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
2.5
* Fine aggregate, ** Coarse aggregate.
Experimental methods
All mixtures were prepared in a Zyklos rotating pan compulsory mixer with total mixing time of
13 minutes. The mixing procedure was shown in Fig.2.
Coarse
aggregate
Fine aggregate
1 min
Cement
Mineral
admixtures
2 min
80%
Water
2 min
20%
Water
+ SP
8 min End
of mixing
Figure 2: Mixing procedure.
The slump flow, slump flow time (T50), V-funnel, sieve segregation and J-ring tests were
conducted to evaluate filling ability, viscosity, segregation resistance and passing ability of
SCHPC according to DIN EN 12350-8, DIN EN 12350-9; DIN EN 12350-11; DIN EN 12350-12,
189
respectively. The air content in fresh concretes was determined in accordance with DIN EN
12350-7. Cubic specimens of 150x150x150mm for compressive strength were cast without
vibration and compaction. After 1 day, the specimens were demoulded, stored in water at 20 2
o
C for further 6 days, and then cured in controlled room at 20 2 oC and 655% relative
humidity until testing at 7, 28, and 56 days according to DIN EN 12390-2. Compressive strength
of concrete was determined under DIN EN 12390-3.

The effect of the content of cement replacement by FA on selfcompactability of SCHPC
750
15
700
10
650
5
0
20
40
FA content (% by weight of binder)
Figure 3: Slump flow and V-funnel time of SCHPC

mixtures containing FA with various contents.
30
15
20
10
10
0
0
20
40
FA content (% by weight of binder)
J-ring step height (PJ), mm
20
Sieve segregation (SR), %
800
V-funnel time (VF), sec
Slump flow (SF), mm
1) Filling ability and Viscosity

Fig.3 shows that the mixture containing 20% FA had the highest slump flow (indicating filling
ability) of 820mm, and the lowest V-funnel flow time (indicating viscosity) of 12.1s, compared to
the control, and 40% FA mixtures. Especially, the mixture containing 40% FA had lower slump
flow, and higher flow time than those of control mixture.
40
20
850
25
SF
VF
SR
PJ
Figure 4: J-ring step and sieve segregation of

SCHPC mixtures containing FA with various
contents.
Previous research indicated that compared to control mixture containing only PC as binder,
the mixtures containing FA has higher slump flow and the increase in the FA content results in
increasing slump flow, when the binder content by weight and SP dosage are kept constant. It
can be explained that, firstly, the spherical shape of FA can help to disperse agglomeration of
cement particles. Secondly, the surface area of binder decreases because of spherical and
coarse FA particles. Finally, the partial cement content replaced by FA in weight leads to
increased paste volume because of its lower density [10]. The increase in paste volume yields
increased workability due to a reduction in the friction between aggregate particles [11, 1].
The self-compactability of fresh SCC is dependent on characteristics of aggregate, the paste
volume, the paste composition [12]. In this study, the aggregates and the paste volume were
kept constant, therefore the paste composition significantly affects on slump flow and viscosity
of concrete. On the one hand, the replacement of cement by FA with spherical shape and
coarser size of the particles decreases water demand due to the decrease in surface area, ballbearing effect and hence increases the slump flow when w/b is kept constant. On the other
hand, the increase in FA content results in a decrease in binder content by weight, and the
water content due to the constant w/b ratio of concrete, see in table 3. The reduction in water
content contributes to increased friction between the solids in the paste and hence leads to
higher viscosity and lower slump flow of concrete. The replacement of cement by 20% FA might
give the optimal composition of paste to reduce the viscosity and hence increase the slump flow
of concrete.
190
2) Segregation resistance and passing ability

Fig.4 shows that the control and FA mixtures also passed through the bars of J-ring easily and
were not blocked. The 20% FA mixture flowed through the spacing bars easier than the control
and the 40% FA mixtures did. However, the resistance of this mixture to segregation was lowest
with sieve segregation index of over 30%. It is well known that filling ability, in terms of slump
flow, is correlated to passing ability, increasing filling ability yields good passing ability. And for
a given coarse aggregate particle size, segregation resistance or static stability of SCC
depends on the difference between the relative densities of aggregate and matrix, yield stress
and viscosity of mixture [1]. The results, here, agree with previous conclusion. The 20%FA
mixture, which possesses higher slump flow, lower V-funnel flow time, would have lower J-ring
step height, indicating better passing ability, and poor segregation resistance.
Based on higher slump flowability and passing ability, lower viscosity and segregation
resistance, the mixture containing 20% FA was chosen to investigate effect of RHA combined
with FA on properties of SCHPC, especially the viscous role of RHA.
Effect of the combination of RHA and FA on self-compactability of SCHPC
25
FA fixed at
20%
20
15
750
10
700
650
0
0
5
10 15 20 10SF
RHA content ( by weight of binder)
Figure 5: Slump flow and V-funnel time of various

SCHPCs.
40
30
SR
PJ
20
FA fixed
at 20%
15
20
10
10
0
0
5
10 15 20 10SF
RHA content (%by weight of binder)
J-ring height step (PJ), mm
800
SF
VF
V-funnel time (VF), sec
Slump flow (SF), mm
850
Sieve segregation(SR),%
1) Filling ability and Viscosity

Fig.5 shows the effect of RHA content on slump flow and V-funnel time of SCHPC when the
content of cement replacement by FA was fixed at 20%, and compared to that of SF. It can be
seen that the increase in RHA content led to lower slump flow, and higher V-funnel flow time.
The mixture containing 10% RHA had minor higher slump flow, and higher flow time than those
of mixture containing 10% SF.
Figure 6: Sieve segregation and J-ring height step of

various SCHPCs.
The result from the work [1] shows that with various w/b ratios of 0.30; 0.35; 0.40 and 0.50, the
slump flow and the Orimet and the inverted slump cone flow times (indicating viscosity) of SCC
mixtures increase with an increase in RHA content replacing cement in weight. This
replacement leads to an increased paste volume, due to lower density of RHA, hence to the
increased slump flow. Whereas the reasons for the increased flow time are mostly the reduction
in the amount of free water available in the paste due to the higher volume content and the
larger specific surface area of the binder. On contrary, in another study [6], the addition of 0%,
25%, 50% RHA to the mixture proportion of SCC leads to a decrease in the w/b ratio from 0.4,
to 0.38, and to 0.36, respectively. As the amount of RHA increases, the V-funnel time
increases, and the slump flow decreases with the same dosage of SP. Here, it is unclear
whether the increased V-funnel time, and the decreased slump flow is due to reduced w/b ratio
or higher RHA content resulting in the reduction in free water in the concrete.
In the present study, the w/b ratio and paste volume of mixtures were kept constant. It is
evident that the replacement of cement by RHA having particles with porous structure and large
191
specific surface area leads to a reduction in free water, an increase in plastic viscosity of paste,
and hence an increase in V-funnel time of concrete. Consequently, the slump flow of these
concretes decreases simultaneously.
2) Segregation resistance and passing ability
Fig.6 shows the effect of RHA content on segregation resistance, and passing ability of SCHPC
when the content of cement replacement by FA was fixed at 20%, and compared to that of SF.
The mixture with SF had the same passing ability in terms of J-ring height step, and minor
better segregation resistance compared to those of the mixture with RHA. The increase in
cement content replaced by RHA resulted in higher segregation resistance (lower sieve
segregation), and lower passing ability (higher J-ring height step) simultaneously. These results
totally correlated to results of slump flow, and V-funnel flow time. The increase in RHA yields
lower slump flow, and hence lower passing ability. The resistance of mixtures with higher RHA
content to segregation are better because of their higher viscosity, in spite of the reduction in
paste density compared to that of aggregate, see in Fig.7.
unit weight
air content
FA fixed at 20%
2550
01
2500
01
2450
01
2400
01
2350
Air content, %
Unit weight, kg/m3
Effect of the combination of RHA and FA on air content and unit weight of SCHPC
The air content and unit weight of SCHPC containing RHA with various contents and fixed
20%FA are presented in Fig.7. The more cement content was replaced by RHA, the lower was
unit weight and generally the higher was air content in fresh concrete. All mixtures had an air
content lower than 2% that was suitable for nonair entrained concrete as designed. In the case
of the constant aggregate weight, the unit weight decreased with increasing RHA content,
because of the lower RHA density and the increase in air content.
2600
02
01
0
5
10
15
20
RHA content (%by weight of binder).
10SF
Figure 7: Unit weight and air content of various SCHPCs.
Effect of the combination of RHA and FA on compressive strength of SCHPC

It can be seen in Fig.8 that the compressive strength of SCHPCs containing only FA at early
ages (3, 7days) decreased with higher FA content, except for 20% mixture at 7 days. The
results were different at late ages (28, 56 days). With the cement content replaced by FA up to
40%, the compressive strength of concrete was still similar to that of control concrete containing
only cement as binder. It can be explained that the amorphous silica content in FA reacts with
calcium hydroxide generated from the hydration of cement to form additional C-S-H gel and
results in the improvement of strength [13]. Moreover, from the mixture proportions in table 3, it
can be seen that in spite of the constant w/b ratio, the water content decreases with higher FA
content because of the reduction in binder weight due to the lower FA density and the constant
paste volume. It might be another reason for improving compressive strength.
For the ternary binder SCHPCs with fixed 20% FA, the inclusion of RHA decreased
compressive strength at 3 and 7days, except for mixtures containing 5% and 10% RHA.
Compressive strength of these mixtures at 7 days was similar to that of mixture incorporating
20%FA. At later ages, concrete using ternary binder, irrespective of the RHA content,
possessed similar or higher compressive strength than that of control and 20% FA concrete.
192
Moreover, the compressive strength increased with increase in RHA content. The positive effect
of RHA on compressive strength are explained thoroughly in previous works [14, 1]. RHA is a
very reactive pozzolanic material with very large specific surface area, and high silica content.
RHA reacts intensively with water and calcium hydroxide generated from the hydration of
cement to produce additional C-S-H. The additional C-S-H itself is the main strengthcontributing compound, and also fills in the capillary pores to improve microstructure of paste
matrix and transition zone in concrete resulting in improvement of compressive strength.
Another reason is that the finer RHA particles can fill the pores within cement particles leading
high density of paste matrix. Moreover, the increase in compressive strength o f concrete with
RHA at the late period is also due to the internal curing of RHA in the cement paste. RHA with
porous structure may absorb free water during mixing leading to lower w/b ratios of RHA
mixtures. This amount of water is released from the pores at late ages, when the relative
humidity in paste reduces because of cement hydration, and therefore keeps the hydration of
blended cement continuous [5].
Compressive strength, MPa
150
28
56 days
130
110
90
70
50
30
FA0%R0%
FA20%R0%
FA40%R0%
FA20%R5%
FA20%R10% FA20%R15% FA20%R20% FA20%SF10%
Age, day
Figure 8: Compressive strength of various SCHPCs at various ages
Compared to 10% SF mixture, the compressive strength of 10% RHA mixture was lower at 3
days, however it became higher at later ages of 7, 28, 56 days. It can be explained that
Although SF possesses much finer particle and higher silica content than those of RHA, RHA in
concrete can enhance the cement hydration due to internal curing especially in long term.
Besides, RHA with porous structure absorbs certain amount of free water resulting in the lower
w/b ratio of RHA mixture compared to that of SF mixture, as mentioned previously.
4 Conclusions
It is well known that one of the main disadvantages of SCC is its cost, because of the use of
chemical admixtures, in terms of super plasticizer and viscosity modifying admixtures and/or
use of high volumes of Portland cement. Consequently, the cost of SCHPC is even higher due
to the addition of expensive mineral admixture, such as SF in mixture, especially in developing
countries, i.e. Vietnam. Using less-expensive and locally available RHA, produced from rice
husk, an agricultural waste, to modify viscosity of concrete, to replace SF and partly cement
brings a lot of benefits to the cost, the technical properties of concrete and the environment as
well. Based on the experimental results in this study, the following conclusions can be drawn:
It is possible to produce relatively low cost SCHPC containing RHA and FA with very high
filling ability, adequate passing ability, segregation resistance and very high compressive
strength close to that of UHPC, especially in the long term.
The replacement of cement by 20% FA results in higher filling ability, lower segregation
resistance and minor higher long term compressive strength of SCHPC than that by 40% FA
when w/b ratio and paste volume of concrete are kept constant.
193
The increase in RHA as a replacement of cement increases the plastic viscosity and hence
improves segregation resistance of SCHPC, regardless of the reduction in density of paste
due to lower density of RHA. RHA can be considered as viscosity modifying agent.
The increase in RHA as a replacement of cement increases compressive strength of
concrete in long term. At the age of 56 day, SCHPC containing 20%RHA and 20%FA partial
replacement cement has significantly higher compressive strength than that of SCHPC with
only cement as binder.
The combination of RHA and FA improves not only self-compactability but also compressive
strength of SCHPC. The SCHPC containing 20% FA and 10% RHA as a partial replacement
of cement has better self-compactability in terms of segregation resistance and higher
compressive strength than those of control concrete containing only cement as binder.
With this particle size of RHA (5,7m), the SCHPC mixture containing 20% FA and
10%RHA as a partial replacement of cement has similar self-compactability and higher long
term compressive strength compared to corresponding mixture containing SF and FA.
5 Acknowledgements
The principal author would like to express thanks to Ministry of Education and Training of Viet
Nam, F.A. Finger-Institute for Building Material Science (FIB) and German Academic Exchange
Service (DAAD). The authors are also grateful to Dr. Bui, D.D.; Dipl.-Ing. Flohr, A.; Dipl.-Ing.
Mller, M.; Dipl.-Ing. Ehrhardt, D.; Dipl.-Ing. Giese, A. for helpful discussions.
References
[1] Safiuddin, M.: Development of self-consolidating high performance concrete incorporating rice husk
ash, PhD thesis, University of Waterloo, Canada, 2008.
[2] EFNARC.: Guidelines for viscosity modifying admixtures for concrete, 2006.
[3] Gesoglu, M.; Gneyisi, E.; zbay, E.: Properties of self-compacting concretes made with binary,
ternary, and quaternary cementitious blends of fly ash, blast furnace slag, and silica fu me,
Contruction and Building materials 23(5), pp. 1847-1854, 2009.
[4] Bui, D. D.: Rice husk ash as a mineral admixture for high performance concrete, PhD thesis, Delft
University, The Netherlands, 2001.
[5] Nguyen, V.T.; Ye, G.; Breugel, K.V.; Fraaij, A.L.A.; Bui, D.D.: The study of using rice husk ash to
produce ultra high performance concrete. Construction and Building Materials 25(4), pp. 2030-2035,
2011.
[6] Memon, S.A.; Shaikh, M.A.; Akbar, H.: Utilization of rice husk ash as viscosity modifying agent in
self-compacting concrete, Construction and Building Materials 25 (2), pp. 1044-1048, 2011.
[7] Khatib, J. M.: Performance of self-compacting concrete containing fly ash, Construction and Building
Materials 22(9), pp. 1963-1971, 2008.
[8] Brouwers, H.J.H.; Radix, H.J.: Self-compacting concrete: Theoretical and experimental study,
Cement and Concrete Research 35 (11), pp. 2116-2136, 2005.
[9] Le, T. H.; Siewert, K.; Ludwig, H.M.: The modified mix design for self-compacting high performance
concrete containing various mineral admixtures, Proc. 3rd symposium on Ultra high performance
concrete and Nanotechnology for High performance construction materials, Kassel 2012. under
preparation.
[10] Uysal, M.; Sumer, M.: Performance of self-compacting concrete containing different mineral
admixtures, Construction and Building Materials 25 (11), pp. 4112-4120, 2011.
[11] Okamura, H.; Ouchi, M.: Self-compacting concrete, Journal of advanced concrete technology, pp. 515, 2003.
[12] Koehler, E.P.; Fowler, D.W.: Aggregates in self-consolidating concrete, International Center for
Aggregates Research, Austin, 2007.
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[13] Barbhuiya, S.: Effects of fly ash and dolomite powder on the properties of self-compacting concrete,
Construction and Building Materials 25 (8), pp. 3301-3305, 2011.
[14] Yu, Q.; Sawayama, K.; Sugita, S.; Shoya, M.; Isojima, Y.: The reaction between rice husk ash and
Ca(OH)2 solution and the nature of its product, Cement and Concrete Research, pp. 37-43, 1999.
195
196
Proportioning Optimization of UHPC Containing Rice Husk

Ash and Ground Granulated Blast-furnace Slag
Van Viet Thien An1,2, Horst-Michael Ludwig1
1: Institute for Building Materials Science, Bauhaus-University Weimar, Germany
2: Building Materials Technology Department, National University of Civil Engineering, Hanoi, Vietnam
The suitable fineness of rice husk ash (RHA) to completely replace silica fume (SF) in producing
economical UHPC was chosen by study on the effect of different finenesses of RHA on work ability and
compressive strength. The optimum RHA content partial replacement cement was proposed.
Furthermore, mini-cone slump flow and compressive strength of 28 statistically designed mixtures with
four variables, namely cement, RHA, ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS) and superplasticizer
(SP) dosage, have been experimentally determined. These mixtures were designed by the D-optimal
design of the Design-Expert 8 software. Using the statistical technique, two complete models of the
flowability and compressive strength were proposed. Their 3D response surface and contour plots clearly
showed how the ingredients of UHPC affect its workability and compressive strength. A ternary binder
composed of cement, RHA and GGBS, and a dosage of SP were chosen for the highest strength.
Keywords: UHPC, proportioning optimization, RHA, GGBS, superplasticizer
1 Introduction
Previous study [1] indicated that the combination of rice husk ash (RHA) and ground granulated
blast-furnace slag (GGBS) enhances not only workability but also compressive strength of ultra
high performance concrete (UHPC). When dosage of the used superplasticizer (SP) is higher
than the saturation dosage, it reduces slump flow, increases air content and hence decreases
the compressive strength of UHPC. Furthermore, RHA used to produce UHPC in studies [1-3]
are very fine, with mean particle size about 5.5 m. It needs high energy consumption and
suitable equipment to grind. The finer RHA not only possesses a lower specific surface area,
water or SP demand, but also reduces compressive strength of standard mortar [4]. Therefore,
the influence of different finenesses of RHA, RHA content, and synergic effect of combination of
RHA, GGBS and SP dosage on properties of UHPC need more detail investigations.
Concrete is a multivariate system and normally needs more than one important objective
function. The classical method for optimizing mixture proportions is trial and error, or changing
one ingredient and studying the effect of the ingredient on the response. It will be inefficient and
costly. More importantly, they may not provide the economical mixture. Standard response
surface designs, such as factorial designs or central composite design can use for optimizing
concrete mixture in which the n mixture components have to be reduced to n-1 independent
factors by taking the ratio of two components [5]. However, changing the proportion of one
ingredient immediately influences the proportion of the others because the mix proportions are
limited to sum to 100%. Moreover, some processing factors have strong effect on the
responses. Hence, different method is required for choosing appropriate experimental design
and analyzing final results for all variables. The combined mixture-process model is appropriate
for these problems [5-7]. User can evaluate both of all n dependent mixture components and
process variables such as mixing time, vibration time, SP dosage which can be varied
independently of others and of mixture components.
The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of different fineness of RHA on workability
and compressive strength of UHPC to choose the suitable RHA for UHPC production in terms
of economic, technical validity and realization. With the selected RHA, the optimized RHA
content to partially replace cement in UHPC has been proposed. In addition, the effect of the
197
combination of RHA and GGBS to partially replace cement, and SP dosage on workability and
compressive strength of UHPC has been statistically analyzed by D-optimal criterion of the
Design-Expert 8 software. Using the optimization tool of the program, the optimal proportions of
UHPC containing RHA and GGBS in contribution with a suitable SP dosage for the highest
compressive strength were also proposed.
2 Experimental design
Materials and test methods
An ordinary portland cement sample, CEM I 52.5 R-HS/NA conforming to DIN EN 1164-10, and
the following additives, aggregates were used: RHA, GGBS, quartz powder, quartz sand
(0.125/0.5 mm). The polycarboxylate ether superplasticizer with 40% of solid content was
selected in previous study [1]. This SP is highly compatible with the UHPC containing RHA. The
chemical compositions and properties of the materials can be taken in elsewhere [1].
Five different fineness rice husk ashes were used to investigate the effect of fineness of RHA
on workability and compressive strength of UHPC. This RHA is a mesoporous amorphous
siliceous material with more than 85 wt.-% SiO2 and 97.4 wt.-% amorphous phase (Figs.1 and
2) [4]. Time of grinding in a ball mill, mean particle size and specific surface area (SSA) of RHA
are given in Table 1. The particle size distribution of materials is shown in Fig. 3. For more
details of these RHA, it can be found in elsewhere [4].
Figure 1: XRD patterns of RHA sample.
Figure 2: Surface structure of ground RHA particle.
Table 1: Grinding time, mean particle size and specific surface area of RHA.
Rice husk ash

Grinding time [min]
Mean particle size [m]
2
SSA (BET) [m /g]
RHA-45
RHA-120
RHA-240
RHA-360
RHA-540
45
120
240
360
540
9.65
7.41
6.22
5.78
5.34
59.42
52.28
47.78
44.02
43.69
Principles of mix design, mixing procedure, casting and test methods of UHPC are found in
elsewhere [1]. Typical UHPC mixtures are given in Table 2. Volume of water to volume of fine
materials ratio (W/Fv) of UHPC is 0.55. The paste volume is 61 vol.-% of UHPC. Quartz powder
is 20 vol.-% of fine materials. These values were chosen based on previous studies [1, 8-9].
198
Proportioning Optimization of UHPC Containing Rice Husk Ash and Ground Granulated Blas t-furnace Slag
The pozzolanic admixtures partially replace cement in volume. Mini-cone slump flow of UHPC
mixtures was determined 15 minutes after water addition.
The slump flow values were measured after further 2 minutes without shocking. Samples 40
x 40 x 160 mm3 were formed with 30 seconds vibration, kept in moulds at 20C, 95% relative
humidity (RH) for 48h and followed by storing at 20C, 100% RH until examination.
Compressive strength of samples was tested at the age of 28 days in accordance to DIN EN
196-1.
(a)
(b)
Figure 3: Particle size distribution of materials: a) RHA; b) UHPC.

Table 2: Typical mix proportions of UHPC mixtures.
UHPC mixture
UHPC-22.5%RHA
UHPC-15%RHA
-10% GGBS
UHPC-15%RHA
-20%GGBS
UHPC-22.5%RHA
-20%GGBS
Cement
Q. sand
GGBS
Water *
[kg/m ]
[kg/m3]
155.1
207.8
103.4
1029.6
207.8
1029.6
207.8
Q. powder
3
RHA
w/b
W/Fv
216.5
0.231
0.55
91.6
216.5
0.228
0.55
103.4
183.2
216.5
0.230
0.55
155.1
183.2
216.5
0.236
0.55
[kg/m ]
[kg/m ]
[kg/m ]
[kg/m ]
780.8
1029.6
207.8
755.6
1029.6
654.9
579.3
(*)- The total water content
Design of combined mixture-process model

Three cementitious materials: cement, RHA-120 and GGBS in volume content as mixture
components of binder and superplasticizer dosage in dry mass content of cementitious
materials as process variable were chosen to investigate their effect on workability and
compressive strength of UHPC. Three binder components are designated as A, B, C,
respectively. Process variable is D. And the predicted responses, namely flowability and
compressive strength are designated as R1 and R2, respectively. All the other components of
UHPC, mixing procedure, casting, treatment, and test methods were kept in constant for all
mixtures. Based on preliminary tests, the range of process variable, 0.8% D 1.2% was
selected. The mixture constraints for the binder components were also chosen:
A + B + C = 100%
199
47.5% A 82.5%
7.5% B 22.5%
10% C 30%
Because the SP dosage and the change of SP dosage were very small, it was ignored in
calculation of mix proportions. Hence, it was a three-component mixture combined with one
process variable experiment. The D-optimal design was chosen and assumed that a combined
quadratic x quadratic model should be satisfactory to represent the effect of the mixture
components and process variable on both the predicted responses. The complete combined
model is in Equation (1). The designing experiments produced by the Design-Expert 8 are
shown in Fig. 4 and Table 3. They are the actual mixture components and process variable
levels. The complete model has 28 runs including 23 points at three levels of process variable D
(0.8%, 1.0%, 1.2%) with 5 replicated runs to provide an estimate of error, 5 points at D = 0.9%
and 1.1% to estimate the lack of fit. The typical mix proportions of mixtures can be found in
Table 2.
R = (A, B, C, D) = 1A + 2B + 3C + 12AB + 13AC + 23BC + 11AD + 21BD +
31AD + 121ABD + 131ACD + 231BCD + 111AD2 + 211BD2 + 311CD2 +
1211ABD2 + 1311ACD2 + 2311BCD2
(1)
Where: 1, 2, 3 are linear coefficients; 12, 13, 23 are cross product coefficients; 11, 21, 31,
121, 131, 231 are linear process variable coefficients; and 111, 211, 311, 1211, 1311, 2311 are
quadratic process variable coefficients.
Figure 4: Twenty-eight-run D-optimal design. Points with a (+) indicate replicates.

Effect of fineness of RHA on properties of UHPC
UHPC-15%RHA-10%GGBS mixture given in Table 2 with 1 wt.-% SP was used to investigate
the effect of different finenesses of RHA on the properties of UHPC.
The results in Fig. 5 show that UHPC containing RHA-45 takes about 20 minutes of mixing to
get fluidity and possesses low slump flow. All the other RHA can allow producing UHPC
200
mixtures within 15 minutes of mixing. They have a slump flow over 300 mm. In generally, the
finer the RHA gives the higher the flowability of concrete. UHPC containing RHA-360 has the
highest compressive strength. The slump flow and strength of UHPC containing RHA-120 are
similar to those of RHA-240. With the aims to produce UHPC in terms of economic, technical
validity and realization, RHA with mean particle size of 7.41 m (RHA-120) was chosen to
produce UHPC in further researches.
Influence of RHA content on properties of UHPC containing RHA
With selected RHA, different content of RHA was used to study how it influences on workability
and compressive strength of UHPC. GGBS was not used in this test. The SP dosage was 1 wt.% of binder. Typical UHPC mixture (UHPC-22.5%RHA) can be found in Table 2. The results are
shown in Fig. 6. When RHA content increases, both flowability and strength of UHPC increase
initially and then decrease. There is no significant difference of slump flow and compressive
strength between UHPC-15%RHA and UHPC-22.5%RHA. When 1 vol.-% steel fibers with a
length of 9 mm and a diameter of 0.15 mm was used, the compressive strength of both UHPC
obtained 169.5 MPa. Therefore, 22.5% RHA in volume partial replacement cement can be
considered as optimal content in UHPC containing RHA in this study.
*- Mixing time is 20 minutes

Figure 5: Effect of different finenesses of RHA on
properties of UHPC.
Figure 6: Effect of RHA-120 content on properties

of UHPC.
Optimization of mix proportions of UHPC incorporating RHA and GGBS

The 28 designed mixtures of UHPC in Table 3 were carried out and tested the slump flow and
compressive strength. The 28-run design result was run and analyzed with the Design-Expert 8
software. With the input data, the software suggested the combined quadratic x quadratic model
against other models such as quadratic x linear, quadratic x cubic for both of the responses.
Thus the models chosen to design the experiment were good. Both of the predicted models
were significant. Their lacks of fit were not significant. The adjusted R-squared and the
predicted R-squared were 0.9671 and 0.8206 with the slump flow response; and 0.9301 and
0.8204 with the compressive strength response, respectively. Several techniques in diagnostic
tool of the program have been also used to check the models adequacy. The complete fitted
models with the actual mixture components and process factor are given in equation 2 and 3.
Some of the coefficients in the models are insignificant and could be eliminated. In this case,
there is no advantage to reduced model because the adjusted R-squared is changed not so
much. Moreover, the interactions should not be removed in the combination of mixture and
process model, especially with the combined quadratic x quadratic model [5, 10]. Therefore, the
complete models should be used. The predicted data calculated from Equations (2), (3) and the
201
ratio between predicted and experimental data are also given in Table 3. It shows that the
fitness of the selected models is good and these models could be used for further navigations.
Table 3: Twenty-eight-run D-optimal design with data.
Run
Cement
A [%]
RHA120
B [%]
Experimental
Predicted
Ratio
GGBS
SP
C [%]
D [%]
R1
[mm]
R2
[MPa]
R 1*
[mm]
R 2*
[MPa]
R1*/R1
R2*/R2
55.0
15.0
30.0
1.1
347
159.9
347.1
158.9
1.0004
0.9934
67.5
22.5
10.0
1.2
324
149.4
324.6
149.5
1.0018
1.0004
57.5
22.5
20.0
1.2
336
152.3
335.0
151.9
0.9969
0.9973
62.5
7.5
30.0
1.2
341
156.8
339.5
155.5
0.9955
0.9918
47.5
22.5
30.0
0.8
343
154.2
342.4
154.0
0.9981
0.9989
82.5
7.5
10.0
1.0
321
158.7
318.6
158.6
0.9927
0.9996
67.5
22.5
10.0
1.0
316
161.5
316.7
161.3
1.0021
0.9987
82.5
7.5
10.0
0.8
295
158.3
294.4
158.3
0.9978
1.0000
67.5
22.5
10.0
0.8
306
154.8
303.7
155.3
0.9923
1.0030
10
82.5
7.5
10.0
0.9
307
159.8
310.0
160.0
1.0097
1.0011
11
75.0
15.0
10.0
1.2
320
155.8
318.8
155.7
0.9964
0.9992
12
62.5
7.5
30.0
1.0
349
156.8
347.6
157.3
0.9959
1.0032
13
65.0
15.0
20.0
0.8
338
165.2
339.2
165.3
1.0037
1.0005
14
75.0
15.0
10.0
1.0
320
164.6
320.3
164.5
1.0008
0.9991
15
62.5
7.5
30.0
0.8
351
161.2
349.8
161.1
0.9965
0.9991
16
62.5
7.5
30.0
1.2
338
154.4
339.5
155.5
1.0044
1.0092
17
47.5
22.5
30.0
1.2
346
141.0
348.7
142.0
1.0079
1.0073
18
72.5
7.5
20.0
1.0
329
155.1
330.6
154.5
1.0048
0.9963
19
70.0
15.0
15.0
1.1
323
159.0
325.1
160.3
1.0065
1.0084
20
62.5
7.5
30.0
0.8
349
161.0
349.8
161.1
1.0022
1.0003
21
82.5
7.5
10.0
1.2
314
150.0
315.2
147.0
1.0039
0.9803
22
57.5
22.5
20.0
0.8
330
157.0
330.3
157.1
1.0010
1.0009
23
55.0
15.0
30.0
0.9
351
162.1
353.3
162.3
1.0066
1.0014
24
47.5
22.5
30.0
1.0
349
155.3
348.3
155.5
0.9981
1.0014
25
70.0
15.0
15.0
0.9
331
162.7
326.1
162.4
0.9852
0.9979
26
47.5
22.5
30.0
1.2
351
142.7
348.7
142.0
0.9935
0.9953
27
67.5
22.5
10.0
0.8
301
155.7
303.7
155.3
1.0088
0.9972
28
82.5
7.5
10.0
1.2
316
144.2
315.2
147.0
0.9975
1.0197
R1 (flowability) = - 11.54A - 66.55B - 76.76C + 1.21AB + 1.54AC + 1.68BC +

26.72AD + 98.73BD + 154.33CD - 1.85ABD - 2.90ACD - 2.75BCD - 12.12AD2 32.59BD2 - 71.62CD2 + 0.70ABD2 + 1.34ACD2 + 1.10BCD2
(2)
R2 (strength) = - 7.22A - 72.13B - 105.33C + 0.90AB + 1.81AC + 2.34BC +
18.43AD + 141.45BD + 222.87CD - 1.72ABD - 3.79ACD - 4.69BCD - 9.67AD2 73.05BD2 - 113.89CD2 + 0.90ABD2 + 1.94ACD2 + 2.38BCD2
(3)
202
Influence of cementitious materials and SP dosage on the flowability of UHPC

To interpret the influence of the components of binder and SP dosage on flowability of UHPC,
3D response surface and contour plots of the workability versus the mixture components at
three levels of the SP dosage have been produced (Fig. 7). It would be seen clearly that GGBS
strongly improves the workability of UHPC at all levels of SP dosage. The effect of RHA
depends on the dosage of SP used. At low SP dosages, flowability of UHPC increases initially
and then decreases when RHA content increases. But at high SP dosage (D = 1.2 wt.-%), the
more the RHA content the higher the flowability of UHPC. The impact of the different
cementitious materials at the different dosages of SP is illustrated by how the shape and the
pace of the contours change.
(a)
(b)
Figure 7: Response surface and contour

plots of flowability of UHPC at different SP
dosages:
a) 0.8 wt.-%; b) 1.0 wt.-%; c) 1.2 wt.-%.
(c)
The behavior of SP in UHPC is mainly influenced by GGBS and RHA content replacement
cement. At low GGBS and RHA content, the flowability of UHPC increases initially and then
decreases when SP dosage increases. At low GGBS and high RHA content, the dosage of SP
improves the workability of UHPC. But when GGBS content is increased, the high dosage of SP
makes workability of UHPC reduce with low RHA content and slightly increase with high RHA
content. These results assume that GGBS decreases and RHA increases the saturation dosage
of SP of UHPC mixture. The slump flow of UHPC reduces when SP dosage is higher than
saturation dosage. It is consistent with results of previous study [1]. With the aim to get
maximum slump flow, we will want to adjust the variables to high content of GGBS, low dosage
of SP in combination with a content of RHA.
Influence of cementitious materials and SP dosage on the strength of UHPC
Similar to the workability response, 3D response surface and contour plots of compressive
strength versus the mixture components at three levels of the process factor are found in Fig. 8
203
These response surface and contour plots illustrate that there is an optimized content of
RHA which enables UHPC mixture obtain the highest compressive strength at all levels of
GGBS and SP. The effect of GGBS on compressive strength is affected by SP dosage. At SP
dosage of 0.8 wt.-% and 1.2 wt.-%, the compressive strength initially increases but decreases
afterward when GGBS increases. This change is contrary at SP dosage of 1 wt.-%. The reason
for the difference in the effect of GGBS on strength of UHPC at 1 wt.-% superplasticizer is
unclear. The maximum compressive strength comes from a ternary binder composed of
cement, RHA and GGBS, and a low dosage of SP.
(a
)
(b
)
Figure 8: Response surface and
contour plots of compressive strength
of UHPC at different SP dosages:
a) 0.8 wt.-%; b) 1.0 wt.-%; c) 1.2 wt.-%.
(c
)
Proportioning optimization of UHPC containing
RHA and GGBS
The optimization tool of the program was used to find the optimal proportions of UHPC
containing RHA, GGBS, and a suitable dosage of SP. The input criteria are: A (Cement), B
(RHA), C (GGBS), D (SP): in range; R 1 (workability): in range; R2 (strength): maximum. The
program gave some solutions. The best solution was chosen in Table 4 in terms of highest
compressive strength, low cement content and SP dosage to produce UHPC more sustainable.
Table 4: Experimental proportions versus optimized proportions.
Material
Variable
Unit
Cement
RHA
GGBS
SP
The mix proportions having the highest strength

Experimental
Optimized by Design-Expert
[vol.-%]
65
63.8
[vol.-%]
15
13.3
[vol.-%]
20
22.9
[wt.-%]
0.8
0.8
Slump flow
[mm]
338
345
Compressive strength at 28d
[MPa]
165.2
165.4
The results of slump flow, compressive strength of the experimental mixture and Design Experts mixture are similar (Table 3). Thus, the UHPC with 65 vol.-% cement, 15 vol.-% RHA,
20 vol.-% GGBS of binder and 0.8 wt.-% SP of cementitious material is selected as optimal mix
proportions. The weight of materials for 1 m 3 concrete are given at UHPC-15%RHA-20%GGBS
204
mixture in Table 2. When 1 vol.-% steel fibers with a length of 9 mm and a diameter of 0.15 mm
was used, the compressive strength of this UHPC obtained 196 MPa at the age of 28 days.
4 Conclusions
The following conclusions can be drawn from the results of this study:
RHA with mean particle size of 7.41 m is suitable for producing economical UHPC by
complete replacement silica fume. When this RHA is used to partially replace cement, 22.5 vol.% is considered as the optimum content.
The mixture-process models of workability and compressive strength of UHPC with three
mixture components and a process variable built based on 28 designed experiments by the Doptimal design of Design-Expert software fitted well with the experimental data. The influence of
the variables on the workability and compressive strength was also interpreted clearly by using
3D response surface and contour plots.
The ternary binder composed of 65 vol.-% cement, 15 vol.-% RHA and 20 vol.-% GGBS
combining with a dosage of 0.8 wt.-% SP in solid content of the binder is the optimum mixture
proportions for the highest compressive strength of the sustainable UHPC in this study.
5 Acknowledgments
The principal author would like to thank for the PhD scholarship sponsored by Ministry of
Education and Training of Vietnam, F.A. Finger-Institute for Building Material Science (FIB)Bauhaus-University Weimar and German Academic Exchange Service (DAAD). The authors
also gratefully acknowledge helpful discussions from Dr. Bui Danh Dai, Dipl. -Ing. Simone
Peters, Dipl. -Min. Claudia Pfeifer and Dipl. -Ing. Christin Pflug during this study.
References
[1] Van, V.T.A.; Ludwig, H.-M.: Using rice husk ash and ground granulated blast-furnace slag to replace
silica fume in UHPC. Workshop on Performance-based Specifications for Concrete, Leipzig 2011.
[2] Nguyen, V.T.; Ye, G.; Van Breugel, K.; Fraaij, A.L.A.; Bui, D.D.: The study of using rice husk ash to
produce ultra high performance concrete. Construction and Building Materials, 25(4), pp. 2030-2035,
2011.
[3] Nguyen, V.T.; Ye, G.; Van Breugel, K.; Copuroglu, O.: Hydration and microstructure of ultra high
performance concrete incorporating rice husk ash. Cement and Concrete Research, 41(11), pp.
1104-1111, 2011.
[4] Van, V.T.A.; Ludwig, H.-M.: Study on pozzolanic reactivity of rice husk ash in cement system.
Workshop on Performance-based Specifications for Concrete, Leipzig 2011.
[5] Myers, R.H.; Montgomery, D.C.; Anderson-Cook, C.M.: Response surface methodology: process
and product optimization using designed experiments, Wiley, 2009.
[6] Anderson-Cook, C.M., et al.: Mixture and mixtureprocess variable experiments for pharmaceutical
applications. Pharmaceutical Statistics 3(4), pp. 247-260, 2004.
[7] Duineveld, C.A.A.; Smilde, A.K.; Doornbos, D.A.: Comparison of experimental designs combining
process and mixture variables: Part I. Design construction and theoretical evaluation. Chemometrics
and Intelligent Laboratory Systems 19(3), pp. 295-308, 1993.
[8] Richard, P.; Cheyrezy, M.: Composition of reactive powder concretes. Cement and Concrete
Research, 25(7), pp. 1501-1511, 1995.
[9] Park, J.J.; Kang, S.T.; Koh, K.T.; Kim, S.W.: Influence of the ingredients on the compressive
strength of UHPC as a fundamental study to optimize the mixing proportion. Proceedings of the
Second international Symposium on Ultra High Performance Concrete, Kassel 2008.
[10] Anderson, M.J.; Whitcomb, P.J.: Designing Experiments that Combine Mixture Components with
Process Factors. Chemical Engineering Progress, December, 2000.
205
206
Making UHPC with Local Materials - The Way Forward

Per Fidjestol1,2, Rein Terje Thorsteinsen 2, Paul Svennevig2
1: Elkem AS Silicon Materials, Kristiansand, Norway
2: University of Agder, Grimstad, Norway
Commercially available UHPC is frequently based on prepackaged dry materials. Logistics and handling
then become an important part of the cost picture compared to what would be the case if more
conventional, locally available, materials were used. The paper presents work done with particle packing
software for the successful use of locally available materials in the production of Ultra High Performance
Concrete (UHPC).
Keywords: ultra high performance, uhpc, silica fume, microsilica, local materials
1 Introduction
Ultra High performance Concrete (UHPC)
has been around for three decades and
Elkem has been involved since the early
days; first with Densit and later with
Elkems proprietary brand, Ceramite ,
based on CA cement. In order to benefit
from the concept on a larger scale, local raw
materials should be used. The project
described investigated this option for the
University location in Southern Norway.
With the concept proven, this opens the
Figure 1: UHPC bridge Kg. Linsum Motorway Bridge,
door for future development based on this
Negeri Sembilan, Malaysia, Picture: Courtesy of Dr
technology and intended for the local
Voo Yen Lei, Dura Technology Sdn Bhd.
industry.
Wide scale use of UHPC is challenged by the availability of raw materials. Much of the more
publicized reference projects with UHPC, from the early Densit and onwards, have been made
using prebagged materials, introducing costs and logistic issues. The need to use local
materials is significant in order to make the use of this material more economical and generally
available.
The project referenced here was to investigate the possibility of making UHPC with more
readily available materials and more conventional processing tools. The development used
sieving and particle packing software to develop the optimum material for this locality. .
2 Use of local materials

The task of the main project [1] was to select from locally available materials in order to produce
UHPC in the lab. The local materials are sands from typical suppliers in the locality of Agder
University, cement from the national producer, fly ash from the closest supplier (in Denmark)
(who also supplies the cement company) and admixtures from one of the large suppliers in
Norway.
Three water/binder ratios were used, and curing was done at 20 and 90 degrees centigrade.
207
Table 1: Materials
Aggregates
Natural granite and gneiss based : Reddal, Tveit , rdal sand (10, 50 and 250 km
away)
Crushed: Dura-Splitt (from 250 km away)
The sands were sieved on sieves 4mm 2mm 1mm 0,5mm 0,250mm
0,125mm 0,063mm (approximately US sieves 4, 10, 18, 35, 60, 120, 230)
An additional test was made with high strength crushed sand from Dura-Splitt 0-2mm,
fractioned as the natural sands.
Cement
Industri (Rapid hardening Portland Cement) Blaine 550 m2/kg, 7 % C3A, EN CEM142.5
Anlegg (High strength Portland Cement) Blaine 360 m2/kg, 7% C3A, EN CEM 1-52.5
(Both from Norcem as, 100 km away)
Additions
Undensified silica fume (940U) (EN 13263/ASTM C1240)

Fly ash (EN450/ASTMC618, type F)
(Silica Fume from Elkem, 50 km away, Fly Ash from Denmark, 500 km away)
Admixtures
Suppliers were Rescon Mapei, BASF and Sika
Steel Fibers
Bekaert 6mm and 13mm (imports)
W/B-ratios
0.16, 0.18 and 0.20
Figure 2: Packing of particles.
Figure 3: Particle Size Distribution of typical microsilica.
To achieve the optimal mix design for UHPC, maximum packing of the particulate materials are
required. The smaller particles fill the gaps between the bigger ones (Fig. 2).
The aggregates were sieved into a
number of fractions in order to allow the
fine tuning of the particle size
distribution (PSD). The mixtures were
assembled
using
EMMA
(Elkem
Materials Mix Analyzer) [2]. EMMA is
based on the Andreassen model [3] for
particle packing, and helps design a
mixture with a minimum of voids. The
ideal mix is represented by a straight
line in a cumulative double-log particle
Figure 4: EMMA diagram, good fit, good flow.
208
size/volume fraction diagram, The inclination of this line, q, influences the rheological
properties of the mixture; a low q (<0.28) give a composition containing more fine material, thus
increased likelihood of good flow. A q-value of 0.36, which gives a very stiff mixture, has been
applied with success for roller compacted concrete mixtures. (With q>0.36, optimum packing is
not possible.) 0.30 is the program default value. Figure 4 shows a typical (good) EMMA-plot,
with the q-line in red and the cumulative PSD in blue. If the proportions are selected so that the
blue line matches the red, optimum packing is obtained.
3 Batching and mixing procedures

A Hobarth mixer was used, and the mixing procedure was based on recommendation in ASTM
and EN standards for testing silica fume with suitable modifications, both for batching sequence
and mixing time. The mixing sequence below was found to give the best results.
Curing
Curing involved both standard curing and heat curing:
Standard: 20C in water tank

Heat curing: 48 hours between day 1 and 3 at 90C and 100% RH. By wrapping wet
burlap and plastic around the specimens appropriate moisture conditions were ensured.
Table 2: Batching and mixing procedure
What
Time
Mixing speed
Mix water, aggregate and 2/3 of

additive
30 sec
Add cement
30 sec
2*
Add microsilica
30 sec
2*
1/3 of additive
15 sec
Add fly ash
30 sec
2*
Fiber dosing
30 sec
Move mortar from rim into bowl
30 sec
Final mix
135 sec
SUM
5 min 30sec
4 Tests and results

The tests made on the mortar were
Flow table test, ASTM C230
Compressive strength, 50 mm cubes; 1, 3, 7 and 28 days
Bending tensile strength, 40X40X160 mm beams, 28 days
Chloride permeability, Modified NTBuild 492, 14 days
Density.
The specimens were tested for compressive strength after 1, 3, 7 and 28 days.
The results show that aggregates from Reddal, Tveit and rdal are all able to give ultra high
performance concrete, with heat cured strengths in the range of 160 to 190 MPa.
209
210
Reddal
0.30
0.18
0.16
0.20
0.20
0.18
0.20
0.18
0.20
0.18
0.20
0.18
0.20
0.18
0.18
0.18
0.18
0.18
0.18
0.18
0.18
0.18
0.18
0.18
0.18
0.18
0.18
0.20
0.20
0.20
13
14-1
14-2
15
16
17
19
20
22
23
24
25
26
28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36
37
38
39
40
41
42
43
44
Durasplitt
rdal
rdal
rdal
rdal
rdal
rdal
Reddal
rdal
Tveit
Tveit
Tveit
Tveit
Tveit
Reddal
Reddal
Reddal
Reddal
Reddal
Reddal
Reddal
Reddal
Reddal
Reddal
Reddal
Reddal
Reddal
Reddal
Reddal
Aggregate
W/B
Mix
719
658
658
716
739
673
673
718
739
673
674
718
740
724
675
660
Anlegg
718
739
718
739
718
696
666
655
538
526
550
576
674
437
Industri
Cement
287.57
263.28
263.28
287.39
286.65
295.60
295.60
269.16
269.16
287.39
287.39
295.60
295.60
269.16
269.62
287.39
287.39
278.55
249.70
245.57
296.16
289.68
270.11
264.16
385.44
376.67
315.00
329.88
252.61
297.22
Microsilica
261.41
219.33
219.33
261.25
260.57
268.71
268.71
224.23
224.23
261.25
261.25
268.71
268.71
224.23
224.61
261.25
261.25
227.91
166.39
163.64
269.21
263.33
225.02
220.06
308.27
301.26
262.40
274.79
168.34
156.31
FA
133.51
129.22
129.22
154.77
150.07
123.52
123.52
103.18
103.18
154.77
154.77
123.52
123.52
103.18
114.61
154.77
154.77
142.80
90.88
131.08
136.11
182.84
126.08
151.70
167.83
196.87
156.58
116.76
112.65
252.56
Water
125
133
105
1
22%
122
128
122
122
122
122
2
40%
143.72
118.44
118.44
132.97
132.97
127.85
127.85
132.97
132.97
127.85
114.59
118.41
86.87
101.26
92.42
64.60
52.61
82.48
86.37
101.03
17.47
3
16.5%
Admixture/dry content
20.0
20.0
20.0
20.0
20.0
20.0
20.0
20.0
20.0
20.0
20.0
20.0
20.0
20.0
20.0
20.0
20.0
20.0
20.0
20.0
20.0
20.0
20.0
20.0
20.0
20.0
20.0
20.0
20.0
20.0
0.6/16
0.6/16
0.13/20
0.6/16
0.6/16
0.6/16
0.6/16
0.13/20
0.6/16
0.6/16
0.6/16
0.6/16
0.6/16
0.6/16
0.6/16
0.6/16
0.6/16
0.6/16
0.6/16
0.6/16
0.6/16
0.6/16
0.6/16
0.6/16
0.6/16
0.6/16
0.6/16
0.6/16
0.6/16
0.6/16
diameter/
length
Fiber
[liter/m ]
Table 3: Mix compositions (kg/m3) and flow (mix 27 deleted due to failure of curing container).
65.40
54.94
54.94
65.36
65.19
67.23
67.23
56.16
56.16
65.36
65.36
67.23
67.23
56.16
56.26
65.36
65.36
63.41
49.85
49.03
67.36
65.88
56.36
55.12
65.31
63.83
55.50
58.12
50.44
264.68
0.00630.125mm
339.69
285.25
285.25
339.48
338.60
349.18
349.18
291.63
291.63
339.48
339.48
349.18
349.18
291.63
292.13
339.48
339.48
379.85
333.00
327.50
349.83
342.18
339.69
296.24
296.24
339.48
338.60
349.18
349.18
302.86
302.86
339.48
339.48
349.18
349.18
302.86
303.38
339.48
339.48
379.85
333.00
327.50
349.83
342.18
303.93
297.23
286.20
292.66
391.27
382.37
299.89
314.05
339.89
264.68
0.250.5mm
391.27
382.37
288.70
302.33
336.89
264.68
0.1250.25mm
Sand [kg/m]
296.24
296.24
302.86
302.86
302.86
303.38
333.00
327.50
303.93
297.23
299.89
314.05
336.89
264.68
0.51mm
744.78
932.67
932.67
744.32
742.39
765.59
765.59
953.51
953.51
744.32
744.32
765.59
765.59
953.51
955.15
744.32
744.32
823.11
1049
1032
767.02
750.24
956.88
935.78
848
829
944
989
1064
1059
Total
222
224
216
192
209
128
216
191
182
184
202
153
206
201
193
193
200
172
139
156
197
230
188
218
173
183
217
159
172
147
mm
Flow
Table 4: Compressive strength results (some low early strengths because of

retardation by admixture)
Flexural
strength[Mpa]
Compressive strength [Mpa]
Mixture
1
28
28 days
Curing temperature day 2 and 3
Curing
20C
20C
90C
20C
90C
20C
90C
20C
90C
13
22.2
49.3
122.6
73.9
123.4
99.9
128.9
15.2
19.4
14-1
45.1
80.2
170.0
101.7
166.0
172.8
16.9
15.6
14-2
48.4
86.8
181.3
170.3
177.2
19.5
20.5
15
24.8
79.0
159.5
100.7
159.9
140.6
173.4
18.6
20.8
16
45.2
79.1
161.2
97.9
171.9
132.1
167.3
17.5
22.5
17
46.7
83.6
175.7
103.0
177.7
140.6
180.2
18.0
20.6
19
51.8
84.3
166.8
111.8
163.6
127.2
171.5
21.2
22.8
20
46.9
87.9
170.2
108.2
176.7
133.5
170.4
20.6
22.6
22
42.2
82.3
175.1
107.3
145.8
142.0
174.8
18.4
17.8
23
38.4
64.2
118.1
109.1
178.6
134.8
177.6
19.6
16.6
24
14.3
64.3
162.6
88.9
171.1
120.2
169.4
18.7
18.1
25
1.0
64.3
129.2
80.1
138.3
118.6
134.0
16.0
17.9
26
0.6
63.1
74.3
83.2
113.9
119.4
154.7
11.3
10.4
28
0.2
28.8
120.4
46.2
142.4
63.5
146.1
13.6
19.9
29
0.6
34.4
96.2
51.2
93.0
110.4
107.1
14.1
15.0
30
58.8
87.1
185.5
112.0
184.5
154.2
185.8
21.2
20.4
31
52.3
80.7
181.2
103.5
181.6
146.2
174.3
21.5
19.5
32
40.5
82.1
183.6
107.0
182.4
147.1
176.8
20.1
22.9
33
36.3
75.2
174.5
99.2
175.7
127.5
160.2
15.3
21.9
34
2.4
137.2
56.8
152.3
103.9
153.2
14.1
18.4
35
3.6
136.2
68.8
148.4
101.6
139.0
12.3
17.3
36
49.7
87.0
185.4
111.6
175.5
147.3
187.9
20.4
20.3
37
44.3
81.8
175.2
103.8
184.5
146.3
187.4
19.7
21.8
38
44.3
80.9
179.5
108.4
168.2
140.6
184.6
22.1
23.2
39
59.6
78.7
168.0
109.2
160.7
117.8
160.8
17.2
22.7
40
33.0
53.4
157.1
101.0
112.4
22.1
23.2
41
24.6
52.6
144.5
109.6
143.8
16.3
15.6
42
49.0
88.3
179.2
105.5
168.3
142.6
170.7
18.9
21.6
43
45.7
84.7
174.0
104.4
171.8
141.7
167.9
19.1
21.7
44
38.5
73.3
168.4
103.6
176.4
132.6
176.7
19.8
22.6
Chloride resistance
1. Modifications made to make Nordtest method NTBuild 492 suit UHPC
This is a description of the modifications made
to NTBuild 492 method to make it applicable to
UHPC. The modifications were made using a
diamond saw or a diamond grinder.
The standard is complied with, except
section 6.3 Preparation of the test specimen:
Figure 5: Cylinder form for chloride penetration
measurement
211
In place of the more common 100* 200

mm cylindrical form, the UHPC specimens
were cast in cylindrical forms of 50mm high
and 100mm width.
The purpose was to eliminate the need of
using a diamond saw to produce samples of
the correct length, since the saw would in all
likelihood have been damaged by the high
strength sample.
By making the specimens in the correct
thickness from the beginning, the only
preparation necessary was to use a grinder to
roughen the surface of the specimen, so as to
eliminate as much as possible of a surface skin
effect.
Figure 6: Grinding head.

Table 5: Chloride transport coefficients
Mixture
Curing temp.
20C
20
.015
23
.044
2. Results of chloride penetration

measurement
Chloride penetration was measured after 14
days of curing. The results show a very small
chloride penetration and large temperature
efffect. For series 38 the 90C thermally
treated specimen had a coefficient= 0,0131 x
10 m/s while the specimen that was kept
outside the thermally steam treatment had a
coefficient=0,274 x 10 m/s.
Chloride coeffisient
[m/s] * 10-12
90C
28
.036
29
.021
32
.22
33
.036
.032
34
0.11
35
0.019
38
0.27
0.013
39
0.093
0.022
42
0.36
Conventional technology, 20 degrees

High strength
concrete
(100 MPa):
Brief discussion of tests
0.48
Cement type
45 MPa
8.18
(cement only):
The two cements are quite different: Where
everything else was kept constant, a comparison between mixes 32 and 33 in term of strength is shown in fig. 7, and in terms of chloride
resistance in fig 8. The effect of cement fineness is shown in 1 day strength, in flow and in
chloride resistance for samples cured at 20 degrees. The lower Cl-resistance of the coarser
Anlegg cement at room temperature is very clear.
Effect of curing Temperature
The beneficial effect of heat curing is interesting. Traditionally (e.g. Hooton et al [4]) , high
temperature during early curing would be expected to result in a coarser microstructure with
higher chloride diffusivity. Here, however, there is a huge positive effect of the heat curing. This
is interesting in light of the observations by Pfeifer et al [5] in whose experiments only about
10% of the silica fume had reacted after 56 days at room temperature (almost none at 14 days),
while in the temperature accelerated situation around 50% was reacted. They also report from
SEM investigations that CSH phases form a very dense binder matrix surrounding the
microsilica particles. This increased pozzolanic reaction can then be assumed as the reason for
the difference between heat cured and conventionally cured material both for strength and for
permeability.
212
Figure 7. Effect of cement and temperature on strength.
Effects of mixture parameters

There is an effect of superplastiziser type on strength. The recommendation is, however, to test
with the cement and SCM that is used, since formulations are changing and development of
admixtures is rapid
Aggregate source appears to have a minor impact, as does the maximum size of the
aggregate (0.5 or 1.0 mm). All sands are mainly gneiss and/or granite with small quantities of
quartzite.
On the balance, for workability versus strength, w/cm of 0.18 was found to be the best
compromise. The Anlegg cement, being the coarser and higher strength, showed the best
results. Dmax: using less tha 2mm had, in this case, no real effect on strength, and would be
detrimental to flow. There was no real difference between 6 and 13 mm fiber lengths.
High temperature curing on day 2 and 3 contributed significantly to performance.
Reaction degree of microsilica in UHPC
Period of heat curing
Reacted microsilica, %
70
60
50
40
30
20
ratu re
R oom tempe
10
0
Figure 8. Effect of cement and temperature on

Chloride transport
40.4%
mple
Heat cured sa
14
21
28
35
42
Time of hydration, days
cure
10.8%
49
56
Figure 9. Effect of temperature on hydration of

microsilica in UHPC (Pfeifer et al)
6 Conclusions
In this project it is found that at this location, producing UHPC is possible using materials easily
available locally. The compressive strength varied between 160-190 MPa, depending on the
recipe.
The high compressive strength, combined with 2 vol% fibers gives UHPC large flexural
strengths, more than 20 MPa in most most mixtures made here.
213
The excellent chloride resistance of the UHPC, especially when cured at high temperatures,
also makes it a very attractive material for durability and long service life under such conditions .
The optimal UHPC recipe in this project has the following contents (from among the tested
materials);
Anlegg cement over Industri because of its better flow.
Aggregate could be any of the three tested types. (Reddal, Tveit and rdal)
Water/binder ratio=0,18 which gives a combination of good flow and good strength
Dmax: 1 or 0,5 mm does not give difference in compressive strength.
The Software program EMMA was found to be a very useful implementation of the Andreassen
model in the optimization of particle packing
The content of water reducing agent seems high, but at only about 16% dry content, the
dosage is typically about 2.5% dry by weight of cement and 1.3% by weight of total binder.
HRWRA is an important cost factor, and more development is needed.
7 Closing words
The ability to make UHPC using locally available material has the potential of broadening the
use of this material.
The availability of ultra high strength concrete makes possible new concepts in the use of
concrete. Such opportunities as insulating sandwich elements, sandwich floor slabs with
lightweight concrete as the core, very slender horizontal structures, impermeable UHPC as
permanent formwork etc. Opportunities are many-fold; combine for example the properties of
UHPC with ADAPAs technique [6] for shaping thin concrete slabs exiting possibilities open
for dramatic, organically shaped, structures. Dura-Cons highway bridge and beam elements [7]
show another way of new technology with UHPC.
An important contribution to the economical use of UHPC, and thereby groth in the use, is to
minimize logistics cost, so that locally available materials can be used. Particle packing is an
important tool for this work.
8 Acknowledgement
The contribution of our bachelor students is gratefully acknowledged: Tom Erik Dahl Dyrseth,
Stian Berge, Alexander Rosenborg-Johnsen
References
[1] Berge,S; Rosenborg-Johnsen,A and Dahl Dyrseth,TE. Developing Ultra High Performance Concrete
with local materials. Bachelor project in construction design. University of Agder. Grimstad 2010
[2] Available from http://www.concrete.elkem.com
[3] Andreasse,n A.H.M. and Andersen, J.: Kolloid Z. 50 (1930) 217-228
[4] Hooton,R.D., Pun,P, Kojundic,T, Fidjestl,P. Influence of silica fume on chloride resistance of
concrete.. Proc. PC/FHWA Internationa Symposium on High Performance Concrete. New Orleans,
Lousiana, October 1997
[5] Pfeifer, C; Mser,B; Weber,C and Stark,J. Investigations of the pozzolanic reaction of silica fume in
ultra high performance concrete. Proc. International RILEM Conference on Materials Science
MATSCI, Aachen 2010
[6] http://adapa.dk
[7] http:// http://www.dura.com.my/
214
Control of Rheology, Strength and Fibre Bond of UHPC with

Additions Effect of Packing Density and Addition Type
Dirk Lowke1, Thorsten Stengel2, Peter Schiel2, Christoph Gehlen1
1: Center for Building Materials, Technische Universitt Mnchen, Germany
2: Ingenieurbro Schiel Gehlen Sodeikat GmbH, Germany
This contribution illustrates the effect of additions different in type and fineness and maximum packing
density on the macroscopic properties, rheology and bond of steel fibres of UHPC. The results show that
the properties of the UHPC investigated were decisively affected by the particle size distribution of the
additions rather than the type of material. A new packing density test for fine materials (< 125 m) was
developed to provide calibrated input parameters for the calculation of the maximum packing density of
UHPC with different additions. The rheological properties, and therefore fresh concrete workability, were
affected by the maximum packing density of the UHPC bulk matrix. The bond strength of steel fibres in a
straight pull-out test was affected by addition exchange too. Again, this is explained by packing density
effects. Based on packing density calculations as well as SEM and EDX investigations, higher fibre bond
strength is explained by a larger proportion of very fine particles in the matrix adjacent to the fibre ITZ
which leads to a decrease in the maximum packing density of the fibre ITZ.
Keywords: rheology, fibre bond, ITZ, packing density
1 Introduction
Ultra high performance concrete (UHPC) consists of a combination of cement with reactive and
inert additions optimized to obtain the specified properties of the fresh and hardened concrete.
The low water-to-fines ratio and high particle packing density of UHPC compared with regular
concrete produces a dense microstructure with almost no capillary porosity. Depending on
composition and production method, compressive strengths are reached between 180 and
250 MPa.
As well as the hardened concrete properties, the
rheological behaviour of fresh UHPC can be
controlled by appropriate choice of mineral
additions. Usually silica fume and quartz flour are
added to the mix, but fly ash and ground
granulated blast-furnace slag are also used [1].
The additions vary in granulometry, particle shape
and specific surface. These parameters can
modify the properties of the fresh and hardened
1 m
concrete. For example, crushed particles possess
Figure 1: SEM image, 2,500x, quartz flour (c)
a higher surface area than round particles of the
(left) and ground limestone (f) (right).
same diameter which leads to lower packing
densities. The type of crushed material affect packing density too. Investigations by
Geisenhanslke [2] have shown that the circularity of quartz flour particles is less than for
limestone particles, but limestone particles possess a rougher surface structure, Fig. 1.
Circularity and surface roughness affect packing density and consequently the rheological
behaviour of UHPC.
In this study, the effect of quartz and limestone flour additions of varied fineness on the
rheological behaviour and properties of hardened UHPC was considered. Fibre pull-out tests
were carried out to investigate the effect of the additions on matrix/fibre bonding.
215
2 Investigations
The tests performed aimed at covering the essential aspects of the application of UHPC in
building practice, in particular, workability and the mechanical performance of the material.
Workability and de-aeration were characterized by rheological measurements. Mechanical
performance was assessed based on the strength of the UHPC without fibres and the bond
behaviour of single fibres. Furthermore, packing density tests and calculations were carried out
to investigate the effect of particle sizes on fresh concrete rheology and fibre bonding, the latter
determined in single fibre pull-out tests. The surface of the steel fibres was examined before
testing using a confocal microscope. SEM and EDX were used to examine the fibre ITZ after
fibre pull-out.
Table 1 shows the composition of the UHPC considered. Portland cement (d50 = 14.3 m)
was used with quartz sand (dmax = 0.5 mm) and silica fume (d50 = 0.2 m). The additions were
either fine Q(f) or coarse Q(c) quartz flour or limestone flour in three grades of fineness: L(c),
L(f) or L(ff). Fig. 2 shows the particle size distributions of the dry mixture of cement and
additions (without sand) in the UHPC investigated. The additions were exchanged
volumetrically keeping the volumetric ratio of water to fines (V W/VF) constant. The fluidity of the
mix was adjusted with a polycarboxylate superplasticizer whereby the dosage was set to yield a
slump flow of 285 15 mm measured with the mini-cone (test without jolting). This permitted
direct assessment of the ability of the superplasticizer to fluidify the mix for each addition.
Table 1: Concrete compositions and particle size of addition.
Addition type / mix notation

Material
CEM I 42,5 N
Silica fume
Quartz powder (c, f)
Lime stone powder (c, f, ff)
Water
Superplasticizer
Q(c) Q(f) L(c) L(f)

[kg/m]
680 680 680 680
138 138 138 138
360 360
371 371
164 170 165 171
990 990 989 990
35.0 31.0 37.0 29.5
L(ff)
Particle size of addition

w/c-ratio
d50[m]
Vw/VF1)
14.7 4.4
1.9
1)
680
138
371
165
990
36.0
8.2 5.5
0.28
0.46
volumetric water / fines-ratio (< 125 m)
Figure 2: Particle size distribution of dry

UHPC mixes without sand.
A high shear vacuum mixer with an inclined drum (Eirich R02-Vac) was used to prepare the
concretes. After homogenizing the dry materials for 60s, the water was added with 40% of the
superplasticizer within the first 10 s of wet mixing. The mix was then blended for a further 80 s
after which the remaining superplasticizer was added within 10 s. Finally, a reduced pressure of
50 mbar was applied and mixing ended after a total time of 180 s. Specimens for the
determination of hardened concrete properties and the fibre pull-out tests were produced
immediately at the end of mixing, stored for 24 h in a humidity chamber at 20C/95% RH,
demoulded and returned to the chamber for a further four days. At an age of five days, the
specimens were heat treated at 90C for 48 h in a humid environment above water. At an age
of seven days, the properties of the hardened concretes were determined and the fibre pull-out
tests performed.
216
Control of Rheology, Strength and Fibre Bond of UHPC with Additions Effect of Packing Density and Addition Type
3 Maximum Packing Density Calculation and Experimental Results

The compaction test according to de Larrard [3] was used to determine the maximum packing
density of the sand. However, this test is not suitable for the determination of the maximum
packing density of cement and additions. For this reason a packing density test based on the
idea of Flatt [4] was developed to determine experimentally the maximum packing density of the
fines (d < 125 m). Firstly, the material in question was mixed with water to produce a
suspension of cement or cement with additions equivalent to the proportions in UHPC. To
produce the same degree of dispersion of solids as in the UHPC, superplasticizer was added at
a quantity equivalent to the dosage in UHPC. Roughly 100 to 150 ml of the suspension was
poured into a cylindrical extraction device (d = 80 mm, Fig. 3) and compacted in a defined
manner at constant pressure until equilibrium was reached, i.e. a compaction rate below
0.002 mm/min. Surplus pore solution was expressed during the compaction process. The pore
solution volume remaining in the suspension corresponds to volume of voids in the mixture of
particles for the particular pressure used. Thus the voids content was determined by drying the
compacted suspension at 105C and an ambient pressure of 100 mbar. This test was carried
out with separate suspensions each at pressures of 2, 4, 10, 20 and 40 MPa. Following Flatt [4],
the experimental maximum packing density m,exp of the particles was obtained by fitting the
data and extrapolating back to zero, see Fig. 4.
Figure 3: Compression
device to compact particle
suspensions.
Figure 4: Packing density exp of

cement in dependence of applied
pressure p.
Figure 5: Experimentally determined

particle size distribution of freshly
mixed UHPC Q(c) without sand.
The experimental maximum packing densities m,exp are shown in Tab. 2. The new packing
density test was found to perform very well with cement, quartz flour and limestone powder as
well as the mixtures of these components. However, the experimental determination of the
maximum packing density of a mixture of cement, addition and silica fume was unsuccessful
owing the high impermeability of the compacted suspension. For this reason, the maximum
packing densities m of the UHPC mixes (including high amounts of silica fume) were calculated
with a linear packing model (LPM) according to Larrard [3], Equation 1, using the experimentally
determined maximum packing densities m,exp of the individual components to calibrate the
calculations.
m min i
i 1
1 1 i bij i 1 1 / j yi
j 1
1 aij i / j yi
n
j i 1
217
(1)
The LPM was calibrated with maximum packing densities m,exp determined experimentally for
the individual materials cement and sand as well as for mixtures of cement, quartz flour (f) and
limestone flour (ff). These materials cover a wide range of the particle sizes of UHPC. In a first
step, mean residual packing density i values used by the LPM for a defined number of particle
sizes groups di of a particular material (cement, addition, sand) were calculated from the
experimental maximum packing density m,exp using Equation 1, see Table 2. In a second step,
the residual packing densities i determined for the individual components in this manner may
now be used as calibrated input parameters for the LPM to calculate the maximum packing
density of different mixtures of these components, i.e. the UHPC variations considered.
It was found that the mean residual packing density i in the particle size region of the
cement particles at 43.7 % is almost the same as for finer mixtures of cement and quartz flour
(f) at 43.7 % or limestone flour (ff) at 44.2 %, respectively. For sake of ease, a value of 43.7 %
was used in the calculations for the i of all particles smaller than 125 m. Due to the very high
amount of superplasticizer, it was assumed that cement, addition and silica fume particles
disperse completely in fresh concrete without agglomeration. This was confirmed by laser
granulometric measurements with freshly mixed UHPC pastes in which the cement, addition
and in particular silica fume particles were observed to be well dispersed, Fig. 5. For particle
size groups above 125 m, a value of 55.0 % was used for i, see Table 2.
Table 2: Experimental determined maximum packing density m,exp and resulting residual packing density i of
sand, cement and mixtures of cement and quartz flour (f) and limestone flour (ff) respectively.
Cement
Cement/
Cement/
quartz
Sand
flour (f)
limestone
flour (ff)
Particle groups, i d(10%) / d(90%)
40-24
42-25
44-25
15-10
Particle size di [m] (di = 2(-0,25i + 1,25) 103 [m])
2.3/37
1.6-31
1.2/31
177/420
Maximum packing density (experimental) m,exp [%]
60.1
61.2
63.8
60.2
Mean residual packing density of one particle group

(calculated) i [%]
43.7
43.7
44.2
55.0
The maximum packing densities for the UHPC variations calculated with the calibrated LPM
are shown in Table 3. As well as the maximum packing density of the total particle distribution
of UHPC m,bulk, representing the bulk matrix, the maximum packing density of particles below
125 m m,ITZ was calculated. As will be shown later, the maximum packing density of particles
below 125 m m,ITZ is decisive for properties of the ITZ between the matrix and fibres.
Table 3: Calculated max. packing density of bulk matrix m,bulk and ITZ m,ITZ for the different UHPC variations.
Addition type / mix notation
Q(c)
Q(f)
L(c)
L(f)
L(ff)
Max. packing density of bulk matrix
m,bulk [%] dmax = 500 m
79.3
79.9
80.1
80.8
80.6
Max. packing density of ITZ
m,ITZ [%] dmax = 125 m
69.1
68.6
69.5
70.1
68.8
218
4 Rheology
The slump flow and the plastic viscosity were determined 5 min after water addition. The
rheological measurements were performed with a double annular gap cell [5] in a rotation
rheometer (Schleibinger, Viskomat NT) at the low rates of shear which occur when concrete
flows. The double annular gap cell is, according to [5], particularly suitable for the determination
of the rheological properties of highly flowable mortar. The inner rigid sensor is a fine grid which
produces approximately fluid-fluid shear. This has the advantage that the adhesive bond
between the suspension and the surface of the cell, which is critical for suspensions, is
replaced by a cohesive bond thus avoiding wall slippage. The UHPC specimens were placed in
the cell immediately after mixing (180 s).
At the beginning of the measurement, the specimen was subjected to shear at = 2.5 s-1 for
30 s in order to break up the dormant structure. Afterwards, the rheological properties were
determined by controlling the rotational speed in 10 s steps = 2.5, 1.0, 0.5, 0.25, 0.10 and
0.05 s-1. Viscosity was calculated by applying the Bingham model over the range 0.5 to 0.05 s-1.
The UHPC with the coarsest additions, Q(c) and L(c), required the highest dosage of
superplasticizer, 35.0 and 37.0 kg/m3, respectively, to achieve the target slump flow of
285 15 mm. Despite the increase in specific surface of the mixture of particles, exchanging
the coarse additions for the finer materials Q(f) and L(f) reduced the necessary superplasticizer
dosage considerably to 31.0 and 29.5 kg/m3, respectively. This can be explained primarily by an
increase in maximum packing density m,bulk of the UHPC mixes made with finer additions (f),
see Table 3. By reducing the voids content more rheologically active water is available to coat
the particle surfaces. However, on further increasing fineness by adding limestone flour (ff), it
was necessary to increase the superplasticizer dosage. In this case the positive effects of a
higher maximum packing density outweigh the negative effect of the larger specific surface.
The UHPC with the coarse additions Q(c)
Table 4: Rheological properties of the UHPC mixes.
and L(c) exhibit the highest viscosities,
Q(c) Q(f) L(c) L(f) L(ff)
Tab. 4. This means a very stiff consistency
Slump
[mm] a 290 297 292 298 270
and
unfavourable
workability
during
flow
Viscosity [Pas] 60.3 28.8 44.9 33.1 35.4

concrete production in practice. It is
possible that the required mechanical
properties are not achieved owing to
insufficient de-aeration or an uneven
distribution of fibres. By replacing the
coarse with the finer additions, Q(f), L(f) and
L(ff), viscosity is reduced considerably
which is accompanied by a corresponding
improvement in workability. Accordingly, the
viscosity of UHPC is also markedly affected
by the maximum packing density of the
particle mixture, Table 3 and Fig. 6. Higher
maximum packing densities m,bulk lower
viscosity considerably. This, again, is due to
the reduction in voids content with
maximum packing density. The excess
Figure 6: Plastic viscosity in dependence of maximum
water is available for the layer of water
packing density of the bulk matrix m,bulk (d < 500 m)
around the particles. It is interesting that this
5 min after addition of water.
effect seems to be more pronounced for
219
UHPC with quartz flour Q(c) and Q(f) than for UHPC with limestone L(c), L(f), L(ff). Thi s could
be due to the higher surface roughness of the limestone particles, Fig. 1.
5 Compressive and Splitting Tensile Strength, Youngs Modulus

The compressive (fc) and splitting tensile (fsp) strength of the investigated UHPC were measured
using cylinders ( 50 mm, height 50 mm and 100 mm, respectively) for each mix; Table 5
shows the resulting mean values. In addition, the static Youngs moduli were measured with
concrete cylinders ( 50 mm, height 100 mm).
The compressive strengths lie within a narrow range of 225 MPa 10% with coefficients of
variation ranging from 1 to 10%. Based on the scatter of the results, it is concluded that
replacing quartz flour by lime-stone flour had no detrimental effect on the compressive strength
of UHPC, which also was not affected by the
Table 5: Mean compressive (f c) and splitting tensile
fineness of the limestone flour. The use of fine
(fsp) strength [MPa] of the UHPC mixtures.
quartz flour Q(f) led to compressive strengths
Q(c)
Q(f)
L(c)
L(f)
L(ff)
which were somewhat higher. The splitting
fc
212.5 253.6 221.7 203.4 226.3
tensile strength of UHPC varied around
fsp
11.6
14.4
10.3
10.0
8.2
approximately 10.9 MPa with coefficients of
variation which, at 11 to 20%, were clearly
higher than for the compressive strength. The splitting tensile strength of UHPC with Q(f) and
L(ff) were, however, about 10% outside the range of scatter. The Youngs moduli of the
concretes with Q(c) and L(f) were 49.8 and 48.0 GPa, respectively. In short, the mechanical
properties of the concretes were roughly equivalent and therefore independent of the addition
used.
6 Single Fibre Pull-Out Behaviour

On account of its brittle failure behaviour, UHPC commonly used in construction is reinforced
with steel fibres. Single fibre pull-out tests were carried out with the UHPC considered to
quantify effect of addition exchange on bonding and thus the effectiveness of the steel fibres.
Table 6: Bond strength b [MPa] of the mixtures for

different angles between load and fibre axis
0
45
Figure 7: Specimen used for single fibre pull-out

tests
Q(c)
Q(f)
L(c)
L(f)
L(ff)
15.0
24.4
16.5
24.3
13.9
25.4
11.1
24.6
14.3
28.5
Smooth steel wires 0.48 mm in diameter, F, with a bonding length lb of 5 mm were used in the
investigations. The angle between the fibre axis and the direction of applied load was set to 0
or 45, Fig. 7. The pull-out tests were performed using a spindle-driven machine with a 500 N
load cell controlled at a speed of 1.8 mm/min. The pull-out load and displacement of the
machine were recorded continuously. The bond strength b = Fmax / (lb F ) was calculated
from the maximum load. Table 6 summarises the bond strengths (at least four individual
specimens per variation) for each angle and UHPC composition investigated.
In the case of the straight pull-out ( = 0), the mean bonding strength of all UHPC was
14.2 MPa with coefficients of variation ranging from 7.4 to 14.7%. A significantly different in
mean bond strength was observed for the mixtures Q(f) and L(f). While L(f) exhibited a
220
considerably lower bond strength at 11 MPa (-22 %), the UHPC Q(f) exceeded the mean by
17 %. A weak correlation was found between bond and compressive strengths of the mixtures
considered here. Indeed, earlier investigations have shown that compressive strength is only of
secondary importance for fibre bonding in UHPC (investigated range 175 MPa to 250 MPa),
[6,7].
Hence, the observed difference between L(f), Q(f) and the remaining mixtures cannot fully be
explained by the strength of the concretes. Fig. 8 shows how the maximum packing density of
the ITZ m,ITZ affects bonding strength. Here, the maximum packing density was calculated
without considering the sand particles (>125 m) as opposed to the calculation for the
rheological properties of the bulk mix. The sand particles >125 m were omitted because the
granular structure is disturbed at the fibre surface and the particles become smaller as the fibre
surface is approached, see e.g. Stroeven [8]. Limitation to particles smaller than 125 m also
appears sensible in view of the hydration reactions in the bonding zone. Investigations by
Lawrence [9] have shown that inert particles > 60 m have no significant effect on the hydration
reactions whereas small inert particles provide nucleation centres increasing the growth rate of
C-S-H.
It was found that a higher maximum packing density of the ITZ m,ITZ results in a reduction of
bond strength, Fig. 8. An increase in maximum packing density of the fine particles (which are
decisive for the bonding zone) appears therefore to affect the area of contact unfavourably; the
friction between the fibre and the concrete matrix during pull-out is reduced. The fibre/concrete
contact zone is examined in more detail in Section 7 in order to explain the effect of maximum
packing density of ITZ on bond strength.
If the fibres are subjected to load at an inclined
angle, the fibre deformation at the kink and the
macroscopic properties of the UHPC matrix
specify bonding behaviour. Besides bond
failure, i.e. destruction of the adhesive and
sliding friction bond, UHPC spalling and
bursting occur. In contrast to straight pull-out,
bond strength increases if the fibre is pulled at
an inclined angle. Since the mechanical
properties of the investigated UHPC are
approximately equivalent, the difference in the
bond strengths for an inclination of 45 vary by
only 10% around the mean value of 25.5 MPa.
Consequently, the investigated concretes may
Figure 8: Bond strength b versus maximum packing
be regarded as roughly equivalent in the case
density of ITZ m,ITZ (dmax < 125 m).
of fibre pull-out at an inclined angle.
7 Effect of ITZ Microstructure on Bond Strength

Additional investigations on the fibre surface and bonding zone were performed to reveal a
possible effect of particle size distribution and packing density on bonding behavio ur during
straight fibre pull-out. The characteristic surface of a macroscopically smooth steel wire is
shown in Fig. 9. The grooves in the surface originate in the process of wire drawing. Using a
confocal microscope, the fibre roughness parallel to the fibre axis was characterized by a
maximum total height difference of the surface Rz of approximately 0.1 to 0.5 m. The grooves
were typically up to about 3 m wide.
221
After the pull-out tests, the specimens were split to

permit SEM and EDX investigations in the fibre
channel. No significant difference in the topology of the
UHPC surface in contact with the fibres was observed
for the different UHPC compositions. None of the SEM
images revealed a duplex layer containing portlandite
as typically occurring in regular concrete. Moreover,
investigations on the degree of hydration of cement
and silica fume in the bulk matrix (29Si-NMR) showed
that portlandite was completely consumed by the
Figure 9: SEM image of a fibre surface.
pozzolanic reaction with silica fume.
The EDX analysis (size of backscattered SEM image: 220 150 m, acceleration voltage:
15 kV) yielded values for calcium, silicon and iron content. The results in Table 7 are based on
20 individual measurements.
The Ca/Si ratios of the bulk matrix for mixtures of the same chemical composition vary over
0.08. Thus, differences in Ca/Si ratio between the bonding zone and the matrix which are over
0.08 are significant. Therefore the composition of bonding zone in UHPC Q(c) is similar to that
of the matrix. Opposed to this, the Ca/Si ratio of the UHPC Q(f) indicates that the bonding zone
contains somewhat more silicon than the matrix. In analogy, zhis applies to calcium in UHPC
L(f) too where, apparently, less calcium is in the bonding zone.
In contrast, the bonding zones of the UHPC L(c) and L(ff) possess significantly higher Ca/Si
ratios and therefore higher calcium contents than the matrix. In the case of UHPC with
limestone flour, the higher calcium content
Table 7: Mean calcium content and Ca/Si-ratio of ITZ and
of the ITZ compared with the matrix
bulk matrix.
indicates that the cement content is lower
Q(c) Q(f) L(c) L(f) L(ff)
within the ITZ. This is equivalent to a
Ca/Si bulk [-]
0.76 0.81 1.70 1.69 1.77
larger separation of the cement particles.
Since the rather coarse cement particles
Ca/Si ITZ [-]
0.76 0.55 1.86 1.55 2.56
at 680 kg/m dominate the particle packing
Ca
ITZ [wt.%] 18.4 15.8 27.9 21.6 31.1
of the mix, only much finer particles can fill
the space between the cement particles at
the fibre surface. The size of the finer
particles was estimated by following
Kessler [10] and, in addition, taking the
Figure 10: Calcium content of ITZ versus maximum

packing density of ITZ m,ITZ (dmax < 125 m) of ground
limestone UHPC.
222
wall-effect into account as (0.315di).

With a mean particle size of 14.3 m for
the cement, these space filling particles
are about 2.3 m in size. Particles of this
size were abundant in all the limestone
flour grades used, Fig. 2. It is concluded
that the very fine limestone particles
accumulate at the fibre surface within
aforementioned space. Due to the narrow
particle size distribution, these space
filling limestone particles exhibit a low
maximum packing density. Thus a larger
proportion of the very fine limestone
particles in the ITZ results in a lower maximum packing density of ITZ m,ITZ. This hypothesis is
supported by the correlation between the calculated maximum packing density of the ITZ m,ITZ
and the experimentally determined calcium content of the ITZ, Fig. 10. This shows that a
decrease in maximum packing density of the ITZ m,ITZ is connected with an increase in the
content of limestone particles.
This behaviour is also apparent for UHPC with fine quartz flour Q(f), but to a lesser degree.
In the case of quartz flour UHPC the space filling particles are the very fine quartz flour
particles. Therefore the Ca/Si ratio of the ITZ of UHPC Q(f) is lowered somewhat which
indicates a higher silicon content of the ITZ, Tab. 6. However, the effect is not observed for
UHPC with coarse quartz flour Q(c) because the particle size distribution of cement
(d50 = 14.3 m) and coarse quartz flour (d50 = 14.7 m) are, in the present case, almost
identical. The quartz flour (c) has no effect on the maximum packing density of the ITZ m,ITZ.
By applying aforementioned interactions, it is possible to describe the decisive mechanisms
concerning the effect of ITZ microstructure on bond strength. A reduction in maximum packing
density of the ITZ m,ITZ, which corresponds to an increase in the amount of very fine particles
(around < 2.3 m) in the bonding zone, results in an increase in the number of contact points,
i.e. the area of contact between the fibre and the bonding zone. Consequently the friction during
pull-out is larger. Since the very fine particles are similar in size to the surface roughness
(< 3 m) of the fibres, micro interlocking is promoted. It is also possible that hydration is
promoted by additional growth at the additional surface nucleation sites provided by the very
fine particles, see [9,11]. This explains why fibre bonding strength is enhanced by a reduction in
maximum packing density in the bonding zone as is evident in Fig. 8.
The increased real area of contact and the enhanced interlocking between fibres and matrix,
was verified by the EDX investigations in which the amount of iron in the bonding zone after
fibre extraction was above the bulk matrix value. This was produced by fibre wear. With the
exception of UHPC with L(f), the amount of iron was, in general, larger than in the matrix.
8 Conclusions
In order to understand more about the mechanisms governing the rheological and mechanical
properties of UHPC, concretes were prepared with mineral additions of different fineness and
type at a constant volume in the mix. A new test method was developed to determine the
maximum packing density of the fine materials (< 125 m) in order to calibrate the linear
packing model by de Larrard [3]. With this calibrated linear packing model it was possible to
calculate the maximum packing density of different UHPC mixtures. In addition, the ITZ
between the fibres and the concrete matrix was examined with SEM and EDX. As well as
rheology, compressive and tensile splitting strength, the pull-out strength of single steel fibres
was investigated.
The rheological properties, and therefore fresh concrete workability, were decisively affected
by the particle size distribution of the additions rather than the type of material. Coarser
additions increased superplasticizer demand and mix viscosity. This effect can be explained in
terms of the maximum packing density of the UHPC bulk matrix. Higher maximum packing
densities lead to a reduction in the viscosity of UHPC. Besides packing density, superplasticizer
demand also depends on the fineness of the additions. The favourable effect of an increase in
maximum packing density competes with the unfavourable effect of an increase in specific
surface.
Exchange of the additions had little effect on compressive and tensile splitting strength as
well as static Youngs modulus. Compressive strengths around 225 MPa were obtained with all
additions. The static Youngs moduli were near 49 GPa.
223
However, the bond strength of steel fibres at straight pull-out was considerably affected by
addition fineness which is also explained by packing density effects. Packing density
calculations and EDX analysis of the fibre bonding zone show that depending on the particle
size distribution more fine particles, about 2 m in diameter, are present in the zone. This
results in more contact points between the matrix and the fibre therefore enhancing friction
during fibre pull-out. Abrasion during fibre pull-out produced a larger amount of iron in the fibre
ITZ as was observed by EDX after fibre extraction. Further positive effects on bond strength
may be due to enhanced hydration, i.e. additional growth of C-S-H at the surface nucleation
sites provided by the very fine particles at the fibre ITZ.
In contrast, no significant effect of addition type and fineness was observed for fibres pulled
out at an inclined angle. In this case, spalling and bursting of surface material around the fibres
occurred indicating that the macroscopic properties of the concrete as a whole are decisive. In
this case, quartz and limestone flour additions affect the mechanical properties of UHPC
similarly - irrespective of fineness.
References
[1] Gerlicher, T.; Heinz, D.; Urbonas, L.: Effect of Finely Ground Blast Furnace Slag on the Properties of
Fresh and Hardened UHPC, 2nd Int. Symposium on UHPC, March 2008, pp. 367-374.
[2] Geisenhanslke, C.: Einfluss der Granulometrie von Feinstoffen auf die Rheologie von
Feinstoffleimen. Universitt Kassel, Dissertation 2008.
[3] De Larrard, F.: Concrete Mixture Proportioning, A Scientific Approach. London (1999) Spon
[4] Flatt; J.R.; Bowen, P.: Yodel: A Yield Stress Model for Suspensions. J. Am. Ceram. Soc., 89(2006)4,
pp. 12441256.
[5] R. Vogel: Eine Messzelle fr Spezialmrtel. www.vogel-labor.de.
[6] Stengel, T.: Optimization of steel fibre bonding in UHPC, in: Breit, W.; Kurz, W.; Schnell, J.;
Kohlmeyer, C.: 51. Forschungskolloquium des DAfStb, p. 589-600, Kaiserslautern 2010 (in
German).
[7] Stengel, T.; Schiel, P.; Gehlen, C.: Steel fibre reinforced UHPC An alternativ to micro steel fibres,
in: Proceedings Neuntes Mnchener Baustoffseminar, Mnchen, 2011 (in German).
[8] Stroeven, P.; Stroeven, M.: SPACE approach to concretes space structure and its mechanical
properties, in: HERON, Vol. 46, No. 4, ISSN: 0046-7316, 2001.
[9] Lawrence, P.; Cyr, M.; Ringot, E.: Mineral admixtures in mortars, Effect of inert materials on short term hydration. Cement and Concrete Research 33(2003), pp. 1939-1947.
[10] Kessler, H.-G.: Kugelmodell fr Ausfallkrnungen dichter Betone. Betonwerk + Fertigteil-Technik 60
(1994) 11, pp. 63-76.
[11] Stark, J.; Mser, B.; Bellmann, F.: Quantitative Characterisation of Cement Hydration. In: Transport
in Concrete: Nano- to Macrostructure (Tanscon 07), Freiberg (2007) Aedificatio Pub., pp.161-179.
224
Influences on Repeatability and Reproducibility of Testing

Methods for Fresh UHPC
Susanne Frhlich, Michael Schmidt
From the very beginning, the fresh concrete properties of standard mixtures applied in all 34 projects of
the German Priority Research Program Sustainable Building with Ultra High Perfomance Concrete were
investigated using the flow table test and the test for air content according to the European Standard EN
12350. The statistical evaluation of the test results showed that the values scattered widely and did not
permit a accurate prediction of the quality of fresh and also of hardened UHPC. Considering the very
special rheological behaviour of fresh UHPC characterised by a high viscosity and a pronounced
thixotropy, these results revealed that it was necessary to specify the test methods more precisely than in
the current European standards. Based on this specification, the repeatability and the reproducibility of
fresh UHPC properties were examined in comprehensive test series and finally in a round robin test with
several institutes.
Keywords: Fresh concrete, slump flow, air void content, rheological behaviour
1 Introduction
Fresh Ultra High Performance Concrete (UHPC) is normally characterised by a high viscosity
and a pronounced thixotropy. This effect is trace back to the packing-optimized microstructure
of UHPC. Because of the low water/cement-ratio and the high amount of fine materials, a
flowable consistency is only possible with a high content of superplasticizers (SP) [1]. As a
result, the consistency of UHPC reacts more sensitive to inaccuracy of dosing, environmental
conditions like temperature and the mixing process in general compared to ordinary concrete.
Furthermore, the effective period and the efficiency of the different SP varied significantly.
Therefore, the time-depending behaviour of the UHPC-consistency must be considered, if
different mixtures will be compared among each other.
The analysis of different test values have shown that the mechanical behaviour of UHPC can
be improved when the air void content is minimized and the fibres are uniformly distributed in
the mixture [2]. These two features can be achieved by a very flowable consistency comparable
with self-compacting-concrete (SCC). The properties that could be used to describe the
concrete flow are the yield stress and the viscosity [3]. The determination of these factors is
possible with a rheometer in laboratory. Because the tests are very time-consuming, easier
tests are applied to control and assess the flowability of SCC or UHPC on construction side.
Properties of fresh concrete can be measured as described in the European Standard EN
12350 [4-7] or the approaches for fresh SCC as described in the German guideline for SCC [8].
In more detail, but also more time consuming, rheometer tests are used to measure properties
of fresh concrete.
In the project Testing of UHPC, Subproject of the German Priority Research Program
Sustainable Building with Ultra High Performance Concrete (SPP), different standard test
methods for fresh and hardened concrete were examined, in order to find out if they are suitable
for UHCP. In case these methods were not suitable, they had to be specified more precisely for
the purpose of applying the methods on UHPC.
In the research projects of the SPP, two mixtures (M3Q and B5Q) were used as references with
the aim that the institutes are able to compare the gained data by their specific research with
those of other projects. To harmonize the procedures of specimen preparation and testing,
three round robin tests were performed to identify and evaluate the main influence factors on
225
compressive strength and also on flexural tensile strength [2]. For quality assurance the fresh
properties were measured by using the flow table test and the test for the air void content
according to the European Standard EN 12350 for each production during the tests. The
statistical evaluation of the test results showed that the values scattered widely and did not
permit an accurate prediction of the quality of fresh and also of hardened UHPC [2]. Therefore,
in the third period of SPP the standard test methods for flow properties and the air void content
were analysed more precisely combined with investigations on the rheological behaviour of
UHPC.
2 Mixtures
Two reference mixtures M3Q and B5Q, which were developed at University of Kassel [6], were
used within these investigations. Both mixtures have a very flowable consistency independent
of the maximum grain size. The first one is a UHPC with a maximum grain size of 0.5 mm
denoted as M3Q. The second one, B5Q, contains basalt with particles up to 8 mm grain size.
The M3Q is the further development of M2Q [9], which was used in the first two periods of the
SPP.
In M3Q a new superplasticizer, which was specifically designed for UHPC, was used to
improve the processing time of the mix. Also type and amount of silica fume were changed. By
default, M3Q was mixed in an intensive mixer to avoid that the fine materials agglomerate.
Comparable to [1], all dry materials were mixed for two minutes with low mixing intensity.
Subsequently the water-superplasticizer-mix was added and the mixing intensity was increased.
Two minutes later the mixer was stopped for two minutes. Afterwards, the process was
continued by low mixing intensity and the fibre addition was started. In total, the mixing process
takes 15 minutes.
Table 1: UHPC-mixes with 2.5 % by volume fibres
The B5Q was mixed in all tests

with a compulsion mixer with a
CEM I 52,5R HS-NA
kg/m
775
650
high-speed-whirler, because of
Silica Fume
kg/m
164
177
the coarse aggregate. The
Quartz I
kg/m
193
325
mixing
intensity
of
the
Quartz II
kg/m
135
compulsion cannot be changed.
Sand 0.125/0.5
kg/m
946
354
Therefore, the whirler was
Basalt 2/8
kg/m
598
switched on at the time of
Steel fibres
% b.vol.
2.5
2.5
liquefaction. Apart from that, the
Water
kg/m
183
158
mixing process was identical to
Superplasticizer
kg/m
23.5
30.3
M3Q.
w/c-ration*
0.255
0.28
In the conducted test series,
w/(c+s)-ratio*
0.21
0.22
micro
steel-fibres
with
a
* including the water content of the superplasticizer
diameter of 0.19 mm and a
length of 9 respectively 17mm were used to measure the influence of fibres on the fresh
properties of UHPC. The fibre content was varied between 0, 1.0, and 2.5% by volume.
Raw materials
M3Q
B5Q
3 Test Methods
Consistency
In the first period of the SPP 1182 the consistency of UHPC was measured after the entire
mixing procedure with a truncated metal cone according to EN 12350-5 [4], which was filled
with flowable UHPC and then lifted quickly. Deviating from EN 12350, the metal sheet wasnt
226
lifted and dropped after the cone was lifted. When UHPC stopped flowing, the spread was
measured and noted.
A comparison of spread values gained at different institutes [2] showed that the test
procedure isnt sufficient for quality control. The test results scattered widely and did not permit
an accurate prediction of the quality of fresh and also of hardened UHPC. Based on this
specification, the repeatability and the reproducibility of fresh UHPC properties were examined
with an optimized test methods in different test series.
With the previous test method of consistency, only one rheological value respectively factor,
yield stress or viscosity, could be examined. Therefore, additional test methods were used,
where both rheological factors describing the consistency can be determined: The slumpflow
test according to EN 12350-8 [6] and the V-funnel test acc. to EN 12350-9 [7].
In the slump flow test, two factors were measured: the t500-time and the slump flow SF as
final spread. Therefore, UHPC was filled in a tall metal cone, which was sitting on a horizontal
metal plate with the smaller open end. The cone was lifted 30 sec after filling and was held over
the plate until UHPC was flowed out completely. After that, the adhering residues on the cone
were removed with a scraper and then the cone was removed. The time period from lifting the
cone until UHPC achieved a diameter of 500 mm on the plate was measured (t500-time). The
maximum slump flow was determined after UHPC stopped flowing.
In slump tests, the concrete will slump or move only if the yield stress is exceeded and will
stop when the stress (or weight of the concrete per unit area) is below the yield stress.
Therefore, the slump, respectively the slump flow in this test, is related to the yield stress [3].
The t500-value as well as the time of the V-funnel test tV are useful factors describing the
viscosity. But, the correlation between the measured values and the two fundamental rhelogical
parameters (yield stress and viscosity) is not obvious. In most cases, the fundamental
parameter cannot be calculated from the factor measured, but can only be assumed to be
related [3].
Air void content
By default, the air void content of UHPC was measured according to EN 12350-7 [5]
respectively EN 1015-7 [11]. The evaluation of different test values of the SPP has shown that
there were no correlation between the flow properties and the air void content identifiable of
UHPC (cf. Figs. 1 and 2). Especially the air void content of fine-grained mixture M2Q scattered
significantly between 0.9 and 6.2 % by. vol. independent of the flowability. This can be
attributed to the special rhelogical behaviour and the formation of a surface layer of UHPC
during spreading. In contrast, a correlation between the flowability and the air void content of
B5Q was discernible. (Fig. 2).
As a result of these test values the test method must be specified more precisely than
described in the standards. Therefore, in a first step the filling process was optimized described
in the following. The pot was fixed on a vibration table and filled by means of a funnel. UHPC
was poured directly after the mixing process into the funnel. To guarantee a continuous flow of
UHPC, the funnel was adjusted above the pot. Then a vent at the bottom was opened and the
UHPC flowed evenly through a hose into the pot. The outflow speed was adjusted to the
consistency of UHPC.
In the next step, the influence of different factors on the test result was investigated.
Therefore, the point of measurement and the period and frequency of compaction were varied.
First test results have shown that the compaction time and frequency depend on the viscosity of
the mixture must be determined for each mixture. By numerous repititions of this process, one
could deduce that the standard deviation of the air void content could be minimized, when the
227
filling process was optimized and the measurements were conducted at a specific time after
end of mixing [12].
Figure 1: Correlation of flowability and air-voidcontent of the M2Q
Figure 2: Correlation of flowability and air-voidcontent of the B5Q
4 Realization of the test series

The aim of the tests was to improve the significance of the measurements of flow properties of
UHPC. Usually, many different factors may contribute to the variability of results from a
measurement method, including: the operator, the equipment used, the calibration of the
equipment, the environment (temperature, humidity, etc.), and the time elapsed between
measurements [10]. In the following test series with UHPC, the point of measurement as well as
the laboratory and material temperatures were varied and measured, respectively (Tab. 2).
Because of the high amount of fine materials and the usage of PCE-Superplasticizer, the
consistency of UHPC-mixtures can differ significantly by using different batches of raw
materials.
Table 2: Influence factors of the test series
Influence factors
Quantity
1
Test Series
2
Water/binder-ratio
variable
constant
constant
constant
Operator
constant
constant
constant
variable
Mixing equipment
variable
constant
constant
variable
Laboratory temperature
constant
constant
constant
variable
Water temperature
constant
constant
constant
constant
Time of measurement
constant
constant
constant
constant
Batches of the materials
Batch 1
Batch 1
Batch 2
Batch 3
In [10], the precision is described as the general term of variability between repeated
measurements. Two conditions of precision, termed repeatability and reproducibility conditions,
have been found necessary and, for many practical cases, useful for describing the variability of
a measurement method. Under repeatability conditions, factors like mentioned above (Tab. 2)
are considered constants and do not contribute to the variability, while under reproducibility
conditions and do constribute to the variability of the test results [10].
In the following two test series the values of the slump flow and the V-funnel-tests were
examined and the precision of the test methods was evaluated depending on the influence
228
factors. The precision in the test series were expressed as the standard deviations of the slump
flow SF, the t500-time and the tv-time.
First test series: Reproducibility of M3Q
In the first test series, the change of consistency of M3Q was investigated regarding two
factors: the water-binder ratio and the mixing equipment. The water-binder ratio was varied in
the range of 0.20 to 0.22. As mixing equipment, a 40L-intensive and also a 150L-compulsion
mixer were used. An optimal water-binder ratio resulting in a sufficiently stable consistency of
the mixture was the aim of these experiments.
In Fig. 3, the test results of the slump flow test of M3Q with variable water-binder ratio are
depicted. The consistency was measured directly after the mixing process at 20 min and was
repeated 10 min later. Between these two times UHPC was remixed for 30 sec.
In this short period, it was recognized that the consistency increased significantly
independent of the mix condition. On average,
the SF-values were 12 cm higher at the point of
30 min than at 20 min. This means that the time
of measurement is important for the quality
control of an UHPC, and should be specified
individually for every mixture. Furthermore, it
was noticed that the influence of the mixer on
the consistency was reduced by increasing the
water-binder ratio. The flow properties of the
M3Q-mix were reproducible when the waterbinder ratio exceeds a certain point.
Figure 3: Influence of the water/binder-ratio and the
mixing equipment on the slump flow.
Second test series: Repeatability of M3Q and B5Q

In this test series, the repeatability of the flow properties was tested by using the two reference
mixtures. As described in Paragraph 2, different mixers were used for each. Therefore, the
testing procedures had to be adapted to the maximum mixing volume.
M3Q was always produced in an intensive mixer in 25 litre batches and was investigated
with four different fibre combinations and a constant water-binder ratio of 0.21. Every
combination of fibres was mixed four times per test series in order to ensure that every value
was determined at least twice per operator. In table 3 the procedure of the flowability test is
given.
Tab. 3 specifies the procedure of the flowability tests: In the first iteration, the slump flow was
tested by two operators 20 min after start of mixing, and the tV after 30 min. In the second one,
the procedure was changed. The third one was focussed on tv-time and the last one on slump
flow values at different points of measurement.
In Fig. 2, the test values of the slump flow as mean values (average of four measurements)
and standard deviations respectively the values of the t 500-time are depicted.
Like in test series 1, the test values of all mixes were influenced by the point of
measurement. Independently of fibre content and fibre length, the slump flow 30 min after start
of mixing was always higher than the value after 20 min.
Table 3: Test procedure of the M3Q-mix per combination.
229
Number of
mixture
Time of
measurement
Operator
[min]
SF [mm]
1
20
1
30
20
30
20
30
20
30
Figure 4: Slump flow of M3Q
t500 [sec]
1
tV
[sec]
1
Also the t500-time, representing viscosity, was

reduced over time. Furthermore, it was noticed
that the fibre content influenced the consistency
more than the fibre length, as can be seen in
Figs. 4 and 5. With higher fibre content, the test
values scattered strongly, which made an exact
specification of consistency impossible. To
improve the significance of the test, an increase
of the number of repetitions may lead to better
results for UHPC mixtures with high fibre
contents.
Figure 5: t500-value of M3Q
B5Q was produced in this test series in a consumption mixer as described before. The waterbinder ratio was constant, only fibre type and fibre content were varied comparable to M3Q.
Because of the higher mixing volume in this case, every combination was only mixed twice per
test series. In contrast to the M3Q test series, the slump flow test and the V-funnel-test could be
conducted at both times of measurement.
In Figs. 6 and 7, the values of slump flow and t500-time are presented. Although, B5Q was
produced by using another superplasticizer. The consistency showed a time-depending
behaviour as well. In comparison to M3Q, the maximum slump flows of B5Q were lower and the
t500 values increased from 14 to 35 sec.
As can be seen in Fig. 6, the precision, described as the standard deviation of the slump flow
was very low for the first three combinations, but the significance of the t500-values were not
sufficient in these tests. Due to the coarse aggregate in the mix, the flow properties were
influenced significantly by the fibres. With the mix containing 2.5% by vol. of 17mm long fibres a
limit was exceeded, where the chosen test methods are no longer suitable and the table-test
should be preferred to describe the fresh concrete properties.
230
Figure 6: Slump flow of B5Q
Figure 7: t500-value of B5Q
Figure 8: Curve shapes of the flow properties
In Fig. 8, the correlation of slump flow and t-500 of the second test series is presented. The
values of each measurement can be described with a curve independent of fibre type and
content. Both mixtures show a typical curve shape, which can be used as standard for quality
control in further test series.
Outlook
In a third test series, the repeatability of the second test series will be investigated. In this case
only new batches of material will be used to identify the influence of the raw materials, the test
procedure and the laboratory conditions will be comparable to test series 2 (Tab. 2). Finally, a
round robin test (Test series 4 in Tab.2) with other institutes will be performed to analyse the
influence of different operators and laboratory conditions.
5 Conclusions
The fresh properties of UHPC were influenced significantly by different factors like the point of
measurement, the mixing equipment, the laboratory conditions, the operator and especially the
air-void content by the filling process.
Furthermore, the methods for ordinary concrete and self-compacting-concrete can be applied to
UHPC with some specifications. Especially the point of measurement must be defined exactly
231
to compare different test values. Due to the different effective period of the superplasticizer in
UHPC and due to the different duration of mixing, the quality control should be optimal
performed 30 min after start of mixing. UHPC with flowable consistency should be tested with
the slump flow test. In different test series a good correlation between the SF-value and the t500time was identified, which allows to describe the special rheological characteristic of each
mixture. A correlation between the V-funnel value and the t 500-time wasnt found, so far. More
tests and a higher number of values are necessary to analysed the qualification of the V-funneltest to UHPC.
6 Acknowledgement
This project is part of the priority programme Sustainable Building with Ultra High Performance
Concrete currently under way in Germany. The authors thank the Deutsche
Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) for the financial support of this research work.
References
[1] Schmidt, M. (Hrsg.) et al.: Sachstandsbericht Ultrahochfester Beton. Deutscher Ausschuss fr
Stahlbeton (DAfStb) Heft 561, Berlin, 2008.
[2] Schmidt, M.; Frhlich, S.: Testing of UHPC. Proc. 3rd international fib congress Washington, 2010
[3] Ferraris, C.: Measurement of Rheological Properties of High Performance Concrete: State of the Art
report. Journal of Research of National Institute of Standards and Technology 104 (5), p. 461-478,
1999
[4] DIN EN 12350-5: Testing fresh concrete Part 5: Flow table test; German version EN 12350-7:2009
[5] DIN EN 12350-7: Testing fresh concrete Part 7: Air content Pressure methods; German version
EN 12350-7:2009
[6] DIN EN 12350-8: Testing fresh concrete Part 8: Self compacting concrete Slump-flow test;
German version EN 12350-8:2010
[7] DIN EN 12350-9: Testing fresh concrete Part 9: Self-compacting concrete - V-funnel test; German
version EN 12350-9:2010
[8] Deutscher Ausschuss fr Stahlbeton (DAfStb): DAfStb-Richtlinie Selbstverdichtender Beton (SVBRichtlinie). Teil 1-3. Ausgabe November 2003.
[9] Bornemann, R.; Schmidt, M.; Fehling, E.; Middendorf, B.: Ultra-Hochleistungsbeton UHPC
Herstellung, Eigenschaften und Anwendungsmglichkeiten. Beton- und Stahlbetonbau 96 (7), p.
458-467, 2001.
[10] ISO 5725-1: 1994-12: Accuracy (trueness and preceision) of measurement methods and results
Part 1: general principles and definitions. Beuth Verlag, Berlin.
[11] DIN EN 1015-7: Methods of test mortar for masonry Part 7: Determination of air content of fresh
mortar. German version EN 1015-7:1998
[12] Glotzbach, C.: Frhlich, S.; Schmidt, M.: Measuring Air Content and Rheological Characteristics of
UHPC Mortars, Proc. fib symposium, Stockholm, 2012
232
Hybrid Intensive Mixer with integrated Rheometer for High

Harald Garrecht, Christian Baumert, Andreas Karden
Chair of Building Materials, Technische Universitt Darmstadt, Germany
High-performance concretes with high amounts of fine particles, such as ultra-high performance concrete
(UHPC) are due to its composition expensive in practice, as well as technically complex in the
production process. This article presents a new comprehensive concept which is based on a three-step
principle of the ecological and economic optimization for concrete production. Moreover these steps
allow reproducibility with minimal variations of fresh and hardened concrete properties. Theoreticalnumerical calculations define initially the mix design and determine relevant rheological parameters, such
as yield stress and viscosity. The second step involves the mixing process. The mixer also acts as a
rotational rheometer and can also carry out oscillatory measurements. Within the third step and on the
basis of the obtained data, including an evaluation of thixotropy, mix design or mixing regime can be
optimised.
Keywords: mix design, (suspension) mixing techniques, rheology, in-mixer oscillatory measurement,
controlled dose and mixing process, workability
1 Problem Statement
Requirements of a modern concrete include, in addition to the classical properties of hardened
concrete, aspects of durability and increasingly preservation of resources. Concretetechnological methods are the reduction of the cement clinker content, a partial substitution of
cement by low-emission and cheap substitutes, the increase of the packing density and a
reduction of the w/b-value. Due to a low water content suitable high-performance
superplasticizers are compulsory up to an amount depending on the fine materials, to achieve a
workable consistency until self-compaction.
The significantly modified mix design for high performance concretes, e.g. UHPC is
characterised in comparison to normal concretes by considerably longer mixing times and a
higher consumption of electrical energy [1, 2]. Mix design and mixing technique are well-known,
while their practical and coupled application is seldom used. For the fresh concrete
characterisation test methods according to the national standards, e.g. DIN EN 12350-8:201012 are used, whereas rheological measurements are rarely performed, because most adequate
devices are expensive and the use is time-consuming.
2 State of the Art

Concrete Mix Design
UHPC is characterised by compressive strengths above 150 MPa and an excellent durability.
This can be achieved by using very high amounts of cement and puzzolanic nano materials.
Thus the demand of water increases, which must be compensated by using superplasticizer.
From an ecological point of view UHPC is expensive due to its raw materials and the required
high energy input during the mixing process. [3]
High-volume fly ash (HVFA) concrete contains at least 50 M.-% fly ash by weight of cement,
but less than 200 kg/m of the cement itself. The water content is lower than 130 kg/m. HVFA
concretes show a comparable high durability to UHPC. Additionally it is a low cost material with
a low degree of shrinkage and low CO 2 emissions. [4].
233
Mixing Technique
In practice, the mixing process is completed after the so-called stabilisation time. Thereby, the
energy consumption of the electric motors approximates asymptotically to a minimum,
according to [5]. The results obtained in the fresh concrete properties are dependent on the
type and size of the mixer and the mixing regime. Large mixers [6] and those with higher
agitator speeds [1] enable lower values for the yield stress and in particular for the viscosity of
the therein produced concretes. While the electrical input rating of the agitator is to be
increased significantly by an increasing agitator speed, the energy required to produce a
concrete batch is reduced due to shorter mixing times [1]. Concretes with superplasticizeraddition, which are produced in a two-stage mixing process, achieve higher compressive
strengths by 8-17 %, up to 52 MPa [7]. Furthermore in [2] slump flow and the maintaining of the
consistency of a self compacting concrete (SCC), UHPC and HVFA concrete were significantly
increased by applying a two-stage mixing process with a suspension mixer in the first step.
Rheological measurements in the cone mixer
The usage of the current and power consumption of drive motors has been proved as suitable
for the evaluation of usual consistency classes of concretes. In addition, the individual mixing
stages and thus the end of mixing can be derived from the development of the power
consumption over the mixing time [8]. According to [9], this procedure is inappropriate for the
rheological evaluation of SCC. Alternatively, the speed shall be lowered within this method in 5
steps with a frequency converter in the final mixing stage. The pairs of values speed/torque of
the individual stages are used to calculate the rheometric parameters by linear regression and
hence deriving the slump flow. The Viscoprobe TM, by Skako Concrete, measures the resistance
to motion of a steel ball immersed in concrete, which is attached via a rod to a torque sensor.
To calculate the relative rheometric parameters, two pairs of values (speed and associated
torque) are required. The data collection and analysis is in real time, parallel to the mixing
process and therefore does not lead to longer mixing times.
3 Methodology
In the context of research projects, conducted by the authors it was the aim to develop a
production process for high performance concretes which considers all effects of the mix
design, mixing technique and -regime towards the fresh and hardened concrete properties. The
underlying optimization process allows to decrease costs of raw materials and the production
process, by keeping fresh concrete properties constant or even improving them. It also
increases the environmental quality of designed concretes by the purposeful selection of
sustainable starting materials. Furthermore, the appropriate choice of the mixing technique
enables to deagglomerate fine materials, which are especially used in UHPC and to a certain
amount in a HVFA concrete. In the present article the comprehensive obtained results of an
developed high-performance concrete with an high content of fly ash will be presented. The
determined compressive strength of 120 MPa at 90 days can be allocated towards a lower
UHPC range even with a low amount of cement and without silica, while still featuring quality
characteristics such as good workability (despite a significantly reduced water content),
excellent durability, low costs, low emissions and low shrinkage. Higher Compressive strengths
up to 150 MPa can be achieved for a HVFA concrete through the use of fine limestone fillers, a
further reduction of the water-binder ratio and a moderate increase of the superplasticizer
amount. The production of the HVFA concrete was carried out in one- and two-stages mixing
processes in a modified cone mixer. In the one-stage mixing process all dry starting materials
were homogenised for ten seconds, before water was added. Within the two-stage mixing the
mortar was produced first, followed by the addition of coarse aggregates. In both methods, the
234
detected electrical energy of the mixer motor, the tool speed and the timing of the
superplasticizer addition were varied.
Concrete Mix Design
This contribution presents an example of an high-strength concrete, with which the results were
verified. The concrete mix design is based on a concept of [4], with the aim to substitute a high
amount of the cement by fly ash, to increase the durability and to minimise the stabili sation
time. An optimisation of the concrete was carried out by theoretical calculations with
BtonlabPro. The software was developed at the Laboratoire Central des Ponts et Chausses
(LCPC) to create concrete mix designs and allows the calculation of the stabilisation time, as
well as the estimation of values of the fresh and hardened concrete properties. A low relative
solid concentration is in this context associated with a short stabilisation time [5]. BtonlabPro
can also be used as a tool box to adjust the mix design in an iterative process to an optimum.
In order to identify in advance which addition sequences of the starting materials are useful,
calculations were performed with BtonlabPro, see Table 1. Firstly, the packing density of the
reference concrete was optimised by the change of the volume fractions of the aggregates, and
secondly the possible stabilisation time was determined at a minimum. The stabilisation times
for subsets of the mixtures without some starting materials are given and are depending on the
relative solid concentration.
Table 1: Mix design for the Reference concrete (R. c.) and with BtonlabPro optimised mix designs
(O1 until O6) with the stabilisation times; SP stands for superplasticizer.
Concretes
R. c.
O1
O2
O3
O4
O5
O6
CEM I 52,5 N HS/NA
kg/m
180
180
180
180
180
180
180
Fly Ash KM/C
kg/m
309
309
309
309
309
309
SP Sika 20 HE
kg/m
Water
kg/m
112
113
113
113
113
113
113
Sand 0/2
kg/m
640
577
577
289
577
Coarse Aggregate 2/8
kg/m
746
245
245
245
Coarse Aggregate 8/16 kg/m
391
-
955
955
210
166
143
122
178
235
Stabilisation time
sec
Production mixer, mixing technique, mixing regime

The investigated concretes were produced in a cone mixer from Kniele, in one- and two-stage
mixing processes. A speed-variable drive is installed in the mixer for adjustable speed with
higher torque. The measurement of rheometric parameters, which are described below,
requires for maximum efficiency of the inverter. Therefore the so-called direct torque control
method can cope with this requirement, due to the fact that the engine can be accelerated
speed-controlled from a standstill and enables the operation with lowest speeds. Another
advantage is the ability for torque-controlled operations, as it is usual for rheological
measurements [10]. Due to the possibility of having access to the data of the converter, there is
no need for additional components such as torque sensors. To avoid gear reduction and the
associated disadvantages to achieve high speed performance, a high torque permanent
magnet synchronous motor was used, which allows a direct drive of the internal agitator. The
so-obtained stiffness of the drive train allows oscillatory measurements in the mixer.
Additionally dosage units are installed, which operate very precisely.
235
Determined Parameters
For the aim to use the mixer for
rheometric measurements, a calibration was required. Therefore the
gauging vane of the rheometer was
firstly attached with an adapter to the
mixer shaft to measure concrete
produced in an additional mixer
directly in the mixer. In a second step
the measurements of the same
concrete were carried out after a short
period of time with a portable
rheometer in a cone having equivalent
dimensions as the cone mixer, see
Figure 1.
Figure 1: ICAR Rheometer in a cone form with equivalent

dimensions of the cone mixer for calibration of the mixer.
After the calibration of the mixer an optimised agitator was installed onto the mixer shaft to
produce concrete. Additionally is possible to perform rheometric analysis with the aim to
determine relative values, due to the fact that the agitator does not show defined geometries.
To determine the flow curve the concrete is pre-sheared for 10 seconds. Then the agitator
rotates in 9 steps with speeds of 21.8 rpm to 1.7 rpm, each over 4 seconds. For the evaluation,
the data from the pre-sheared phase and from the first second of each step are not considered.
During each phase of measurement with predefined constant speed, the actual speed and th e
associated torque is recorded at intervals of 100 msec. From the measured data in turn pairs of
values are averaged and logged for each speed step. The calculation of the rheometric
parameters is proceeded in the Programmable Logic Controller (PLC) of the mixer according to
the method of least squares. To determine the dynamic and static yield stress, the torque is
increased continuously until the agitator starts to rotate.
Another possibility to characterise viscoelastic substances are oscillatory measurements, where the shear stress is changed
harmonic-periodically over the time. Oscillation
measurements can be illustrated by the TwoFigure 2: Two-Plate Model.
Plate Model, see Figure 2.
While the lower plate is stationary, the deflection s of the top plate occurs with the
deflection angle according to the sine curve by a force F. This results in the shear stress
(Pa) = F/A and the deformation = s/h.
The complex shear modulus G* describes the viscoelastic properties and consists of the
storage modulus G' (elastic component) and the loss modulus G'' (viscous component). From
the relative values of the engine torque M and the position value POS of the agitator shaft REL'
and REL'' can be determined analogously.
(1)
(2)
236
To characterise the flow behaviour of concrete an

undisturbed flow of a homogeneous material needs to be
assumed, by a sample height of at least 5 times of the
largest grain diameter is required at the outer edge of the
sample [11]. To get both values of the actual yield stress and
viscosity, the LCPC box method was modified. To get an
evidence for the viscosity the time can be measured until the
concrete overflows a line at 700 mm. The filling of the LCPC
box can be carried out reproducible at one end of the box
with the flow cone, see Figure 3.
The Vicat test according to DIN EN 196-3 and DIN EN
480-2 allows the determination of the final setting time only
for pastes and mortars. Since a realistic strength
development can only be detected in the concrete itself, the
BEUS system was used (BEtonUltraSchall - concrete
ultrasonic, developed at the Chair of Building Materials, TU
Darmstadt).
700 mm
line
Figure 3: LCPC box (length = 120

cm, width = 20 cm, depth = 15 cm)
with flow cone (volume = 6 l)
4 Results
Flow curve measured in the mixer

Figure 5 shows measured flow curves
of the reference concrete mix design
with the cone mixer immediately after
mixing and 30 min after addition of
water and a two-stage addition of the
superplasticizer. 60 % of the
superplasticizer was added with the
water after a dry mixing phase of ten
seconds. The remaining superplasticizer of 40 % was added after
two-thirds of the total mixing time. Test
1 was carried out in one-stage with a
agitator speed of 400 rpm. In test 2 the
mixing process was operated with 600
rpm for the mortar in the first stage
and with 150 rpm during the second
stage with addition of the coarse
aggregates.
10
Cone Mixer
ICAR Rheometer
Torque [Nm]
8
6
4
2
0
10
20
30
40
50
Time [sec]
Figure 4: Flow curves, measured inside the cone mixer

with the gauging vane of the remoter and the ICAR
Rheometer in a cone form with equivalent dimensions
of the cone mixer.
35
Test
Test
Test
Test
30
Torque [Nm]
Flow curves Calibration

The measured flow curves by the cone
mixer and the ICAR Rheometer
present a good correlation, see Figure
4. So it is possible to detect significant
rheometric results with the mixer
motor in combination with the inverter.
25
20
1-End of mixing
1-30 min
2-End of mixing
2-30 min
15
10
5
0
10
15
20
25
Revolutions per Minute of the Mixing Device [rpm]
Figure 5: Measured flow curves with the cone mixer

of the reference mix design with different mixing regimes.
237
The superplasticizer was likewise added, 60 % with the water and 40 % near completion of
the first stage of the mixing process. Although the introduced mixing energy is equal, the
viscosity of the fresh concrete in test 2 is significantly lower and less variable.
Yield stress
The torque was increased linearly
from zero starting and the response
was monitored with the rotary
encoder. Once the angular velocity,
which is measured with the rotary
decoder, deviates from the linear
trend the intersection point the
yield point is determined with the
tangent method. An actual yield
point value is identified, in
comparison to a extrapolated model
value, see Figure 6.
Speed measured with

rotary encoder [mrad/s]
0,2
0,15
0,1
0,05
0
-0,05
-0,1
10
12
14
16
18
20
Drehmoment [Nm]
Figure 6: Determination of the yield stress in the mixer; linearly

increasing torque input and measurement of the angular velocity
with rotary encoders; analysis of the intersection point
(= yield stress) by using the tangent method.
Thixotropy
Using the method to determine the yield stress, an further analysis of the detected data can
give back the static and dynamic yield stress. Directly after mixing the measurement of the
static yield stress corresponds to the dynamic yield stress. Only in test 2 the amount of
superplasticizer was 6 kg/m concrete. All other test were carried out with 4,5 kg/m concrete.
The results show that the test which were carried out in two-stages show lower dynamic and
static yield stresses, see Figure 7. Although test 2 contains a higher amount of superplasticizer,
the results of the torque do not reach the low values of the results achieved by mixed in two stages.
45
40
Torque [Nm]
35
30
25
20
Dynamic yield stress, measured

directly af ter mixing
Dynamix yield stress, measured

af ter a 30 min resting break and
preshearing of 30 sec
14,88
10
Figure 7: Measured torque values

indicating dynamic and static yield
stress depending on the time of
measurement; directly after mixing,
after a resting break (30 min) and after
a resting break with a preshearing
period of 30 sec.
Static yield stress, measured

af ter a 30 min resting break
15
38,44
7,36
4,87
0,42
0,88
Test 1
1,16
4,13
0,76
Test 2
7,28
0,46
Test 3
0,32
Test 4
Oscillations test Amplitude sweep in the mixer

With specification of the torque, it is while maintaining the frequency increased steadily. The
measured results in the amplitude test allow a characterisation of the viscoelastic material
behaviour, dependent of the applied load. The limit value of the torque My,relativ (yield point),
which leads to exceed the linear-viscous range is described as yielding-limit. Only at the intersection of REL' with REL'' a change takes place towards liquid characterisation, see Figure 8.
238
100000
REL
REL
10000
100
10
1
yield zone
yield stress
1000
yield point
log REL and log REL
This point defines in terms of

concrete rheology the conventional yield stress Mf,relativ (flow
point). According to [10], the
values My,relativ and Mf,relativ differ
significantly from each other and
can affect the corresponding
shear rate by more than a factor
of
10.
Consequently,
the
bandwidth of the analysed
results depends on the method
of determination and varies
significantly.
Drehmoment [Nm]
Figure 8: Determined REL' and REL''-curves by measuring

the amplitude sweep in the mixer, with the yield point,
yield zone and intersection point (= yield stress).
LCPC-box
In the modified LCPC Box the time between the opening of the funnel-cap and the overflow of
the 700 mm line in the box by the concrete is measured to evaluate the viscosity. An indication
for the viscosity is given by the measured times T 700 with the LCPC box. Two-stage mixing
regimes have the effect of a lower mixing energy demand and reduce the viscosity of fresh
concrete significantly, see Table 2.
Table 2: Investigated mixing regimes for test 1 until 4 with measured values of the modified LCPC box.
kWh/m
rpm
sec
cm
BEUS
The determination of the final
setting of the concrete was
measured with the BEUS method.
As expected, the final setting
affects the early strength. However,
depending on the mixing regime
significant
differences
exist.
Concrete, produced in two stages
shows a tendency of a later setting
along with a reduced early strength,
see Figure 9. Due to a reduction of
the superplasticizer amount a better
early strength can be reached by
keeping the same rheological
behaviour.
Test 2
Test 3
Test 4
2
5,25
1000/150
29
111,5
1
5,25
250
43
111
1
3,45
250
51
110
2
3,45
1000/150
37
106
30
fcm,cube 100, 1d [MPa]
Number of Stages
Mixing Energy
Agitator speed
T700 LCPC Box
Spread Length LCPC
Test 1
one-stage mixing
two-stage mixing
25
20
15
10
5
0
300
500
700
900
Final setting measured with BEUS [min]
Figure 9: Early strength f cm,cube 100, 1d and final setting

measured with BEUS; results in dependence of a
one- or two-stage mixing regime.
239
1100
5 Conclusion
The production of high performance concretes, e.g. HVFA or UHPC requires concepts to
ensure projected qualitative requirements. To fulfill these demands first results of a three-step
principle are presented. Within this concept it is possible to create mix designs with further data
for the mixing. An improved mixing process can be performed with a higher drive capacity and
automatic control technique to measure rheometric parameters reproducibly and directly in the
mixer with the agitator to evaluate the concrete more comprehensive. The effects on the
rheology due to a modified mixing regime are so recognizable and can specifically optimised in
an integral process towards a particular application by adjusting the mix design. For the
determination of viscosity and absolute values for yield stress, the LCPC box was modified for
high viscosity concretes. Further improvements are the reduction of the mixing time and the
energy consumption up to 50 % and a lower amount of superplasticizer is required.
References
[1] Baumert, Ch.: Rheologische Mischprozessfhrung (working title). Dissertation in preparation, TU
Darmstadt, 2012.
[2] Baumert, Ch.; Garrecht, H.: Mischen von Hochleistungsbetonen. Beton- und Stahlbetonbau 105 (6),
p. 371-378, 2010.
[3] Deutscher Ausschuss fr Stahlbeton: Sachstandsbericht Ultrahochfester Beton. DAfStb 561, Berlin,
2008.
[4] Malhotra, V.M.; Mehta, P.K.: High-Performance, High-Volume Fly Ash Concrete for Building
Sustainable and Durable Structures, 3rd edition, Ottawa (Canada): Supplementary cementing
Materials for Sustainable Development Inc., 2008.
[5] Chopin, D.; Larrad, F. de; Cazacliu, B.: Why do HPC and SCC require a longer mixing time? Cement
and Concrete Research 34 (12), p. 2237-2243, 2004.
[6] Wallevik, O.H.; Wallevik, J.E.: Rheology as a tool in concrete science: The use of rheographs and
workability boxes. Cement and Concrete Research 41 (12), p. 1279-1288, 2011.
[7] Rejeb, S. K.: Improving compressive strength of concrete by a two-step mixing method. Cement and
Concrete Research 26 (4), p. 585-592, 1996.
[8] Cazacliu, B.; Roquet, N.: Concrete mixing kinetics by means of power measurement. Cement and
Concrete Research 39 (3), p. 182-194, 2009.
[9] Nordenswan, E.; Kppi, A.: A new online method of measuring the workability of self-compacting
concrete. Proc. 5th RILEM Symposium on SCC, Ghent 2007.
[10] Mezger, Th. G.: Das Rheologie Handbuch, 3rd edition, Hannover: Vincentz Network, 2010
[11] Roussel, N.: The LCPC Box: a cheap and simple technique for yield stress measurements of SCC.
Materials and Structures 40 (9), p. 889-896, 2007.
240
Influence of vacuum mixing on the mechanical properties of

UHPC
Jeroen Dils1, Geert De Schutter1, Veerle Boel1,2,Egon Braem1
1: Magnel Laboratory for Concrete Research, Ghent University, Belgium
2: Departement of Construction, Faculty of Applied Engineering Sciences, University College Ghent, Belgium
The influence of vacuum mixing of UHPC on the compressive and tensile strength, and Youngs modulus
is examined. These mechanical properties are influenced by the microstructure and the pore system.
Classical models predicting these properties based on the water-to-cement ratio do not consider the
effect of vacuum mixing, which is quite new. This will be even more important in the case of UHPC
because of the extremely low water-to-cement ratio and the larger influence of changes in air content. In
this research, two different mixer sizes are considered: a vacuum paste mixer (capacity of 5 liter) and a
vacuum concrete mixer (capacity of 75 liter). For each mixer, three different pressure levels are
examined: vacuum (100 mbar), semi-vacuum (500 mbar) and atmospheric pressure (1013 mbar). The
influence of heat treatment (90C) in coMParison or combination with vacuum mixing is evaluated by
means of the compressive strength on concrete cubes 100 mm.
Keywords: UHPC, vacuum mixing, compressive & tensile strength, Youngs modulus
1 Introduction
UHPC mixtures often contain a high amount of air voids which have an influence on the
mechanical and rheological properties [1]. Especially the air voids between 0.1 and 1 mm can
be seen as considerable defects in the concrete which can initiate failure at high loads [2]. The
airvoids in UHPC can not as easily escape from the mass as in the case of self-coMPacting
concrete. The consistency of UHPC is typically higher than of SCC, so the air bubbles are not
able to escape. A possible way to remove the air is to apply external or internal energy as with
traditional vibrated concrete. According to Bresson [3] the vibration speed for concrete with a
water-to-cement ratio lower than 0.3 should be around 0.2 m/s. Chiocchio et. al. [4] state that
the aggregate sizes affect the optimum vibration frequency. The best coMPaction should be
reached when the vibration frequency corresponds to the resonant frequency of the mean grain
size. Unfortunately such vibrators are not common in concrete production. The high internal
vibration can also cause fibre orientation or even sedimentation of the fibres.
A new way to facilitate the removal of entrapped air is the use of a mixer that can control the
air pressure in the mixing pan. In the past, tests were done with mixers having a content of
maximal 5 liter of UHPC [1]. The compressive strength increased from 150 to 230 MPa with a
heat treatment and a lowered air pressure during the last 60 s of the mixing procedure. In this
research a 5 liter paste mixer will be used, as well as a 75 liter concrete mixer.
241
2 Materials and mix composition

The chemical and mineralogical composition as well as the standard compressive strength of
the Portland cement, used in this research, is given in Table 1. CEM I 52.5 R (HSR) had a
particle size distribution with a d 50 of 14.5 m and a Blaine fineness of 4392 cm/g. A cement
with a low C3A content was used due to their low water demand [5].
Table 1: Chemical and mineralogical composition and the standard compressive strength of the cement.
chemical composition
SiO2 Al2O3 CaO Fe2O3 K2O MgO Na2O
[%]
21.48 3.61 63.37
mineralogical
composition
C3S
[%]
57.16 18.55 2.47
Standard compressive
strength (NBN EN 197)
[MPa]
C2S
4.2
0.56 1.64
0.17
Na
equivalent
SO3
0.54
2.54
C3A C4AF
2d
7d
28d
28.1
42.4
59.1
7.72
A polycarboxylic ether was used as a superplastisizer with a molecular weight of approximately

40000 g/mol and 35% of solids. The compacted silica fume contained 95.6% SiO2, had a N2BET specific surface of 17,77 m/g and a d50 of 0.16 m. The quartz sand had a density of 2650
kg/m and a mean particle size of 389 m. The composition of the concrete with a water to
binder ratio of 0.15 is given in Table 2. The particle size distribution can be seen in Fig. 1.
Table 2: Composition of UHPC.
materials
[kg/m]
CEM I 52,5 R (HSR)
925.61
silica fume
231.40
sand M31 (150-600m)
1018.17
superplasticizer
42.31
water
173.55
Figure 1: Particle size distribution.
The composition in table 2 is based on the work by Richard and Cherezy[6]. As the materials
used in present study are not exactly the same as in [6], some preliminary test were performed
with and without heat treatment in order to verify the mix design. The results, as shown in (Fig.
2). Indicate a good correlation with the results given in [6] in the case of no heat treatment.
Different results are obtained when a heat treatment is performed. This difference is probably
due to the way of curing. In the present research the cubes were steam cured at 90C during
48 h. No specific information was found on the heat treatment in the paper of Richard and
Cherezy [6].
242
Figure 2: Comparison of the mix design with results by Richard and Cherez.(fc,28d) [6].
3 Mixing procedure
Small batches were were made in a 5 liter intensive paste mixer while larger batches were
prepared in a 75 liter intensive concrete mixer. A star mixing tool was used to mix intensively
and the mixing procedure was the same for both mixers. To eliminate the influence of
mixingenergy, the same circumferential speed at the extremity of the vanes of the mixing tool, is
used in both mixers. First, cement, silica fume and sand are weighed in a mobile scale and all
these powders are introuced in the mixer simultaneously. The dry powders were mixed during
15 s. The superplastisizer was added together with the water within 20 s at a mixing speed of
1.6 m/s. This is followed by an intensive mixing period. The duration was determined based on
the powercurve (see Fig. 3). The stabilisation time was considered to be reached when the
curve reached a gradient of -0,0006 [7]. The authors have chosen for a hybride mixing
procedure, consisting of an intensive phase for 135 s at a speed of 6 m/s until the maximal
power is reached and a slow phase for 120 s at a speed of 1.6 m/s until stabilistation. At this
point, the optimal workability (slumpflow and V-funnel) is obtained. The effect of the air pressure
is at three levels: 1013 mbar (atmospherical), 500 mbar (semi-vacuum) and 50 mbar (vacuum).
The vacuum phase lasted 70 s, during the slow mixing phase. The effect of vacuum mixing on
strength is also combined and coMPared with the effect of a heat treatment.
Figure 3: Normalised power curve of the mixing process to determine the stabilisation time ts.
243

Influence of vacuum mixing on the mechanical properties of UHPC (paste mixer)
After completion of the mixing procedure as described in section 3, the air content of the fresh
paste was determined according to the water column method (EN 12350 part7: aircontent). Two
batches of 5 liter were made from which six prisms with dimensions 40x40x160 mm were
moulded per age (2 d, 7 d and 28 d). The prisms were stored for 1day in the climate room
(20C2C and RH= 90%5%) and than kept under water, until the age of testing was reached.
On each prism the flexural bending strength was determined. On the two remaining halfs a
compressive test was performed. This implies that the values, given in Fig. 4, are an average of
12 compressive test results. The standard deviation is also included in the graph. Besides the
prisms, a cube of side 100 mm is made in order to perform an air void analysis on the hardened
concrete. Fig. 5 gives the air content of the fresh as well as the hardened concrete.
Figure 4: Compressive strength paste in function of

the applied pressure in the mixing pan.
Figure 5: Air content in function of the applied

pressure in the mixing pan.
The results of the bending tests are omitted, because no clear trend could be seen. The
compressive strength clearly increases with a decreasing mixing pressure. The lowered
pressure causes a decrease in air content of the fresh and hardened concrete. Therefor a
higher homogeneity is obtained and less defects, which can initiate cracks and failure , are
caused. These phenoma explain the higher compressive strength when the vacuum condition is
applied. This is in agreement with the results of [1] and [2].
Figure 6: Air void distribution of UHPC (paste mixer).
The airvoid distribution shows on which type of air cavities [8] the vacuum mixing technique has
the most pronounced influence. The lowered air pressure during mixing has a rather big iMPact
244
on the chord sizes between 0.06 mm and 1 mm. For smaller and larger sizes the lowered
pressure gives a higher amount of air cavities. An air void analysis only gives the effect on the
air cavities (10 m-1 mm) and not on the capillary cavities (5 nm-10 m). In order to gather this
kind of information further research, with other techniques, is planned.
Influence of vacuum mixing on the mechanical properties of UHPC (concrete mixer)
The compressive strength on concrete was determined on 7 d, 28 d and 3 months on cubes
with size 150 mm. Two batches of 50 liter were made, so that five cubes per age could be
tested. In Fig. 8 the cylindrical compressive strength is also shown, as obtained on the samples
on which the Youngs modulus is determined.
Figure 7: Compressive strength concrete in function of Figure 8: Cylindrical compressive strength in function
the applied pressure in the mixing pan.
of the applied pressure in the mixing pan.
Fig. 7 and Fig. 8 give the same increasing trend when the air pressure is lowered in the mixing
pan. The increase is however less pronounced on concrete level than on paste level.
Considering the variation on the results, the increase is not significant for concrete. Two
differences can be notified with the results in Fig.2. The mixtures are made with a larger mixer
(75 liter) and the tests were performed on cubes 150 mm. The first difference may be a reason
for the insignificant increase in compressive strength when the pressure is reduced. The latter
gives an explanation for the lower values of the compressive strength in coMParison with those
in Fig. 2.
Figure 9: Fresh and hardened air content in function

of the applied pressure in the mixing pan.
Figure 10: Air void distribution of ultra high

performance concrete.
The hardened air content in Fig.9 is the average of seven air void analyses. The reduction of
the air content by vacuum mixing in the mixer of 75 liter is only 2/7 of the content under
atmospheric conditions, in coMParison with a reduction of 2/3 in the case of vacuum mixing in
245
th mixer of 5 liter. The airvoid distribution of Fig. 10 shows the largest reduction of air content in
the range of air cavities with a chord size of 1 mm to 3 mm. The influence window of the
vacuum mixer is clearly smaller for the concrete mixer (75 liter) than the paste mixer (5 liter)
when the same duration of vacuum conditions (70 s) are applied.
In the case of ultra high performance co ncrete the splitting tensile strength and Youngs
modulus are also determined on 7 d and 28d. The results can be seen in Fig. 11 and Fig. 12.
Figure 11: Splitting tensile strength concrete in

function of the applied pressure in the mixing pan.
Figure 12: Youngs modulus in function of the applied

pressure in the mixing pan.
The influence on the splitting tensile strength, also determined on cubes with size 150 mm, is
more significant than on the compressive strength. One possible explanation is the fact that for
concrete the influence of vacuum mixing is more pronounced for the larger cavities (see Fig.
10). These type of cavities are large defects where cracks will initiate more frequently. The cube
will fail in a zone with the most defects, near the line load. If these defects are less prominent, a
large splitting tensile strength can be obtained. The Youngs modulus, determined according to
NBN B 15-203, also shows an improvement when vacuum conditions are applied. Concrete
with less air and more specific with a smaller amount of larger air cavities exhibits a higher
modulus. However more tests should be done, to study the level of significance.
Comparison between and combination of vacuum mixing and heat treatment
Different influences were studied, in order to increase the compressive strength of UHPC:
Sieving off the larger sand grains

Vacuum mixing
Reduction of the water content, compensating the water content of the SP
Heat treatment during 48 h at 90C
Some typical strength results are shown in Fig. 13.
Figure 13: Influence of acts to increase the compressive strength of UHPC (h=100 mm).
246
When the sand is sieved and a lower pressure is applied during the mixing procedure, an
increase of the compressive strength of the ultra high performance concrete is achieved.
However, the increase is not enough to match the increase obtained by heat treatment.
Figure 14: Influence of vacuum mixing & heat

treatment on the 7 d compressive strength (h=100
mm).
Figure 15: Degree of hydration of ultra high

performance paste (W/B=0,15).
The difference between the two techniques is clearly illustrated in Fig. 14. The increase that is
obtained with a heat treatment is about 80 MPa, while the reduced air pressure only brings up
20 MPa. A possible explanation for the high strength increase due to heat treatment can be
seen on Fig. 15. The composition of UHPC in this paper has a very low water-to-binder ratio
(W/B=0.15), which lead to a very low degree of hydration. A heat treatment, accelerates the
hydration process and refines the pore structure, making the concrete stronger. The strength
gain due to vacuum mixing is lower, as the reduction in air content is having less influence than
the improved hydration and the pore refinement in case of a heat treatment.
5 Conclusions
In this study the effect of vacuum mixing on the mechanical properties of UHPC has been
studied by means of a vacuum paste mixer (5 liter) and a vacuum concrete mixer (75 liter). The
following conclusions have been obtained:
It was possible to make UHPC with a compressive strength coMParable to the results of
Richard and Cherezy [6].
In the case of the vacuum paste mixer, vacuum mixing of UHPC lowers the air content
significantly. Especially the amount of air cavities with a chord size between 0.06 and 1 mm
decreases. This effect improves the compressive strength with 10 MPa.
In the case of the vacuum concrete mixer, the air content of UHPC decreases less. The
largest effect is seen on air cavities of size 1 mm to 3 mm. This leads to an insignificant
increase in compressive strength but a significant rise of the splitting tensile strength and
the Youngs modulus.
For the considered mix design and mixing procedure, the effect of vacuum mixing is less
pronounced than the effect of heat treatment.
6 Acknowledgements
The financial support of the Hercules Foundation and of the Fund for Scientific Research
Flanders is greatly acknowledged.
247
References
[1] Mazanec O. and Schiessl P.: Improvement of UHPC properties through an optimized mixing
procedure. Proc. 8th International Symposium on utilization of High-Strength and High-Performance
Concrete,Tokyo, Japan 2008.
[2] Schachinger I., Schubert J. and Mazanec O.: effect of mixing and placement methods on fresh and
hardened Ultra High Performance Concrete (UHPC).International Symposium on Ultra-High
Performance Concrete, Kassel, Germany 2004.
[3] Bresson J.: Mixing and CoMPacting Techniques for the Production of Very High Performance
Precast Concrete Products. Proc. Of the 4th International Symposium on Utilization of High strength/High-performance concrete, Paris 1996.
[4] Chiocchio, G., Mangialardi, T. and Paolini, A.E.: Effects of Addition Time of Superplasticizers on
Workability of Portland Cement Pastes with different Mineralogical Composition. Il Cemento, Heft 2
1986.
[5] Siebel, E., Mller, C.: Geeignete Zemente fr die Herstellung von UHFB. Ultrahochfester Beton.
Innovationen im Bauwesen. Beitrge aus Praxis und Wissenschaft S. 13-24. Berlin. 2003.
[6] Richard, P., Cheyrezy, M.: Composition of reactive powder concretes. Cement and concrete
research vol. 25 No. 7 p. 1501-1511, 1995.
[7] Mazanec, O., Lowke, D., Schiessl, P.: Mixing of high performance concrete: effect of concrete
composition and mixing intensity on mixing time. Materials and Structures vol. 43 nr. 3 . 357-365,
2010.
[8] Boel, V.: Microstructure of self-coMPacting concrete and relation with gas permeability and durability
(in Dutch). Doctoral thesis, Magnel Laboratory for Concrete Research. Ghent University, Belgium
pp.144, 2007.
248
Definition of three levels of performance for UHPFRCVHPFRC with available materials

Esteban Camacho, Juan ngel Lpez, Pedro Serna Ros
Universitat Politcnica de Valncia, Spain
In this document three dosages of VHPFRC-UHPFRC are proposed and characterized. Each one
corresponds to basic, medium and high level of flexural and compressive strength exigence. Some
alternative materials were introduced, as limestone coarse aggregates, normal strength fibers or fluid
catalytic cracking catalyst residue (FC3R). Also the content of cement, the compacity theory adopted and
mixer type were modified in order to study the effect of simplify the dosages, methods and processes.
The evolution of the mechanical properties was studied, obtaining the compressive strength in 100 mm
size cubic specimens at different ages and the flexural strength. The mixture rehology was analyzed by
means of the flow test and in some cases rehometer.
Keywords: VHPFRC, UHPFRC, normal strength steel fibers, coarse aggregates, mixer efficiency
1 Introduction
The UHPC-UHPFRC common families have properties coming from three concrete
technologies to a greater or lesser extent: Self-compacting concretes (SCC), fiber reinforced
concretes (FRC) and high strength concretes (HSC) taken to the extreme.
UHPFRC dosages normally require very exclusive materials: Selected and reduced diameter
aggregates because micro-cracks are proportional to their size; high strength steel fibers, 3rd
generation superplasticizers and high content of active additions. Also intensive mixers, steam
curing and high control to guarantee the thickness of the slender elements are very common.
Till this moment, the most frequent way to build UHPFRC structures is by means of precast
elements using concrete made with one of the few patents existent in the world market
(Ductal, CERACEM, BCV), calculated and designed according to the French or
Japanese recommendations [3, 4]. The great majority of the UHPC-UHPFRC experiences have
been developed in Japan, France, USA, Germany and Denmark. Table 1 shows the dosages of
some of these products.
Table 1: Dosages and properties of the most common commercial UHPFRC.
Ductal
BSI
CRC
CEMTECmultiscale
BCV
3
3
3
3
kg/m
kg/m3
Type kg/m Type kg/m Type kg/m
Type
Type
Portl.
746
1114
CEM I 52.5 1050
Cement
242
169 Binder
930
275
2115
Silica fume
224
premix
Quartz flour
0,1-0,6 1066
0-6 1072
0-5
1325
<0,5
730
2-3
Sand (mm)
W/C
0,19
W/C 0,19
W/B
0,16
W/C
0,181
W/C
0,25
Water
Chryso
9
SIKA 40
Chryso
35
21.5
Admixture
13/0.2
161 20/0.3 234 12/0.4 150-300 10/0.2
470 202/3131/3
156
Fiber
700
640
750
SlumpFlow(mm)
8
8.8
8
fct,28 (MPa)
20
101
20
165
20
20
98
fcm,7 (Mpa)
199 20/90 150/400
20
168 20/90 130-150
fcm,28 (Mpa) 20/90 124/198 20
The development of variety and amount

material and precasting process. The
accessible materials from every region
performance in the UHPFRCs adapted
of applications are limited because high cost of the

development of generic VHPFRC-UHPFRC with
would decrease the cost, and different levels of
to every application exigencies may increase the
249
development of the potential uses. The future of the material depends also on the appearance
of an International Recommendation, which is already under development [5].
2 Objectives
The objective of this work is the development of UHPFRC-VHPFRC mixtures able to be
produced in precast company with no adaption of mixing/curing processes and using local
materials, normally used to cast ordinary concrete (no exclusive). Coarse limestone aggregate,
low binder content, medium strength fibers, national active additions and a simple compacity
theory are proposed. Also mixing in a tilting mixer (according with the [7] nomenclature)
typically used for in-situ concrete casting has been studied. With these materials, three different
levels of performance have been conceived, analizing their reology, flexural strength and
compressive strength evolution.
3 Analyzed variables justification

In many applications very high compressive strengh is not essential. Much more important is
flexural strength, ductility and durability. Because of that, in the mixtures proposed fines content
is lower than for comercial UHPFRC: The aggregate size is higher than 2 mm, quartz flour is
not used as its not a very common material, the content of active addition is <=15%, and in
some cases coarse aggregate is added. This produces that compressive strength is not always
extremely high. Heat curing process is avoided. Variables modified were:
Cement
Its increase in the dosage let decrease the W/B ratio and consequently, establish the
performance of the concrete. To propose the three levels of performance the main difference
was the content of cement per cubic meter of mortar: 700 Kg/m3 for the basic, 850 for the
medium and 1000 for the high level. Two sulphate resistant cements were used: a I - 42.5
R/SR and a I - 52.5 R/SR from Lafarge, according with the Spanish standard [11]. The three
compositions suggested here come from a previous process of mixture optimization, where the
material proportions and the mixing process were modified [2].
-Three different active additions are used, because available products in the Spanish market
would be preferently used if the performance provided is adequate. Condensed silica fume
provided from the Spanish provider Ferroatlntica (named SF A), condensed silica fume
ELKEM 940 D (SF B) and Residue of Catalytic Cracking Catalyst Residue (FC3R). More
information about the use of FC3R in UHPFRC can be found in [13].
Compacity
One of the key points in UHPFRC mixture design is reach a high compacity. Some methods
have been developed to adjust microgranulometry, searching the higher compacity and then
decreasing the water demand of the compose (De Larrard, Andreasen and Andersen (A&A),
Dinguer and Funk). However, reach a simple satisfactory method for UHPFRC granulometry is
still a challenge. A simple way to deduce the granulometric curve that suggest a high compacity
was the proposed by Dinger and Funk, denoted as A&A MOD as it was modified from the A&A
method. Spherical particles are supposed, and the cumulative percent finer than a diameter D
(CPFT) is obtained (1). It depends on the minimum and maximum diameter of the aggregates.
CPFT/100=(Dq-Dqmin)/(Dqmax-Dqmin)
(1)
A&A proposed a q value of 0.37. It has been proved that, the lower the value of D max, lower is
the q value that should be used to obtain higher compacity. In this work granulometry of some
250
mixtures was adjusted with the A&AMOD theory. For them was adopted q=0.2, 0.25 y 0.3
depending if the level of performance of the concrete was high, medium or basic respectively.
In other dosages, the theory used to distribute the silica sands was called Compacity Ternary
Diagram (CTD), and developed by our group. This method is based in combine the three sands
(0-0.6 mm, 0-2 mm y 2-3 mm in our case) in different proportions, generating 21 mixtures. A
recipy with constant volume was filled with each one and its weight obtained with no
compaction. The bulk densities are represented in a ternary diagram, and the combination with
the higher one was chosen as the best between this sands, and in this case were 30% de 0-0.6
mm and 70% 0-2 mm. The CTD provided a thicker granulometry than the A&A MOD method. This
could derive in more flowability, but also in higher segregation risks and in lower compressive
strength due to the higher D max of the aggregate, which increase the size of the micro-cracks
that generate the compressive failure.
Coarse aggregates
Its use in UHPFRC is scarce. Only in some cases basalt, bauxite or granite are used [6].
Despite of that, add it to a mortar or micro-concrete is interesting to reduce the cement content
and then the autogeneous shrinkage and the price. The use of this aggregate is possible if the
elements have much higher thickness than the aggregates.
In this project 600 Kg/m 3 of 4/7 mm limestone coarse aggregate were added to the basic,
medium and high performance mixtures, implying a proportional reduction of cement/m3 of
concrete (in basic dosage from 700 to 522 Kg, in medium from 850 to 635 Kg, and in high from
1000 to 747 Kg). Even though this aggregate is used to cast ordinary concrete, its very
attainable and its strength theoretically enough to be used in VHPFRC. Previus tests were done
to quantify the water demanded by the adsorption and absorption phenomena. A 4% of water
with respect to coarse aggregate weight was obtained. The aggregates mixed with the water
were wet but didnt drop, and their addition to the UHPFRC in the middle of the mixing didnt
produce noticeable variations of the workability, as desired. The cracking of the coarse particles
due to the intensive mixing was minored with the late addition.
With this addition granulometry was not continue, and as the coarse aggregate content was
not hight the system could be considered semi-diluted [12]. This didnt produce a segregation
tendence because of the similar density of mortar and aggregate.
Steel Fibers
Medium strength fibers with hooked ends (>1200 MPa) costs approximately half of the price of
high strength fibers (>2000 MPa). It is proved [Van Gysel, 2000] that the last provides 50-100%
much pull-out force than the firsts in FRC. In the case of UHPFRC the high compacity and
active additions improve the Interfacial Transition Zone (ITZ), developing a higher pull-out force
and then probably deriving in a brittle failure of the medium strength fibers. This limit the use of
medium strength fibers, but deeper research is required in this field. This must be checked for a
certain type of fiber geometry, matrix composition and fiber orientation. In this work 2% over
volume of total steel fiber content was used. Every concrete contained 1% in volume of
Dramix OL 13/0.16 mm straight fibers and 1% in volume of, depending on the dosage, high
strength fibers Dramix RC-80/30-BP (>2000 MPa) or normal strength fibers Dramix RC65/35-BN (>1200 MPa). The slenderness of the normal strength fibers was smaller than for high
strength fibers to reduce the tendence to brittle failure, assuming lower performance in the
flexural strength.
Mixer
Intensive mixers (IM) are the most convenient to be more energic, efficient and develop an
homogeneous UHPFRC, improving the dispersion of the CSF and admixture. The lack of this
251
mixer type in most of precast company and the impossibility to use them in in-situ applications
is a problem for the UHPFRC market developement. In this study a 50 liters IM EIRICH R-08W
was used, comparing its performance with a 30 l. tilting mixer (TM), wich represented the low
energy mixers. Intensive and low energy mixing differences should be evaluated. The first has a
rotor that can was used between 50 and 300 r.p.m., and the second works without relative
movement, drum mixing takes place by lifting part of the material and then letting it fall [7].
Admixture
The admixture (PCE) type was chosen according to previous compatibility tests developed with
the binder. In the mixtures without coarse aggregates, the water content was modified to reach
the same workability aspect at the end of the mixing process. The W/B ratio in coarse
aggregate mixtures is higher because the water added with the coarse aggregate is considered.
4 Experimental Program
Table 2: Table of the 28 VHPFRC-UHPFRC mixtures designed. % o.c.w.: Over Cement weight.
Mix
Cement
Type
Kg/m
52.5
Active addition
3
PCE
W/B
Coarse
Agreg.
Long
Fibers
Mixer
Type**
Type
Comp.
Theory
Compr.
strength
Type*
%o.c.w.
Type
Ratio
700
FC3R
10%
0,27
NO
BP
IM
CTD
113
52.5
700
SF A
10%
0,27
NO
BP
IM
CTD
121
42.5
522
SF A
10%
0,37
SI
BN
IM
A&AMOD.
113
42.5
522
SF A
10%
0,36
SI
BN
IM
A&AMOD.
103
42.5
522
SF A
10%
0,33
SI
BN
IM
A&AMOD.
121
42.5
700
SF A
10%
0,31
NO
BN
TM
A&AMOD.
101
42.5
700
SF A
10%
0,28
NO
BN
IM
A&AMOD.
113
42.5
700
SF B
15%
0,25
NO
BP
IM
CTD
126
52.5
850
FC3R
10%
0,21
NO
BP
IM
A&AMOD.
127
10
52.5
850
FC3R
10%
0,23
NO
BP
TM
A&AMOD.
123
11
52.5
635
FC3R
10%
0,25
SI
BP
TM
A&AMOD.
122
12
52.5
850
SF A
10%
0,21
NO
BP
IM
A&AMOD.
139
13
52.5
850
SF A
10%
0,23
NO
BP
TM
A&AMOD.
132
14
52.5
635
SF A
10%
0,25
SI
BP
TM
A&AMOD.
124
15
42.5
850
FC3R
10%
0,21
NO
BP
IM
A&AMOD.
137
16
42.5
850
FC3R
10%
0,24
NO
BP
TM
A&AMOD.
128
17
42.5
635
FC3R
10%
0,27
SI
BP
TM
A&AMOD.
120
18
42.5
850
SF A
10%
0,22
NO
BP
IM
A&AMOD.
134
19
42.5
635
SF A
10%
0,26
SI
BP
IM
A&AMOD.
136
20
42.5
635
SF A
10%
0,26
SI
BP
IM
A&AMOD.
127
21
42.5
850
SF B
15%
0,21
NO
BP
IM
CTD
138
22
42.5
800
SF A
25%
0,22
NO
BP
IM
CTD
129
23
42.5
800
FC3R
25%
0,21
NO
BP
IM
CTD
142
24
42.5
800
SF B
25%
0,21
NO
BP
IM
CTD
133
25
42.5
1000
FC3R
15%
0,18
NO
BP
IM
CTD
161
26
42.5
1000
FC3R
15%
0,19
NO
BP
IM
A&AMOD.
149
27
42.5
747
FC3R
15%
0,22
SI
BP
IM
A&AMOD.
141
28
42.5
1000
SF B
15%
0,18
NO
BP
IM
CTD
165
* SF A: Ferroatlntica CSF, SF B: 940 D ELKEM CSF.

** Long fibers used: Dramix RC-80/30-BP and RC-65/35-BN
252
MPa
28 mixtures from a wider program are studied (table 2). In every mixing the process started
observing the mixing of the product. Mixing process toke 28-30 min in the TM (batch of 25
liters) and 13-17 min for the IM (batch of 30 liters).
To characterize the reological state the maximum slump flow and the T500 was also obtained,
and for some mixtures a 4C-Rehometer (Danish Technological Institute) provided the graphic
diameter-time of the slump.
Compressive strength was characterized with 12 cubes of 100 mm size, obtaining the 1, 2, 7
and 28 days strength according to UNE-EN 12390-3. Two 100x100x500 mm unnotched prisms
were used to obtain the 28 days flexural behaviour (f ct,fl), measuring the load and center
displacement from three point bending tests. From them the flexural strength and energy until
=3 mm (MPa*mm) were obtained. These beams were opened to make a visual study of the
fiber orientation, its breaking-slipping behaviour, possible segregation of them and coarse
aggregate and the section homogeneity.
5 Results
Cement
Logically, the cement content influenced markedly both in compression and flexion, leading to
the three levels of performance. Difference between dosages 8, 21 and 28 (refered with the
abbreviation D8, D21, D28) was only the cement content and the W/B ratio to reach
approximately similar workability in the mixes. In figures 1 and 2 can be appreciated the
rehology and compressive strength evolution compared for this dosages.
Even though the aspect during the mixing of these three dosages was very similar, only the
1000 and 850 Kg/m3 dosages had similar flowability and viscosity behaviour. 700 Kg/m3 dosage
had higher content of water and lower of fines, so the growth of the slump stopped earlier. The
higher sand content implied also more influence of the fibers in the workability [12].
Summarizing, the 700 Kg/m3 behaviour was more similar to conventional SCC. The filling
hability of the dosages was enough to many applications, and the high workability was proved
because beams were not vibrated and the compressive performance obtained (figure 2) was
the expected.
Figure 1:Slump-flow evolution with the time.
Figure 2: Compressive strength time evolution.
Active additions
Higher contents of active additions didnt provide better rheological and mechanical results.
Dosages 22, 23 and 24, wtih 25% of active addition in respect to cement, reached 128, 14 2 and
133 MPa, similar than dosage 21 (138 MPa), which contains only 15%.
Compacity theory
Dosages 25 and 26 differ only in the sands proportion due to the compacity theory. The
content of fine sand was 30% and 65-70% with the CTD and the A&AMOD method respectively.
253
This implied that the first had lower specific surface and W/B ratio could be reduced from 0.185
to 0.175 with the same workability. No segregation was observed in any of the mixtures, and
the compressive strength improved the compressive strength in from 148 MPa to 161 MPa.
Besides, the T500 value for the CTD mixtures was lower than the value of A&A MOD mixtures.
With all this can be remarked that, even though A&A MOD method doesnt provide insatisfactory
results, the simple method developed here, named CTD, provided better results.
Coarse aggregate
Coarse aggregate showed lower value of slump, because in absence of movement aggregates
and fibers tend to form a mass in the center of the cone. Despite of that, the no segregation of
the products was checked cutting the flexural beams, as the mixture flowed homogeneously in
dynamic conditions. In figure 3, strengths remarked together in squares can be compared as
their diference is only the coarse aggregate addition with 4% in its weight of water.
Compressive strength differences decrease with the time because the weakest section in
coarse aggregates UHPFRC is the aggregate-mortar interphase, and the active additions
improve with the time this union.
Despite of the slightly higher W/B ratio of the coarse aggregate mixtures, 28 days
compressive strengths were very similar. Flexural results didn`t show neither lower
performance. This showed surprisingly how conventional limestone coarse aggregates are very
interesting to make
cheaper-lower
cement VHPFRCUHPFRC. Until now
almost
every
coarse aggregates
used for UHPC had
higher
strength
requirements, i.e.
basalt, granite, etc.
Figure 3: Evolution of the compressive strengths of mixtures with and without coarse aggregates.
Mixer type
Soon was noticed that due to the much lower mixing energy, longer times and higher W/B ratio
were required to induce the change from solid to fluid state. Time needed to reach
selfcompactability could be decreased increasing even more the W/B ratio, but then at the end
of the mixing segregation of the self-compacting product would happened. If W/B is not
increased more, mixing times of 30 minutes are required, but the final product is suitable.
Construction mixer didnt show as good separation of the fiber bundles than the intensive mixer.
The low W/B ratio and mixing energy implies a slow dissolving of the glue between the single
fibers. Mixing of coarse aggregates dosages in the TM required slightly shorter time, because
the aggregate broke up faster the solid slumps with the knocking. Disperssion of the
compressive strength results were very similar, lower than 6% between cubes of every batch.
Table 3 compares the reological and mechanical properties of these mixtures.
254
Table 3: Data of couples of similar dosages casted with intensive (IM) and construction mixers (CM).
N mix-Mixer type
W/B ratio
28 d strength (MPa)
Mixing time (min)
Slump flow (mm)
8 -IM
0.28
113
17
850
7 -TM
0.31
101
35
712
10-IM
0.21
127
16
770
11-TM
0.23
123
28
850
13-IM
0.21
139
15
<500
14-TM
0.23
132
29
757
16-IM
0.21
139
17
762
17-TM
0.24
128
30
840
Dosages
Dosages with 1% of normal strength fiber showed, as expected [10], less flexural performance
than mixtures with high strength fibers. However, the failure was totally ductile as fibers pull out,
with a plastic deformation of the fibre hooks. No tensile failure of the fibers was observed. This
could be explained with the following reasons:
The pullout process of a hooked end fibre is based in the debonding and the plastic
deformations of the hook. The last phenomena is the most dominant phracture
mechanism for the hooked end fibers [10]. The two possible fiber behaviour are the
plastic deformation of the hooks and the tensile failure of the fiber. Both are lineary
proportional to the fiber tensile strength.
The slenderness of the normal strength fiber used was 65, and for the high strength
fibers was 80. This reduces the ratio specific surface/sectional area, so the debonding
process is less marked and consequently the tendency to brittle failure.
Inclined fibers with respect to the direction of the main tensile stresses have to be partly
bent, what generally increases the total frictional resistance during the pull out. Highe st
forces needed to pull the fibers out were with inclination angle of 15 [10]. In linear
elements with self-compacting UHPFRC, as in this research, fibers were preferently
aligned in the direction of the forces, increasing the tendence to ductile failure. Figure 5
shows lower flexural performance, but similar bending behaviour, as the flexural failure
mechanism is based in the same principles, as can be also observed in figure 6.
Figure 5: Relationship between the maximum

flexural strength obtained and the energy
developed until 3 mm of deflection in the concretes
with both types of fibers.
Figure 6: Graphics Flexural Strength-Deflection of

three mixtures of UHPFRC and VHPFRC from this
research compared with OC and FRC.
The change of the long fiber didnt produce compressive strength differences, and the flexural
performance observed was intermedium between the provided by FRC and UHPFRC. This
expand the viability of this VHPFRC for many other applications, as the price of normal strength
fibers is over half of the high tensile strength fibers.
According to the results, dosages of the three levels of performance for VHPFRC-UHPFRC
are proposed in table 4.
255
Table 4: Dosage of three different performance VHPFRC-UHPFRC.
Long Fibers
Mixer
Ratio
Coarse
Aggregate
Kg/m3
Tensile strengh
Type
Compr-Flex
strength expected
MPa-MPa equiv.
10%
0,27
600
>1200
Low Energy
120-15
850-635
10%
0.21
0-600
2000
LE-Intensive
135-28
1000
15%
0.175
2000
Intensive
160-35
Type
Cement
Addition
W/B
Level
Kg/m3
%o.c.w.
Basic
522
Medium
High
6 Conclusions
It should be remarked the suitability of the limestone coarse aggregate to reduce the price of
the VHPFRC-UHPFRC keeping the level of performance, and the ductility of VHPFRC with
normal tensile strengh fibers. Conventional mixers can be used to cast this concretes accepting
a longer mixing time. No steam curing is needed to reach 160 MPa at 28 days and more than
70 MPa at 24 hours.
Results obtained showed that UHPFRC-VHPFRC processes can be simplified, being able
use non exclusive materials to reach aceptable very high performance concretes, which are
valid to many applications between FRC and UHPFRC.
7 Acknowledgements
The authors of this document would like to express their gratitude to the Spanish Science and
Innovation Ministery and to the Plan E, for the financial support of the project BIA 2009-12722,
and also to the Spanish Science and Innovation Ministery and the FEDER funds for the
financial support of the project IPT-2011-1242-380000, included under the National Plan of
Scientific Reseach, Developement and Technological Innogation 2008-2011.
References
[1] Camacho, E.; Serna Ros, P.: Design and analisis of UHP-Hybrid-FRC ties for truss structures, 8th
fib International PhD Symposium in Civil Engineering, Denmark, June 20-23, 2010.
[2] Camacho, E.; Serna Ros, P.: Optimizacin de dosificaciones de Hormign Autocompactante de Muy
Alto Rendimiento Reforzado con Fibras Hbrido. 2 Congreso Ibrico sobre Hormign
Autocompactante. July 1-2, 2010.
[3] SETRA-AFGC, UHPFRC. Interim Recommendations, AFGC. Groupe de travail BFUP, January
2002.
[4] JSCE, Guidelines for the Design and Construction of UHSFRC (draft), 2004.
[5] Walraven, J.C.: HPFRC: Progress in knowledge and design codes. Materials and Structures, pp
1247-1260, Vol. 42, 2009.
[6] Ma, J.; Orgass, M.: Comparative investigations on UHPC with and without coarse aggregates.
LACER n9, 2004.
[7] Beitzel, H.; Charonnat, Y.: Assessment and classification of performance mixers. RILEM TC 150 ECM: Efficiency of Concrete Mixers. Materials and Structures, pp 250-264, Vol. 36, May 2003.
[8] Andreasen, A.H.M.; Andersen, J.: ber die Beziehung zwischen Kornabstufung und Zwischenraum
in Producten aus losen Krnern (mit einigen Experimenten), 1930.
[9] Droll, K.: Influence of Additions on UHPC-grain size optimisation. International Symposium on
UHPC, pp.285-301, Kassel, September 13-15, 2004.
[10] Markovic, I: HP-Hybrid-FC. Development and Utilisation. PhD, Delft University. 2006.
[11] Aenor UNE 80303-1. Cementos con carac. adicionales. Parte 1: Cementos resistentes a sulfatos.
[12] Martinie, L.; Rossi, P.; Roussel, N.: Rheology of fiber reinforced cementitious materials:
classification and prediction. Cement and Concrete Research 40 (2010) 226-234.
[13] Camacho, E.; Lpez J.A.; Serna, P.: Fluid Catalytic Cracking Residue additions such an alternative
to Silica Fume in UHPFRC. 3 International Symposium on UHPC, Kassel, March 7-9, 2012.
256
Characteristics of Mechanical Properties and Durability of

Ultra-High Performance Concrete Incorporating Coarse
Aggregate
Juan Yang1, Gai-Fei Peng1, Yu-Xin Gao2, Hui Zhang1
1: Faculty of Civil Engineering & Architecture, Beijing Jiaotong University, Beijing, 100044, China
2: Chengdu China Construction Ready Mixed Concrete Co., Ltd., Sichuan, 61000, China
Ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) incorporating coarse aggregate was prepared with common raw
materials. Fresh concrete had excellent good workability with slump of 265 mm and slump spread of 673
mm. Compressive strength of UHPC at 56 d reached 150 MPa. However, UHPC exhibited high
brittleness in terms of spalling failure which occurred during compression loading.The ratio of splitting
tensile strength to compressive strength of about 1/18 and the ratio of flexural strength to compressive
strength of about 1/14 at 56 d were also associated with the brittleness of UHPC in this research. Mineral
admixtures and fluidity of fresh concrete influenced compressive strength of UHPC significantly.
Moreover, UHPC had excellent permeation-related durability but considerable shrinkage. Autogenous
shrinkage of UHPC was less than half of free shrinkage, for which the reason is unknown and needs
further research.
Keywords: Ultra-high performance concrete, coarse aggregate, strength, durability, brittleness.
1 Introduction
With the development of high-rise buildings and constructional elements with small section,
ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) has been increasingly researched and shows a very
promising future in practical engineering due to its excellent properties, i.e. ultra-high strength
and super-high durability. Normally, UHPC may include two types, reactive power concrete
(RPC) and concrete incorporating coarse aggregate with the compressive strength of more than
100 MPa [1]. In this investigation, UHPC incorporating coarse aggregate was focused on.
More and more research attention has been paid to UHPC recently [2-3]. In Japan, a 59story residential tower was the first engineering structure of the UHPC about 150 MPa [4]. In
China, Pu X.C. et al conducted earlier researches on the UHPC [5, 6]. UHPC about 100 MPa
was successfully applied in construction of the Guangzhou International Finance Centre [7].
However, UHPC with compressive strength over 100 MPa still needs research for practical
construction. Furthermore, UHPC is potentially threatened by explosive spalling when subjected
to high temperature. Therefore, for more application of UHPC in China, research on mechanical
properties of the UHPC is needed and can be regard as the first step of research for improving
fire resistance of UHPC.
In this paper, UHPC incorporating coarse aggregate was researched. Mechanical properties
including compressive strength, splitting tensile strength, flexural strength and static elastic
modulus were investigated, and related parameters of the toughness of UHPC such as the ratio
of splitting tensile strength to compressive strength, the ratio of flexural strength to compressive
strength were measured. Furthermore, durability tests were conducted, including water
permeability test, resistance to chloride ion penetration, and shrinkage test.
2 Experimental details
General
UHPC was prepared with normal materials and ordinary technology. Limestone was used as
coarse aggregate with the two particle size range of 510 mm and 1020 mm, the calculation
257
mass proportion of which was 3:7. Its crushing index is 4.0 %. Artificial sand was used as Fine
aggregate, physical properties of which are showed in Table 1. Physical properties of mineral
admixtures including fly ash (FA), silica fume (SF), ground granulated blast furnace slag
(GGBS) were determined in accordance with GB/T 18046-2008, which is in agreement with
ASTM C311-07. The results are presented in Table 2. Polycarboxylate superplasticizer labelled
SPC and Polyacrylate superplasticizer labelled SPA in Table 3 were used.
Table 1: Physical properties of artificial sand.
Fineness
modulus
2.2
density (Kg/m )
Packing
density(Kg/m3)
Mud
content (%)
Clay
pieces
content (%)
2730
1590
4.6
0.5
Apparent
3
MB
value
Stone power
content (%)
0.5
4.6
Table 2: Properties of mineral admixtures.
materials
Density
(g/cm3)
Specific
surface (cm2/g)
Loss on
ignition
(%)
SF
2.09
251000
FA
2.48
GGBS
2.90
Mineral
Compressive
strength (MPa)
Activity index
(%)
7d
28d
7d
28d
2.8
34.8
52.4
94
121
7850
2.1
26.6
41.6
72
96
7460
0.5
31.8
49.5
82
109
Table 3: Solid content and dosage of superplasticizer.
Polycarboxylate
Type of superplasticizer
Polyacrylate
SPC-1
SPC-2
SPC-3
SPC-4
SPA
Solid content (%)
20
20
24
24
20
Dosage (wt. %)
Specimens of six types of UHPC denoted by 0.21UHPC-S, 0.22UHPC-S, 0.23UHPC-S,

0.24UHPC-S, 0.18UHPC-S-F and 0.18UHPC-S-F-G respectively were prepared, using SPC-1
except for those specified specially. The mixture proportions are listed in Table 4.
Table 4: Mix proportions of UHPC.
Mix
No.
Type
W/B
0.21UHPC-S
Binding materials (Kg/m3)
Sand
Coarse aggregate
SF
FA
GGBS
(Kg/m )
(Kg/m3)
0.21
810
90
620
930
0.22UHPC-S
0.22
810
90
620
930
0.23UHPC-S
0.23
810
90
620
930
0.24UHPC-S
0.24
810
90
620
930
0.18UHPC-S-F
0.18
630
90
180
620
930
0.18UHPC-S-FG
0.18
540
90
180
90
620
930
258
Characteristics of Mechanical Properties and Durability of Ultra-High Performance Concrete Incorporating Coarse
Aggregate
After mixing, the slump and the slump spread were measured for the evaluation of workability.
After casting, each specimen was covered with plastic film and stored at room temperature for
24 hours, then demoulded and stored at standard curing room with temperature of (202) C
and relatively humidity above 95%, until being tested. Compressive strength test of all types of
UHPC was conducted, but only 0.22UHPC-S and 0.18UHPC-S-F-G were for all the other
mechanical property test and durability test.
Determination of mechanical properties
Tests for mechanical properties including compressive strength, splitting tensile strength,
flexural strength and static elastic modulus were conducted according to GB/T 50081-2002 of
China, i.e. Standard for test method of mechanical properties on ordinary concrete.
100 mm cube specimens were prepared for compressive strength test. The loading rate was
10 KN/s, i.e. about 1 MPa/s and the load had to be as uniformly as possible due to the brittle
performance of UHPC. The loading rate of splitting tensile test with the 100 mm cube
specimens was 0.1 MPa. Flexural strength tests were performed employing the specimens of
100 mm100 mm400 mm by the method of three-point bending. Specimens of 100 mm100
mm300 mm were employed for the static elastic modulus test under compressive loading.
All the mechanical properties of the UHPC were investigated at four ages, i.e. 3 days (d), 7
d, 28 d and 56 d. The experimental result was the average value of three specimens tested.
Determination of durability
Determination of durability including water permeability, resistance to chloride ion penetration,
shrinkage test, were carried out in accordance with GB/T 50082-2009 of China, i.e. Standard for
test methods of long-term performance and durability of ordinary concrete.
For the water permeability test, avoiding water to seep through specimen circum is the most
important procedure for achieving successful results. Test method for the Coulomb Electric Flux
for Chloride ion penetration test was applied. Specimens with the length, wide and height of 100
mm, 100 mm and 515 mm respectively for shrinkage test were placed in curing room with the
temperature of ( 20 2 ) C and the relative humidity of ( 60 5 ) %. Autogenous shrinkage and

free shrinkage were measured. The difference between the two was only that, specimens for
autogenous shrinkage were sealed hermetically. Within the initial three days, shrinkage test
apparatus can collect and process data automatically. For the later days, outside micrometer
was used to measure the shrinkage manually.

Workability
Workability of UHPC was determined in terms of the slump and the slump spread measured for
two times, immediately after mixing for the first time, then after one hour for the second time.
The results in Figure 1 showed that, UHPC had excellent workability, the slump of exceeding
250 mm and the slump spread of above 600 mm measured one hour after mixing can be
obtained. This indicated that, these UHPC can be applied as pumpable concrete for high-rise
building construction. In addition, the fluidity of 0.18UHPC-S-F-G was superior to that of
0.22UHPC-S, the fluidity loss of which within one hour was more than that of 0.18UHPC-S-F-G.
The reasons may be that,mix of 0.18UHPC-S-F-G had better water-retention than 0.22UHPC-S.
259
275
265
260
255
265
0.18UHPC-S-F-G
260
260
250
245
Slump spread
Slump (mm)
270
0.22UHPC-S
250
0
60
690
680
670
660
650
640
630
620
610
600
0.22UHPC-S
673
0.18UHPC-S-F-G
660
635
605
0
Time after mixing (minute)

(a) Slump
60
Time after mixing (minute)

(b) Slump spread
Figure 1: Workability of UHPC incorporating the superplasticizer PC-4 measured at different time.
Mechanical properties
Compressive strength (MPa)
160
150
3d
7d
28d
56d
140
130
120
110
100
90
80
70
0.18UHPC-S-F 0.18UHPC-S-F-G
Mix with various admixtures
W/B
Figure 2: effect of W/B on compressive strength of

UHPC-S at different ways.
0.22UHPC-S
Figure 3: Influence of different mineral admixtures on

compressive strength of UHPC.
1) Compressive strength
A series of compressive strength test on six types of the UHPC (in Table 4) were conducted.
The influencing factors on compressive strength, including water to binder ratio (W/B) and
different types of mineral admixtures as well as fluidity of fresh concrete 0 minute after mixing
were determined. During loading process for all the compression tests, spalling failure of
specimen occurred with loudcracking.
For the UHPC with only SF, the effect of W/B on its compressive strength was determined.
The results in Figure 2 indicated that, compressive strength of the UHPC decreased with the
increasing W/B at all ages, which affected the compressive strength of the UHPC significantly.
The influence of different types of mineral admixtures on compressive strength of the UHPC
was showed in Figure 3. The results indicated that, FA and BBGS reduced the early
compressive strength, but improved the long-term compressive strength. The reducing of
cement content and the filling effect of mineral admixtures with different particle sizes can be
attributed to that.
The results of influencing of fluidity of fresh concrete with different superplasticizers (SP) on
compressive strength at 56 d in Table 5 showed that, fluidity of fresh concrete affected the
compressive strength of the UHPC significantly, better fluidity, higher compressive strength.
When the maximum slump of 265 mm and the slump spread of exceeding 660 mm were
attained, UHPC reached to 151 MPa at 56 d. Fluidity was directly affected by SP. In this
research, SPA exhibited the best effect and had the similar result with SPC-4. Furthermore,
with SPA, the compressive strength of 0.22UHPC-S at 56 d was 139.5 MPa, less than that of
260
Aggregate
Table 5:
Effect of fluidity of fresh concrete with different
superplasticizers on compressive strength at 56 d.
Type of
UHPC
0.22UHPC-S
0.18UHPCS-F-G
Fluidity (mm)
SP
Slump
Slump
spread
Compressive
strength
(MPa)
PC-1
245
475
130.4
PA
260
660
139.5
PC-1
240
520
138
PC-2
235
490
131
PC-3
250
550
142.3
PC-4
265
660
150.7
PA
265
673
151
Splitting tensile strength
0.18UHPC-S-F-G. It demonstrated that compound mineral admixtures may be beneficial to

preparation of UHPC. Therefore, high fluidity was an important factor for the preparation of
UHPC.
9.00
7.72
8.00
7.25
7.00
7.67
6.67
6.00
5.00
4.00
3.00
8.57
4.73
5.86
0.22UHPC-S
0.18UHPC-S-F-G
4.05
3d
7d
28d
56d
Age
Figure 4: Splitting tensile strength
of UHPC at different agesSplitting
tensile strength.
2) Splitting tensile strength

The results in Figure 4 indicated that, splitting tensile strength increased with age. Splitting
tensile strength of 0.22UHPC-S was higher than that of 0.18UHPC-S-F-G at all ages. From
Figure 5, the ratio of splitting tensile strength to compressive strength of 0.22UHPC-S and
0.18UHPC-S-F-G at 56 d was 1/16 and 1/18 respectively. Compared with that of HSC, about
1/141/16, UHPC presented more brittleness. The results on HPC indicate that, at 300,
Ratio of splitting tensile to

compressive strength
vapour pressure is about 8 MPa, above 300, the pressure can reach to 17 MPa, if inner
vapour pressure of concrete is at or higher than the splitting tensile strength o f concrete per se,
the explosive spalling will occur [8]. While the splitting tensile strength of the UHPC was less
than 9 MPa, it is more possible to explosive spalling for the UHPC subjected to high
temperature. Therefore, avoiding the occurrence of explosive spalling for UHPC in fire is very
important and needs further research.
0.070
1/15
1/16
0.060
0.050
1/18
1/18
3d
1/18
0.22UHPC-S
0.18UHPC-S-F-G
1/21
0.040
1/18
1/17
7d
28d
56d
Age
Figure 5: Ratio of splitting tensile strength to compressive

strength of UHPC at different ages.
Figure 6: Observation of fractured surface of

0.18UHPC-S-F-G after splitting tensile strength
test.
It was observed that the specimen in the splitting tensile test was split into two parts and each
of them was unbroken in this research, as shown in Figure 6. From the fractured surfaces, it
can be found that most of coarse aggregates in UHPC were fractured into two parts. The
261
reason can be that, since interfacial bond strength was quite high, when the loading damage
occurred, cracking passed across coarse aggregates.
3) Flexural strength
The results from flexural strength tests in Figure 7 showed that, flexural strength of the UHPC
increased with age and reached to about 10 MPa at 56 d. The ratio of flexural strength to
compressive strength of the UHPC at all ages showed in Figure 8 was lower than 1/13. The
UHPC may be regarded as more brittle since that of HSC is about 1/111/9.
10.00
8.00
8.07
6.53
6.00
4.00
2.00
10.50
9.47
9.40
7.73
5.50
3d
9.80
0.22UHPC-S
0.18UHPC-S-F-G
7d
28d
56d
Age
Figure 7: Flexural strength of UHPC at different
ages.
0.100
Ratio of flexural strength to

Flexural strength (MPa)
12.00
1/13
0.080
0.060
1/16
1/13
1/14
1/13
1/13
1/13
1/14
0.22UHPC-S
0.18UHPC-S-F-G
0.040
0.020
3d
7d
28d
56d
Age
Figure 8: Ratio of flexural strength to compressive

strength of UHPC at different ages.
1200
60,0
0.22UHPC-S
0.18UHPC-S-F-G
55,0
50,0
45,0
40,0
35,0
30,0
47,0
40,1
42,9
44,0
48,0
45,6
41,5
36,1
3d
7d
28d
56d
Shrinkage value (10-6)
Static elastic modulus (GPa)
4) Static elastic modulus

The results of static elastic modulus under compression shown in Figure 9 indicate that elastic
modulus of UHPC increased with age, and that of 0.18UHPC-S-F-G was higher than that of
0.22UHPC-S at all ages. At 56 d, elastic modulus of 0.22UHPC-S and 0.18UHPC-S-F-G was
45.6 GPa and 48.0 GPa respectively, which indicated that UHPC had high stiffness.
Age
Figure 9: Static elastic modulus of UHPC at

different ages.
1000
0.18UHPC-S-F-G-"F"
0.22UHPC-S-"F"
0.22UHPC-S-"A"
0.18UHPC-S-F-G-"A"
800
600
400
200
0
Initial 1d
set
3d
7d 14d 28d 30d 45d 60d 75d 90d 105d 120d
Figure 10: Shrinkage of UHPC at different ages.
Durability
In water permeability test, water pressure reached 4.0 MPa and was then maintained for seven
days. No water was observed in the top surfaces of all specimens. Therefore, UHPC had quite
high resistance to water permeation.
The electric flux of 0.18UHPC-S-F-G and 0.22UHPC-S at 56 d was 69 C and 94 C,
respectively. Therefore, UHPC presented excellent resistance to chloride ion penetration.
The results of shrinkage test were showed in Figure 10. F means free shrinkage, A
means autogenous shrinkage. The results indicate that, whether 0.22UHPC-S or 0.18UHPCS-F-G, free shrinkage was much higher than autogenous shrinkage. Furthermore, free
shrinkage and autogenous of 0.22UHPC-S was higher than that of 0.18UHPC-S-F-G. The
262
Aggregate
reason may be attributed to that, the blended mineral admixtures (SF, FA and GGBS) can be
beneficial to minimizing shrinkage, although different results were also reported when the
mineral admixtures SF or GGBS was used lonely [9, 10]. It was reported that, as to concrete at
low water-binder ratio, autogenous shrinkage would be the most part of shrinkage [11].
However, in this research, autogenous shrinkage of UHPC was less than half of free shrinkage,
for which the reason is unknown and needs further research.
4 Conclusions
Based on the experimental results in this research, following conclusions may be drawn.
(1) UHPC with compressive strength of 150 MPa were prepared with excellent workability
with slump of 260 mm and slump spread of 635 mm at one hour after mixing. Mineral
admixtures and fluidity of fresh concrete influenced compressive strength of UHPC significantly.
(2) UHPC had high stiffness and ultra-high permeation-related durability. UHPC had not only
high resistance to water permeation, but also excellent resistance to chloride ion penetration,
with the electric flux as low as less than 100 C.
(3) UHPC exhibited considerable shrinkage. However, autogenous shrinkage of UHPC was
less than half of free shrinkage, for which the reason is unknown and needs further research.
5 Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support of the National Natural Scientific
Foundation of China (Project No: 50978026) and the China Ministry of Education (Project No:
20100009110014).
References
[1] Rahman, S.; Molyneaux, T.; Patnaikuni, I.: Ultra high performance concrete: recent applications and
research. Australian Journal of Civil Engineering, Vol. 2, pp. 13-20, 2005.
[2] Watanabe, S.; Jinnai, H.; Kuroiwa, S.; Teraushi, R.: Development and Application of Quality Control
System Based on Careful Selection of Coarse Aggregate for High-Strength Concrete. Proceedings
of 8th International Symposium on Utilization of High-Strength and High-Performance Concrete,
Japan, pp. 1127-1132, 2008.
[3] Koizumi, S.; Imoto, H.; Sugamata, T.; Ohta, A.: A Study on Potential Strength Development and the
Hydration Reaction of Ultra-High-Strength Concrete. Proceedings of 8th International Symposium on
Utilization of High-Strength and High-Performance Concrete, Japan, pp. 489-496, 2008.
[4] Kojima, M.; Mitsui, K.; Wachi, M.; Sato, T.: Application of 150N/mm 2 Advanced Performance
Composites to High-rise R/C Building. Proceedings of 8th International Symposium on Utilization of
High-Strength and High-Performance Concrete, Japan, pp. 1199-1206, 2008.
[5] Pu, X.C.: Super High-Strength /High-Performance Concrete [M] (In Chinese). Chongqing University
Press, Chongqing, China, 2004.
[6] Wang, C.; Yang, C.H.; Liu, F.; Wan, Z.J.; Pu, X.C.: Preparation of Ultra-High Performance Concrete
with common technology and materials. Cement Concrete Composites,
doi:10.1016/j.cemconcomp.2011.11.005., 2011.
[7] Gao, Y.X.; Wu, Y.J.; Wang, M.Y.: Research and application of ultra-high strength high performance
concrete in China (In Chinese). Ready-mixed Concrete, Vol. 12, pp. 30-31, 47, 2009.
[8] Kodur, V.K.R.: Fiber reinforcement for minimizing spalling in High Strength Concrete structural
members exposed to fire. ACI SP 216-14, pp. 221-236, 2003.
[9] Zhang, M.H.; Tam, C.T.; Leow, M.P.: Effect of Water-Cementitious Materials Ratio and Silica Fume
on the Autogenous Shrinkage of Concrete. Cement and Concrete Research, Vol. 33, pp. 1687-1694,
2003.
263
[10] Lee, K.M.; Lee, S.H.; Kim, G.Y.: Autogenous Shrinkage of Concrete Containing Granulated BlastFurnace Slag. Cement and Concrete Research, Vol. 36, pp. 1279-1285, 2006.
[11] Tam, C.M.; Tam, V.W.Y.; Ng, K.M.: Assessing drying shrinkage and water permeability of reactive
powder concrete produced in Hong Kong. Constr Build Mater, doi: 10.1016/j.conbuildmat. 2011. 05.
06., 2011.
264
UHPC composites based on glass fibers with high fluidity,

ductility, and durability
Jeffrey Chen, Gilles Chanvillard
Lafarge Central Research, Saint Quentin Fallavier, France
There is a growing interest in the use of ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) for architectural
applications. As these applications often call for slender structural elements with complex geometry and
a white color, a new UHPC has been developed based on the use of pozzolanic ultrafines and glass
fibers. Through an optimization of particle packing and matrix/fiber interactions, this glass-reinforced
UHPC (GF-UHPC) shows an unprecedented combination of self-placing behavior, deflection-hardening
behavior in bending of thin plates, excellent resistance to wet aging, and a very low permeable matrix. A
back analysis of the flexural data to extract the tensile strength of the GF-UHPC shows a highly efficient
use of the 2.2 vol. % glass fibers to achieve tensile strengths of 911 MPa in the post-cracking regime.
Microstructure characterization by scanning-electron microscopy (SEM) and mercury-intrusion
porosimetry (MIP) furthermore point to the high durability of the GF-UHPC.
Keywords: UHPC, architectural, glass fibers, tensile strength, microstructure
1 Introduction
The unique combination of high compressive strength, self-placing properties, extreme
durability, ductility, and aesthetics make Ductal a truly revolutionary construction material. In
the past 10 years, it has been shown that these properties have allowed designers to exploit
elegant architectural designs that would otherwise have been only accessible to high-strength
steel or to complex materials systems. Figure 1 shows several architectural projects in Ductal ,
highlighting applications in thin shells and perforated panels; others examples can be found in
Ref. [1].
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
Figure 1: Examples of architectural applications in Ductal: a) thin-shelled canopies at Shawnessy LRT station
in Calgary (2004); b) perforated faade panels in the ZAC apartment building in Paris; c) perforated roof and
envelope of the future Jean Bouin Stadium near Paris (model, Ref. [2]); d) perforated faade panels and
footbridge at the MuCEM in Marseille (under construction).
265
We have recently developed a self-placing UHPC based on glass fibers for architectural
applications. The interest of using glass fibers is its higher tensile strength (approximately 1700
MPa) compared to organic fibers, lower cost compared to steel fibers, and that it does not show
rust stains at the concrete surfacea major aesthetic impediment to using steel fibers in white
UHPC. In a previous study [3], it was demonstrated that a deflection-hardening behavior can be
achieved on 20-mm plates with glass fiber dosages as low as 2.0 vol. %a substantial
reduction over the typical 3 to 4 vol. % dosages used in cast and sprayed glass reinforced
concrete (GRC) formulations, respectively. Reverse analysis of the flexural curves show that
the direct tensile strength of the composite was between 911 MPa. It was furthermore shown
that the composite maintained its ductile performance in wet conditions (submerged in 50 C
water for 3 months). This property is not associated with normal glass-reinforced composites
(GRC), which generally suffer from embrittlement with wet aging [4]. Collectively, these
mechanical properties for our glass fiber-reinforced UHPC (GF-UHPC) should allow for greater
freedom in structural design of architectural applications.
Although the use of glass fibers in concrete is well-known, there are few reported GF-UHPC
in the literature. For example, Roth et al. [5] have also shown a deflection-hardening GF-UHPC
with a matrix containing silica fume and fiber dosages of 3.0%. A large dispersion in flexural
results was observed, presumably due to the continuous, gravity-loading process of adding the
fibers to the UHPC. Neither aging tests, nor flow properties were reported.
In this study, we will report on new developments of our GF-UHPC composite, where the
silica fume ultrafines normally present in the UHPC matrix have been partially or wholly
replaced by metakaolin pozzolanic ultrafines. A characterization of the mechanical properties
and of the microstructure of the composite will be discussed.
2 Experimental Procedure
Mix Design
The UHPC matrix contained a fine sand (01 mm), a white cement, and a mix of ultrafines,
which included varying amounts silica fume, metakaolin, and limestone filler. The quantity of
silica fume was 5 wt. % with respect to cement in the example shown in the current study. A
superplasticizer was also used.
The composite contained alkali resistant (AR) glass fibers with a length of 12 mm and a
dosage of 2.2 vol. %. Fibers were added to the UHPC mix in the mixer after a homogeneous
cementitious matrix was obtained.
Spread flow test
Spread flow tests were taken at various times after mixing with a cylindrical ring of 70 mm
height and 100 mm diameter. After filling the mold with the GF-UHPC, the mold was carefully
lifted, and the horizontal spread was measured approximately 2 min after lifting. No additional
shocks were used.
Curing conditions and Flexural tests
Each GF-UHPC mix was cast in 2 separate 55055020 mm plate molds. Care was taken to
pour the mixes at one end of the mold to encourage optimal fiber orientation. After demolding at
24 hours, 2 plate specimens measuring 450*145*20 mm were cut from each of the large plates.
The resulting 4 plates were then placed in a curing chamber at 20 C and 100% RH. At 7d, 2 of
these plates were placed over a closed vessel over 50 C water for an additional 21 d to
simulate an accelerated aging. The other 2 plates were left in the original curing chamber at 20
C and 100% RH. Changing the aging period to 1 month at 20 C, followed by an additional 1
month at 50 C over water showed no significant difference to the conditions described above.
266
At 28 days, all 4 plates were tested in four-point bending, with an inner span of 140 mm, and
an outer span of 420 mm. With the use of an attached LVDT sensor, the flexural tests were
deflection controlled at a constant rate of 0.1 mm/min.
Microstructural characterization
A field-emission gun scanning-electron microscope (FEG-SEM) was used to image the
microstructure of the GF-UHPC. After being cut, epoxy impregnated, and polished, cross
sections of the composite were imaged in back-scattered electron (BSE) mode, operating at 15
keV and a current intensity of 1 nA.
Mercury intrusion porosimetry (MIP) was performed on samples without fibers. At 28 days,
samples were crushed, dried at 45 C for 2 days at 20 mbar, then submitted for testing.

Spread flow
As shown in Figure 2, the GF-UHPC with 2.2 vol. % glass fibers is a truly self-placing material.
Horizontal spreading of the GF-UHPC reached over 240 mm (starting from an initial cylinder
diameter of 100 mm). This value can be maintained over a period of at least 90 min at 20 C.
The self-placing behavior of the mix can be attributed to the high particle packing of the
matrix and the relatively low fiber dosage. High fluidity enables casting of complex or textured
elements, which is impossible for traditional GRC that contain 3 vol. % fiber or more. The fluidity
furthermore aids in proper fiber orientation of the composite.
b
Spread flow (mm)
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
30
60
90
Time after initial contact with water

(min)
Figure 2: (a) Self-placing behaviour of the GF-UHPC. (b) Spread flow measured as a function of time after
initial contact with water.
Flexural results on thin plates.Figure 3a shows the flexural results of the GF-UHPC
composite with 2.2 vol. % glass fibers measured at 28 d after normal curing (20 C) and after
accelerated wet aging (50 C). All samples, including those subjected to aging, illustrate
deflection hardening: after the limit of proportionality was reached, the load was effectively
transferred to the fibers, without a drop in stress, and continually increased until failure of the
fibers. The limit of proportionality (LOP) is 1314 MPa at 20 C and 1617 MPa at 50 C; these
are values notably higher than traditional GRC with values between 610 MPa [4]. The ultimate
deflections were 5.56 mm at 20 C (6mm being the limit of the setup) and 33.3 mm to 50 C.
The Youngs Modulus was approximately 48 GPa, both before and after aging. As discussed in
more detail in ensuing sections, these properties, along with the fine microcracking pattern
along the tensile face of a tested plate (Figure 3b), demonstrate a highly efficient use of the
glass fibers in the GF-UHPC composite.
267
Figure 3: (a) Flexural results on 28-d GF-UHPC plate, after normal curing at 20 C (blue, thick lines) and after
accelerated aging (red, thin lines). (b) Multi-cracking pattern observed on the tensile face of plate after a
flexural test; scale bar, 2 cm.
Tensile strength from back analysis of flexural results.The potential contribution of the fibers
to the tensile strength of the composite can be estimated by a simplified analysis, as well as by
a back analysis of the flexural results.
A simplified approach to estimating the upper bound of the contribution of the fibers, p, to
the tensile strength of the composite is:
(1)
p v f f k
were f is the volume content of the fibres, f is the direct tensile strength of the fibres (~1700
MPa), k is a coefficient taking into account the effect of the fibres orientation in the matrix
(typically 0.5, 2/ or 1 for a 3D, 2D or 1D distribution, respectively), and is a coefficient
representing the effectiveness of the fibre/matrix couple (depending on the statistical anchoring
length of the fibre with respect to a crack). Assuming k = 0.64 (2D), = 0.5 (optimised
fibre/matrix anchoring length) and for f around 2.2%, the estimated upper bound tensile
strength of the composite is approximately 12 MPa.
To see if the experimental flexural results were consistent with the estimates of the fiber
potential outlined above, a back analysis was performed on the flexural data. The methodology
for the calculation applied to plates was given in Ref. [3]. Considering the relatively
homogeneous distribution of cracks along the tensile face in the central section of the specimen
(Figure 3b), we assume a non-linear homogeneous material, which allows us to define a stress
versus strain constitutive equation. Figure 4 shows that the reinforcement provided by glass
fibers is close to a constant post-crack strength until a certain level of ultimate strain. This postcrack strength is approximately 9 MPa and 11 MPa for the samples at 20 C and 50 C,
respectively. Note that irregularities on the curves come from numerical treatments of
experimental curves.
The results of the back analysis highlight two important points. First, the calculated tensile
stresses in the post-cracking regime (911 MPa) are consistent with the upper bound fiber
potential (12 MPa) calculated from eq. (1). Second, aging at 50 C appears to increase the
tensile strength of the composite. These observations are believed to be linked to the particular
microstructure of the glass fiber and its interface with the cementitious matrix.
268
Figure 4: Tensile stress versus strain calculated from a back analysis of the flexural curves.
Materials design criteria for deflection-hardening fiber-reinforced plates.The ultimate objective

in designing a thin plate element subject to bending is to ensure a structural ductility of the
elementthat is, the ability of a element to safely deflect under loads without failing in a brittle
manner. The ideal load-deflection behaviour of a material is thus a deflection-hardening
response with sufficient ultimate deflection. An analysis presented below outlines a simple
criteria based on the materials properties of the composite to ensure a deflection-hardening
response in bending.
It should be noted that, in addition to materials properties, the size of the specimen is also
important in determining the ductility of a structural element. For example, increasing the length
of a plate element increases the zone where multicracking can occur, thereby increasing the
opportunity for a deflection hardening response. Roughly, under the same loading conditions,
and for a given plate thickness, the ultimate deflection scales with the square of the span.
To derive a criteria for deflection hardening, consider a rectangular section of height, h,
subject to bending. Figure 5 shows the stress distribution of the section at the moment a crack
has formed and propagated to a height, h. Three zones are created in the plate: i) an elastic,
compressive zone above the neutral axis at nh; ii) an elastic tensile zone, below the neutral
axis and above the crack, with a maximum tensile stress, t ; and iii) a damaged zone with a
uniform tensile stress of f distributed along the face of the crack.
Figure 5: Stress distribution in a cracked section subject to bending.
Considering mechanical equilibrium, it can be shown that the load-deflection response will
exhibit a deflection hardening behaviour if the fiber potential at the onset of cracking f (i.e., the
contribution of the fibers to the tensile strength of the composite) exceeds half of the tensile
strength of the matrix t [6].
Therefore, considering the results obtained from back analysis, it is not surprising to get a
deflection hardening behaviour in flexion (Figure 3), even after having a drop in stress after the
LOP in direct tension (Figure 5). More precisely, at 20C, the ratio between the post-crack
269
tensile strength and the LOP is close to 0.5, which thus explains the small plateau on the
flexural curve (Figure 3a). At 50C, the ratio is higher than 0.5 (Figure 5), thereby resulting in an
immediate deflection hardening after cracking (Figure 3a). This analysis thus illustrates that a
non-strain hardening in tension can give a deflection hardening response in flexion.
Effect of glass strand microstructure on post-cracking behavior
A central characteristic of the glass fiber is that it is, in fact, a bundle of hundreds of
microfilaments (~ 14 m wide) comprising a strand. Zhu and Bartos [6] showed, through direct
microindentation tests on a glass fiber, that the resistance of the individual microfilaments to
sliding was heterogeneous across the cross section of the fiber strand. The microfilaments at
the periphery of the fiber were most resistant to sliding, as they were bound firmly with the
cementitious matrix, while the microfilaments in the interior of the fiber were more free to slide
during pull-out. With this heterogeneous microstructure of the strand, it follows that a higher
proportion of interior fibers participating in pull-out relative to exterior fibers participating in load
transfer would decrease the contribution of the fibers to the tensile strength of the composite.
This phenomenon could explain why the experimental tensile strengths in the post-cracking
regime were lower than the upper bound fiber potential (12 MPa) calculated from eq. (1), which
assumes a (homogeneous) monofilament structure for the fiber.
In the same microindentation study [6], it was also shown that the resistance to sliding of the
interior microfilaments gradually increases with wet aging (ultimately exceeding the values of
the exterior microfilaments in certain matrix formulations). This phenomenon is attributed to the
gradual precipitation of hydration products within the interstices of the strand. The impact of this
phenomenon on the tensile performance of the composite is that, with increasing cohesion of
the microfilaments, the strand gradually increases its potential for load transfer and thus
approaches the behavior of a monofilament-type fiber. This conclusion would explain the
observed increase in tensile strength of the GF-UHPC composite after aging from 9 to 11 MPa,
as well as the close correspondence between the experimental tensile strength and estimated
value from eq. (1).
Microstructure and Durability
Embrittlement of normal GRCs is a major deterrent to the use of GRCs in load-bearing
applications. Two main mechanistic pathways for embrittlement have been proposed: i)
chemical degradation of the glass fibers and ii) densification of the strand (as discussed above)
and of the strand/matrix interface. As discussed below, both of these mechanistic pathways are
significantly impeded in the current GF-UHPC, thereby significantly retarding embrittlement.
Dissolution of glass fibers in the alkaline pore solution of cementitious systems was
particularly a problem with E-glass fibers used in early GRC composites, but much less so in
todays alkali-resistant (AR) glass (containing 16% ZrO 2). Nevertheless, AR glass can be
susceptible to some attack after very long periods of time (3050 years) [4]. In the current GFUHPC composite, glass dissolution is impeded for several reasons: i) the pH of the pore
solution is low due to the use of low alkali cements and reactive pozzolanic ultrafines; ii) the
composite has a very low water/cement ratio, so little mix water would be available for glass
dissolution; and iii) the composite has an exceptionally low porosity and permeability. Figure 6
shows the porosity and pore size distribution of the GF-UHPC as measured by MIP. Total
porosity is very low, being 5%. The breakthrough radius (or the pore size of the principal
percolated path) is 1015 nm, indicating that the capillary pores are depercolated (and virtually
eliminated). Transport of water and other species must therefore pass through the fine gel pore
270
network of the UHPC matrix, where flow is severely impeded. This allows the GF-UHPC to
create water-tight elements, suitable for faade applications.
The second mechanism for embrittlement of GRC has been associated with the precipitation
of calcium hydroxide either within the interstices of the glass strand or at the interface of the
strand and the cementitious matrix. The filling of the strand interstices with portlandite is thought
to encourage fracture of the fiber, especially when it bridges cracks at inclined (i.e., non orthogonal) angles [4]. The densification of the strand/matrix interface is also believed to
encourage fracture either through excessive bond [4] or through the propagation of surface
flaws mediated by the nucleation of portlandite on the surface of the strand [8]. Regardless of
the precise mechanism, the evidence from the GRC studies show that, to promote resistance
to embrittlement, the formation of portlandite should be avoided at the glass fiber interface.
Our SEM observations of wet aged GF-UHPC formulations support this above strategy
(Figure 7). For example, in the UHPC mix containing metakaolin ultrafines, no portlandite was
found at the strand/matrix interface, and, instead, the interface was enriched with CSH
(Figure 7a). This is due to the pozzolanic reaction of the metakaolin and silica fume ultrafines in
the matrix. As shown in Figure 3a, the CSH-rich interfacial structure led to good ductility
retention after aging. On the other hand, if the UHPC mix lacked pozzolanic ultrafines, abundant
portlandite was found at the strand/matrix interface, thereby resulting in a brittle post-cracking
regime after aging. Infilling of strand interstices by hydrates was less apparent in both samples.
However, when present, the metakaolin-based sample showed CSH in the strand interstices,
while the non-pozzolanic sample showed portlandite. The presence of CSH within the strand
could cause an increase in fiber cohesion of the strand, which was hypothesized above to
explain the increased tensile strength of the composite observed after aging. Note that, unlike
with portlandite, infilling strand interstices with CSH does not cause embrittlement [4,8].
8
6
Porosity
Differential
5
4
2
1
Log differential intrusion

(mL/mL * 100)
Porosity (%)
1
0
0
0.0
0.1
10.0
1000.0
Mean diameter (m)
Figure 6: MIP results on the GF-UHPC showing the low porosity and fine pore structure of the composite.
b
Matrix
Matrix
CSH
CH
GF
GF
Figure 7: SEM images of the glass fiber strand in different UHPC matrices either a) based on metakaolin
ultrafines or b) lacking pozzolanic ultrafines (GF = glass fibers; CH = portlandite; scale bar = 20 m).
271
4 Conclusion
The glass-fiber reinforced UHPC (GF-UHPC) presented here has an unprecedented
combination of self-placing behavior, deflection hardening behaviour in bending, and excellent
durability. These properties, along with the aesthetic properties of the material (white color,
without the risk of rust), make the material particularly well-suited to slender, complex-shaped,
and waterproofed structural elements for architectural applications (e.g., facades).
The unique properties of the GF-UHPC are a result of an optimized combination of the
UHPC matrix and of the fibers. For example, by coupling a UHPC matrix containing metakaolin
ultrafines and only 22.2% glass fibers, it was possible to have a high LOP (1418 MPa) and a
deflection hardening response, even after wet aging. Back analysis of the flexural data show
that the tensile strengths in the post-cracking regime (911 MPa) are close to the maximum
expected from a random 2D distribution. SEM investigations confirm that the aging resistance is
due to the pozzolanic reaction of the ultrafines, which promote the formation of CSH (instead
of portlandite) at the glass strand/matrix interface. It is also suggested that the precipitation of
CSH within the glass strands after aging increased the observed post-cracking tensile
strength, due to an enhanced cohesion and load-transfer capacity of the interior microfilaments.
Lastly, MIP showed the GF-UHPC to have a very low porosity (5%), with an associated
breakthrough diameter of 1015 nm. Transport of water and of deleterious species will thus be
severely impeded in this durable GF-UHPC.
References
[1] Batoz, J.-F.; Behloul, M.: UHPFRC development: Experience with Ductal over the last two
decades. Proceedings of Designing and Building with UHPFRC, State of the Art and Development,
Marseille, France, pp. 4362, 2009.
[2] Ricciotti, R.; Lamoureux, G.; Ricciotti, R.: The Jean-Bouin stadium. Proceedings of Designing and
Building with UHPFRC, State of the Art and Development. Marseille, France, pp. 101108, 2009.
[3] Rigaud, S.; Chanvillard, G.; Chen, J. J.: Characterization of bending and tensile behaviors of ultrahigh performance concrete containing glass fibers. Proceedings of High Performance Fiber
Reinforced Cement Composites 6, Ann Arbor, MI, USA, 2011.
[4] Bentur, A.;Mindess, S.: Fibre reinforced cementitious composites, 2nd ed. Taylor & Francis, Oxon,
England, 2007.
[5] Roth, M. J.; Eamon, C. D.; Slawson, T. R.; Tonyan, T. D.; Dubey, A.: Ultra-high strength, glass fiberreinforced concrete: Mechanical behavior and numerical modeling. ACI Materials Journal, 107(2),
pp. 185194, 2010.
[6] Chanvillard, G.: Characterization of fibre reinforced concrete mechanical properties : A review,
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BEFIB2000, Ed. P. Rossi and G. Chanvillard, Lyon, France, pp. 2950, 2000.
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using a novel microindentation method. Cement and Concrete Research., 27(11), pp. 1701
1711,1997.
[8] Purnell, P.; Short, N. R.; Page, C. L.;Majumdar, A. J.: Microstructural observations in new matrix
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272
Energy Dissipation and Strength Evolution of Ultra-HighPerformance Fiber-Reinforced Concrete (UHPFRC)

Brett Ellis1, Min Zhou1,2, David L. McDowell1,2
1: Woodruff School of Mechanical Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, USA
2: School of Material Science and Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, USA
A fully dynamic 3D mesoscale model was developed to quantify the energy dissipation and load-carrying
capabilities of Ultra-High-Performance Fiber-Reinforced Concrete (UHPFRC) subjected to compression
at strain rates of 500 - 1,000 s-1 under conditions of nominal plane strain. This model accounts for three
constituents: porosity, fibers, and cementitious matrix. Microstructure instantiations encompass a range
of pore volume fraction (1-10%), pore diameter (0.2-0.4 mm), fiber volume fraction (0-4%), and fibermatrix interfacial bonding strength (1-2 MPa). Calculations delineate and characterize the evolution of
kinetic energy, strain energy, work expended on interfacial damage and failure, frictional dissipation
along interfaces, and bulk dissipation through granular flow as functions of microstructure (constituent
spatial distributions), loading, and constituent properties.
Keywords: Modeling, Fiber-Reinforced, Concrete, Explicit Microstructure
1 Introduction
Ultra-High-Performance Fiber-Reinforced Concretes (UHPFRCs) are a class of promising
cementitious materials that have been slow to transition to commercialization. One reason is the
scarcity of data concerning the mechanical responses of UHPFRCs subjected to dynamic
loading. The literature on dynamically loaded UHPFRCs is predominantly concerned with the
structural length scale (i.e., order of 1 m). Results of experiments on blast-loaded UHPFRC
slabs were published by Zhou et al. [1], Wu et al. [2], Rebentrost and Wight [3], and Schenker
et al. [4]. Numerical simulations reported in the literature were obtained via either hydrocodes
utilizing homogenized equations of state (e.g., Zhou et al. [1], Schenker et al. [4]) or modified
single degree-of-freedom approaches (e.g., Wu et al. [2]). These approaches cannot resolve
the effects of microstructure, material heterogeneity, or interfacial interactions.
In contrast, this paper presents a novel approach that explicitly accounts for the distributions
of fibers, voids, and matrix in a UHPFRC. This new approach allows the load-carrying and
energy-dissipation capabilities of the materials to be quantified as functions of microstructure
heterogeneity and constituent properties, thereby providing an important tool to support the
multiscale design of UHPFRCs.
2 Framework of Analysis and Constitutive Models

Constitutive Relation: Matrix
No constitutive relation is employed for pores, which are assumed empty. The matrix is
represented by an extended Drucker-Prager constitutive relation included in Abaqus/Explicit
v6.10 [5] that is pressure and strain-rate sensitive. Specifically, the yield condition is
1
1
1 r
F q 1 1
2 K K q
p tan d 0
where
q
3
2
S : S
S pI
is the Mises equivalent stress,

is the deviatoric stress,
273
(1)
is the Cauchy stress,
p 13 tr()
is the pressure defined in terms of the trace of ,
is the second rank identity tensor,
is the ratio of yield strengths in triaxial tension to triaxial

compression (must be in the range 0.778 K 1.0 ),
r 92 S S : S
1
3
is the third invariant of deviatoric stress,
is the internal friction angle in the meridional stress plane, and
is the cohesion of the material under pure shear.
When the yield condition is satisfied (i.e., F 0), the material follows the non-associative flow
rule
Dp
p G
c ,
(2)
where
is the plastic part of the rate of deformation tensor,
Dp
2
3
Dp : Dp
is the equivalent plastic strain rate,
1
c 1 tan( )
3
is a constant,
G 12 q 1 K1 1 K1
p tan
r
q
is the flow potential, and is the dilation angle.
Strain-rate sensitivity is incorporated using the Compression Dynamic Inflation Factor (CDIF)
given by
d 1.026
,
30 106 s 1 d 30 s 1 ;
c
CDIF cs
o
1/3 6.156 0.49
, 30 s 1 d 1,000 s 1 ;
d e
(3)
as recommended by Zhou et al. [1]. In Eq.(3),

c
is the compressive yield strength at the dynamic strain rate d ,
is the compressive yield strength at the quasi-static strain rate
cs 30 106 s 1 , and
(5 3 fc / 4)1
is a factor based on quasi-static unconfined compressive strength
fc .
For
d 1,000 s-1,
conservative
rate
sensitivity
level
is
assumed
by
setting
CDIF = 1,000 e6.156 0.49 .

1/3
Table 1 lists the mass density m, unconfined compressive yield strength fc, elastic stiffness Em,
Poisson's ratio m, ratio of yield strengths in triaxial tension to triaxial compression K, internal
friction angle , and dilation angle . A conservative estimate of elastic stiffness is
274
Energy Dissipation and Strength Evolution of Ultra-High-Performance Fiber-Reinforced Concrete (UHPFRC)

Em 3,320 f c 6,895 m
2.32 ,
1.5
(4)
as recommended by Nawy [6]. The values of K, , and are taken from the experimental
results of Park, Xia, and Zhou [7].
Table 1: Cementitious matrix material parameters.
fc
Em
(g/cm3)
(MPa)
(GPa)
2.4
100
42.1
0.2
0.8
28
20
Constitutive Relation: Fiber

The fibers are assumed to be elastic-viscoplastic. Yielding of the fibers is assumed to follow the
Von Mises yield criterion (i.e.,

F (, pl , pl ) 12
S:S -
( pl , pl )
(5)
where pl and pl are the equivalent plastic strain and equivalent plastic strain rate,
respectively). The Johnson-Cook model [8],
n
pl
o pl , pl A B pl 1 C log10
(6)
defines the yield stress with material parameters A, B, n, C, and 0 . Because the fiber material
is assumed to be associative, the evolution equation for plastic strain is
pl
(7)
when F 0 , with being the plastic multiplier obtained from the consistency condition.
The material parameters shown in Table 2 are representative of 4340 steel [1]. From left to
right, Table 2 lists the mass density f, elastic stiffness Ef, Poisson's ratio f, and the JohnsonCook model parameters A, B, n, C , and 0 .
Table 2: Fiber material parameters.
f
(g/cm3)
(GPa)
7.85
200
Ef
0.3
(MPa)
(MPa)
792
510
0
(s-1)
0.26
0.014
Constitutive Relation: Fiber-Matrix Interface

The interfacial debonding between fibers and matrix is modeled through the use of zerothickness cohesive elements. The bilinear traction-separation relation shown in Fig. 1 defines
the relation between normal separation n and normal traction t n , as well as the relation
between tangential displacements s ,t and tangential tractions ts ,t . In Fig. 1, G c is the work of
275
separation defined as the total area under the bilinear separation relation. Interpenetration (i.e.,
negative normal separation) is strongly discouraged through a numerical penalty algorithm.
Traction
t n , s ,t
Gc
no, s ,t
nf, s ,t
, displacement
Figure 1. Traction-separation constitutive responses of the fiber-matrix interface.
The initial linear-elastic portion in Fig. 1 is decoupled in the normal and tangential directions
(i.e., ti Ki i where i n, s, t without summation implied, and K i is the stiffness in the i th
direction).
Damage initiation (peak traction in Fig. 1) leads to coupling between the normal and
tangential directions and is governed by the quadratic initiation criterion
2
t n t s tt
0 0 0 1
t n t s tt
(8)
where tno , t so , and tto are critical traction values in the corresponding directions and
are
x 1 x x
2
MacCaulay brackets defined by
.
Mixed-mode damage evolution is considered using the Benzeggagh and Kenane [9] criterion
in the form of
Gs Gt
c
G G G
G
G
G
s
t
n
c
n
c
s
c
n
(9)
where Gnc , Gsc , and Gtc are critical fracture energies in the normal and tangential directions,
respectively; is a material parameter; and Gn , Gs , and Gt represent work done by t n , t s ,
and tt , respectively.
The response of the matrix-fiber interface is assumed to be strain-rate insensitive in light of
the work of Kim, El-Tawil, and Naaman [10] that showed minimal dependence on strain rates
between 0.0001 s1 0.1 s1 . Table 3 lists two different sets of Cohesive Element Material
Properties (CEMPs). For the remainder of this paper, these two sets will be referred to as
CEMP1 and CEMP2, respectively.
Table 3. Cohesive element material properties.
Name
K n,s,t
o
t n,s,t
c
Gn,s,t
(GPa)
(MPa)
(J/m2)
CEMP1
200
52.5
1.45
CEMP2
200
110
1.45
276
Constitutive Relation: Friction

The matrix constitutive relation is used to reflect frictional flow of the granular matrix. For explicit
contact situations (i.e., failed fiber-matrix interfaces and collapsed pores), a friction model is
employed. The friction model used is a rate-independent, isotropic Coulomb friction model. In
this model, the relative motion between two surfaces is allowed only when the equivalent
friction stress eq 12 22 meets or exceeds the critical stress crit pcontact , where 1 and 2
are mutually orthogonal shear stresses at the interface, is the coefficient of friction, and
pcontact is the normal contact stress between the two surfaces.

Because the model is assumed to be isotropic, the magnitudes of the shearing rates
2
2 2
are proportional to the shear stresses 1 and 2 ,

1 12 22 1 and 2 1 2
eq
eq
respectively. In this work, a pressure-independent coefficient of coulomb friction of 0.30 is used
in light of the work of Baltay and Gjelsvik [11].
3 Model Description
The model at the scale of multiple fibers consists of a 3D periodic microstructure containing
fibers, pores, and matrix. Figure 2 shows a typical microstructure instantiation with the fibers
shaded in dark grey, the matrix in light grey, and the pores in medium grey.
5 mm
x3
30 mm
2,3,4,5
x2
5 mm
x1
Matrix
Fiber
Pore
Figure 2: Sample microstructure instantiation at the scale of multiple fibers showing matrix, fiber, and pore
phases. The fiber volume fraction Vfiber, pore volume fraction Vpore, and pore diameter pore shown are 2%, 1%,
and 0.4 mm, respectively.
The six faces of the sample microstructure are identified by the face numbers shown within light
grey rectangles. It is assumed that each microstructure instantiation is sufficiently large to
constitute a statistical Representative Volume Element (sRVE) [12].
Microstructure Instantiation
Periodic microstructure instantiations are generated from an initially homogeneous matrix. The
5-mm-long fibers are straight and smooth and have square cross sections of width 0.2 mm. A
Random Sequential Absorption (RSA) algorithm places fibers in the matrix until the desired fiber
volume fraction, Vfiber, is reached. During fiber placement, the RSA ensures a 0.1-mm minimum
standoff distance between the edges of any two fibers. After all the fibers are placed, the
spherical pores are placed in the microstructure. First, solid spheres are placed into the fibermatrix microstructure via a second RSA algorithm until the desired pore volume fraction, Vpore, is
reached. Within a given instantiation, all spheres are characterized by a pore diameter, pore, of
either 0.2 mm or 0.4 mm. A 0.1-mm minimum standoff distance is enforced between the
surfaces of any two spheres as well as between the surface of any sphere and the edge of any
fiber. Should a portion of a placed fiber or sphere be outside the matrix, the outside portion is
separated from the placed portion and translated to the opposite face of the matrix to ensure
277
the 3D periodicity of the microstructure. Once all the spheres are placed, the matrix material
within each sphere is removed, thus creating the porosity.
The Abaqus meshing algorithm [5] is subsequently used to create an unstructured mesh for
each instantiation. The matrix domain is meshed with 4-node type C3D4 tetrahedral elements.
The domains that represent fibers are meshed with 8-node type C3D8R reduced integration
hexahedral elements. The fiber-matrix interfaces are meshed with 8-node type COH3D8 zerothickness cohesive elements. The spherical pores are not meshed.
At a characteristic matrix element size of 0.1 mm, an instantiation with Vfiber = 2%, Vpore = 1%,
and pore = 0.4 mm contains approximately 170,000 fiber elements, 340,000 cohesive elements,
and 4,300,000 matrix elements. As Vfiber increases to 4% and pore decreases to 0.2 mm, the
number of matrix elements increases to approximately 10,000,000. Depending on the number
of elements, the computation time per instantiation varies from 6 to 60 hr using 48 parallel AMD
2350QC processing cores. A mesh sensitivity study indicates a negligible effect on the
calculated load-carrying capability and dissipated energy density of this change in the number
of elements.
Boundary Conditions
Boundary conditions are chosen to achieve high-strain-rate loading with lateral confinement. In
Fig. 2, nodes on Faces 2-6 have roller supports that permit nodal displacements within the
plane defined by the face. Nodal displacements normal to the plane are prohibited. Loading is
applied on Face 1 through the imposition of a velocity of 15 m/s or 30 m/s in the negative x2
direction. The velocity is applied as a step function that starts at 0 s and remains constant
thereafter. The imposed velocities of 15 m/s and 30 m/s give rise to overall strain rates of
500 s-1 and 1,000 s-1, respectively. All simulations concern the first 18 s of material response,
resulting in nominal compressive strains of 0.9% and 1.8% in the x2 direction for the 15 m/s and
30 m/s cases, respectively.

The analysis focuses on the effects of fiber volume fraction V fiber , pore volume fraction V pore ,
pore diameter pore , the cohesive element material properties CEMPs, and overall strain rate .
Fourty-four cases with different combinations of microstructure and material parameters shown
in Table 4 are simulated.
Table 4: Variables and levels.
Variable
Level 1
Level 2
Level 3
4
Vfiber
pore
mm
0.2
0.4
Vpore
CEMP1
CEMP2
500
1,000
CEMPs
s-1
10
Figure 3a shows the evolution of the traction T22 on Face 1 of a sample microstructure
instantiation as a function of the overall engineering strain 22 for = 1,000 s-1. Here, 22 is
calculated as the absolute value of the displacement of Face 1 divided by the total length in the
x2 direction. Since it represents the actual force per unit area sustained by the material in the
loading direction, T22 is used as a measure of the evolving load-carrying capability of the
material. Following an initial rapid increase to 35 MPa, T22 gradually decreases to 31 MPa at
278
22 = 14 mm/m due to plastic deformation of the matrix around the voids. The first evidence of
plastic deformation is observed at a pressure below 250 MPa. This is reasonable when
compared to the 93 MPa initial compaction pressure used by Zhou et al. [1] for an fc = 170 MPa
UHPFRC under static loading conditions. Solid compaction (i.e., complete compaction of
pores) is not observed or expected, as the 600 MPa maximum observed pressure is less than
the 6,000 MPa solid compaction pressure used by Zhou et al. [1]. Note that at 22 = 14 mm/m,
T22 increases rapidly from 31 MPa to approximately 85 MPa. This increase is due to the arrival
at the loading surface of the stress wave reflected from the other end of the microstructure.
Figure 3b decomposes the total energy density into the strain energy density, kinetic energy
density, and the total dissipated component. The maximum value of the kinetic energy density
at 22 = 7.5 mm/m marks the point at which the compressive wave reflects from Face 6. For the
remainder of this paper, the dissipated energy density at 7.5 s is taken as a measure for the
energy dissipation capability of the materials during the initial passage of the compressive
wave.
The total dissipated energy density shown in Fig. 3b is further decomposed in Fig. 3c into
three parts: (1) the plastic work density due to the granular flow of the matrix and the plastic
deformation of the metal fibers, (2) the density of work associated with frictional dissipation at
interfaces, and (3) the density of work associated with cohesive damage (i.e., separation of the
fiber-matrix interfaces).
The average traction T22 is defined as the time-averaged value of T22 from 0 s to 7.5 s.
Energy Density (MJ/m 3)
100
T22 (MPa)
75
50
25
0
0
10
15
20
22 (mm/m)
(a) Load-carrying capability.
800
Energy Density (MJ/m 3)
This value provides a measure of the load-carrying capability as the initial stress wave
tranverses the material.
Total Energy
Strain Energy
600
400
Total Dis.
Energy
200
Kinetic
Energy
0
0
10
15
20
22 (mm/m)
(b) Total energy density.
150
Total Dis. Energy
100
Cohesive
Damage
50
Plastic
Work
Friction
0
0
10
15
20
22 (mm/m)
(c) Total dissipated energy density.
Figure 3: Evolution of (a) load-carrying capability, (b) total energy density, and (c) density of total energy
dissipated for Vfiber = 2%, pore = 0.4 mm, Vpore = 5%, CEMP1, and = 1,000 s-1.
Figures 4 and 5 summarize the results of the simulations. Figures 4a and 5a show the
average traction for the strain rates of 500 and 1,000 s -1, respectively. Figures 4b and 5b show
the density of the total energy dissipated for the strain rates of 500 and 1,000 s -1, respectively.
All four figures use the same markers for the different combinations of Vfiber and pore.
279
Dissipated Energy Density

(MJ/m3)
T22 (MPa)
30
20
10
7.5
Vfiber = 4%, pore = 0.2 mm
2.5

0
0
12
Vpore (%)
12
Vpore (%)
(a) Average traction.
(b) Density of total energy dissipated.
Figure 4: (a) Average traction and (b) total energy dissipated as functions of Vpore ( = 500 s-1).
Dissipated Energy Density

(MJ/m3)
T22 (MPa)
45
30
15
40
30

20

10
0
0
12
Vpore (%)
(a) Average traction.
12
Vpore (%)
(b) Density of total energy dissipated.
Figure 5: (a) Average traction and (b) total energy dissipated as functions of Vpore ( = 1,000 s-1).
Four significant observations can be made from Figs. 4 and 5:

1) For the conditions studied, T22 is strongly influenced by Vfiber, Vpore, and and weakly
influenced by pore and CEMPs. As expected, UHPFRC designs with higher Vfiber and
lower Vpore are preferred for enhanced load-carrying capability. Even if Vpore is held
constant, there is evidence of diminishing improvements in T22 as Vfiber increases. For
example, as Vfiber is increased from 0% to 2% and from 2% to 4%, T22 increases by
19% and 13%, respectively.
2) For = 500 s-1, Vfiber is the primary factor influencing dissipation. Dissipation
increases by 110% for every 1% increase in Vfiber. The second order effects of CEMPs,
pore, and Vpore are also evident. For example, the stronger fiber-matrix interface
CEMP2 dissipates 14% more energy than the weaker interface CEMP1. Microstructure
instantiations with 0.4-mm-diameter pores dissipate 10% more energy than similar
instantiations with 0.2-mm-diameter pores. Furthermore, for every 1% increase in
Vpore, dissipation increases by 10%.
3) At = 1,000 s-1, the amount of energy dissipated is 6 times the energy dissipated at
= 500 s-1. Although Vfiber is the primary factor influencing dissipation, the second
order effects of pore, Vpore, and CEMPs are still appreciable.
4) While energy dissipation is strongly influenced by microstructure composition and
phase distribution, the load-carrying capability as measured by the average reaction
traction at the loading face is relatively insensitive to microstructure level
heterogeneity and microstructural changes over the range analyzed.
280
5 Conclusions
Cohesive Finite Element Model (CFEM) simulations under nominally plane strain conditions at
strain rates of 500 and 1,000 s-1 allowed the dynamic response of UHFRPC at the length scale
of multiple fibers to be analyzed. The results yielded the following findings.
1) At constant pore volume fraction values, an increase in fiber volume fraction from 0% to
2% and from 2% to 4% increases the average load-carrying capability of the material by
19% and 13%, respectively, for dynamic loading.
2) The energy dissipated during such dynamic loading is strongly influenced by V fiber and
and weakly influenced by Vpore, pore, and CEMPs. The influences of these factors on
energy dissipation are quantified for the strain rate levels of 500 and 1,000 s-1.
This approach has successfully identified and will continue to identify avenues of improving the
response of UHPFRC microstructures to dynamic loading. Structures containing these tailored
UHPFRC microstructures are expected to have improved dynamic loading responses.
6 Acknowledgement
This work was sponsored by the U.S. Department of Homeland Security, Science and
Technology Directorate, Infrastructure Protection and Disaster Management Division: Ms. Mila
Kennett, Program Manager. The research was performed under the direction of Dr. Beverly P.
DiPaolo, Engineer Research and Development Center, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers.
Permission to publish was granted by the Director, Geotechnical and Structures Laboratory,
ERDC. Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.
References
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blast loading. International Journal of Impact Engineering. 35 (10), p. 1186-1200, 2008.
[2] Wu, C.; Oehlers, D.J.; Rebentrost, M.; Leach, J.; Whittaker, A.S.: Blast testing of ultra -high
performance fibre and FRP-retrofitted concrete slabs. Engineering Structures. 31 (9), p. 2060-2069,
2009.
[3] Rebentrost, M.; Wight, G.: Behaviour and resistance of ultra high performance concrete to blast
effects. Ultra High Performance Concrete (UHPC), Proceedings of the Second International
Symposium on Ultra High Performance Concrete, 05-07 March 2008, Kassel, Germany. Eds. E.
Fehling, M. Schmidt, S. Strwald. Kassel: University of Kassel, p. 735-742, 2008.
[4] Schenker, A.; Anteby, I.; Gal, E.; Kivity, Y.; Nizri, E.; Sadot, O.; Michaelis, R.; Levintant, O; Ben-Dor,
G.: Full-scale field tests of concrete slabs subjected to blast loads. International Journal of Impact
Engineering. 35 (3), p. 184-198, 2008.
[5] Abaqus v6.10 Theory Manual, Dassault Systmes, 2010.
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[7] Park, S.W.; Xia, Q.; Zhou, M.: Dynamic behavior of concrete at high strain rates and pressures: II.
numerical simulation. International Journal of Impact Engineering. 25 (9), p. 887-910, 2001.
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strain rates, temperatures and pressures. Engineering Fracture Mechanics. 21 (1), p. 31-48, 1985.
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unidirectional glass/epoxy composites with mixed-mode bending apparatus. Composites Science
and Technology. 56 (4), p. 439-449, 1996.
[10] Kim, D.J.; El-Tawil, S.; Naaman, A.E.: Rate-dependent tensile behavior of high performance fiber
reinforced cementitious composites. Materials and Structures. 42 (3), p. 399-414, 2009.
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281
282

Detlef Heinz, Liudvikas Urbonas, Tobias Gerlicher
cbm Centre for Building Materials, Technische Universitt Mnchen, Germany
Heat treatment of UHPC enables the production of very high strengths in short time periods. However,
heat treatment conditions must be optimized for a particular UHPC composition. In the present study, the
effect of heat treatment method on the properties of UHPC with different compositions was investigated.
Specimens of a typical UHPC and UHPC with clinker content reduced by replacement with fly ash (FA) or
ground granulated blast-furnace slag (GGBS) were cured under different conditions. Concrete age at the
beginning of heat treatment and the duration and temperature of the treatment were varied. Heat
treatment was performed in water, air or air saturated with water vapour. The ultrasonic pulse velocity
was monitored in situ to assess changes in concrete microstructure at early hydration times and during
heat treatment. X-ray diffraction analysis was used to characterize the hydration products. Compressive
strengths of the typical UHPC over 200 MPa were achieved at an age of 24 h after 8 h initial storage at
20 C followed by 8 h heat treatment at 90C in water. Higher concrete age at the beginning of treatment
or prolonged heat treatment had a positive effect on compressive strength of UHPC with GGBS. The
highest strengths of UHPC with fly ash were obtained after 8 h heat treatment in an autoclave at 150C.
Keywords: UHPC, Heat treatment, mix design
1 Introduction
Accelerated strength development of UHPC and a high final strength may be achieved by heat
treatment at temperatures up to 90C combined with a high relative humidity at an age of just a
few days. Heat treatment at 90C accelerates the hydration of clinker phases and the reaction
of silica fume and quartz flour completely binding portlandite while increasing the amount of CS-H phases [1-4] and their chain length [2]. However, few systematic investigations exist in the
current literature on the effect of different heat treatment regimes on the hydration and
microstructural development of UHPC. Usually treatment temperatures ranging from 90 to
450C and times between 24 h and 7 d are chosen following an initial storage period between
24 and 48 h [1-6]. According to [6] initial storage periods of 70 h, 10 d or 24 d before heat
treatment at 90C for 48 h have no significant effect on strength, Youngs modulus and the
durability of UHPC. According to Schachinger et al. [7], initial storage periods of 3 or 5 d are
necessary to achieve of the highest strength of Portland cement UHPC. Higher heat treatment
temperatures usually enhance the strength measured immediately after heat treatment [3, 7, 8].
The actual conditions of heat treatment affect strength and its development after treatment [8,
9]. Sometimes the dry conditions during heat treatment lead to loss of strength during storage
following the treatment [9]. The present investigations aimed at determining the effect of
different heat treatment regimes on the strength of UHPC with different compositions. Portland
cement concretes were considered as well as concretes with clinker replaced by fly ash or
ground granulated blast-furnace slag.

The concretes were prepared with a Portland cement CEM I 52.5 R-HS/NA, silica fume (grade
983 produced by Wrmann), quartz flour (d50 = 14.7 m), quartz sand (d50 = 291.3 m), fly ash
(d50 = 15.2 m) and GGBS (d50 = 13.1 m). A superplasticizer Glenium 51 based on
polycarboxylate ether was used. The UHPC mix compositions considered are listed in Table 1.
283
Table 1: Compositions of UHPC investigated.
Component
Cement
GGBS
Fly ash
Silica fume
Quartz flour
Quartz sand
Water
Superplast.
M2Q
875.6
142.1
217.9
984.9
186.6
16.7
kg/m
kg/m
kg/m
kg/m
kg/m
kg/m
kg/m
kg/m
H75
222.5
602.9
144.4
221.4
1000.9
179.5
13.3
M2F
571.9
487
144.1
871.4
186.6
16.7
The fresh concrete mixes were prepared in an intensive mixer with an inclined drum (EIRICH
R02 Vac.) which enabled the production of homogeneous mixes after short mixing times. A
vacuum unit attached to the mixer was applied to remove air from the fresh concrete thus
keeping the air content at about 0.5 vol.%. An optimized mixing procedure was used which was
based on earlier work performed at the cbm in Munich [12]. After mixing, the concrete was
poured into cylindrical moulds with a diameter of 50 mm and a height of 50 mm. The specimens
were stored at 20C/95% RH before demoulding. Immediately after demoulding the specimens
were subjected to different heat treatment procedures. The compressive strength of the
specimens was measured immediately after treatment and the mineralogical composition
determined using XRD with the Rietveld refinement. The variation in ultrasonic pulse velocity
during heat treatment was monitored in situ with the FreshCon system (SMART MOTE). This
system was developed especially for these investigations.
3 Heat Treatment at Temperatures 90 C

In earlier investigations [9-11] on the optimization of UHPC composition by replacing cement
with fly ash or GGBS to reduce the amount of clinker, the specimens were stored for 24 h at
20C and a relative humidity of at least 95% RH before demoulding and heat treatment in water
at 90C. The specimens were heated to 90C over one hour, kept at this temperature for 24 h
and then cooled down to room temperature within 12 h. This is taken as the reference treatment
in this contribution. Companion specimens, not subjected to heat treatment, were stored at
20C in water after demoulding. Table 2 shows the strengths of the concretes subjected to the
reference heat treatment or stored at 20C.
Table 2: Properties of UHPC. Effect of the reference heat treatment on compressive strength after treatment
(age 3 d) and subsequent storage at 20C/65% RH up to an age of 28 d.
Mix
Temperature of fresh
concrete
Bulk density
Air content
Spread
M2Q
H75
M2F
[C]
27
25
26
[kg/m]
[%]
[cm]
2.46
0.6
24
2.40
0.5
29
2.29
0.6
25
Begin of setting
End of setting
[h:min]
[h:min]
5:50
6:10
17:00
19:20
8:20
8:40
3d
28 d
3 d, heat treated
28 d, heat treated
[MPa]
[MPa]
[MPa]
[MPa]
136.3
216.1
232.5
232.8
47.5
144.3
164.5
163.2
103.6
181.6
199.9
199.1
284
Effect of Initial Storage Time

It is well known that the mechanical properties of UHPC can be affected significantly by the
length of the initial storage period prior to heat treatment. Efficient production of prefabricated
UHPC components in practice requires the optimization of the mechanical properties of UHPC
by using a heat treatment process which is as short as possible thereby saving energy and
increasing turnover. For this purpose, the mechanical properties of the UHPC mixes were
investigated for the initial storage period shortened from 24 h to the time of setting or
lengthened to ages of 2, 3 and 5 days.
In the case of the shortened initial storage period, the specimens were demoulded
immediately after setting. Thus the heat treatment of M2Q and M2F commenced at ages of 8
and 9 h, respectively. Owing to the high GGBS content of the H75 mix setting and hardening
were slow. It was not possible to demould this mix before 1 d.
By monitoring the ultrasonic pulse velocity in situ during heat treatment with the FreshCon
system, it was possible to investigate the effect of the shortened initial storage on the hardening
process of mixes M2Q and M2F. The ultrasonic pulse velocity is related to the dynamic Youngs
modulus of concrete. Shortening the initial storage period resulted in a faster increase in pulse
velocity which reached a maximum after 4 h and 6 h for mixes M2Q and M2F, respectively,
thereafter changing little. Unfortunately, concrete strength cannot be determined from ultrasonic
pulse velocity alone. Lower strengths were measured immediately after heat treatment of
specimens with shortened initial storage, Figure 2, although the corresponding ultrasonic
velocities were almost the same, Figure 1. Hydration continued during the storage of the
specimens at 20C and 65% RH after heat treatment. This resulted in strength gains of 6.6 and
14.7% for the mixes M2Q (8h-HT) and M2F (9h-HT), respectively. At an age of 28 d, concrete
M2F (9h-HT) even reached a higher strength than obtained with the reference heat treatment
(1d-HT). The XRD investigations confirm that hydration also continues during storage after heat
treatment. The amount of C-S-H phases (amorphous contribution) increases while the amount
of silicate phases from the clinker decreases, Figure 3.
Figure 1: Ultrasonic pulse velocity und storage temperature for the UHPC mix M2Q (left) and M2F (right).
Prolonging the initial storage period for the mixes M2Q and M2F did not produce an increase in
strength immediately after heat treatment, Figure 2. Apart from concrete M2Q with an initial
storage period of 2 d, the strengths increased slightly during subsequent storage up to an age
of 28 d. In the case of the mix H75 with GGBS, the strength of the concrete immediately after
heat treatment increased with the duration of initial storage up to 3 d. A further slight increase in
strength up to an age of 28 d was observed. Prolonging the initial storage period to 5 d
produced no significant additional strength increase.
285
Figure 2: Effect of initial storage period on compressive strength of UHPC mixes with respect to the value s for
an initial storage period of 1 d. The compressive strengths are shown in the columns. Left, strengths
immediately after heat treatment, right, at an age of 28 d.
Figure 3: Mineralogical composition of the binder for UHPC concretes M2Q and M2F after setting and at ages
of 2 and 28 d after heat treatment.
Effect of Heat Treatment Duration

In order to investigate the effect of heat treatment duration, specimens were stored initially for
24 h at 20C before heat treatment for periods of 8, 12, 24 (reference) and 48 h at 90C. In an
addition tests with the mixes M2Q and M2F, the heat treatment was performed directly after
setting, i.e. after 8 and 9 h, respectively.
The short 8 h heat treatment of the Portland cement mix M2Q led to somewhat lower
strengths of around 220 MPa immediately after heat treatment, but a 28 d strength
corresponding to the reference concrete M2Q-24h, Figure 4. The longer 48 h treatment did not
increase strength. It is possible that recrystallization of the hydrate phases occurs during long
hydration periods at high temperatures which result in loss in strength [13]. Variation of
treatment time affected the strength of the GGBS mix H75 to a great extent. The strength
immediately after heat treatment increased with the duration of heat treatment. Moreover, the
strength continued to increase during subsequent storage up to an age of 28 d. The strength of
the fly ash concrete M2F also increased with the duration of heat treatment. This behaviour is
explained by the slow hydration of GGBS and the slow pozzolanic reaction of fly ash.
286
Figure 4: Effect of duration of heat treatment on compressive strength with respect to the values for heat
treatment of 1 d for UHPC with different compositions. The compressive strengths are shown in the columns.
Left, strengths immediately after heat treatment, right, at an age of 28 d.
Shortening the duration of heat treatment from 24 to 8 h had little effect on the strength of M2Q
specimens which were heat treated immediately after setting, Figure 5. However, much lower
strengths of UHPC containing fly ash M2F were obtained when these specimens were heat
treated after setting. Afterwards the strengths increased considerably, after 28 d almost
reaching those of the specimens subjected to the reference treatment.
Figure 5: Effect of duration of initial storage and heat treatment on compressive strength of UHPC M2Q
and M2F.
Effect of Heat Treatment Temperature

The effect of lower heat treatment temperatures of 75 and 50C on compressive strength was
investigated taking heat treatment at 90C as a reference. As expected, lower treatment
temperatures led to lower strengths. However, lower temperatures resulted in a much larger
degree of hardening during storage after heat treatment. At an age of 90 d the specimens
treated at 75C almost achieved the strength of the reference specimen, Figure 6. The large
increase in strength up to an age of 28 d after heat treatment at 50C is explained by the
287
ongoing hydration of the calcium silicates and the reaction between portlandite and silica fume.
Less water is bound during treatment at lower temperatures. Consequently, sufficient pore
water is available to enable the reaction of silica fume with portlandite and the hydration of the
clinker minerals.
Figure 6: Effect of heat treatment temperature on compressive strength with respect to the values for heat
treatment at 90C for UHPC with different compositions. The compressive strengths are shown in the columns.
4 Heat Treatment at Temperatures > 90 C

Specimens were heat treated at 150C either exposed to air in an oven or exposed to air
saturated with water vapour at 5 bars in an autoclave. At an age of 24 h the specimens were
heated at 35 K/h to a temperature of 150C which was then kept constant for 8 h. The
specimens were then cooled down to room temperature within 11 h. After heat treatment, the
specimens were stored at 20C and 65% RH until testing. As opposed to treatment in the
autoclave in which the mass of the specimens increased, heat treatment in air led to loss of
moisture from the specimens.
The strength of the concrete H75 prepared using GGBS and heat treated in air reached the
level obtained by the reference heat treatment whereas the strengths of the concretes M2Q and
M2F fell below it, Figure 7. During subsequent storage in standard climate 20C / 65% RH, the
mass of all specimens increased due to the uptake of water vapour from the atmosphere; at the
same time the strength decreased. This effect has been observed previously for specimens
treated in air at 90C [9] and is probably due to the redistribution of water in the hardened
cement paste matrix during the uptake of moisture. Immediately after heat treatment the
strengths of the autoclaved specimens M2Q and H75 were lower than those of the specimens
subjected to the reference treatment, but increased during subsequent storage exceeding after
28 d the strengths of the reference specimens, Figure 7. Autoclaving had a particularly positive
effect on specimens made with fly ash M2F.
288
Figure 7: Effect of heat treatment type at 150C (AK150-8h treatment in autoclave; L150-8h treatment in
air) on compressive strength with respect to the values for heat treatment at 90C for UHPC with different
compositions. The compressive strengths are shown in the columns.
The X-ray diffraction investigations revealed that the clinker phases in the specimens M2Q and
M2F continued to react with water forming X-ray amorphous phases and portlandite during
treatment in the autoclave. The silica fume reacted with portlandite to form additional C-S-H
phases. No appreciable reaction of the quartz flour was observed, most likely, owing to the
presence of silica fume which reacts readily with portlandite. Although expected for these
treatment conditions, crystalline hydrogarnet or tobermorite were not detected. During storage
after heat treatment the hydration of the calcium silicates in the clinker phases as well as the
pozzolanic reaction of the silica fume both continued resulting in considerable further hardening
of the concrete specimens.
In addition, specimens were treated in air at 250C. This type of treatment led to a
considerable increase in strength immediately after heat treatment, but loss of strength during
subsequent storage of the specimens. The results of these investigations will be presented
elsewhere.
5 Conclusions
The present results show that an optimum heat treatment for UHPC depends on concrete
composition. With an initial storage period (8 h) shortened to the setting time and a shortened
heat treatment (8 h at 90C) very high strengths >200 MPa may also be obtained for Portland
cement concrete mixes M2Q after 30 h. Heat treatment for 8 h at 150C in an autoclave
enables a gain in strength up to 260 MPa at an age of 28 d. The fly ash concretes M2F also
reached their highest strengths of 230 MPa after autoclaving. The strengths of concretes
immediately after the shortened heat treatment are at 160 MPa relatively low, but nevertheless
the concretes harden during subsequent storage at 20C/65% RH to reach 190 MPa at an age
of 28 d. To obtain higher strengths, the mix H75 containing GGBS requires a longer initial
storage period (3 d) or a longer heat treatment (48 h) at 90C.
6 Acknowledgement
The authors thank the German Research Foundation (DFG) for financial support within the
priority programme SPP 1182.
289
References
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Bauwerk, 2003, S. 79-88.
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reaction in reactive powder concrete (RPC) using 29Si NMR. Cem. Concr. Res., Vol. 26, 1996, pp.
93-100.
[3] Heinz, D., Ludwig, H.-M.: Heat treatment and the risk of DEF delayed ettringite formation in UHPC.
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717-730.
[4] Reda, M., Shrive, N. G, Gillott, J. E.: Microstructural investigations of innovative UHPC. Cem. Concr.
Res. Vol. 25, 1999, pp. 323 329.
[5] Cwirzen, A.: The effect of the heat treatment regime on the properties of RPC. Advances in Cement
Research, Vol. 19, 2007, pp. 25-33.
[6] Ahlborn, T. M., Misson, D. L., Peuse, E. J., Gilbertson, c. G.: Durability and strength characterization
of ultra-high performance concrete under variable curing regimes. Proceedings of Second
International Symposium on Ultra High Performance Concrete, Kassel, March 05-07, 2008, pp. 197204.
[7] Schachinger, I., Hilbig, H., Stengel, T. Effect of curing temperature at an early age on long-term
strength development of UHPC. Proceedings of Second International Symposium on Ultra High
Performance Concrete, Kassel, March 05-07, 2008, pp. 205 212.
[8] Mller, U., Meng, B., Khne, H.-C., Nemecek, J., Fontana, P.: Micro texture and mechanical
properties of heat treated and autoclaved ultra high performance concrete (UHPC). Proceedings of
Second International Symposium on Ultra High Performance Concrete, Kassel, March 05-07, 2008,
pp. 213 220.
[9] Gerlicher, T., Heinz, D., Urbonas, L.: Effect of ground blast furnace slag on the properties of fresh
and hardened UHPC. Proceedings of Second International Symposium on Ultra High Performance
Concrete, Kassel, March 05-07, 2008, pp. 367 371.
[10] Gerlicher, T., Hilbig, H., Urbonas, L., Heinz, D.: Effect of silica fume replacement by fine fly ash on
the properties of fresh and hardened UHPC. XIII International Congress on the Chemistry of
Cement, Madrid, 2011, p. 47.
[11] Gerlicher, T., Leonhardt, S., Heinz, D., Urbonas L.: Einfluss des Steinkohlenflugascheeinsatzes auf
die Frisch- und Festbetoneigenschaften von ultrahochfestem Beton. Ibausil, 17. Internationale
Baustofftagung, 23.-26. September 2009, Weimar, S. 1-1091 1-1098.
[12] Schachinger, I., Schubert, J,. Mazanec, O.: Effect of mixing and placement methods on fresh and
hardened ultra high performance concrete (UHPC) Proceedings of International Symposium on Ultra
High Performance Concrete, Kassel, September 13-15, 2004, pp. 575-586.
[13] Altner, W., Reichel, W.: Betonschnellhrtung. VEB Verlag fr Bauwesen, Berlin, 1982.
290
Modeling Cement Hydration Kinetics Using the Equivalent

Age Concept
Xueyu Pang1, Dale P. Bentz2, Christian Meyer1
1: Dept. of Civil Engineering and Engineering Mechanics, Columbia University, USA
2: Engineering Laboratory, National Institute of Standards and Technology, USA
In this study the hydration kinetics of four different types of cements during early ages were investigated
by both chemical shrinkage and isothermal calorimetry tests. Chemical shrinkage tests were performed
at both different temperatures and pressures while isothermal calorimetry tests were conducted only at
different temperatures. The hydration kinetics curves at different curing conditions converged reasonably
well if properly transformed with a set of scaling factors. Therefore, the experimental hydration kinetics
curve at one curing condition can be used to predict that of another curing condition using a single scale
factor. The scale factor is similar to the coefficient used to compute the equivalent age of a specified
curing condition when applying the maturity method to estimate concrete strength. Its dependence on
curing temperature and curing pressure can be modeled by the activation energy and the activation
volume of the cement, respectively.
Keywords: hydration kinetics, temperature, pressure, chemical shrinkage, heat evolution, oil well cement
1 Introduction
Cement hydration is a complex chemical process that involves a number of different reactions.
Although many detailed features of the process are still not clearly understood today, the
general hydration kinetics can be approximately represented by the overall degree of hydration
as a function of time. This overall degree of cement hydration, defined as the total weight
fraction of cement reacted, is directly related to many different physical and mechanical
properties of cement-based materials, such as viscosity [1], setting time [2-4], autogenous
shrinkage [5], compressive strength [6, 7], tensile strength [8], and modulus of elasticity [5, 8]. It
is arguably the most important parameter that can be used to model the time-dependent
characteristics of cement-based materials [9]. Since Portland cement mainly consists of four
clinker phases, its overall degree of hydration can be written as [10]:
t pC SC S t pC SC S t pC AC A t pC AFC AF t
3
(1)
where pi is the original weight fraction of Phase i in the anhydrous cement and i(t) is the
degree of hydration of Phase i at time t. Direct determination of i(t) can be made by using
quantitative X-ray diffraction analysis [10, 11], but the method is rarely used in practice due to
complex test procedures and high equipment cost.
Some properties of a hydrating cement paste, such as the cumulative heat evolution, the
total chemical shrinkage, and the non-evaporable water content, have been shown to have
approximately linear relationships with each other and the overall degree of hydration [4, 10, 12,
13]. These properties therefore provide indirect ways of determining (t). As a matter of fact,
is more commonly determined by these indirect methods due to their simplicity. The following
equation may be used to convert experimental results to the degree of hydration of cement:
(t )
H (t ) CS (t ) wn (t )
H0
CS 0
wn0
(2)
where H(t) and H0 are the amounts of cumulative heat evolution at time t and at complete
hydration, respectively (typically in J/g cement); CS(t) and CS0 are the amounts of chemical
shrinkage at time t and at complete hydration, respectively (typically in mL/g cement); while
wn(t) and wn0 are the non-evaporable water contents at time t and at complete hydration,
291
respectively (typically in g/g cement). It should be pointed out that the hydration reactions of
different phases in Portland cement have different contributions toward the overall parameters
(i.e. H(t), CS(t), and wn(t)). Since these reactions progress at different rates (that also vary with
time), the indirect methods only give a gross approximation to the total hydration kinetics.
Among the different methods of evaluating cement hydration kinetics, heat evolution
measured by isothermal calorimetry tests used to be the only ones that give continuous test
results (i.e. hydration kinetics curves). In recent years, several new chemical shrinkage test
methods have been developed, which also give continuous test results [14-17]. Hydration
kinetics curves are most commonly represented by two types of curves: total degree of
hydration vs. time (defined here as the integral curve) and rate of hydration vs. time (defined
here as the derivative curve). According to Eq. (2), estimating the parameters at the complete
hydration condition (i.e. H0 and CS0) is essential for converting experimental data to degree of
hydration. The cumulative heat evolution of cement at complete hydration mainly depends on
the cement compound composition and may be estimated in units of J/g cement by the
following equation [17],
H 0 510 pC3S 247 pC2 S 1356 pC3 A 427 pC4 AF 239 pC2 F
(3)
The total chemical shrinkage at complete hydration is more difficult to estimate because it
depends on both cement composition and curing condition. By studying the correlations
between chemical shrinkage and non-evaporable water content, the following equations were
proposed to estimate the total chemical shrinkage at complete hydration [17]:
(4)
CS 0 w0 v v
n
w 0.257 pC3S 0.217 pC2 S 0.56 pC3 A 0.202 pC4 AF 0.113 pC2 F
0
n
(5)
where vw and vn are the specific volumes (cm 3/g) of capillary water and non-evaporable water in
cement pastes, respectively, both of which depend on curing condition. For the ambient
condition (25 C, 0.101 MPa), it was estimated that vw = 0.988 cm3/g and vn = 0.752 cm3/g.
2 Experimental materials and methods

Four different classes of oil well cements (American Petroleum Institute (API) Specification 10A
[18]), namely Class A, C, G, and H cements, were used here to study hydration kinetics. The
main potential compound compositions of the different types of cement (derived from the oxide
analysis test results using the Bogue calculation method) are listed in Table 1. The specific
surface areas of Class A, C, G, and H cements calculated from the PSD data (assuming
spherical cement particles with a density of 3150 m3/kg) were 356.2 m2/kg, 564.9 m2/kg, 326.5
m2/kg, and 393.9 m2/kg, respectively. It is obvious that Class C cement was ground much finer
than the other classes to achieve a higher specific surface area. Neat cement slurries were
prepared with standard water-to-cement (w/c) ratios for each class of cement, as defined in API
Specification 10A [18]. More detailed information about the properties of these cements as well
as cement slurry preparation procedures is given in [17]. Note that only one type (premium) of
Class H cement is used in this study.
Table 1: Estimated main compound compositions of the different types of cements (mass %).
Cement
A
C
G
H
C3S
61.66
72.24
62.62
47.91
C2S
12.01
5.21
15.90
27.46
C 3A
8.36
2.16
4.80
0
C4AF
9.41
11.82
10.87
16.17
292
C 2F
0
0
0
1.97
CaSO4
4.67
4.74
3.84
4.21
Free Lime
1.43
0.23
0.21
0.30
Modeling Cement Hydration Kinetics Using the Equivalent Age Concept
Two main test series will be discussed. In test series I, hydration kinetics of the cements is
measured by isothermal calorimetry tests using an isothermal calorimeter according to standard
test procedures [19]. Tests were conducted at atmospheric pressure and three different curing
temperatures. Table 2 shows the test scheme for this test series. The temperatures of
isothermal calorimetry tests can be controlled precisely due to the small sample size ( 4 ~ 5 g).
For this technique, the average absolute difference between replicate specimens of cement
paste is 2.4x10-5 W/g (cement), with a maximum absolute difference of 0.00011 W/g (cement),
for measurements conducted between 1 h and 7 d after mixing [20].
Table 2: Isothermal calorimetry tests (test series I, test age = 168 hours).
Curing Temperature (C)

Cement
w/c
A
0.46
C
0.56
G
0.44
H
0.38
25
A-25
C-25
G-25
H-25
40
A-40
C-40
G-40
H-40
60
A-60
C-60
G-60
H-60
In test series II, hydration kinetics of the cements is measured by chemical shrinkage tests
using an innovative test apparatus consisting of pressure cells and syringe pumps. Detailed
descriptions of the test apparatus and test procedures are given in [17]. Chemical shrinkage
tests were performed under both different curing temperatures and pressures. The test scheme
is shown in Table 3. The advantages of the new test apparatus are that it allows easy
application of hydrostatic pressure and that it appears to eliminate the dependence of test
results on specimen thickness. The main shortcoming of the new apparatus is the lack of
precise temperature control. Test data oscillation seems to be dramatically increased when heat
controllers are used to control the temperature of the specimens, which usually prevents
reliable derivative curves to be directly obtained from experimental data. As shown in Table 3, a
majority of the tests in this test series were conducted at lab temperatures without using the
heat controllers such that derivative curves could be obtained. Due to lab temperature
fluctuations, it is very difficult to produce exact replicate specimens at ambient temperatures.
The lab temperatures at the beginning of each test were recorded for later calibrations
(temperature fluctuations during the period of a single test were typically within 1.1 C).
Uncertainties in test results caused by factors other than temperature fluctuations are estimated
to be less than 3% at the end of 3 days. More detailed uncertainty analysis of this experimental
technique is given in [17].
Table 3: Chemical shrinkage tests (test series II, test age = 72 hours).
Curing Temperature (C)

Curing Pressure (MPa)
Cement
w/c
A
0.46
C
0.56
G
0.44
H
0.38
a
b
0.69
A-1
C-1
G-1
H-1
Ambienta
17.2
34.5
A-2
A-3
C-2
C-3
G-2
G-3
H-2
H-3
: Lab temperature (~24 C2.8 C).

: Estimated cement specimen temperature.
293
51.7
A-4
C-4
G-4
H-4
40.6b
0.69
A-5
C-5
G-5
H-5
60b
0.69
A-6
C-6
G-6
H-6
3 Model formulation
In ASTM standard 1074 [7], maturity is defined as the extent of the development of a property of
a cementitious mixture and equivalent age is defined as the number of days or hours at a
specified temperature required to produce a maturity equal to the maturity achieved by a curing
period at temperatures different from the specified temperature. The maturity function used to
compute the equivalent age at a specified (reference) temperature is as follows [7],
E 1 1
tr exp a t
R T Tr
(6)
where tr (h) is the equivalent (reference) age at the reference temperature Tr (K); Ea (J/mol) is
the activation energy of the cement; R is the gas constant; and T (K) is the average temperature
during time interval t (h). For isothermal curing conditions (T is constant over time), Eq. (6)
becomes,
E
tr exp a
R
1 1
t C t
Tr T
(7)
where t is the actual age at temperature T; C is a scale factor, which is a function of Tr and T.
Eq. (7) means that the maturity achieved at age t at curing temperature T is the same as that
achieved at age Ct at curing temperature Tr. For the purpose of modeling cement hydration
kinetics, maturity can be interpreted here as the degree of hydration of cement. Therefore, if the
hydration kinetics at the reference temperature Tr is represented by the following unknown
functions
Integral curve : f (t ), Derivative curve : d / dt f (t )
(8)
then the hydration kinetics at temperature T can be represented by
Integral curve: f (Ct ), Derivative curve: d / dt C f (Ct )
(9)
The maturity function (Eq. (6)) is developed based on the Arrhenius equation, which is one of
the basic chemical kinetics laws describing the temperature dependence of the reaction rate
constant. Therefore, the results shown in Eqs. (8) and (9) are the same as those derived from
chemical kinetics theories [17]. When the pressure dependence of the reaction rate constant is
also taken into account, the scale factor should be written as [17],
Ea 1 1 V Pr P
C exp

R T T
R Tr T
(10)
where V is the activation volume of the cement; P is the actual curing pressure; and Pr is the
specified (reference) curing pressure.
4 Test results and discussion

To convert heat evolution and chemical shrinkage test results to degree of hydration data, the
conversion factors (i.e. H0 and CS0) for different cements must be estimated. H0 can be
obtained by substituting the cement composition data listed in Table 1 into Eq. (3). The total
heat evolution at complete hydration (H0) of the Class A, C, G, and H cements used in this
study are determined to be 497.7 J/g, 461.1 J/g, 470.1 J/g, and 385.9 J/g, respectively. For
ambient curing temperature (25 C), CS0 can be estimated by substituting the cement
composition data into Eqs. (4) and (5). The variations of vw and vn with pressure can be
estimated by assuming that capillary water has the same bulk modulus as fresh water and that
non-evaporable water has a bulk modulus of 10.6 GPa [17]. The variation of vn with curing
294
temperature is still uncertain, making it difficult to estimate CS0 at different temperatures.

However, within the range studied here, CS0 may be assumed to decrease approximately
linearly with increasing temperature. The linear reduction rate varies slightly with cement
composition and is estimated to be 0.63 %, 0.66 %, 0.59 %, and 0.75 % per C for the Class A,
C, G, and H cements, respectively [17]. The calculated values of CS0 at different curing
conditions are listed in Table 4. Figure 1 and Figure 2 show some representative hydration
kinetics test results measured by isothermal calorimetry and chemical shrinkage tests,
respectively. It is obvious that hydration rate increases with both increasing curing temperature
and increasing curing pressure, especially at early ages. Figure 2 also suggests that a relatively
large pressure increase is comparable to only a small temperature increase, in terms of its
effect on the rate of hydration. For tests conducted at ambient temperatures (Table 3),
hydration kinetics test results reflect both the effect of curing pressure and temperature since
the lab temperatures of these tests are not exactly the same.
Table 4: Total chemical shrinkage at complete hydration (mL/100g).
Temperature (C)
25
25
25
25
25
40.6
60
Relative Pressure (Mpa)
0.69
17.2
34.5
51.7
0.69
0.69
5.914
5.906
5.756
5.606
5.468
5.326
4.604
5.505
5.498
5.358
5.218
5.090
4.932
4.228
5.771
5.763
5.617
5.470
5.335
5.233
4.573
5.140
5.133
5.003
4.872
4.752
4.533
3.786
0.7
0.8
Degree of hydration
Degree of hydration
0.6
0.5
0.4
Class A cement
0.3
0.2
A-25
A-40
A-60
0.1
0
50
100
Time (h)
0.6
0.4
0.2
150
Class H cement
H-25
H-40
H-60
0
50
100
Time (h)
150
0.7
0.7
0.6
0.6
Degree of hydration
Degree of hydration
Figure 1: Representative hydration kinetics test results measured by isothermal calorimetry.
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
H-1 (Amb.)
0.1
H-5 (40.6C)
20
40
Time (h)
60
0.4
0.3
H-1 (0.69 MPa)
H-2 (17.2 MPa)
H-3 (34.5 MPa)
H-4 (51.7 MPa)
0.2
0.1
H-6 (60C)
0
0.5
80
20
40
Time (h)
60
80
Figure 2: Representative hydration kinetics test results measured by chemical shrinkage.
295
Theoretically, based on the analysis in Section 3, the hydration kinetics curves at different
curing conditions should converge when they are normalized by plotting the degree of hydration
as a function of the equivalent age using the same reference curing condition. Therefore, the
scale factor C associated with a particular curing condition may be estimated by trial and error
such that its normalized hydration kinetics curve has the best agreement with the reference
curve. Due to the fact that Portland cement is essentially a mixture of several different
compounds, which hydrate at different rates and have different sensitivities to curing
temperatures and pressures, the normalized hydration kinetics curves for different curing
conditions usually do not converge perfectly. In addition, it is often necessary to slightly offset
the curve to achieve the best agreement. In other words, a more accurate representation of Eq.
(9) is as follows,
Integral curve: f (C (t t0 )), Derivative curve: d / dt C f (C (t t0 ))
(11)
where t0 is the offset time. Such offset is primarily due to the variation of the induction period
between different tests, which are affected by many different factors and hence very difficult to
model. In this study, the induction period (and the obtained offset value) is also affected by
experimental artifacts because cement pastes are not mixed in-situ and it takes time for their
temperatures to reach equilibirum. Therefore, for practical purposes, the small offset may be
accepted as experimental errors and Eq. (9) should be used to predict hydration kinetics. Table
5 shows the scale factors and offset time obtained for isothermal calorimetry tests. The
activation energies of different cements can be calculated using linear regression analyses
according to Eq. (10). The values obtained for Class A, C, G, and H cements are 40.3 kJ/mol,
36.9 kJ/mol, 40.1 kJ/mol, and 35.4 kJ/mol, respectively. Table 6 shows the scale factors and
offset time obtained for chemical shrinkage tests. The correspondingly determined activation
energies of Class A, C, G, and H cements are 43.2 kJ/mol, 40.1 kJ/mol, 40.1 kJ/mol, and 44.1
kJ/mol, respectively. These values are less accurate than those calculated from isothermal
calorimetry tests due to the relatively poor temperature control scheme of chemical shrinkage
tests. It appears that offset is not necessary for tests conducted at different curing pressures
(i.e. t0 = 0). As the ambient (lab) temperatures of the tests conducted at different pressures are
not exactly the same, it is important to separate the temperature influences when calculating
the activation volumes of the cements. After calibrating for the ambient temperature fluctuations
(Table 6) according to Eq. (10), the activation volumes of Class A, C, G, and H cements are
estimated to be -20.8 cm3/mol, -27.5 cm3/mol, -20.1 cm3/mol, and -24.5 cm3/mol, respectively.
Table 5: Best-fit scale factors (C) and offset time (t0) for test series I (*: reference tests).
Test
t0 (h)
C
A-25*
0
1
A-40
0.4
2.1
A-60
0.8
5.5
C-25*
0
1
C-40
0.75
2.18
C-60
1
4.8
G-25*
0
1
G-40
0.9
2.3
G-60
1
5.5
H-25*
0
1
H-40
1
2.15
H-60
1.5
4.5
Table 6: Ambient temperatures, best-fit scale factors (C) and offset time (t0) for test series II (*: reference
tests).
Test
Tamb. (C)
t0 (h)
C
Test
Tamb. (C)
t0 (h)
C
A-1*
24.4
0
1
G-1*
25
0
1
A-2
22.8
0
1
G-2
24.7
0
1.2
A-3
25
0
1.4
G-3
23.1
0
1.18
A-4
24.4
0
1.5
G-4
25
0
1.55
A-5
0.7
2.7
G-5
1
2.4
A-6
1
6.5
G-6
1
5.5
296
C-1*
26.9
0
1
H-1*
25.6
0
1
C-2
27.5
0
1.18
H-2
22.2
0
1.02
C-3
25
0
1.38
H-3
23.9
0
1.3
C-4
25.6
0
1.6
H-4
26.1
0
1.7
C-5
0.6
2.2
H-5
1
2.5
C-6
1.2
5
H-6
1.7
6.3
As shown in Figures 3, 4, and 5, the normalized hydration kinetics curves at different curing
temperatures and pressures converge reasonably well for each type of cement (after offset).
The error associated with the offset (which ranges from 0 to 1.7 hours) is only signifincant
during early stages of hydration and becomes negligible when long-term properties are
concerned. Test results of different pressures (Figure 5) seem to have better convergences
than those of different temperatures (Figures 3 and 4), probably because curing pressure has
relatively small effect on hydration kinetics compared to curing temperature for the range
studied here. The convergences of the curves suggest that the hydration kinetics curves at
various curing conditions can be approximately predicted from that of a reference curing
condition using a simple scale factor of C, which can be estimated from Eq. (10). Examples of
such predictions are given in [17].
0.9
0.7
0.6
0.7
Degree of hydration
Degree of hydration
0.8
0.6
0.5
A-25
A-40
A-60
C-25
C-40
C-60
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
50
100
150
Equivalent age (h)
0.5
0.4
G-25
G-40
G-60
H-25
H-40
H-60
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
200
50
100
150
Equivalent age (h)
200
Figure 3: Normalized hydration kinetics curves of different tests (test series I).
0.9
0.7
0.6
0.7
Degree of hydration
Degree of hydration
0.8
0.6
0.5
A-1
A-5
A-6
C-1
C-5
C-6
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
50
100
150
Equivalent age (h)
0.5
0.4
G-1
G-5
G-6
H-1
H-5
H-6
0.3
0.2
0.1
200
50
100
150
Equivalent age (h)
Figure 4: Normalized hydration kinetics curves of different tests (test series II).
297
200
0.9
0.7
0.8
0.6
Degree of hydration
Degree of hydration
0.7
0.6
A-1
A-2
A-3
A-4
C-1
C-2
C-3
C-4
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
20
40
60
Equivalent age (h)
80
0.5
G-1
G-2
G-3
G-4
H-1
H-2
H-3
H-4
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
100
20
40
60
Equivalent age (h)
80
100
Figure 5: Normalized hydration kinetics curves of different tests (test series II).
5 Conclusions
A simple mathematical model is proposed in this study to model the effect of curing temperature
and pressure on cement hydration kinetics. The model is developed based on a similar principle
as the equivalent age concept used to compute the maturity of cement-based materials. The
model suggests that the hydration kinetics of a given cement at various curing conditions can
be approximately predicted from an experimental curve obtained for a reference curing
condition using a simple scale factor related to the chemical properties of the cement. However,
since the induction period can not be predicted accurately, sometimes a slight offset in the time
axis between the predicted curve and the actual experimental curve may be observed.
References
[1] Scherer, G.W., G.P. Funkhouser, S. Peethamparan, Effect of pressure on early hydration of class H
and white cement, Cement and Concrete Research, V. 40, pp. 845-850, 2010.
[2] Pinto, R.C.A. and K.C. Hover, Application of maturity approach to setting times, ACI Materials
Journal 96, pp. 686691, 1999.
[3] Garca, ., D. Castro-Fresno, and J.A. Polanco, Maturity approach applied to concrete by means of
Vicat tests, ACI Materials Journal 105 (5), pp. 445-450, 2008.
[4] Zhang, J., E.A. Weissinger, S. Peethamparan, G.W. Scherer, Early hydration and setting of oil well
cement, Cement and Concrete Research 40, pp. 1023-1033, 2010.
[5] Lin, F., Modeling of Hydration Kinetics and Shrinkage of Portland Cement Paste, Ph.D. Dissertation,
Columbia University, 2006.
[6] Kjellsen, K.O., R.J. Detwiler, and O.E. Gjrv, Development of microstructures in plain cement pastes
hydrated at different temperatures, Cement and Concrete Research 21, pp. 179-189, 1991.
[7] ASTM C1074, Standard Practice for Estimating Concrete Strength by the Maturity Method, ASTM
International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2010.
[8] Krauss, M. and H. Karim, Determination of initial degree of hydration for improvement of early-age
properties of concrete using ultrasonic wave propagation, Cement & Concrete Composites 28, pp.
299-306, 2006.
[9] Pane, I. and W. Hansen, Concrete hydration and mechanical properties under nonisothermal
conditions, ACI Materials Journal 99 (6), pp. 534-542, 2002.
[10] Parrott, L.J., M. Geiker, W.A. Gutteridge and D. Killoh, Monitoring Portland cement hydration:
comparison of methods, Cement and Concrete Research 20, pp. 919-926, 1990.
[11] Escalante-Garcia, J.I. and J.H. Sharp, Effect of temperature on the hydration of the main clinker
phases in Portland cements: Part I, neat cements, Cement and Concrete Research 28 (9), pp. 12451257, 1998.
298
[12] Bentz, D.P., A three-dimensional cement hydration and microstructure program: I. hydration rate,
heat of hydration, and chemical shrinkage, NISTIR 5756, U.S. Department of Commerce,
Washington DC, 1995.
[13] Escalante-Garcia, J.I., Nonevaporable water from neat OPC and replacement materials in composite
cements hydrated at different temperatures, Cement and Concrete Research 33 (11), pp. 18831888, 2003.
[14] Geiker, M., Studies of Portland cement hydration: measurements of chemical shrinkage and a
systematic evaluation of hydration curves by means of the dispersion model, Ph.D. Thesis,
Technical University of Denmark, 1983.
[15] Mounanga, P., V. Baroghel-Bouny, A. Loukili, A. Khelidj, Autogenous deformations of cement
pastes: Part I. Temperature effects at early age and micro-macro correlations, Cement and Concrete
Research 36 (2006) 110-122.
[16] Peethamparan, S., E. Weissinger, J. Vocaturo, J. Zhang, and G. Scherer, Monitoring chemical
shrinkage using pressure sensors, Advances in the Material Science of Concrete, ACI SP-270, Vol.
7 (2010), 77-88.
[17] Pang, X., Effects of curing temperature and pressure on the chemical, physical, and mechanical
properties of Portland cement, Ph.D. Dissertation, Columbia University, 2011.
[18] API Specification 10A, Specification for Cements and Materials for Well Cementing, American
Petroleum Institute, 2010.
[19] ASTM C1679, Standard Practice for Measuring Hydration Kinetics of Hydraulic Cementitious
Mixtures Using Isothermal Calorimetry, ASTM International, West Conshohocken, PA, 2009.
[20] Bentz, D.P., and Ferraris, C.F., Rheology and setting of high volume fly ash mixtures. Cement and
Concrete Composites 32 (4), pp. 265-270, 2010.
299
300
Mechanical Properties of Ultra-High Performance Concrete

(UHPC) at Early Age
Harald Budelmann, Jens Ewert
Institute of Building Materials, Concrete Construction and Fire Protection (Building Materials and Reinforced
Concrete Construction Department), Technische Universitt Braunschweig, Germany
Although ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) is a promising construction material with outstanding
mechanical properties the utilisation of this high efficient material in practice is still in the beginning since
its characteristics are not yet completely established. This is particularly true for the early age
development of mechanical properties and shrinkage deformations. In this paper it is shown, that existing
approaches, valid for high performanche concrete or normal strength concrete, may be adapted on
UHPC. A significant difference is the progress of hardening and the development of mechanical
properties, due to the low water-cement ratios, which are typical for UHPC. Such low water-cement ratios
cause an incomplete hydration, which is considered by means of a limited ultimate degree of hydration
U.
Keywords: UHPC, degree of hydration, effective age, shrinkage.
1 Introduction
The Institute of Building Materials, Concrete Construction and Fire Protection (iBMB)
participated for six years in the priority program Sustainable Building with Ultra-high
performance concrete funded by the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG). UHPC is
especially suited for applications, where its properties, like the high compressive strength or the
outstanding durability offer advantages to normal strength concrete. For a broader application
of UHPC in practice it is necessary to have constitutive laws of the time-dependant mechanical
properties, especially at early age. The european standards DIN EN 1992-1 [1] define
constitutive laws for concrete up to a compressive strength class of C100/115. To evaluate and,
if necessary, to modify those well established material laws for UHPC was the major goal of the
research project, reported here.
As an universal state variable the degree of hydration or the effective age te is used. The
degree of hydration is measured directly from the adiabatic heat release in calorimetric tests.
Due to the low water-cement ratio the degree of hydration is limited to an ultimate degree of
hydration U, much lower than 1.0.
For the validation of the material laws valid for normal strength concrete a broad data basis
of mechanical properties had to be created. Therefore several tests of the compressive strength
fcc, the tensile strength fct, the Youngs modulus for compression Ecc and the Youngs modulus
for tension Ect were carried out. The first tests were started at the earliest possible age, but not
before 12 hours after mixing.
Another aim of this project was to determine deformations caused by autogenous shrinkage,
which were measured in temperature-stress-testing machines (TSTM) under different
isothermal temperatures.
2 Experimental procedures
Mixtures
The experimental studies were based on two different UHPC mixtures. The first one was a fine
grain UHPC (FG) with a maximum grain size of 0.500 mm. The second mixture was a coarse
grain UHPC (CG), which additionally contained crushed basalt aggregate with a grading in the
range of 2/8 mm. An optimised particle packing was ensured using two different quartz flours
301
and a silica fume as a microfiller. The quartz flour I had a maximum grain size of 60 m and the
quartz flour II of 300 m. The steel fibers used for both mixtures had a length of 9 mm and a
diameter of 0.15 mm. Table 1 gives a general survey of the mix proportions.
Table 1: UHPC-mixture proportions.
base material
unit
FG
CG
cement
kg/m
832.00
650.00
quartzsand (0.125 0.500 mm)
kg/m
975.00
354.00
crushed basalt aggregate
kg/m
597.00
microsilica fume
kg/m
135.00
177.00
steel fibres
kg/m
192.00
192.00
quartz flour I
kg/m
207.00
325.00
quartz flour II
kg/m
131.00
superplasticiser
kg/m
35.28
36.48
additional water
kg/m
162.47
154.35
water-cement ratio
0.22
0.27
water-binder ratio
0.19
0.21
Fresh concrete properties

Generally the fresh concrete temperature, the fresh concrete density and the flow diameter
were measured. Table 2 shows the average values x and the mean square error of all
parameters. In general it can be asserted, that the fine grain concrete is easier to produce and
has a better robustness against variations during mixing.
Table 2: Statistic fresh concrete properties.
parameter
number of tests
unit
FC
CG
40
25
statistical parameter
21.87
2.777
21.02
1.017
kg/m
2475
21.1
2536
42.6
flow diameter
cm
63.50
3.245
50.00
8.214
air void content
4.17
0.689
3.51
0.992
fresh concrete temperature

fresh concrete density
Degree of hydration
In this paper the degree of hydration and the equivilant age t e are used to describe the
hardening process. State of the art is to calculate directly from the adiabatic heat release in
calorimetric tests. Usually the degree of hydration of normal strength concrete, with watercement ratios of 0.40 or more, increases up to values from 0.8 to 1.0, if there is enough water to
react with the admixed portland cement and enough space in the matrix for the C-S-H phases
to grow inside. In fact that UHPC mixtures are produced with water-cement ratios of 0.30 or less
and the hardening matrix is very dense, the hydration reaction stops, before the added cement
has hydrated completely. The not hydrated amount of cement remains within the matrix as a
microfine filler, being a characteristic feature of UHPC. A later continuation of the hydration
reaction may be excluded, since the dense and free of capillary pores material prevents a
transport of external water or moisture. In order to describe the uncompleted hydration reaction
in this paper the ultimate degree of hydration U is used. It can be calculated with equation 1,
according to the research of Mills [2]. With equation 1 and the water-cement ratios given in
302
table 1 the ultimate degree of hydration is 0.55 for the fine grain UHPC and 0.60 for the coarse
grain UHPC.
(1)
The application of the activation energy concept and the degree of hydration were tested in
several adiabatic calorimetric tests. For each test two specimen (ca. 10 liters) for the
calorimetric test and 18 cylindric specimen ( = 80 mm, h = 160 mm) for compressive strength
tests were prepared. The compressive strength tests were carried out in the age of 1, 2, 3, 7, 14
and 28 days at 3 specimens each. To determine the activation energy EA the fresh concrete
temperature was varied from 5C to 40C. The specimens were stored at isothermal conditions
corresponding to the fresh concrete temperature. As described before the degree of hydration
can be calculated from the adiabatic heat release in calorimetric tests with equation 2.
(2)
In this equation Qad(t) is the adiabatic heat release measured in the calorimeter and Q pot is the
maximum heat release. Qpot can be calculated dependent of the masses of the used ingredients
according to [3]. In opposition to [3] the maximum heat release has to be limited with respect to
the ultimate degree of hydration. In the literature several approaches to calculate the degree of
hydration are existing [4] and [5]. Krau [6] proved that the two parametric approach according
to [7] based on the research of Jonasson [5] is a suited approach to calculate the degree of
hydration with equation 3.
[ (
))
(3)
In this equation te is the effective age and tk,I and c1,k are variables. The effective age te
indicates the time span for an arbitrary temperature history during which the same degree of
hydration is reached as for a constant temperature of 20C. This approach is based on the
Arrhenius equation which was transferred into a maturity concept for concrete (cf. equation 4)
by Freiesleben Hansen and Pedersen.
[
(4)
Besides the temperature Tj(t) the activation energy E A is the main influencing parameter in this
equation. It is well known that the hydration of concrete is a temperature dependant chemical
reaction, starting immediately after exceeding an activation energy barrier. The value of this
barrier is depending on the chemical composition and the particle size distribution of the
reactive ingredients. The determination of EA is still in the focus of international research, so
that several approaches to detect E A are existing. In this paper the activation energy is
calculated with equation 5. This approach is temperature dependant and was established by
Jonasson [5].
(
(5)
Jonasson created in his doctoral thesis [5] a broad data basis for CEM I cements and obtained
good results for EA with ref = 47.39 kJ/mol and = 0.54. Figure 1 and 2 show the measured
values for of the tests carried out with different fresh concrete temperatures and the degree of
hydration calculated with equation 3. The data of the regression analysis t k,I = 14.52 and c1,I = -
303
2.15 for the FG and tk,I = 25.64 and c1,I = -1.91 for the CG. In figure 1 the ordinate is limited to
0.55 respectively 0.60 in figure 2 according to U calculated with equation 1.
The comparison between figure 1 and 2 show what could be deduced of the differences of
the tested mixtures. The hydration reaction and the development of mechanical properties of
the FG begins earlier compared to the CG mixture. The low water-cement ratio of the FG
initializes a higher osmotic pressure, so that the on-going reaction after the dormant phase
starts at an equivilant age of approximate 10 12 h, respectively at 16 18 h for the CG. This
point of time matches with the calculated 0, which indicates the beginning of the development
of mechanical properties. The acceleration of both mixtures is nearly identical, because the
amount of reactive materials (cement and microsilica in combination with the ultimate degree of
hydration) is almost equal.
Figure 1: Measured and calculated degree of hydration (FG).
Figure 2: Measured and calculated degree of hydration (CG).
A comprehensive material model has to include the time dependant development of mechanical
properties. In this paper the degree of hydration, respectively the equivilant age t e is used as an
universal parameter. For normal strength and high strength concrete several approaches are
304
existing to calculate mechanical properties as a function of [8] and [9]. The general approach
of a mathematical calculation is shown in equation 6, in which Z indicates the mechanical
property regarded, is the degree of hydration and b, c and d are parameters to describe the
development of Z.
(
(6)
This equation assumes a degree of hydration of 1, respectively 100%, but as described before
the degree of hydration of UHPC is limited to U, due to the low water-cement ratio. Therefore
this value is substituted by U in the equations 7, 8 and 9 to take the incomplete hydration into
account. The equations 7, 8 and 9 are functions to calculate the relative tensile strength, the
relative compressive strength and the relative Youngs Modulus. In this case relative material
property means the strength at a time t in relation to maximum strength at 28 days. A main
influencing value in these equations is 0, which describes the time when the concrete begins to
obtain properties like a solid material. In this paper 0 is extrapolated linear from the measured
values for the tensile strength. The values obtained for 0 are 0.01435 for the FG and 0.01951
for the CG, resulting to 10.5 h respectively 17.5 h after mixing.
(7)
[
[
]
]
(8)
(9)
For a reliable validation of equation 7 to 9 a broad data basis of experimental results (tensile
strength, compressive strength and Youngs modulus) has been created. The compressive
strength and Youngs modulus for compression were determined using specimen with a
diameter of 80 mm and a height of 160 mm. The tensile strength and Youngs modulus for
tension were measured using specimen with a diameter of 80 mm and a height of 300 mm. An
overview over the tests carried out is shown in [10]. Figure 3 and 4 show the comparision
between measured and calculated mechanical properties (see equation 7 to 9) versus the
degree of hydration calculated with equation 3.
Figure 3: Relative measured and calculated mechanical properties vs. degree of hydration (FG).
305
The development of mechanical properties starts 12.5 h after mixing for the FG and 17.5 h for
the CG. The time delay between the beginning of the hardening was already mentioned before,
when the progress of was explained. Certainly the development of mechanical properties
begins earlier, but usually tests carried out on concrete specimen before 0 are quite imprecise.
The calculated results of the applicated material models show a sufficient correlation to the
measured values, except for lower degrees of hydration, which also can be explained with the
difficulty to test young concrete specimen.
Figure 4: Relative measured and calculated mechanical properties vs. degree of hydration (CG).
Shrinkage
Shrinkage tests are carried out using horizontal temperature-stress-testing machines (TSTM),
each containing two different specimen. One specimen is unrestraint and may deform free, so
that deformations due to shrinkage or temperature could be measured. The specimen for
shrinkage observation has a length of 60 cm and a cross-section of 10 cm x 10 cm. The other
specimen is dog-bone shaped with a total length of 100 cm and a cross-section 10 cm x 10 cm
and can be loaded with a defined tensile stress to measure tensile creep deformations
additionally. Both specimen can be cooled and heated from 5C to 50C. The deformations are
measured by a strain gauge protected by a plastic casing. The measurement system PMFL-602LT manufactured by Tokyo Kenkyujo Co. Ltd. has a total length of 70 mm. The system is
placed in the cross-section of the fresh concrete, so that deformations could be measured from
the beginning. All tests were carried out under isothermal temperature conditions. A quite good
approach to calculate the total autogenous shrinkage is equation 10 according to the material
model by Gutsch [9].
(10)
In this equation as0 is the maximum shrinkage value stored under sealed isothermal
conditions, t considers the time-dependant progress of shrinkage and T is a factor for a
concrete storage at higher temperature. The maximum shrinkage as0 is calculated with
equation 11, which is temperature independent, but mainly influenced by the water-binder ratio,
which is shown in table 1. Best results are obtained with the factor F = 3.5.
(
(11)
306
The time dependant development of shrinkage is calculated with equation 12. In this equation te
is the effective age and a as and bas are concrete specific coefficients.
[
(12)
Other temperature during hardening are considered by T in equation 10. For storage
temperatures of 20C, 30C and 40C T is 1.0. By applying all values in equation 10 the
calculated maximum shrinkage as0 is 0.669 mm/m for the fine grain mixture and 0.623 mm/m
for the coarse grain mixture. The figures 5 and 6 show the measured shrinkage deformations
and the calculated shrinkage deformations for isothermal conditions of 20C, 30C and 40C
versus the effective age te. The measurement of shrinkage deformations starts approximately 8
h after mixing. After a short period in which only small deformations could be measured, the
shrinkage is accelerating and after 28 days the final value is nearly reached. The maximum
shrinkage value is a little higher for the fine grain mixture caused by the slightly higher content
of reactives in the mixture. The acceleration of the shrinkage is nearly equal, due to the
marginal differences in the water-cement ratios.
Figure 5: Measured and calculated shrinkage deformations vs. effective age te for the fine grain mixture.
Figure 6: Measured and calculated shrinkage deformations vs. effective age te for the coarse grain mixture.
307
3 Conclusions
The implication of material laws for UHPC in standards and design codes is obvious. A broad
data basis and reliable laws for the calculation of material properties have to be established. In
this paper the application of constitutive laws, usually valid for normal strength concrete, on
ultra-high performance concrete is shown. With these equations calculations of the time
dependant mechanical properties, the degree of hydration and autogenous shrinkage are
possible. As an universal state variable the degree of hydration was used. The degree of
hydration was determined in adiabatic calorimetric tests. A specific characteristic of UHPC is
the incomplete hydration, which is taken into account with the limitation of the hydration reaction
by U. Furthermore the application of the activation energy concept on UHPC was shown.
References
[1] Deutsches Institut fr Normung e.V.: DIN EN 1992-1-1. Eurocode 2: Bemessung und Konstruktion
von Stahlbeton- und Spannbetontragwerken - Teil 1-1: Allgemeine Bemessungsregeln und Regeln
fr den Hochbau; Deutsche Fassung EN 1992-1-1: 2004 + AC: 2110. Ausgabe Januar 2011. Beuth
Verlag GmbH, 10772 Berlin.
[2] Mills, R. H.: Factors Influencing Cessation of Hydration in Water Cured Cement Pastes. In:
Proceedings of the Symposium on the Structure of Portland Cement Paste and Concrete. Highway
Research Board. Special Report No. 90. Page 406 424. Washington D.C. 1966.
[3] Rostsy, F. S., Krau, M.: Frhe Risse in massigen Betonbauteilen Ingenieurmodelle fr die
Planung von Gegenmanahmen. Deutscher Ausschuss fr Stahlbetonbau. Heft 520 (2001). Beuth
Verlag GmbH, 10772 Berlin.
[4] Freiesleben Hansen, P., Pedersen, E. J.: Mleinstrument til control af betons hrdning. Nordisk
Betong 1-1977. Stockholm.
[5] Jonasson, J.-E.: Modelling of temperature, moisture and stresses in young concrete. Doctoral
Thesis. University of Technology Lule, Sweden. Division of Structural Engineering. Lule, Sweden,
1994.
[6] Krau, M.: Probabilistischer Nachweis der Wirksamkeit von Manahmen gegen frhe Trennrisse in
massigen Betonbauteilen. Dissertation. TU Braunschweig. Institut fr Baustoffe, Massivbau und
Brandschutz. Braunschweig 2004.
[7] IPACS: Improved Production of Advanced Concrete Structures, Brite-EuRam Project BRPR-CT970437, Juni 1997 Mai 2001. Koordinator Dr. M. Emborg; H.-E. Gram; M. berg. Edt.: Elfgren, L.
Lule University of Technology, Department of Civil & Mining Engineering, Division of Structural
Engineering, Sweden.
[8] Laube, M.: Werkstoffmodell zur Berechnung von Temperaturspannungen in massigen
Betonbauteilen im jungen Alter. Dissertation. TU Braunschweig. Institut fr Baustoffe, Massivbau
und Brandschutz. Braunschweig 1990.
[9] Gutsch, A.-W.: Stoffeigenschaften jungen Betons Versuche und Modelle. Dissertation. TU
Braunschweig. Institut fr Baustoffe, Massivbau und Brandschutz. Braunschweig 1998.
[10] Budelmann, H., Krau, M., Ewert, J.: BU 730/16-1+BU730/16-2: Werkstoffverhalten von Ultrahochfestem Beton im frhen Alter. Abschlussbericht DFG Schwerpunktprogramm SPP 1182
Nachhaltiges Bauen mit Ultra-Hochfestem Beton. 2010.
308
Early Age Creep and Shrinkage of High Performance

Concrete
Andina Sprince1, Aleksandrs Korjakins2, Leonids Pakrastinsh 1, Genadijs Shakhmenko 2,
Girts Bumanis2
1: Department of Structural Engineering, Riga Technical University, Latvia
2: Institute of Materials and Structures, Riga Technical University, Latvia
This research deals with elastic and time-dependent deformations of high performance concrete
reinforced with polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) fibers. The early age drying creep in compression and shrinkage
were experimentally studied. Three concrete mixes with a different amount of fibers were developed and
prepared. The concrete specimens were tested in a controlled constant temperature and with a constant
level of moisture. The compression strength and modulus of elasticity were determined and compared
with those of the reference concrete. The results indicate that in the early age the creep of concrete with
PVA fibers reduces the deformation, but after a longer time of hardening it exhibits higher creep
deformation than the reference concrete without fibers.
Keywords: PVA fibers, creep, shrinkage, creep coefficient, compression strength, modulus of elasticity
1 Introduction
Concrete is an important structural material used in every country of the world. Moreover, the
complexity of structures and their size have continued to increase, and this has resulted in a
greater importance of their strength and deformation characteristics in more serious
consequences of their behavior [1].
Last three decades scientists and concrete technologists have been working on the
development of new types of concrete. One of the most perspective products is fiber-reinforced
high performance concrete (FRHPC). Fibers in concrete provide improved mechanical and
physical properties of the material. For example, the obtained fiber-reinforced concrete has
higher resistance to cracking. This is very important for high performance concrete, which
usually has high amount of cement and low water/cement ratio. This type of concrete is
sensitive to cracking, especially in the early age. The deformation characteristics of concrete
are important in the design of sustainable structures [1]. Creep and shrinkage of concrete are a
complex problem, especially at very early ages, due to the complexity of the material [2]. Creep
deformation of concrete is often responsible for excessive deflection at service loads, which can
compromise the performance of elements within a structure [3].
Nowadays construction at site demands rapid concrete strength development to minimize the
building time, and that is why concrete deformations at early age are an important issue to
concrete technologists and scientists.
Time-dependent deformations like creep and shrinkage should be tested to characterize
those concretes.

The experimental work included the preparation of two fiber-reinforced high performance
concrete (FRHPC) mixes with different amounts of polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) fibers 0.6% and
0.8% from the total amount of cement and one reference mix without fibers for comparison.
The mix compositions are given in Table 1. PVA fiber properties are listed in Table 2.
309
Table 1: Concrete mix composition.
Component
Reference
PVA-0,6
PVA-0,8
Cement Kunda CEM I 42,5 N

Cement Aalborg white CEM I 52,5 N
kg/m
kg/m
675
225
675
225
675
225
Quartz sand 0/1mm
kg/m
300
300
300
Quartz sand 0.3/2.5mm
kg/m
300
300
300
Diabase 0/5mm
kg/m
200
200
200
Diabase 2/5mm
kg/m
200
200
200
Ground quartz sand 8 min.
kg/m
100
100
100
Silica fume Elkem 920 D
kg/m
100
100
100
Water
kg/m
200
200
200
Superplasticizer HE-30
kg/m
24
24
24
PVA fibers
kg/m
5,4
7,2
0,22
0,22
0,22
W/C
Table 2 : Properties of PVA fibers.
Fiber type
MC 40/8
[m]
L
[mm]
ft
[GPa]
E
[GPa]
40
1,6
42
Concrete components were measured out and then mixed in a laboratory conic rotation mixer
for 4 minutes. For the investigation of properties of the material prismatic specimens
40x40x160 mm were produced. Concrete mixtures were cast into oiled steel moulds without
vibrating because this is a self-compacting UHPC concrete. After one day specimens were demoulded. Standard ageing conditions (temperature 202C, RH > 955%) were provided during
hardening until certain concrete ages were reached.
Prismatic compressive strength, modulus of elasticity, drying creep and shrinkage tests were
performed on early age concrete. The tests were performed after 1, 4, 7 and 14 days of
concrete hardening in standard conditions. A compression testing machine with accuracy of
1% was used, the rate of loading was 0.7 MPa/sec (according to LVS EN 12390-3:2002
standard). The modulus of elasticity was obtained from sample loading during creep tests. The
creep was measured for hardened concrete specimens subjected to a uniform compressive
load which was kept constant over a long period of time, and shrinkage was measured for the
same specimens without loading [4, 5].
At the beginning of the test, the stress level of all mixes was 25% of the maximum strength of
the concrete, which had been determined during destructive tests carried out on prismatic
specimens. The load was applied gradually in four steps and as fast as possible. Specimens
were kept under a constant load for 28 days, and for recoverable creep they were kep t without
load for 7 days. Four aluminium plates had been centrally and symmetrically glued onto two
sides of the creep specimens in order to provide a basis for the strain gauges. The distance
between the centers of the two plates was 50 mm. Two 0.001 mm precision strain gauges
were symmetrically connected to each specimen and then the specimens were put into a creep
lever test stand and loaded (see Fig. 1). Two aluminium plates had been centrally and
symmetrically glued onto ends of the shrinkage specimens and strains were measured with a
shrinkage clamp. All specimens were kept in a dry atmosphere of controlled relative humidity in
standard conditions: temperature 231C and relative humidity 253% [6]. After creep and
shrinkage tests, the prismatic compressive strength of the specimens was determined.
310
A-A
A
800
F2
F2
10
F2
F2
F2
F2
F2
F1
F2
Figure 1: Creep lever test stand.
The instantaneous strain that occurs immediately upon application of stress may be considered
to be elastic at low stress levels, and therefore:
e(t ) c 0 / Ec ( 0)
(1)
where Ec(0 ) is the elastic modulus of concrete at time 0

e(t) is the instantaneous strain
c0 is the compressive stress applied at time 0
The capacity of concrete to creep is usually measured in terms of creep coefficient, (t, ). In a
concrete specimen subjected to a constant sustained compressive stress, c( ), first applied at
age , the creep coefficient at time t is the ratio of the creep strain to the instantaneous strain
and is given by:
(t , ) cr (t , ) / e( )
(3)
where (t,) is the creep coefficient, cr(t,) is the creep strain [7].

High cement content and low water/cement ratio provides rapid concrete hardening process
with high strength gain even at an early age. All concrete compressive test results are given in
Figure 2. High prismatic compressive strength had developed after 24 hours of hardening, and
continuous prismatic compressive strength growth was observed. After 14 days it had reached
90 MPa. The obtained results show similar compressive strength development for all mixes. A
slightly (about 7% and 2%) higher prismatic compressive strength is exhibited by the reference
mix after the 1st and 14th day respectively. The prismatic compressive strength after one day
was 42 MPa, after 4 days of hardening 64 MPa, after 7 days of hardening 80 MPa and
after 14 days of hardening the prismatic compressive strength reached 94 MPa. The obtained
compression strength results were used to determine the necessary stress level for creep tests.
Compression strengths were tested after the creep test (35 days later). It had grown
significantly for early age specimens. The highest strength gain was exhibited by specimens
tested after 1 day of hardening 90 MPa. Specimens hardened for a longer period of time in
standard hardening conditions developed higher prismatic compressive strength after 35 days
311
of creep test. The highest prismatic compressive strength was obtained in the PVA-0,6
specimens, and it was 118 MPa. The lowest final prismatic compressive strength was
developed by the reference specimens 110 MPa.
Figure 2: Prismatic compressive strength of high strength concrete specimens before and after creep tests .
During concrete specimen loading, the modulus of elasticity was obtained. The modulus of
elasticity increases with the concrete hardening time and strength gain in the similar way for all
mixes (see Fig.3) from 28 to 40 GPa.
Figure 3: The modulus of elasticity for high strength concrete specimens.
The results of drying creep tested at an early age of the FRHPC and reference specimens
indicate that the highest creep deformations were observed after the application of load on the
1st day (see Fig. 4). The highest deformation response was exhibited by the reference concrete
specimens. After 4 days, the highest creep deformations had developed in the PVA-0.8
specimens, but in specimens with a fiber amount of 0.6% the deformation level was the lowest.
After 7 days of hardening, the reference concrete specimens showed the lowest deformation
response. Specimens hardened for 14 days exhibited a much lower deformation response than
previously. The lowest creep deformations were observed in the reference concrete specimens.
312
Figure 4: Drying creep and recoverable, irrecoverable creep and shrinkage strains.
The total creep and shrinkage strains are given in Figure 4. After 28 days of loading, the load
was removed. The creep recovery was measured 7 days after the loading period. The highest
residual creep strains were observed in 1 and 4 days old reference concrete specimens.
Concrete specimens hardened for 7 and 14 days provided lower creep strains, and the smallest
deformations were exhibited by the reference specimens. The highest creep strains had
developed in concrete specimens with a fiber amount of 0.8%. The final creep strains were
0,7610-5 for the reference concrete, 0,8310-5 for PVA-0.6 and 0,9310-5 for PVA-0,8
specimens.
The final stress level was obtained after the creep tests. It was calculated as a ratio of the
applied load and the prismatic compressive strength after the creep test. The gained prismatic
compressive strength and the final stress ratio of the specimens were lower at early ages. In
specimens loaded after 1 day of hardening the stress level varied from 0,10 to 0,12, and for
specimens loaded after 14 days of hardening the stress level varied from 0,19 to 0,20. Despite
the fact that the final stress level was higher in the reference concrete mix specimens, the creep
deformations were lower in the specimens with PVA fibers.
The creep coefficient increases with time at an ever-decreasing rate. The final creep
coefficient is a useful measure of the creeping capacity of concrete (see Fig. 5). The highest
creep coefficients were established for concrete specimens loaded after one day of hardening,
and it was for specimens with fibers. Specimens that were loaded after one day of hardening
produced creep coefficients from 4.2 to 4.8. The creep coefficient reduces significantly with the
growth of the concrete strength. They decreased considerably already after the 4th day and
ranged from 2.6 to 3.0. The lowest creep coefficients were determined in specimens that had
been loaded for 14 days, and these ranged from 1.5 to 1.7. The lowest creep coefficient was
exhibited by the reference concrete specimens.
313
Figure 5: Creep coefficient of high strength concrete specimens.
Drying shrinkage results (see Fig. 6) were obtained from the same shape and concrete mix
specimens as the creep specimens [4], and the strains were measured during creep tests.
Figure 6 shows that the drying shrinkage deformations are decreasing with time. In specimens
hardened for a prolonged period of time in standard hardening conditions the drying shrinkage
strains were lower. The lowest shrinkage deformations were observed in concrete specimens
with fibers.
Figure 6: Drying shrinkage strains of high strength concrete.
314
4 Conclusions
Two fiber-reinforced high performance concrete (FRHPC) mixes with polyvinyl alcohol fibers
(PVA) were prepared for a laboratory examination of processes ongoing in concretes at an
early age, and the results were compared with those of a reference concrete mix without fibers.
Two fiber contents were chosen for comparison 0.6% and 0.8% of fibers from the total
amount of cement.
Concrete specimens were tested at an early age after 1, 4, 7 and 14 days of hardening. The
prismatic compressive strength, modulus of elasticity, drying creep and shrinkage were
determined.
The compression strengths after the creep test (35 days later) were established. In the early
age it had grown significantly. The highest prismatic compressive strength was developed by
the fiber-reinforced specimens and it reached 118 MPa.
During concrete specimen loading the modulus of elasticity was obtained. The modulus of
elasticity increases with the concrete hardening time and strength gain in the similar way for all
mixes.
Concrete specimens were tested for an early age drying creep. All specimens were loaded
with an equal stress level 0.25. The load was applied for 28 days and the long-term deformation
responses were measured. The creep recovery was observed over a time period of 7 days. The
creep deformations were found to decrease with concrete aging and time.
Drying shrinkage results were obtained from the same shape and concrete mix specimens
as the creep specimens, and the strains were measured during creep tests. In specimens
hardened for a prolonged period of time in standard hardening conditions the drying shrinkage
strains were lower. The lowest shrinkage deformations were observed in the PVA fiberreinforced concrete specimens.
5 Acknowledgement
This work has been supported by the European Social Fund within the scope of the project
Support for the Implementation of Doctoral Studies at Riga Technical University.
References
[1] Neville A. M., Dilger W. H., Brooks J. J. Creep of Plain and Structural Concrete. Construction Press,
London and New York, 1983.
[2] Kangvanpanich K. Early Age Creep of Self-Compacting Concrete Using Low Heat Cement at
Different Stress/Strength Ratios. A dissertation submitted to Kochi University of Technology in
partial fulfillment of the requirements for the Degree of Master of Engineering, Kochi, 2002
[3] Fanourakis G. and Ballim Y. Predicting Creep Deformation of Concrete: A Comparison of Results
From Different Investigations, Proceedings, 11th FIG Symposium on Deformation Measurements ,
Santorini, Greece, 2003.
[4] Rilem TC 107-CSP: Creep and Shrinkage Prediction Models: Principles of Their Formation.
Measurement of Time-dependent Strains of Concrete. Materials and Structure, RILEM Publications
SARL, 1998.
[5] ACI Committee 209, Report on Factors Affecting Shrinkage and Creep of Hardened Concrete (ACI
209.1R-05) American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, Michigan, USA, 2005.
[6] Sprince A., Pakrastinsh L., Korjakins A., Shakhmenko G. Effect of Montmorillonite Nano Admixture
on Long-term Deformations of Concrete. Scientific Journal of Riga Technical University,
Construction Science, Vol.12, Riga Technical University, Riga, Latvia, 2011.
[7] Gilbert R.I., Ranzi G. Time-Dependent Behaviour of Concrete Structures. Span Press, London and
New York, England and USA, 2011.
315
316
Shrinkage Behavior of Ultra High Performance Concrete at

the Manufacturing Stage
Sungwook Kim1, Jungjun Park1, Dooyeol Yoo2, Youngsoo Yoon2
1: Structural Eng. and Bridge Research Division, Korea Institute of Construction Technology, Korea
2: School of Civil, Environmental and Architectural Engineering, Korea University, Korea
Ultra High Performance Concrete (UHPC) is subject to large amount of shrinkage due to its low water-tobinder ratio and large content of binders. The large amount of autogenous shrinkage in the UHPC
member at the manufacturing stage can induce confined stress, and cracks can be developed when the
confined stress becomes higher than the early tensile strength of UHPC. Since the most important issue
in the manufacturing process of UHPC structural members is to control cracks at early age, this study
focuses on the early age shrinkage behavior. The shrinkage of UHPC in plastic state is not generating
confining stress, which is the main cause of initial crack. However, the current test and analysis methods
dedicated to autogenous shrinkage are involving plastic shrinkage. Therefore, this study carries out
autogenous shrinkage test, setting time test and ring test in order to pick up and re-estimate the
shrinkage behavior of UHPC at the manufacturing stage in concern the crack-inducing stress.
Keywords: ultra high performance concrete, shrinkage behavior, early crack.
1 Introduction
Ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC), characterized by a high strength and high ductility, is
also very vulnerable to premature shrinkage cracking because of its low water-to-binder ratio
(W/B) and its large content in high fineness silica fume (SF) and silica power as filler without
coarse aggregate. Accordingly, the shrinkage behavior of UHPC should be assessed precisely
to derive countermeasures for the reduction of shrinkage.
Active research has been conducted on the usage of expansive admixture (EA) and
shrinkage reducing agent (SRA) in order to reduce shrinkage of UHPC. EA expands the volume
of concrete and catalyzes hydration at early age by generating massively ettringite from C4A3S
clinker. SRA, essentially a non-ionic surfactant based on ether, reduces shrinkage by
diminishing the surface tension and increasing the viscosity of pore water in the hydrated
cement paste [1-2].
An ordinary concrete structural member with large stiffness and low confining stress can
endure crack at the manufacturing step without the admixing of EA and SRA. Besides, a UHPC
structural member presents generally slim cross section, which requires the adoption of EA and
SRA to prevent cracking at the manufacturing step.
This study considers two types of mix proportion of which one contains EA and SRA and the
other without EA and SRA. The shrinkage behavior is analyzed by means of non-restrained
shrinkage test, restrained shrinkage test, and ring test for the two mix proportions. Furthermore,
the setting time of UHPC is studied to estimate precisely the autogenous shrinkage.
2 Mechanical properties of UHPC

Mix proportions
Table 1 lists the mix proportions used for the two types of UHPC specimens. The UHPC
specimens basically contain cement, SF and filler. Two types of mix are considered: Mix A
indicates the mix without EA and SRA, and Mix B the mix adopting EA and SRA. Steel fibers
with an average length of 13 mm are introduced at volume fraction of 2% in all specimens, but
317
are discarded for the specimens to be used for setting time test. In Table 1, SP stands for
superplasticizer.
Table 1: Mix proportions of UHPC (by weight except for fibers).
Steel
Type
W/B
Cement
Silica
fume
Sand
Filling
powder
SP
SRA
EA
Mix A
0.2
0.25
1.1
0.3
0.016
2%
Mix B
0.2
0.25
1.1
0.3
0.016
0.01
0.075
2%
Fiber (vf)
Test Method
Flow was determined in compliance with ASTM C 1437. The compressive strength was
measured with respect to ASTM C 39 on cylindrical specimens of 100 mm 200 mm using a
universal testing machine (UTM) with capacity of 3,000 kN. The elastic modulus was computed
using a compressometer measuring the average compressive strain based on the
measurements of three linear voltage differential transformers (LVDTs). The flexural strength
was estimated by 4-point loading test.
Basic properties
Table 2 arranges the resulting an average flow and strength properties of the two mixes for 3
batches each mix. It can be noted that the flowability is practically not affected by the admixture
of both EA and SRA. The development of the compressive and flexural strengths is slightly
delayed by EA and SRA at early age but this delaying effect vanishes after 7 days. The secant
elastic modulus listed in Table 2 was calculated by Eq. (1).
Ec
0.4 f ck f1
2 0.00005
(1)
where fck is the ultimate compressive strength (MPa); f1 is the stress corresponding to a
longitudinal strain of 50 (MPa); and, 2 is the longitudinal strain produced by a stress
corresponding to 40% of fck ().
Table 2: Properties of UHPC at 1, 3, 7 and 28 days.
Designation
fck (MPa)
Flow
(mm)
fft (MPa)
28
Ec (GPa)
28
28
Mix A
235
78.8 105.6 126.2 152.4 26.3 28.7 33.8 34.1
28.2
40.3
41.2
43.3
Mix B
240
70.7 98.7 127.3 152.2 24.1 25.1 32.5 33.4
30.9
41.1
44.6
46.0
The test results indicate that Mix B has slightly higher elastic modulus than Mix A. The elastic
modulus increases rapidly until approximately 3 days to experience small change thereafter.
Since the experimental results were measured at discrete times, a regression function was
formulated to obtain the time-dependent
Table 3: Regression coefficients.
material properties and free elastic tensile
2
stresses of UHPC at any ages. The elastic
Designation
R
a
b
modulus can be calculated by Eq. (2) using the
Mix. A
0.389
0.001
0.9948
regression coefficients shown in Table 3 [3].
Mix. B
0.381
0.001
0.9985
318
a
Ec (t ) Ec 28 exp
bt
(2)
where Ec28 is the 28-day elastic modulus (GPa); and, a and b are the regression coefficients.
3 Setting property of UHPC

Fig. 1 illustrates the setting time test of UHPC conducted in compliance with ASTM C 403. A
penetration time of 10 seconds and depth of 25 mm were applied to measure the setting time.
When the Vicat spindle penetrated to a depth of 25 mm within 10 seconds, the setting time after
casting UHPC in a test bowl was recorded. Generally, measurement of the initial setting time
starts when the stress inside the matrix by Vicat spindle reaches 3.5 N/mm2. The final setting
time is measured when the internal stress of matrix reaches 28.5 N/mm2. This procedure was
applied for UHPC in this study.
Figure 1: Setting time test of UHPC.
Figure 1: Results of setting time test of UHPC.
Fig.2 plots the results of the setting time test of UHPC. The initial and final setting times of Mix
A are 11 h and 13.5 h after casting. For Mix B containing EA and SRA, the initial and final
setting times occurred earlier than Mix A by 2.5 h and 4 h at 7.5 h and 11.5 h, respectively. The
earlier setting time of Mix B can be explained by the presence of ettringite generated by EA.
The resistance stress of UHPC is proportional to the exponential of time.
4 Non-restrained Shrinkage of UHPC

Test setup
The test of non-restrained shrinkage was carried out on UHPC using the method recommended
by the Japan Concrete Institute (JCI). Only the upper side of the specimen was exposed to the
air (Fig. 3), since structural members such as beam, girder, and slab are generally exposed on
their upper side. UHPC being adopting massive quantities of binders, shrinkage occurs mainly
through autogenous shrinkage while drying
shrinkage has very poor contribution.
A thermocouple was embedded to evaluate
the thermal strain. A Teflon sheet was
introduced between UHPC and the steel
mould to reduce friction. The non-restrained
shrinkage was measured using a strain
Figure 2: Layout of non-restrained shrinkage test.
gauge embedded at the center of the
319
specimen. This means that the measured non-restrained shrinkage is the result of both
autogenous shrinkage and drying shrinkage from the exposed upper side.
Test results
Fig. 4 plots the results of the non-restrained shrinkage test of UHPC at 28 days. The results are
calibrated with the thermo-strain. The non-restrained shrinkage of Mix A and Mix B converge
respectively to 800 and 400 after 91 days with a smaller shrinkage for Mix B. This
difference can be explained by the swelling of Mix B between 0.7 day and 1.2 days due to the
generation of ettringite by EA in the matrix. The shrinkage of Mix A increases continuously while
Mix B shows stabilized shrinkage after 7 days. Fig. 5 shows a zoom up of Fig. 4 for the 4 first
days. It can be seen that, during this period, the shrinkage of Mix B with EA and SRA contents
is larger than that of Mix A. This implies that the shrinkage stress developed in UHPC at the
manufacturing stage may provoke cracking in Mix B.
Figure 3: Non-restrained shrinkage of UHPC (28 days). Figure 4: Non-restrained shrinkage of UHPC (4 days).
The dotted lines in Fig. 5 indicate the initial

setting times of Mix A and Mix B. According to
the research results of JCI, shrinkage occurring
prior to the initial setting time can be assumed
as plastic deformation in normal concrete.
Recalling that shrinkage of UHPC in plastic
state is not generating confining stress, which
is the main cause of initial crack, this statement
can be applied to UHPC. Generally, cracks
initiate when internal stress is higher than the
strength in the hydrated matter like concrete. In
terms of crack control, shrinkage prior to the
initial setting can be discarded from the nonrestrained shrinkage of UHPC.
Figure 6: Non-restrained shrinkage after initial setting.
Fig. 6 plots the non-restrained shrinkage
from which shrinkage before initial setting has been removed. Here, the corrected shrinkage of
Mix A and Mix B converge to approximately 150 and 550 , respectively. The shrinkage
value of 250 before initial setting can be ignored with regard to internal stress. However, this
may not be acceptable in terms of crack control. Since the previous test results are not
320
sufficient to confirm this assumption, further study is required to estimate accurately the inner
stress of UHPC at very early age.
5 Restrained Shrinkage of UHPC

Test setup
The restrained shrinkage test was conducted in
accordance with AASHTO PP34-98. The details of the
specimens are depicted in Fig. 7. A Teflon sheet was
applied to prevent restraint induced by the friction between
concrete and the wooden base. Concrete was casted
between the inner and outer steel rings and the ring
specimens were placed in a room maintained at
temperature of 231C and humidity of 605%. After 24
hours, the outer ring mold was removed and the upper
side of the concrete ring was sealed using a siliconerubber sealer. Therefore, drying was allowed only from the
outer circumferential surface as shown in Fig. 7(b). Four
strain gauges were attached inside the steel ring to
monitor steel strain. Two different thicknesses of 35 and
76 mm were used for the concrete ring, and the
corresponding designation is explained in Fig. 8.
Thickness of concrete ring
A-R1
R1: 35mm
R2: 76mm
(a) Molds
Drying direction
Silicon
sealing
Steel ring
Steel gage
Concrete
152mm
267mm
305mm
R1=375mm or R2=457mm
(b) Geometry of ring specimens
Type of mixture
A: Mix. A
B: Mix. B
Figure 7: Description of ring-type

restrained specimens.
Figure 8: Designation for restrained shrinkage specimens.
Prismatic molds with 150 mm square cross section and length of 550 mm were prepared and
UHPC was placed to heights of 35 and 76 mm to create cross sections identical to specimens
R1 and R2. A strain gage was embedded in the middle of each specimen to measure shrinkage
strain and a Teflon sheet was placed between concrete and the mold to reduce friction.
Shrinkage strain was measured immediately after concrete casting in a room with constant
temperature and humidity equal to those of the restrained shrinkage test. All specimens were
demolded after 24 hours and sealed with aluminum adhesive tape so as to obtain a ratio of
exposed surface area to volume (S/V) identical to that of the concrete ring specimens.
Restrained shrinkage
Fig. 9 presents the strains of the inner steel ring of specimens R1 and R2. As shown in Fig. 9(a),
the steel strain of specimens R1 at 28 days reaches -123 and -79 for Mix A and Mix B,
respectively. The smaller steel strain of Mix B-R1 can be explained by the shrinkage
compensation effect of EA and SRA. After 8 days, the steel strain of Mix B-R1 decreases
slightly due to the tensile creep effect caused by insignificant free shrinkage. For specimens R2,
the steel strain at 28 days reaches -158 and -104 , which is about 28% and 32% larger than
specimens R1 despite of identical inner steel ring and exposed condition (Fig. 9(b)). The larger
decrease of steel strain in Mix B-R2 caused by tensile creep than in Mix B-R1 is originated from
321
the increase of the amount of shrinkage and internal pressure caused by the use of a thicker
concrete ring.
0
0
Mix.A
Mix.A
Mix.B
-50
Steel strain ()
-50
Steel strain ()
Mix.B
-100
-150
-200
-100
-150
-200
-250
-250
0
12
16
20
24
28
Age (day)
12
16
20
24
28
Age (day)
(a) Specimen R1
(b) Specimen R2
Figure 9: Average steel ring strain measurements for Mix A and Mix B.
6 Tensile stress by ring-test

The internal pressure, which is caused by the combined effect of concrete shrinkage and
restraint of the inner steel ring, is calculated by Eq. (3). If shrinkage occurs uniformly all over the
cross section, the maximum residual tensile stress of concrete develops at the inner surface of
the concrete ring. Accordingly, the maximum residual tensile stress can be expressed as Eq. (4)
assuming that r is ric, based on elasticity theory [4].
Pi
(ros2 ris2 )
Est st
2ros2
t max
(3)
(ros2 ris2 ) (ric2 roc2 )

Est st
2ros2 (roc2 ric2 )
(4)
where Pi is the internal pressure (MPa); ris and ros are the inner and outer radius of steel ring
(mm); Est is the elastic modulus of the steel ring (GPa); st is the steel strain (); and, ric and roc
are the inner and outer radius of concrete ring (mm).
Fig. 10 compares the elastic tensile stresses ( = Ecsh) caused only by shrinkage and the
residual tensile stresses of specimen R1 calculated by Eq. (4). In this case, the elastic modulus
was predicted using Eq. (2). In Fig. 10, the solid and dotted lines represent the elastic and
residual tensile stresses, respectively. The tensile stresses of UHPC caused by the steel
restraint were reduced by stress relaxation. The residual tensile stresses of Mix A and B-R1
were relaxed and reached 14.1 and 9.1 MPa at 28 days, which correspond to about 61 and 64%
of the elastic stresses, respectively. The tensile strength being higher than the residual tensile
stress, shrinkage cracking did not occur.
Interface pressure depends on the geometric properties, modulus of elasticity and strain of
the inner steel ring. In this study, comparison of the maximum interface pressure is performed
for ring specimens with two mixtures and thickness of concrete ring while applying an identical
322
40
Mix.A
Mix.B
Mix. B
Mix. A
35
Maximum interface pressure (MPa)
inner steel ring (Fig. 11). Test results indicate that the interface pressure of Mix A-R1 is 1.4~1.5
times larger than that of Mix B-R1 and increases with larger S/V and thickness of concrete ring.
Stess (MPa)
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
12
16
20
24
6
R1 specimen
R2 specimen
5
4
3
2
1
0
28
Mix. A
Age (day)
Mix. B
Mixture
Figure 10: Comparison of elastic and residual

tensile stresses of R1 specimen.
Figure 11: Calculated maximum interface

pressures of R1 and R2 specimens.
The restrained strain, r(t), is equal to the total non-restrained shrinkage when concrete is
perfectly restrained. However, the inner steel ring is deformed by concrete shrinkage as shown
in Fig. 9. Thus, the restrained strain is calculated using Eq. (5) by subtracting the steel strain
from the total free shrinkage.
r (t ) sh (t ) st (t ) e (t ) cr (t )
(5)
7 Relationship between setting time and stress
Figure 12: Comparison of setting time and stress

of UHPC.
323
Fig. 12 compares the setting time and strain of

the steel ring at early age. The strain of Mix A
increases rapidly after final setting time,
whereas Mix B experiences expansive
behavior after final setting time. In general, the
development of strength in UHPC can be
assumed to start after final setting time.
However, the results of ring test revealed that
the inner steel ring was deformed before initial
setting time. This implies that tensile stress
occurred in UHPC. Accordingly, thorough
conclusion cannot be drawn on the initiation of
tensile stress in UHPC.
Future study should conduct restrained
shrinkage test of UHPC without steel fiber and
setting test under identical conditions to clarify
this problem.
8 Conclusions
UHPC requires massive quantities of binders, which generate significant autogenous shrinkage
in the structural member at very early age of the manufacturing stage. This study, as part of a
research for the control of cracks that may occur in UHPC structural members due to the
restraint of forms, investigated experimentally the shrinkage behavior of UHPC at very early age
and the corresponding stresses developed in UHPC.
Differently from the common acceptation, results revealed the occurrence of confining
stresses in UHPC even in its visco-plastic state prior to early setting. This implies that the sole
evaluation of the non-restrained shrinkage behavior is insufficient for the control of cracks in
UHPC at very early age and stresses the necessity to provide solutions enabling to evaluate the
shrinkage behavior under restrained state. In addition, the mix adopting EA was seen to
experience relatively large autogenous shrinkage strain at early age, which increases the risk of
occurrence of internal cracks before early setting. Ring tests also verified the possibility to
compute the confining tensile stress and strain according to the shrinkage of UHPC at very
early age.
Further studies will investigate solutions enabling to simulate the cross-sectional stiffness
and restraint of the form according to the thickness of the UHPC structural member, and verify
these solutions experimentally. It is expected that the results of this study will contribute to the
advancement of crack control at the manufacturing stage of UHPC structural members
presenting cross-sectional shapes slimmer than conventional concrete members.
9 Acknowledgement
This work is the result of the research project, the Super Bridge 200 of Korea Institute of
Construction Technology. The authors hereby express their appreciation for the support.
References
[1] Maltese, C., Pistolesi, C., Lolli, A., Bravo, A., Cerulli, T. and Salvioni, D., Combined effect of
expansive and shrinkage reducing admixtures to obtain stable and durable mortars, Cem. Con. Res.,
35 (12) (2005) 2244-2251.
[2] Bentz, D. P., Influence of shrinkage-reducing admixtures on early-age properties of cement pastes,
J. Adv. Concr. Tech., 4 (3) (2006) 423-429.
[3] Cha, S. W., Kim, K. H., Kim, S. W., Park, J. J. and Bae, S. G., Models for hydration heat
evelopment and mechanical properties of ultra high performance concrete, J. KCI, 22 (3) (2010)
389-397.
[4] Hossain, A. B., Weiss, W. J., Assessing residual stress development and stress relaxation in
restrained concrete ring specimens, Cem. Con. Comp., 26 (5) (2004) 531-540.
324
Creep and shrinkage prediction for a heat-treated Ultra High

Performance Fibre-Reinforced Concrete
Philippe Francisco1, Farid Benboudjema2, Patrick Rougeau1, Jean-Michel Torrenti3
1: CERIB (Study and Research for the French Concrete Industry), France
2: LMTCachan (ENS Cachan/CNRS UMR8535/UPMC/PRES UniverSud Paris), France
3: IFSTTAR (Institut franais des sciences et technologies des transports, de l'amnagement et des rseaux),
France
This paper is a contribution for the state of knowledge on the time-dependent strains of Ultra-High
Performance Fiber-Reinforced Concrete (UHPFRC) undergoing a heat treatment at a moderate
temperature. This type of heat treatment is applied under factorys conditions, just after the placement of
the concrete in its mould, in order to accelerate during few hours the hardening of an intended product to
be seen applying a prestressing to the early age. In order to develop the use of UHPFRC for this
application, it is suitable to have adapted design models which take into account the influence of these
heat treatments when they are a part of the industrial process. Adapted analytical models, taking as a
starting point those presented in Eurocode 2, are proposed to consider the time-dependent strains of
UHPFRC. Moreover, modeling and simulations reveal that it is possible to predict correctly the behavior
of these UHPFRC as well on the change of internal temperatures as on the change of the timedependent strains.
Keywords: UHPFRC, ultra-high performance fiber-reinforced concrete, heat treatment, shrinkage, creep,
time-dependent strains, prestressed
1 Introduction
UHPFRC (Ultra High Performance Fibre Reinforced Concrete) mechanical properties allow
manufacturing slimmer and even more durable prestressed concrete elements limiting the use
of reinforcements. In order to develop the use of UHPFRC for this application, it is suitable to
have adapted design analytical models which take into account the influence of heat treatments
when they are a part of the industrial process. Two types of heat treatments can be
distinguished. The first type, called heat treatment at moderate temperature (around 65C
maximum), aims to accelerate UHPFRC hardening in the first hours after moulding. The second
type around 90C is applied to the hardened concrete with the intention of developing new
hydrates to increase concrete mechanical resistance and to limit time-dependent strains.
The heat treatment duration is a key parameter which determines the production cadences.
Previous works [1] had optimized mixes and heating characteristics to accelerate the UHPFRC
hardening so as to apply prestressing before 24 hours. Compressive strengths over 120 MPa
are obtained no more than 20 hours after moulding with a heat treatment at moderate
temperature (50C). The tests carried out by Loukili [2] were used in particular for the
development of the French Recommendations on UHPFRC [3]. The analytical models for creep
and shrinkage selected distinguish heat-treated UHPFRC from non heat-treated UHPFRC. The
heat treatment used during Loukili [2] works consisted of a curing at 90C during several days
applied to hardened concrete specimens.
This paper proposes adapted analytical models based on Eurocode 2-2 standard taking into
account the experimental data in order to calculate the UHPFRC time-dependent strains after a
submission to a heat treatment at moderate temperature. The concrete characteristics and the
standards selected for analysis are presented. This study is under a more global project
including numerical simulations of UHPFRC creep and shrinkage with a prediction based on the
methodology worked out by Benboudjema [4] and taking into account the effects of heat
treatments at moderate temperature.
325
2 Experiments
Concrete mixes
The UHPFRC mixes studied are presented in table 1. UHPFRC A and B differ by the supplier
and the amount of superplasticizer added and by the kind of mixer used. Both superplasticizers
are carboxylate-based admixtures. The binder contains CEM I 52,5 N cement according to
EN 197-1 standard and silica fume.
These concretes are mixed in laboratory. Dry constituents are homogenised before adding
water and superplasticizer. The mixing duration and methodology depend on the device used.
UHPFRC A was mixed using a usual planetary mixer with vertical axis and UHPFRC B using a
new generation mixer with a rotating mixing pan. UHPFRC A and B have a selfcompacting
behavior.
Table 1: UHPFRC mixes studied.
Mass proportions (kg)
Constituents
UHPFRC A
UHPFRC B
Cement
900
900
Silica fume
180
180
Siliceous sands
1160
1160
Metallic fibres
157
157
Superplasticizer A
15
Superplasticizer B
45
0.2
0.2
Effective water/cement ratio
Heat treatments
Concrete specimens underwent a heat treatment in wet conditions after being demoulded and
protected from drying. Two moderate heat treatments were studied, both having for objective to
accelerate the hardening of UHPFRC during the very first hours. UHPFRC A underwent a heat
treatment at 50C. UHPFRC B underwent two different heat treatments simultaneously: the
same used for UHPFRC A at 50C and a second with a lower duration at 65C (see Fig. 1: the
chamber temperature corresponds to the external temperature imposed to the specimen ). In
both cases, the concretes have sufficient mechanical resistances to sustain prestressing prior
to 24 hours of age.
Figure 1: Temperature evolutions during the heat treatments.
326
Creep and shrinkage prediction for a heat-treated Ultra High Performance Fibre-Reinforced Concrete
The UHPFRC A mechanical characteristics after heat treatment are presented in table 2
(UHPFRC B properties are similar to UHPFRC A).
Table 2: UHPFRC A mechanical properties [1].
Mechanical properties on specimens of
UHPFRC A (50C)
40 x 40 x 160 mm (20 2C / storage in water)

Average compressive strength at 20 hours (MPa)
152
Average compressive strength at 28 days (MPa)
188
Average flexural strength at 28 days (MPa)
29
Under standardized storage conditions, between 20 hours and 28 days, the compressive
strength of UHPFRC A increases approximately by 24%. The moderate heat treatments
imposed on the UHPFRC studied lead to materials likely to undergo significant autogenous
strains (at 20 hours the concrete have a temperature adjusted concrete age lower than 5 days
taking into account the accelerated hydration by heat treatment).
Evolution of the hydration degree
The evolution of the hydratation degree determined by mass loss at 550C was measured after
a storage of the specimens at 20 2C in autogenous conditions. The results (see. Table 3)
show an accordance between the evolution of the hydration and the compressive strength until
28 days and probably after. The autogenous time-dependent strains after the heat treatments
used are also in accordance with these results (see Fig. 3 and 4 respectively for the curves of
autogenous shrinkage and basic creep experimental results).
Table 3: Evolution of the hydration degree.
Temperature
adjusted concrete
age* (days)
UHPFRC B 50C
UHPFRC B 65C
34
34
10
35
36
28
31
47
46
Concrete age (days)
Hydration degree (%)
* the temperature adjusted concrete is an equivalent age taking into account the acceleration of hydration induced by
the heat treatment. It was calculated according to the NF EN 1992-1-1 standard
Time-dependent strain measurements

The tests were carried out on 70 x 220 mm cylinders stored in a room at 20 2C and
50 5% of relative humidity to obtain drying data. To obtain autogenous data, the specimens
intended to be protected from the drying were coated with two layers of aluminium adhesive
tape. Two metallic balls per axe of measurement (2 axes for UHPFRC A and 4 axes for
UHPFRC B) are vertically glued on each cylindrical specimen tested and separated by 150 mm.
The strains are measured using a hand ball-micrometer that measures the evolution of the
distance between two metallic balls. It is calibrated before each series of measurements.
For each test named UHPFRC A 50C, UHPFRC B 50C and UHPFRC B 65C, three
specimens were used to quantify the autogenous shrinkage, the shrinkage under drying
conditions, the creep strain under loading in drying conditions and the creep strain under
loading in autogenous conditions. Drying shrinkage is equal to total shrinkage minus
autogenous shrinkage, basic creep is equal to the total strain under loading in autogenous
conditions minus autogenous shrinkage and drying creep is equal to strain under loading in
drying conditions minus the total shrinkage and the elastic strains. Experimental results are
327
similar for UHPFRC A 50C, UHPFRC B 50C and UHPFRC B 65C, they have similar
temperature adjusted concrete age. Next part presents experimental data for UHPFRC A 50C.
Effect of the stress level
For the creep tests, a constant load was applied 2 days after the mixing corresponding to 40%
of the compressive strength measured at 2 days: 133 MPa. The elastic modulus measured
during the stress application is equal to 43 GPa. A second constant stress level was also
considered corresponding to 25% of the compressive strength. The results (see Fig. 2) show
that the difference is not significant.
Figure 2: Impact of the stress level on the UHPFRC A specific creep.
Analytical models
Available guidelines and standards

The UHPFRC French Recommandations document was requested by the Scientific and
Technical Committee of the AFGC (French Association of Civil Engineering) and was elaborate
by the AFGC/SETRA working group on UHPFRC. The new version of this document will be
published in 2012. The recommendations and analytical models selected for creep and
shrinkage distinguished the UHPFRC with or without heat treatments. However heat treatments
at moderate temperature were not plainly taking into account. For example, it was considered
that no further shrinkage occurred after heat treatment and a guideline value of 550 m/m was
given if nothing were known at the preliminary design stages.
NF EN 1992-1-1 (EC2-1-1) and NF EN 1992-2 (EC2-2) standards of Eurocode 2 [5], [6], [7],
[8] were not worked out to design UHPFRC structures. The highest strength class corresponds
to C90/105 in France and the French annex of EC2-1-1 standard requires to refers to EC2-2
standard for high performance concretes of strength class higher than C50/60, with or without
silica fume and using a Class R cement (according to Eurocode 2, cements of Class R includes
cements having the following strength classes: 42,5 R, 52,5 N and 52,5 R). Three main benefits
of this standard must be noticed:
when a heat treatment is applied, the concept of temperature adjusted concrete age for
temperatures varying between 0C and 80C may be taken into account;
for drying creep and shrinkage, the relative humidity level and the concrete shape are
taken into account;
328
to evaluate time-dependent strains with greater precision, it is possible to identify the

parameters in the models describing creep and shrinkage from experimental
measurements and following a described procedure in EC2-2 (see OPT-EC2-2 in figures
3 and 4).
Adapted models suggested

The experimental results of time-dependent strains were compared with the output of the
analytical models taken from the 2002 UHPFRC Interim Recommendations and Eurocode 2
standards). For all analytical models selected, the temperature adjusted concrete age was
taking into account and for EC2-2 standard, the selected equations concerned high
performance concretes using silica fume.
According to EC2-2 standard, the annex B may be used for calculating creep and shrinkage,
including development with time. However, typical experimental values can exhibit a scatter of
30% around the values of creep and shrinkage predicted in accordance with this annex.
Consequently, where greater accuracy is required, an experimental assessment should be
undertaken following the annex B guidelines for the experimental determination of creep and
shrinkage coefficients.
In addition, some parameters were included in these models to adjust the estimation. These
parameters were chosen in order to minimise the sum of the squares (least square method) of
the differences between the model estimation and the experimental results. The minimisation
methodology respects the requirements of the procedure described in the informative annex B
of EC2-2 standard.
Taking into account the differences observed between experimental results and models or
adjusted models, this paper suggests models based on NF EN 1992-2 standard (named OPTEC2-2 in figures 3 and 4) to calculate creep and shrinkage of UHPFRC undergoing a moderate
heat treatment (for long term time-dependent strain estimation, see EC2-2 standard).
Figure 3: Shrinkage analytical models of EC2-2 suggested based on experimental results obtained with
UHPFRC A 50C (each point is the average of three measurements).
As illustration, the equation (1) suggested for the calculation of the autogenous shrinkage by
EC2-2 standard is the following one (for t > 28 days):
329
20 ca 2 ca 3 exp t ca 4 106
(1)
(where t is the time in days, fck is the characteristic compressive strength at 28 days and cai
with i between 1 and 4 are the coefficients identified using the method presented above).
For the example showed in figure 4, the optimisation is not necessary for drying creep
because drying creep EC2-2 curve is closed to the drying creep OPT-EC2-2 curve.
ca
ca 1
ck
Figure 4: Creep analytical models of EC2-2 suggested based on experimental results obtained with UHPFRC
A 50C (each point is the average of three measurements).
4 Conclusions
The work presented is a contribution for the state of knowledge on the time-dependent strains
of Ultra-High Performance Fiber-Reinforced Concrete (UHPFRC) undergoing a heat treatment
at a moderate temperature. The results confirm the significance of the effect of the type of heat
treatment used for UHPFRC regarding the time-dependent stains as shrinkage and creep. It is
well documented that heat treatments at 90C applied to the hardened concrete for almost two
days increases concrete mechanical resistance and limit time-dependent strains. The heat
treatments at moderate temperature studied here were applied just after mixing the UHPFRC
with the aim to accelerate during few hours the hardening process.
For UHPFRC undergoing a moderate heat treatment, experimental results show that
autogenous shrinkage must be taken into account for the calculation of the time-dependent
strains. The French Interim Recommendations on UHPFRC (AFGC/SETRA, 2002)
distinguished the UHPFRC with or without heat treatments. The new version of this document
will be published in 2012 and would integrate plainly the impact of heat treatments on creep and
shrinkage distinguishing heat treatments at moderate temperature applied during few hours
after moulding from heat treatments at around 90C applied to the hardened concrete.
NF EN 1992-1-1 and NF EN 1992-2 standards of Eurocode 2 were not worked out to design
UHPFRC structures. Nevertheless, with the help of some adaptations using the methodology
described in the annex B of EC2-2 standard, these analytical models allow to calculate creep
and shrinkage of UHPFRC when a moderate heat treatment is used. Moreover, Eurocode 2
330
already take into account the concept of temperature adjusted concrete age for temperatures
varying between 0C and 80C.
A better prediction of the evolution of the properties of the prestressed UHPFRC products
according to the nature of the heating applied should allow the optimization of the production
cadences and the energy used for the heat treatments.
References
[1] Rougeau, P.; Francisco, P.: Acclration du durcissement des BFUP Exemples de produits
raliss en BFUP. CERIB report, France, 2003.
[2] Loukili, A.: Etude du retrait et du fluage de Btons Ultra-Hautes Performances, thse de doctorat.
Ecole Centrale de Nantes, France, 1996.
[3] AFGC / SETRA : Ultra High Performance Fibre-Reinforced Concretes Interim Recommendations.
AFGC / SETRA, France, 2002.
[4] Bendoudjema, F.: Modlisation des dformations diffres du bton sous sollicitations biaxiales.
Application aux enceintes de confinement de btiments racteurs des centrales nuclaires, thse de
doctorat. Universit de Marne-la-Valle, France, 2002.
[5] NF EN 1992-1-1 standard: Eurocode 2 Design of concrete structures Part 1-1: General rules and
rules for buildings. AFNOR, France, 2005.
[6] NF EN 1992-1-1/NA standard: Eurocode 2 Design of concrete structures Part 1-1: General rules
and rules for buildings National annex to NF EN 1992-1-1:2005 General rules and rules for
buildings. AFNOR, France, 2007.
[7] NF EN 1992-2 standard: Eurocode 2 Design of concrete structures Part 2: Concrete bridges
Design and detailing rules. AFNOR, France, 2006.
[8] NF EN 1992-2/NA standard: Eurocode 2 Design of concrete structures Part 2: Concrete bridges
Design and detailing rules National annex to NF EN 1992-2 Concrete bridges Design and
detailing rules. AFNOR, France, 2007.
331
332
Creep Behaviour of UHPC under Compressive Loading with

Varying Curing Regimes
Jason Flietstra, Theresa M. Ahlborn, Devin K. Harris, Henrique de Melo e Silva
Civil and Environmental Engineering Department, Michigan Technological University, USA
This Ultra High Performance Concrete research involves observing the early age creep and shrinkage
under a compressive load throughout multiple thermally treated curing regimes. The goal is to mimic the
conditions that would be expected of a precast/prestressing plant in the United States, where UHPC
beams would be produced quickly to maximize a manufacturing plants output. The practice of steam
curing green concrete to accelerate compressive strengths for early release of the prestressing tendons
is utilized (60oC [140oF], 95% RH, 12 hrs), in addition to the full thermal treatment (90oC [195oF], 95%
RH, 48 hrs) while the specimens are under compressive loading. Michigan Tech has three moveable
creep frames to accommodate two loading criteria per frame of 0.2fc and 0.6fc. Specimens are loaded
and moved into a custom build curing chamber at different times, mimicking a rapid precast plant
producing This paper will present the effects of creep strain (minus the companion shrinkage strain) due
to the varying curing regimes.
Keywords: compressive creep, creep coefficient, creep strains, curing, UHPC
1 Background and Motivation

The compressive creep and shrinkage behaviour of UHPC while undergoing varying onset
thermal curing treatments is presented herein. While previous research has measured
compressive creep and shrinkage strains on UHPC, the creep strain measurements were only
observed on ambient cured specimens or after a recommended thermal treatment. The goal of
this research was to mimic curing procedures that would be expected of a common
precast/prestress plant in the United States. As such, this research considered five unique
curing regimes, where creep specimens were under a compressive load during a thermal
treatment. Table 1 defines the curing regimes. The composition of all the mixed, cast and tested
UHPC was completed with procedures similar to previous work at Michigan Technological
University (Michigan Tech), [1], [2], [3], [4], and all research reported herein was conducted
using Ductal, a UHPC supplied by Lafarge North America.
Table 1: Curing regimes defined.
Abbreviation
Description of Curing Regime
AMC
Ambient cure for 70 hrs, then loaded in compression, continue ambient cure
SST
Ambient cure for 70 hrs, loaded, standard thermal cure applied
PST
Pre-steam cure for 14 hrs, loaded, standard thermal cure applied

Pre-steam cure for 14 hrs, loaded, ambient conditions for 72 hrs, standard thermal cure
applied
Pre-steam cure for 14 hrs, loaded, ambient conditions for 11 days, standard thermal
cure applied
PSD
PDD
Loading of the test specimens was done once the specimens reached the recommended
compressive strength for the release of prestress of 96.5 MPa (14 ksi), [5]. This required earlyage compressive testing for both ambient and pre-steam cured specimens to locate the time,
from batching, when specimens reached a compressive strength of 96.5 MPa.
Nine 75-mm (3.0-in) diameter by 300-mm (12.0-in) long cylinders were required for each
curing regime. Three cylindrical specimens were loaded in compression at the high stress level
333
of 0.6f`ci (58 MPa [8.4 ksi]), and three specimens were loaded at the low stress level of 0.2f`ci
(19.3 MPa [2.8 ksi]). The final three specimens were used as companion shrinkage specimens
and were subjected to the same curing regimes, but not the load. Three specimens, 100-mm
(6.0-in) in length were tested to determine the compressive strength of the UHPC at the time of
loading.
Compressive strength gain studies were conducted prior to creep loading to locate the time
at which UHPC reached a target compressive strength of 96.5 MPa. These studies determined
the age at which the creep specimens would be loaded in compression using an ambient cure
time, and a pre-steam treatment to accelerate the compressive strength of the UHPC. The
curing scenarios of the UHPC while undergoing a compressive creep load are listed in Table 1.
Prior to compressive creep loading, specimens attained a compressive strength of 96.5 MPa by
either an ambient cure or pre-steam cure. Once the specimens reached this compressive
strength, standard dimensional measurements were recorded and the specimens were
subjected to the compressive creep loading. Once loaded in constant compression, specimens
were left in the ambient cure condition and only removed from the ambient cure room to
undergo the thermal treatment at varying times, which would best mimic precast production
facilities. [1]
2 Experimental Plan
One goal of this research was to mimic conditions selective to UHPC creep and shrinkage
procedures of current precast/prestressed plants in the U.S. to allow for a clear understanding
of these conditions and impacts on future design codes. The use of a steam cure immediately
after concrete is placed in the prestressing beds is commonly used in precast/prestressed
plants around the U.S. The steam cure will accelerate the concrete compressive strength gain
and therefore allow the release of the prestressing strands earlier, which reduces cycle time of
the prestressing beds. From interviews with precast/prestress facilities using normal strength
concrete (NSC) and high strength concrete (HSC) it was determined that (regardless of climate)
cure temperatures prior to prestress release are maintained between 24-35C (75-95oF) for
approximately 3 hours immediately following casting; the cure temperature is then slowly raised,
over a period of 2-3 hours, to a maximum temperature between 49-65C (120-150oF), where it
is maintained until the forms are stripped and the prestress is released (at approximatley 12-15
hours from casting), [2]. This information was used a basis for the pre-steam cure.
The five curing regimes chosen for this research aimed to mimic several scenarios expected
at precast/prestressed plants. Four curing scenarios involved the use of a standard thermal
treatment (90oC [194oF] at 95% relative humidity (RH) for 48 hours) while maintaining a
compressive load. The fifth curing regime remained at ambient conditions (23oC [73oF] at 50%
RH) and was used as a baseline for comparison, [1].
A pre-steam cure (60oC [140oF] at 95% RH) was administered to accelerate the compressive
strength of the specimens for three curing regimes, while the remaining curing regimes were
ambient cured, until a compressive strength of 96.5 MPa (14 ksi) was reached. The time in
which all the specimens of a single batch were placed into the curing chamber for the pre -steam
treatment or placed in the ambient conditions, was the reference zero starting point for the
tests. This pre-stream treatment consisted of raising the chamber temperature to 60oC over a
three hour period and then holding at 60oC for the next 14 hours.
In order for UHPC to lock in its high compressive strength and durability characteristics, a
thermal treatment was required, [4]. In all cases the thermal treatment occurred after the creep
loading was applied to the specimens. The thermal treatment required moving the creep
334
Creep Behaviour of UHPC under Compressive Loading with Varying Curing Regimes
frames (while maintaining a compressive load on the specimens) into a custom built curing
chamber, as seen in Figure 1 where the temperature was increased to 90oC (194oF) over a 6
hour period, holding at 90oC for 48 hours before the specimens cooled to ambient conditions.
Figure 2 provides a graphical representation of the PSD specimens using two vertical axis
against a common time dependent axis. The left axis is the temperature that the PSD
specimens are subjected to throughout the experiment represented against time by the solid
line. The hatched lines correspond to the right axis, which represents the high and low stress
level scenarios. This curing regime employs the use of the pre-steam treatment immediately
following casting then loading the specimens in compression following the 14 hour pre-steam
treatment. A delay of 72 hours occurs before the PSD specimens are finally subjected to the
standard thermal treatment, while constantly being subjected to a compressive load, [1].
Figure 1: Michigan Tech's custom creep frame curing chamber.
Figure 2: PSD applied creep stress level and cure temperature variation with respect to specimen age.
335
3 Results
The data collected covered the initial findings of the early-age creep effects of UHPC under a
compressive load through varying curing regimes. To isolate the creep strains for each curing
scenario, the elastic strain and the shrinkage strains must be removed from the total measured
strain. For example, the total measured strain for the ambient cured specimens under the high
load level, 0.6f`ci, at 28 days was 2707, the elastic strain was 1269, and the shrinkage
strain was 380. Therefore, the creep strain at 28 days for this scenario was 1058. Table 2
lists the average initial elastic strain, shrinkage strain, and creep strain for each curing regime
and compressive creep load level at 24-28 days. (Because of the testing timeline, two creep
frames were used for multiple curing regimes. Therefore the standard thermal cured (SST)
specimens and the pre-steam standard thermal cured (PST) specimens were unloaded at 24
days). The creep coefficients are calculated in Table 2 by dividing the measured 28 day creep
strains by the initial creep strain (28d/initial) found for each curing regime. The average creep
coefficient (Cct) for specimens subjected to a thermal treatment was 1.12 for the 0.6f`ci stress
level and 0.76 for the 0.2f`ci stress level, [1].
Table 2: Average initial elastic and 24-28 day strain values for each curing regime.
Curing Regime
AMC
SST
PST
PSD
PDD
f`ci/ f`c
Elastic Strain,
initial
0.60
1269
0.20
579
0.63
1494
0.21
496
0.60
1316
0.20
573
0.60
1542
0.20
526
0.60
1543
0.20
*predicted values at one year
591
Shrinkage
Strain
380
172
158
212
305
24-28 day Creep Strain

Measurement, 28d
Cct
1058
0.83 (1.27)*
313
0.54 (0.80)*
1678
1.12
442
0.89
1653
1.26
309
0.54
1727
1.12
491
0.93
1537
1.00
404
0.68
Effects of ambient cure

The isolated creep strains collected for the ambient cured specimens were fit to a logarithmic
function for the high stress level and low stress level specimens. The models can be seen in
Figure 3. The logarithmic functions are plotted along with curves for each data series only
looking at the creep strains in excess of the elastic strain due to loading, and the shrinkage
strains removed. This type of function best fit the data produced in this research and the
function reaches an asymptotic value, as would be expected due to sustained loading, which
can be used to predict a one year creep coefficient for the AMC specimens.
Equation 1 is the logarithmic relationship that best fit the ambient cured specimens subjected
to the high stress level of 0.6f`ci. This relationship fits the early-age compressive creep strains
closely, and predicts creep strain at 360 days of 1610. The creep strains rapidly increase in
the first week of applied loading and the rate of creep decreases in the following weeks. This
prediction is almost identical to Graybeals calculated 1600, even though Graybeal used
100mm dia. (4.0-in.) by 200mm (8.0-in.) long specimens and loaded the specimens in
compression at 28 days after demolding, [6].
(1)
336
Figure 3: Creep strain results for the ambient cured (AMC) specimens.
Equation 2 is similar to equation 1, but represents the best fit logarithmic relationship for the
lower 0.2f`ci stress level. Using this equation, the predicted 360 day ultimate creep strain for the
0.2f`ci load level best yields a value of 468, [1].
(2)
Using the predicted values for the one year creep strains on the ambient cured (AMC)
specimens, creep coefficient of 1.27 and 0.80 were calculated for the 0.6f`ci and 0.2f`ci stress
levels, respectively. The higher stress level creep coefficient is comparable to previous
research found by Graybeal at 0.78, [6], SETRA 0.80, [7], JSCE 1.20, [8], and UNSW 1.20, [9].
No research to date has subjected UHPC to a compressive stress as low as 0.2f`ci to compare
the validity of the predicted relationship.
Effects of the pre-steam treatment
The administration of a pre-steam cure (60oC at 95% RH) was used in this research to mimic
what would be expected at a precast/prestress plant in the U.S. conforming to current practices.
This pre-stream treatment accelerates the compressive strength of UHPC to the target
compressive strength of 96.5 MPa (14 ksi) five times faster than an ambient cure. The presteam treatment, independent of when a standard thermal treatment was applied, had no affect
effect on the 28 day creep coefficients for the curing regimes in this research, [1].
Effects of the thermal treatment
The effects of the thermal treatment on specimens under a compressive load were an important
goal in this research. The following figures (Figure 4 and Figure 5) plot the average increasing
creep strain against time for the three specimens tested in each curing regime. In these graphs,
the initial elastic strain is neglected, and the shrinkage strains have been subtracted to plot only
the creep strain measured in this research, [1].
The creep data shown in Figure 4 for the specimens subjected to the 0.6f`ci stress level
reveals that after a thermal treatment was applied to the specimens, the strain increased up to
337
approximately 1650, with no significant additional strain occurring thereafter. Specimens

subjected to an immediate thermal treatment (SST and PST) saw a rapid average increase of
Figure 4: Average creep strain values for the 0.6f`ci load level, [1].
Figure 5: Average creep strain values for the 0.2f`ci load level, [1].
1655 after removal from the custom built curing chamber. Specimens subjected to delayed
treatments saw increases of 1593 and 1527 for the PSD and PDD curing regimes,
respectively. In all curing regimes subjected to the thermal treatment, the application of the
thermal treatment locked in the creep strains in the UHPC. Prior to the application of the
thermal treatment on the PSD and PDD specimens, the creep strains followed ambient cure
(AMC) baseline. But following the thermal treatment, creep strains were locked in to
approximately 1550-1650, with minimal changes in creep strains occurring thereafter, [1].
338
Looking at specimen data for the lower stress level for each of the curing regimes (Figure 5),
more scatter in the results is observed. Similar to the higher stress level, the strains occurring
during the thermal treatment decreases as the specimens subjected to the delayed treatment
increases (PSD and PDD curing regimes). The specimens with delayed onset of a thermal
treatment show increasing strains following the pattern of the ambient cured specimens before
the thermal treatment is administered. In general, and independent of any pre-steam treatment,
specimens that were thermally cured reach creep strains of 300-500, and this strain was
locked in and stable. The scatter in data is attributed to the low stress level chosen for this
research; the higher stress level produced more consistent creep data for UHPC, [1].
For each curing scenario subjected to a thermal treatment, Table 3 shows the creep strains
(excluding the elastic strains) for the high and low stress levels due to the thermal treatment, as
well as the companion shrinkage strains before during, and after a thermal treatment. The
standard thermal treatment (SST) and pre-steam standard thermal treatment (PST) specimens
were immediately demolded, loaded in the creep frames and subjected to the thermal
treatment, therefore the strains induced on the specimens before the thermal treatment are
negligible. However, the pre-steam delayed (PSD) and pre-steam double delayed (PDD)
specimens were demolded, loaded in the creep frames and delayed the onset of the thermal
treatment. Delaying the thermal treatment allowed the PSD and PDD specimens to undergo
creep and shinkage strains before the applying the thermal treatment. Table 3 introduces the
creep strains (neglecting the elastic and companion shrinkage strains) before and during the
thermal treatment for each curing scenario, the companion shrinkage strains are also listed for
each curing regime, [1].
Table 3: Measured creep and shrinkage strain before, during and after thermal treatment (in/in), [1].
Compressive Creep Level

0.6f`ci
Compressive Creep Level
0.2f`ci
Shrinkage Specimens
AMC
---
SST
PST
PSD
PDD
Before TT
During TT
0
1666
0
1644
472
1121
737
790
After TT
--
1666
1644
1593
1527
Before TT
--
During TT
--
0
520
0
459
103
348
176
203
After TT
--
520
459
384
355
Before TT
--
During TT
--
0
172
0
158
147
65
253
52
After TT
--
172
158
212
305
4 Conclusions
The data presented in this research provides the beginning framework for a more expansive
compressive creep study on UHPC specimens under a thermal treatment. The importance of
this research was to characterize the early-age (28 day) creep characteristics of UHPC as it is
thermally treated, under a compressive load. By doing so, this research found that the effects
of the thermal treatment locked in the creep strains independent of when the thermal
treatment was administered. In general, precast/prestressed plants would be able to produce
several prestressed UHPC elements on differing timelines, then administer the thermal
treatment to all the elements together to save on energy costs, without having any significant
effects on the locked in creep coefficient for thermally cured elements.
The following specific conclusions have been determined based on the data collected for
specimens subjected to creep loading at a compressive strength of 96.5 MPa (14 ksi). The
339
creep coefficient was found to be greater on specimens under a compressive load during a
thermal treatment, as opposed to previous research of being thermally cured prior to loading.
Average creep coefficient values of 1.12 and 0.76 were observed on specimens subjected to a
thermal treatment under 0.6f`ci and 0.2f`ci stress levels, respectively. The application of the
thermal treatment locked in the creep coefficient, as minimal strain changes were measured
following the thermal treatment. Specimens subjected to delayed onset thermal treatments
followed the ambient cured increase in strains until the thermal treatment was applied.
Future work would include determining the impact of creep prior to thermal treatment for
various scenarios that may be expected in the U.S. precast plant. This impact would be towards
prestress losses, camber and deflections.
References
[1] Flietstra JC. 2011. Creep and Shrinkage Behavior of Ultra High Performance Concrete under
Compressive Loading with Varying Curing Regimes. [Houghton, MI]: Michigan Technological
University. p. 149.
[2] Nyland EM. 2009. Early-Age Creep and Shrinkage Behavior of Ultra-High Performance Concrete for
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Applications. [Houghton, MI]: Michigan Technological University. p.
113.
[3] Kollmorgen, GA. 2004. Impact of Age and Size on the Mechanical Behavior of an Ultra-High
Performance Concrete. [Houghton, MI]: Michigan Technological University. p. 125.
[4] Peuse EJ. 2008. Impact of Age at Thermal Treatment on the Mechanical Properties of an U ltra-High
Performance Concrete. [Houghton, MI]: Michigan Technological University. p. 150.
[5] Larfarge North America. "Ductal Reference." Calgary, Canada, 2003.
[6] Graybeal, BA. 2006. Material Property Characterization of Ultra-high Performance Concrete. Federal
Highway Administration, Office of Research, Development and Technology, Turner-Fairbank
Highway Research Center: 2006: McLean, VA.
[7] Association Franaise de Gnie Civil-Service D'tudes Techniques des Routes et Autoroutes
(AFGC/SETRA). "Ultra-High Performance Fiber-Reinforced Concrete Interim Recommendations."
2002.
[8] Japanese Society of Civil Engineers (JSCE). Recommendations for Design and Construction of Ultra
High Strength Fiber Reinforced Concrete Structures (Draft). Subcommittee on Res earch of Ultra
High Strength Fiber Reinforced Concrete-Japan Society of Civil Engineers. 2006: Tokyo, Japan.
[9] N Gowripalan and R I Gilbert School of Civil and Environmental Engineering-The University of New
South Wales (UNSW). 2000. Design Guidelines for RPC Prestressed Concrete Beams. VSL (Aust)
Pty Ltd.
340
Mitigation of early age shrinkage of Ultra High Performance

Concrete by using Rice Husk Ash
Nguyen Van Tuan1,2, Guang Ye,3, Klaas van Breugel1
1: Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences, Delft University of Technology, Delft, the Netherlands
2: Department of Building Materials, Hanoi University of Civil Engineering, Hanoi, Vietnam
3: Magnel Laboratory for Concrete research, Department of Structural engineering, Ghent University, Belgium
Ultra high performance concrete (UHPC) has become one of promising concretes in the last decade
because of its excellent performance, such as high strength, low permeability and very good durability.
However, like high performance concrete, UHPC is also subjected to high autogenous shrinkage due to
high amount of cement and silica fume used. Seeking the ways to reduce the autogenous shrinkage is a
very important task in the field of cement and concrete research. In this paper, the Rice husk ash, an
agriculture waste, is explored to mitigate the autogenous shrinkage of UHPC. With high amorphous SiO 2
content and special porous structure, the RHA shows not only reduce the cost and improve the early age
properties of the UHPC but also increase the environmental benefits.
Keywords: ultra high performance concrete, rice husk ash, autogenous shrinkage
1 Introduction
Ultra high performance concrete and autogenous shrinkage
Ultra high performance concrete (UHPC) is a family of concretes offering a combination of
materials and performance characteristics. It made of Portland cement, silica fume (SF), quartz
flour, fine silica sand, high-range water reducer, water, and steel or organic fibers. The UHPC
shows some excellent performances on the ductility, ultra high compressive strength, and
extreme durability. However, it can experience large shrinkage values. A very high autogenous
shrinkage already found in the first one or two days after mixing, which causes a considerable
cracking potential at early ages. The early age cracking due to restrained autogenous shrinkage
could affect the numerous advantageous properties of UHPC and significantly restrict its
prospective utilization in construction. The high autogenous shrinkage of UHPC is due to the
low w/b ratio and a greatamount of SF used in UHPC, which causes a significant decrease in
the internal relative humidity (RH) in the cement paste during the hardening, and a selfdesiccation occurs in the absence of an external source of water [1].
Seeking the ways to reduce or to limit the autogenous shrinkage of UHPC is becoming very
important for both research and engineering practice. A work reported that mitigation of
autogenous shrinkage using external curing is not effective, due to the fact that the dense
microstructure of UHPC could result in penetrating water rather slowly into the interior of
concrete members [2]. As a result, internal water curing is considered as an effective solution to
the problem of counteracting self-desiccation and autogenous shrinkage for the low
permeability of the low w/b ratio cementitious system, thereby reducing the likelihood of earlyage cracking. The most popular methods of internal curing for concrete are to use watersaturated aggregates and super-absorbent polymers (SAPs) [2]. Unfortunately, he SAPs have
been proposed to be used as an internal curing agent to mitigate the autogenous shrinkage of
UHPC due to the strict requirements on mechanical behaviours and the maximum size of
aggregate. This technology is also used in engineering [3]. However, SAPs may easily make
the concrete heterogeneous, because it will leave voids even as big as 600 m [4], equal to the
maximum sand size in concrete during hydration, which might negatively influence the
properties of UHPC. Searching for the internal curing method of UHPC still remains a
motivation for researchers to explore in this field. One of the very interesting questions is that
341
whether one material can play 'a duplex role' to replaces both SF and SAPs to make UHPC. If
possible, it will give a big advantage in both technology and sustainability. This paper will
explore the possibility by using rice husk ash (RHA) to mitigate autogenous shrinkage of UH PC.
Properties of Rice Husk Ask
Rice husk ash (RHA) is produced by burning rice husk as an agricultural waste. When the husk
is incinerated completely under controlled conditions, the residue as RHA contains 90-96%
silica in amorphous form. The average particle size of RHA ranges in general from 5 m to 10
m with a very high specific surface area (even more than 250 m 2/g) [5]. This high surface area
comes from the porous structure of RHA as shown in Figure 1. Similar to SF, the RHA is
considered as highly active pozzolans [6]. When incorporated in cement, the RHA affect the
rate and the extent of hydration [7,8]. The addition of RHA in concrete, like SF, can lead to
reduced porosity and Ca(OH) 2 content in the interfacial transition zone (ITZ) between the
aggregate and the cement paste.
(b)
(a)
20 m
20 m
Figure 1: SEM images of RHA before grinding (a) and RHA after grinding (b.)
2 Materials and Method

Materials and mix composition
The materials used in this study were silica sand with a mean particle size of 225 m, Portland
cement (CEM I 52.5N) with a Blaine specific surface area of 4500 cm2/g, condensed silica fume,
rice husk ash, and polycarboxylate based superplasticizer with 30% solid content by weight. The
SF has an amorphous SiO2 content of 97.2% and its mean particle size is about 0.10.15 m.
The particle size distribution and the mean particle size of materials in this study were determined
by laser diffraction. Rice husk, from Vietnam, was burnt in a drum incinerator developed by
Pakistan Council of Scientific & Industrial Research [9] under uncontrolled combustion conditions.
Details of the oven and rice husk combustion process were described elsewhere [5]. The
obtained ash was ground in a vibrating ball mill for 90 min. The ash contains 87.96% amorphous
SiO2, 3.81% loss on ignition and its mean particle size (d RHAmean) is from 3.6 m to 9.0 m. The
particle size distribution of these materials is shown in Figure 2. Table 1 gives the mix
compositions used to evaluate autogenous shrinkage of UHPC. It has to be mentioned that no
additional water was added in the mixture.
342
Mitigation of early age shrinkage of Ultra High Performance Concrete by using Rice Husk Ash
SF
RHA
(5.6 m)
RHA
(6.3 m)
RHA
(9.0 m)
Silica sand
RHA
(3.6 m)
Cement
(CEM I 52.5 N)
Figure 2: Particle size distribution of materials used in this study.

Table 1: Mix compositions of UHPC used to study autogenous shrinkage (% weight to cement).
cement,
(kg/m3)
w/b ratio
(by weight)
REF
1140
0.18
RHA10(5.6)
1010
0.18
10
5.6
RHA20(5.6)
885
0.18
20
5.6
SF10
1010
0.18
10
SF20
885
0.18
20
RHA20(9.0)
885
0.18
20
9.0
RHA20(3.6)
885
0.18
20
3.6
Mixture
Sand/binder
RHA
SF
Mean particle size
ratio
(%weight) (%weight)
of RHA (m)
Autogenous shrinkage measurement

The autogenous shrinkage of UHPC mixtures was measured based on the ASTM C1698
standard [10], in which three sealed corrugated moulds of 440 mm 28.5 mm were determined
for each mix composition. After preparing and mixing, each mixture was carefully filled i nto
three sealed corrugated tubes. Figure 3 shows the apparatus used to measure the autogenous
shrinkage. According to this standard, the length of samples is started measuring at the time of
final setting of the mixture. All samples and the dilatometer were kept in a thermostatically
controlled room during the whole test. The surrounding temperature was maintained at 231C.
Figure 3: The dilatometer bench with accessories used to determine autogenous shrinkage.
343

Effect of RHA replacement
Figure 4 and Fifure 5 show the development of autogenous shrinkage of UHPC incorporating
different amounts of RHA and compare to the samples made by same amount of SF. In
general, the autogenous shrinkage of all samples is very high at a very early age, particularly in
the first 12 hours from the final set time, and then remains more or less constant afterwards.
RHA20(5.6)
RHA10(5.6)
REF
SF20
SF10
REF
Figure 4: Autogenous shrinkage of UHPC mixtures

containing different amounts of RHA measured from
the final setting time, d RHAmean = 5.6 m, w/b = 0.18.
Figure 5: Autogenous shrinkage of UHPC mixtures

containing different amounts of SF measured from the
final setting time, w/b = 0.18.
When a higher amount of RHA is added, i.e. 20%, the autogenous shrinkage of UHPC was
reduced compared to the control sample without RHA. After the first 12 hours from the final set,
the RHA modified samples show only a very small increase in autogenous shrinkage. In
addition, after reaching the age of 10 days, the autogenous shrinkage of the RHA modifie d
samples was further mitigated. Especially the autogenous shrinkage of the 20% RHA sample
was even completely eliminated after 15 days. However, the autogenous shrinkage of SF
samples increases with increasing of SF content.
Effect of fineness of RHA
The effect of the fineness of RHA on autogenous shrinkage is depicted in Figure 6. It is clear
that RHA particles are particularly effective in mitigating the autogenous shrinkage of UHPC
when the mean size of RHA particles ranges between 5.6 m and 9.0 m. The sample
containing the RHA with a smaller particle size, i.e. 3.6 m, shows a higher autogenous
shrinkage. This may be caused by the collapse of the porous structure which reduces the
amount of absorbed water in RHA. The less absorbed water will reduces the positive effect of
RHA particles to mitigate the autogenous shrinkage of UHPC. This result implies that the
benefit of RHA on reducing the autogenous shrinkage can be achieved when the mean particle
size is bigger than 5.6 m.
344
4 Discussion
The results above show a positive effect of using RHA on the mitigation of autogenous
shrinkage of UHPC. Besides, the reduction of autogenous shrinkage of UHPC by using RHA is
due to the effectiveness of internal water curing and become a potential in the practical
application.
RHA20(5.6)
RHA20(3.6)
RHA20(9.0)
REF
Figure 6: Autogenous shrinkage of UHPC mixtures containing RHA with different mean particle sizes
measured from the final setting time, w/b = 0.18.
At low water/binder ratio, the water will be consumed rapidly (i.e., a few days), and water from
the RHA will then be thought to be consumed. In the other studies [11, 3], the water is stored in
particles, i.e. LWAs and SAPs, which are several orders of magnitude larger, and might be
expected to retain water over a significant time-scale. In the case of RHA, with such a small
particle size, the water from RHA will probably be available very quickly, and may also become
exhausted in a few days. However, in fact, the experimental results provided evidence that the
internal water curing of RHA still remains effective at later ages. This can be caused by several
reasons as discussion below.
The specific pore volume of ground RHA with a mean particle size of 5.6 m is
approximately 0.086 cm 3/g. It is assumed that the water will fill all these pores. Theoretically
because 20% RHA was added corresponding to about 220 kg RHA/m 3 concrete, the total
absorbed water by RHA is about 18.9 l/m 3 UHPC. The extra water for internal curing of UHPC
by super-absorbent polymers (SAP) ranges from 33 - 64 l/m3 UHPC [3]. Thus, the absorbed
water in RHA in UHPC is also significant. In addition, the distribution of water reservoirs also
plays an important role for internal curing because it relates to the effective distance for
transporting water to the vicinity of these water reservoirs [2]. With a lower w/b ratio in particular
for UHPC, the microstructure of cement paste is very dense which constrains the water from
reservoirs to migrate to the surroundings. This means that the water reservoirs should be
separated into smaller ones to enhance the effectiveness of using internal curing agents in the
system. In this respect, RHA is an appropriate candidate.
345
Figure 7: Pore size distribution of the RHA powder, d RHAmean = 5.6 m [15].
The size of pores in RHA particles, i.e. from 5 to 60 nm in diameter (see Figure 7), is much
smaller than that of SAP particles which is about 450 m [3] and that of LWAs (about 10 -20 m
[11]). Figure 8 shows the pore size distribution of UHPC made by RHA at different curing age
[15]. According to Kelvin's equation [12], this size range of pores in RHA particles corresponds
to the change of relative humidity (RH) in the cement matrix from 81.9 to 98.0%. The
effectiveness of water released from inside of the pores of RHA particles to the surrounding
cement matrix depends on the suction force, which in turn depends on the porosity and RH in
cement paste [2]. At early ages, the RH in the cement paste with a w/c ratio of 0.25 is still
higher than 87%, which corresponds to the diameter of 8.5 m, before 7 days [13]. Thus only
water in the big pores, i.e. about 8.5 nm in diameter, of RHA particles can be released. A
certain amount of water still remains in the smaller pores and gradually releases at later ages,
even after 28 days at which the RH decreases to 78% [13]. This process is illustrated in Figure
9.
Furthermore, small pores i.e. smaller than 8.5 nm in diameter, in the RHA particles remain
water-filled for a longer period of time, and the small pore in their saturated state are available
to be filled with hydration products, resulting in the absence of these empty pores surrounding
the residual cement grains. This effect in combination with the higher degree of hydration could
contribute to the higher compressive strength achieved at later ages of the RHA modified
sample. Bentz, et al also observed this phenomenonwhen pre-wetted lightweight aggregates
were used for high performance mortar [14].
346
1 day
(concrete)
7 days (concrete)
28 days
(concrete)
RHA powder
91 days
(concrete)
Figure 8: Pore size distribution of UHPC made with RHA at (a) 1 day, (b) 7 days, (c) 28 days and (d) 91 days,
and of the RHA powder, dRHAmean = 5.6 m.
Early ages
Later ages
Pores in
RHA
reservoirs
Time of
hydration
Pores in
cement
paste
Figure 9: Illustration of the potential for internal curing of RHA with time of hydration; dots indicate water -filled
pores within the hydrating cement paste whereas grey indicates empty pore [15].
5 Conclusions
From this study, when RHA is used in UHPC, the RHA shows a duplex function: in the one
hand its high silica content shows good pozzolanic properties like SF; in the other hand, its
special porous structure significantly reduces the shrinkage of UHPC. When the particle size of
5.6 m and 20% of RHA is used, the shrinkage of UHPC is almost eliminated after 15 days
curing. To be concluded, such an agriculture waste material use in UHPC not only reduce the
cost and improve the early age properties of the UHPC but also increase the environmental
benefits.
References
[1] Jensen O.M., Hansen P.F. (2001). Water-entrained cement-based materials: I. Principles and
theoretical background. Cement and Concrete Research 31(4):647-654.
[2] Kovler K., Jensen O.M. (2007). Internal Curing of Concrete, State-of-the-art Report of RILEM
Technical Committee 196-ICC.
[3] Mechtcherine V., Dudziak L., Hempel S. (2008). Mitigating early age shrinkage of Ultra-High
Performance Concrete by using Super Absorbent Polymers (SAP). In: Creep, Shrinkage and
Durability Mechanics of Concrete and Concrete Structures: Taylor & Francis, pp. 847-853.
[4] Dudziak L., Mechtcherine V. (2008). Mitigation of volume changes of Ultra-High Performance
Concrete (UHPC) by using Super Absorbent Polymers. Proc. of the Second International
Symposium on Ultra High Performance Concrete, . Kassel University, Kassel, Germany, pp. 425 432.
347
[5] Bui D.D. (2001). Rice husk ash as a mineral admixture for high performance concrete. PhD thesis,
Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands.
[6] Mehta P.K. (1983). Pozzolanic and cementitious by-products as mineral admixtures for concrete.
ACI SP-79 146.
[7] Huang C., Feldman R.F. (1985). Hydration reactions in Portland cementsilica fume blends. Cem
Concr Res 15(4):58592.
[8] Qingge F., Hirohito Y., Masami S., Sugita S. (2003). Efficiency of highly active rice husk ash on the
high-strength concrete. In: Proceedings of the 11th international congress on the chemistry of
cement (ICCC), Durban, South Africa; p. 81622.
[9] UNIDO (United nations industrial development organization), (1984). Vienna. Rice husk ash cement:
its development and application; p. 100.
[10] ASTM Standard (2009). ASTM C1698-09, Test Method for Autogenous Strain of Cement Paste and
Mortar. Vol. 04.02, West Conshohocken, PA.
[11] Zhutovsky S., Kovler K., Bentur A. (2004). Influence of cement paste matrix properties on the
autogenous curing of high-performance concrete. Cement and Concrete Composites 26(5):499-507.
[12] Lura P., Jensen O.M., van Breugel K. (2003). Autogenous shrinkage in high-performance cement
paste: An evaluation of basic mechanisms. Cement and Concrete Research 33(2):223-232.
[13] Wittmann F.H. (1969). Physikalische Messungen an Zementstein, Habilitationsarbeit, TU Mnchen
[14] Bentz D.P., Stutzman P.E. (2008). Internal Curing and Microstructure of High-Performance Mortars.
Internal Curing of High Performance Concrete: Lab and Field Experiences, ACI SP256-07, Detroit:
American Concrete Institute, pp. 81-90.
[15] Nguyen van T. (2011). Rice husk ash as a mineral admixture for ultra high performance concrete,
PhD thesis, Delft University of Technology, Delft, The Netherlands
348
Microstructure of Ultra High Performance Concrete (UHPC)

and its Impact on Durability
Jennifer C. Scheydt 1, Harald S. Mller2
1: Materials Testing and Research Institute (MPA Karlsruhe), Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Germany
2: Institute of Concrete Structures and Building Materials, Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Germany
The structure of ultra high performance concrete (UHPC) is very dense compared to normal or high
strength concrete. Thus, UHPC shows a high resistance against corrosion. Nevertheless there are some
factors that strongly can affect its durability. On the one hand, microcracks resulting from heat treatment
or autogenous shrinkage can enhance the ingress of attacking media. Besides, the interfacial transition
zone of UHPC (that was considered very dense and thus negligible for transport processes so far) can
lower the penetration resistance. Within the following paper, the results of an extensive experimental
program on the microstructure and durability of UHPC are summarised.
Keywords: microstructure, porosity, interfacial transition zone (ITZ), microcracks, durability
1 Introduction
The experience in ultra high performance concrete (UHPC) obtained within international research projects shows that the durability of UHPC is very high compared to conventional concrete [1]. Nevertheless, there are some factors related to UHPC that can strongly influence its
durability. Above all, microcracks due to the high rate of autogenous shrinkage or resulting from
a thermal treatment can significantly reduce the concretes resistance against penetrating media. Furthermore, the interfacial transition zone (ITZ) between cement paste and steel fibre rei nforcement or coarse aggregates can cause a decrease in durability. Subsequently, the results
on the microstructure of UHPC and its impact on durability gained at the Karlsruhe Institute of
Technology (KIT), Germany, within the framework of a research project supported by the
Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) are presented.
2 Characteristics of the microstructure of UHPC

Porosity and microstructure
Due to its low water-binder-ratio, UHPC shows a very low porosity compared to normal or high
strength concrete and thus a high resistance against penetrating corrosives. For the pore structure characterisation of a coarse aggregate UHPC (d max = 8 mm), measurements by the mercury intrusion method (MIP) were performed on small cores (d/h = 15/20 mm) drilled out of the
interior of cylindric specimens (d/h = 150/300 mm). The maximum pressure used for MIP was
about 420 MPa. A contact angle of 141 and the recommended surface tension value of merc ury of 0.485 N/m were used to calculate the pore size distribution.
The mixing composition of the investigated concretes UHPC (water cured for 28 days),
UHPC90 C (heat treated at 90 C for 3 days) and UHPCn. f. (water cured for 28 days, no steel
fibres) is given in Table 1, the mechanical characteristics are reported in [2].
Table 1: Mixing composition [kg/m] and water-binder-ratio w/b [-] of the investigated concretes UHPC,
UHPC90 C and UHPCn. f. (the concrete UHPCn. f. does not contain steel fibres).
CEM I 52,5
R-HS/NA
582
silica
quartz
fume
178
basalt
sand
quartz
powder
(2/8 mm)
355
458
714
349
steel fibres
super(l/d = 8/0.175 mm) plasticiser

196
28
mixing
water
w/b
138
0.21
The results of the MIP measurements at a concrete age of 28 days are given in Figure 1. For a
better comparability of the different concretes, the porosity is given in % by volume of hardened
cement paste (hcp, consisting of cement, microsilica and water).
Figure 1: Pore size distribution dV/dlog r (left) and porosity (right) of the concretes UHPC, UHPCn. f. and
UHPC90 C.
Due to the heat treatment, the concrete is densified not only in the range of capillary pores
(r = 50-40000 nm) but especially in the range of gel pores (r = 2-50 nm), see Figure 1.
The UHPC without steel fibres (UHPCn. f.) shows a higher gel porosity probably resulting
from a lower mixing energy due to the lack of fibres and a higher porosity in the range of micro capillaries.
As a result of their high binder content, ultra high performance concretes show strong defo rmations due to autogenous shrinkage leading to microcracks. By the use of steel fibres, microcracks are prevented or reduced, e. g. [3]. As the main reason for the higher capillary
content in the fibreless concrete UHPCn. f., microcracks with a crack width between 0.5 and
2 m were detected by using the Environmental Scanning Electron Microscope (ESEM). The
cracks were mainly running alongside the quartz grains (see Figure 2, left).
Figure 2: Microstructure of cracked concrete (left: UHPCn. f., ESEM right: UHPC90 C, reflecting microscope,
cracks retraced).
350
But also the densified structure of heat treated concretes can strongly be affected by microcracks. Even though a low heating (0.2 K/min) and cooling rate (0.1 K/min) was chosen,
some samples of the heat treated concrete UHPC 90 C showed cracks visible without the need
of microscopy (crack width 30 to 100 m, see Figure 2, right).
Interfacial Transition Zone (ITZ)
The interfacial transition zone (ITZ) of ultra high performance concrete is supposed to be as
dense, that it can be neglected considering transport processes. However, most investigations
published (e. g. [4]) only take into account the ITZ of heat treated concretes.
Thus, an experimental program applying the MIP method was carried out to characterise the
ITZ of UHPC. The experimental conditions are described above. Different samples were made
only consisting of cement paste and the concerning component (quartz sand and quartz powder, fibres, basalt). The mixing proportions of the underlying mixing composition (see Table 1)
were kept in each case.
Figure 3: Porosity of hardened cement paste (hcp) depending on its composition (qs: quartz sand, qp: quartz
powder).
Figure 4: ITZ between hardened cement paste (hcp) and a steel fibre in UHPC (left) and in UHPC 90 C (right),
SEM.
The results of the MIP measurements are shown in Figure 3. The higher gel porosity of hcp
compared to the other samples can mainly be attributed to the lack of components (e. g. quartz
powder) acting as initial nuclei for the growth of CSH phases, see e. g. [5]. A higher amount of
351
micro capillaries (r = 50-2000 nm) as well as capillaries (r = 2000-40000 nm) indicates a higher
porosity of the ITZ. According to Figure 3, especially the ITZ between hcp and steel fibres or
basalt, respectively, shows an increased porosity. This increased porosity in the vicinity of the
fibres was confirmed by investigations using the Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM), see
Figure 4 (left). In heat treated samples, the hcp and particularly the ITZ was significantly
densified (Figure 4, right).
3 Influence of the mirostructure on the durability of UHPC

The very dense structure of ultra high performance concrete complicates the avoidance of microcracks in fibreless UHPC. Even though intensive water curing, no water uptake takes place
into the inner concrete structure to reduce autogenous shrinkage.
Concrete structures made from heat treated, fibre reinforced UHPC not necessarily show microcracks. Microcracks mostly can be minimised or avoided by combining very slow heating
and cooling rates with slim structure dimensions. Furthermore, desiccation of the concrete su rface during the heat treatment must be avoided.
As will be shown below, UHPC without microcracks shows a very high resistance against i ngressing media, while the resistance of cracked concrete is significantly lowered.
Permeability and water absorption
In uncracked concrete, the densitiy and thus the transport resistance R t of ultra high performance concrete diminishes in the following way due to a decrease in the structure density and
an increase in the influence of ITZ:
Rt (UHPC90 C) > Rt (UHPCn. f.) > Rt (UHPC)
This is demonstrated by permeability measurements carried out according to [6] on uncracked
slices with a diameter of 150 mm and a height of 20 mm and 25 mm, respectively. Before testing, the slices were ovendried at 40 C for three weeks. For further details see [2]. The results
of the measurements are presented in Table 2.
Table 2: Specific permeability coefficient, standard deviation and number of examined specimens of the investigated concretes.
Concrete
spec. permeability coefficient

[10
-18
standard deviation
m]
[10
-18
m]
number of examined specimens

[-]
UHPC
4.70
0.86
15
UHPCn. F.
2.57
0.47
UHPC90 C
2.49
0.23
Due to microcracks of the concrete structure, the density of UHPC is strongly affected. Within
the experiments carried out in [2], the heat treated concretes showed the maximum crack width
(30-100 m) followed by the crack width of the fibreless concretes (0.5-2 m). Thus, in cracked
UHPC the transport resistance Rt decreases vice versa compared to uncracked UHPC (see
above):
Rt (UHPC) > Rt (UHPCn. f.) > Rt (UHPC90 C)
352
Experiments on the water absorption of cylindrical specimens (d/h = 150/75 mm) under atmospheric pressure and 150 bar did confirm this correlation [2]. The specimens were sealed at the
sawn front surfaces so that the water absorption took place from the casted surface. The results
are shown in Figure 5. Due to the microcracks within the ultra high performance concretes, an
increase in water absorption up to 90 % (UHPC90 C under atmospheric pressure) was determined.
Figure 5: Water absorption of the concretes UHPC, UHPC n. f. and UHPC90 C.
While the fine microcracks of the fibreless UHPC n. f. only filled under an increased pressure of
150 bar, the wider cracks of the heat treated concrete UHPC 90 C already filled under atmospheric conditions, compare Figure 5.
3.0
2500
UHPC
2.5
UHPC90 C
Cl > Clcrit:
fibre corrosion
2.0
2000
UHPCn. f.
corrosion depth [mm]
total chloride content Cl [% by mass of binder]
Chloride ingress and chemical attack

The lowered resistance of microcracked UHPC also showed within durability experiments on
the capillary suction of a NaCl solution (3 %) and on the chemical attack of hydrochloric acid
(HCl). For experimental details see [2].
critical chloride content

Clcrit according to [7]
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
UHPC
HCl (pH 3)
UHPC90 C
UHPCn. f.
1500
1000
500
0
50
100 150 200 250 300 350 400
time [d]
distance from exposed surface [mm]
Figure 6: Chloride profiles after NaCl suction (left, exposure time 16 months) and time-dependent corrosion
depth after chemical attack (right, HCl, pH 3) of the concretes UHPC, UHPCn. f. and UHPC90 C.
353
In Figure 6 (left), the chloride profiles after the NaCl suction are exemplarily shown for an exposure time of 16 months. Within the edge zone of the specimens, an increase of the chloride
content up to a maximum value was observed for all investigated concretes (also for normal
and high strength concrete, see [2]). This could be ascribed to the leaching of the edge zone
due to the NaCl solution and an associated reduction in chloride binding. Regarding the steel
fibre corrosion, the critical chloride content Clcrit for fibre reinforced concretes according to [7]
was confirmed (compare Figure 6, left and Figure 7). Mainly pitting corrosion of the steel fibres
was detected (Figure 7). For a detailed description of the results see [2].
Figure 7: Cross section through an ultra high performance concrete after 16 months of NaCl attack (left, image
analysis, dashed lines: fibre corrosion zone (Cl > Cl crit), arrows: direction of NaCl attack) and fibre with pitting
corrosion after NaCl attack (right, reflecting microscope).
The penetration depth of the chloride front is not significantly affected by the absence of fibres
or the thermal treatment (see Figure 6, left). However, the maximum chloride content for the
fibreless UHPCn. f. is distinctly lower than for the heat treated (UHPC90 C) or water cured
(UHPC) concretes. The most possible explanation for this effect is that the chloride ingress is
locally pushed by the fibres due to the increased porosity of the ITZ between fibres and hcp and
due to a local potential difference.
Besides, particularly the resistance of the heat treated and thus densified concrete against
the chloride ingress is lowered by microcracks. Hence, the maximum chloride content of the
heat treated and the water cured concretes is comparable (Figure 6, left).
Figure 8: Cross section through an ultra high performance concrete after 80 weeks of chemical attack (HCl, pH
5, reflecting microscope); dashed line: origin surface of the specimen, arrows: direction of acid attack.
Within the experiments on chemical attack, the fibres also turned out to accelerate the acid ingress. As can be seen in Figure 8, the leaching front deeper penetrated the concrete in the vicinity of the fibres. However, the higher corrosion rate of the steel fibres compared to the
354
chloride attack caused an accumulation of iron hydroxides within the leaching front and on the
exposed surface, see figure 8. This accumulation densifies the leaching zone and acts as a
protective coating decelerating the corrosion process (compare Figure 6, right). Therefore
differently from the chloride attack the resistance of the fibre reinforced concretes was approximately twice as high as the resistance of the fibreless concrete (see Figure 6, right). Furthermore due to the microcracks after heat treatment the concrete UHPC90 C showed less
resistance against the acid attack than the concrete UHPC.
Carbonation
The increased porosity of the ITZ between fibres and hcp also affects the resitstance against
carbonation of ultra high performance concretes. On thin slices prepared from prisms
(40 x 40 x 160 mm) after storing for three years at 20 C and 65 % r. h. or outside protected
from direct weathering, respectively, only a marginal carbonation front of maximum 180 m
thickness was detected.
Figure 9: Carbonation of ultra high performance concrete in the vicinity of a steel fibre located near the attacked surface (exposure time: 6 months, storage: outside, protected from direct weathering); dashed line:
origin surface of the specimen, arrows: direction of CO 2-attack.
However, in the surrounding area of fibres located near the surface, an increased ingress of
CO2 and thus an accelerated progress of the carbonation front takes place even for a shorter
exposure time, as can be seen in Figure 9.
4 Conclusions
Ultra high performance concrete shows a very high resistance against attacking media due to
its low porosity compared to conventional concretes. However, it was demonstrated that some
factors essentially can reduce the durability of UHPC.
On the one hand, microcracks resulting from thermal treatment or autogenous shrinkage of
fibreless UHPC significantly can lower the penetration resistance of the concrete. Furthermore,
the interfacial transition zone (ITZ) formerly supposed to be negligible in ultra high performance
concretes was proved to weaken the dense concrete structure. Thus, it is possible that the resistance of UHPC without fibre reinforcement or densified by heat treatment is equal or even
lower than the resistance of undensified, fibre reinforced UHPC. This was proved by experiments on the water absorption, the chloride ingress and the chemical attack.
Anyway, it must be differentiated between the particular exposure conditions. While the steel
fibres lower the resistance against chloride attack, they significantly enhance the resistance
against the attack of acid solutions.
355
Especially in ultra high performance concretes without fibre reinforcement, it is hard to avoid
microcracks resulting from autogenous shrinkage. While a reduction of the autogenous shrinkage strains by careful curing is nearly impossible due to the dense structure of UHPC, one po ssible way to fight this problem is inner curing as presented in [8]. Microcracks due to heat
treatment can be minimised or avoided by very slow heating and cooling rates and slender concrete structures.
In either case, planning an UHPC construction must include preliminary tests to estimate the
formation of microcracks. This is indispensable for a realistic durability evaluation.
References
[1] Mller, H. S., Scheydt, J. C.: Dauerhaftigkeit und Nachhaltigkeit von ultrahochfestem Beton. Ergebnisse von Laboruntersuchungen. In: beton 9 (2011), pp. 336-343.
[2] Scheydt, J. C.: Mechanismen des Korrosionswiderstands von Beton unter besonderer Bercksichtigung ultrahochfester Betone (working title). Karlsruhe Institute of Technology (KIT), Institute of Concrete Structures and Building Materials, doctoral thesis, in progress.
[3] Eppers, S., Mller, C.: Autogenous Shrinkage Strain of Ultra-High-Performance Concrete (UHPC).
In: Proceedings of the 2nd International Symposium on Ultra High Performance Concrete, Fehling,
E., Schmidt, M., Strwald, S. (Eds.), kassel university press, Kassel, 2008, pp. 433 -441.
[4] Sorelli, L., Constantinides, G., Ulm, F.-J., Toutlemonde, F.: The nano-mechanical signature of Ultra
High Performance Concrete by statistical nanoindentation techniques. In: Cement and Concrete R esearch 38 (2008), No. 12, pp.1447-1456.
[5] Stark, J., Mser, B., Bellmann, F.: Nucleation and growth of C-S-H phases on mineral admixtures.
In: Advances in Construction Materials 2007, Grosse, C. U. (Ed.), Springer Verlag, Berlin, 2007, pp.
531-538.
[6] Bunke, N.: Prfung von Beton. Empfehlungen und Hinweise als Ergnzung zu DIN 1048. Heft
Nr. 422, Deutscher Ausschuss fr Stahlbeton (Ed.), Beuth Verlag, Berlin, 1991.
[7] Dauberschmidt, C.: Untersuchungen zu den Korrosionsmechanismen von Stahlfasern in chloridha ltigem Beton. RWTH Aachen University, Institute of Building Materials Research, PhD thesis, 2006.
[8] Dudziak, L., Mechtcherine, V.: Mitigation of volume changes of Ultra-High Performance Concrete
(UHPC) by using Super Absorbent Polymers. In: Proceedings of the 2nd International Symposium
on Ultra High Performance Concrete, Fehling, E., Schmidt, M., Strwald, S. (Eds.), kassel university
press, Kassel, 2008, pp. 425-432.
356
Computer Modeling and Investigation on the Chloride

Induced Steel Corrosion in Cracked UHPC
Alireza Rafiee, Michael Schmidt
Department of Structural Materials and Construction Chemistry, University of Kassel, Germany
Ultra High Performance Concrete (UHPC) has been developed as a solution for corrosion problem in
reinforced infrastructures, due to the packing density of fine particles through the rigid skeleton of
hydration products with fairly negligible capillary pores. It is demonstrated that Coexistence between
concrete matrix and micro crack is an unavoidable fact. In other hand the deterioration causing factors
could easily pass through the cracks and tragically accelerate the rate of steel corrosion embedded in
concrete. In this research, it has been tried to propose a computational scheme, which could predict the
time history of cross section loss of steel bar as well as steel fiber caused by chloride induced macrocell
corrosion in cracked UHPC. In this way, a series of laboratory experiments have been designed to
determine and compare the steel corrosion behavior as well as penetration potential of water and
chloride ion within UHPC. Finally, the developed computer model has been certified by an individual
validation test.
Keywords: Chloride, Computational Scheme, Crack, Steel Corrosion, UHPC
1 Introduction
The chloride-induced corrosion of steel reinforcement is known as the main cause of
deterioration in different types of concrete structures. Generally, sources of chloride ions are the
seawater at the offshore platforms and salts used at bridges and parking garages for deicing
during winter. The corrosion of steel reinforcement leads to concrete deterioration through
cracking, delamination and spalling of the concrete cover, reduction of reinforcement cross
section, decrease of bond between the steel and concrete, and consequently reduction in
strength and ductility of membrane [1].
The rate of steel corrosion depends on the accessibility of oxygen and water near the steel concrete interface, and is accordingly a function of the concrete permeability. In order to get the
durability of a concrete structure better, it should be tried to increase the resistance of concrete
against permeation of factors causing deterioration such as chloride ions, oxygen and water [2].
Ultra High Performance Concrete (UHPC) as the packing density of fine particles, rigid skeleton
of the hydration products and negligible capillary pores is developed and investigated as the
solution for corrosion problems in reinforced concrete [3]. Although, when a crack forms in the
cover of concrete, deterioration causing factors can easily pass through the crack and
accelerate the rate of steel corrosion embedded in concrete element [4].
The main objective of this research is to develop a multi-scale modeling of steel corrosion in
cracked Ultra High Performance Concretes and to create a computer lifespan simulator, which
could predict the reinforcement section loss as well as the electro potential behavior of steel
corrosion in concrete. The concrete lifetime estimation is influenced by their characteristics
such as concrete microstructure properties, environmental exposure conditions, crack width,
crack depth and et cetera. In this article, it is tried to explain briefly the corrosion modeli ng as
well as validation test applied in the project. It should be mentioned that the comprehensive
numerical model including water, oxygen and chloride ingress will be found in the PhD thesis
written by the Author.
357
2 Corrosion Model
Assumptions
Steel corrosion in concrete has been recognized as a complicated phenomenon, whose
analysis depends on several known and unknown factors. In order to simplify this complexity,
the following assumptions have been made by the Author.
1- As this model has been developed and specialized for cracked UHPC, the main cause of
steel corrosion initiation is the breakdown of protective oxide film at the crack area as a
result of concrete shield absence or high chloride concentration.
2- Carbonation induced corrosion is ignored in this model, owing to the high resistance of
UHPC against carbonation.
3- In the case of steel fiber reinforced concrete, due to the unknown distribution and
direction of steel fibers in concrete member and complexity of corrosion analysis for
each fiber, the analysis is carried out only for an individual steel fiber placed among the
crack with a specified concrete cover thickness. It should be mentioned that in the
reality, the corrosion electrochemical potential around of steel fibers influence on each
other, which is ignored in this study.
4- The pH value of the concrete is constant during the time.
5- Type of steel corrosion is macro cell, in which the anodic and cathodic regions of steel
are obviously separated from each other.
6- The corrosion starts, when either the concentration of chloride ions on the steel surface
becomes higher than the chloride threshold value or the anode would directly be
exposed to the water.
7- The most severe corrosion section is located directly in the crack area.
8- Steel corrosion is considered to be a cathodically controlled process, during which
greater polarization takes place at the cathodic sites far from the crack.
9- Polarization at the steel-concrete interface is expressed by the Butler-Volmer kinetics.
10- The cathodic and anodic equilibrium potential will remain constant through the corrosion.
11- There are not considerable capillary pores or porous zone around the steel-concrete
interface in UHPC. Therefore the corrosion rust could not diffuse into these voids, but
should accumulate among the crack.
Applied Equations
The rate of steel corrosion at the anode in crack zone is related to the current density, which is
calculated from the surrounding electrochemical potential distribution. In this situation, the
current density at any point on the steel surface could be determined by [6]:
i
1
r n
(1)
Where, i denotes the current density at the steel surface [A/cm 2], is the electrochemical
potential [V], r is the concrete resistivity [.cm], and n is the direction normal to the steel
surface. According to [7], the formation of corrosion products at the steel surface decreases the
diffusion rate of iron ions away from the steel surface. For that reason, the corrosion current
reduces with time and should be modified at each time step as follows:
t
i modified i
t0
0.29
(2)
358
Computer Modeling and Investigation on the Chloride Induced Steel Corrosion in Cracked UHPC
Where, imodified is the modified corrosion current, t is the time since start of corrosion, and t 0 is
the first time step of analysis. If the current density is known, then the rate of rust production as
well as steel damage at the anode area could be estimated by the Faradays law, as follows [6]:
J Fe 55.845 10 3
ia
2.894 10 7 i a
zF
(3)
Where, JFe is the rate of steel damage at the anode [kg/cm 2s], ia is the anodic current density
[A/cm2], F is the Faradays constant [9.6510 4 C/mol], and z is the number of exchanged
electrons in the reaction (for iron =2). If it is assumed that the efficiency of anodic current for
steel dissolution would be approximately 100% and uniform corrosion products are formed on
the steel surface, then the percentage of steel cross section loss (S corrosion [%]) during the
corrosion process could be calculated using equation (3), as follows:
Scorrosion
2.894 107 I a t
100
lc s S0 106
(4)
Where, Ia is the corrosion current at the anode [A], t is the elapsed time after initiation of steel
corrosion [s], lc is the length of anodic area on the reinforcement [mm], s is the density of steel
[7800 kg/m3], and S0 is the area of steel cross section before corrosion [mm 2]. Considering the
Equation (1), the computation of current densities around the steel surface requires knowledge
of the electrochemical potential distribution in concrete member. Assuming isotropic
conductivity, the three dimensional potential distribution is expressed by the following Laplaces
equation [6]:
2 2 2
0
x 2 y2 z2
(5)
The boundary conditions for the anodic and cathodic regions on the steel surface could be
defined as:
Anodic regions : a
(6)
Cathodic regions : c
(7)
Where, a and c are the anodic and cathodic potentials, which are calculated by means of the
polarization phenomena, as follows:
a a0 a log
c c0 c log
(8)
ia
i a0
i c RT
i
i O2
RT
i H 2O
RT
i O2
ln O2 L
ln H 2OL
c0 c log c
ln O2 L
i c0 4F i L i c 2F i L i c
i c0 4F i L i c
(9)
Where, a0 and c0 are the equivalent potential of the anodes and cathodes [mV], a and c are
the anodic and cathodic Tafel slope [mV/decades], i a and ic are the anodic and cathodic current
density [A/mm2], ia0 and ic0 are the exchange current density of the anodic and cathodic reaction
[A/mm2], R is the universal gas constant [=8.314 J/K mol], T is the absolute temperature [K],
and iLO2 is the limiting current density of oxygen consumption. The exchange current density is a
temperature dependent parameter which would follow the Arrhenius equation [8]:
E
i 02 i10 exp a
R
1
1

T
T
2
1
(10)
359
Where, i01 and i02 are exchange current densities at two different temperature of T 1 and T2
respectively, R have its usual significance, and E a is the activation energy which has been
reported 19 kJ/mol [9]. The limiting current density of oxygen, which the model considers, is the
minimum value of the following equations. Herein, the first one is calculated from the
concentration of oxygen on the steel surface when the oxygen supply is adequately high, but
the latter is calculated from the limited supply of oxygen through the concrete cover [10,6,11].
i OL12 4F
DSO2 CSO2
t
(11)
106
i OL22 4FJOmax
4F
2
max
Davg
O 2 CO 2
(12)
106
Where, DOS is the oxygen diffusion coefficient next to the steel surface [mm 2/s], DOavg is the
2
average oxygen diffusion coefficient along the concrete cover of d [mm/s], C OS
is the
concentration of dissolved oxygen adjacent steel surface [mol/lit], COavg is the average
2
concentration of dissolved oxygen along the concrete cover of d [mol/lit], J Omax is the maximum
2
supply of oxygen on the steel surface [mol/mm 2s], is the stagnant layer thickness of
electrolyte next to the steel surface (0.5 mm for an unstirred solution [11]), t is the transference
number of all ions in solution except the reduced ion (=1 when many other ions are present
[11]), F is the Faradays constant [9.65104 C/mol], and d is the thickness of concrete cover on
the steel [mm], through which the concentration of oxygen varies from the maximum amount to
approximately zero at the steel surface (due to the rapid reduction of oxygen in the cas e of
limited oxygen supply). It has already been confirmed that concretes with high saturation levels
follow the Equation (12), but otherwise the Equation (11) governs the limitation current density
in the concentration polarization [10].
In the model, the consumption of oxygen molecules in the cathodic regions along the steel
surface is considered as an internal boundary condition for oxygen ingress through the concrete
member. It is expressed as follows [6]:
CO 2
n
(13)
ic
4FDO 2
Where, CO2 is the concentration of dissolved oxygen in concrete, D O2 is the diffusion coefficient
of oxygen, and n is the direction normal to the steel surface.
Solution Strategy
According to the mentioned equations in the previous section, the solution algorithm for
computer modeling of the phenomenon has been considered as follows:
1- Firstly, it is assumed that the initial distribution of potential in concrete is zero and the
electrical potential of steel surface at the anode and cathode regions is equal to the
user/model defined anodic and cathodic equivalent potential, respectively.
2- Limiting current density of the cathodic reaction is determined for each grid point of the
mode; along the steel surface from the Equation (11) or (12).
3- Corrosion current densities for anodic and cathodic reactions could be calculated by
substituting the electrical potential of each point at the steel surface in the Equations (8)
and (9). It should be noted that the anodic current density can be obtained directly from
the Equation (8), while iteration is applied to find the cathodic current density from the
Equation (9).
360
4- Electrical potential flux (/n) is calculated by substituting the corrosion current density
in the Equation (1).
5- Distribution of electrical potential in the concrete is determined by solving the Equation
(5), using finite difference method.
6- In order to improve the analysis precision, steps 2 to 5 should be repeated several times.
7- From the anodic current density, the percentage of steel cross section loss at each time
step is estimated by the Equation (4).
8- Finally, after the corrosion analysis, the boundary conditions are applied to the oxygen
movement analysis, using the Equation (13).
3 Experimental Programs
Ultra High Performance Concrete, due to the improved density of the grain structure of the
matrix and hydration products, could be recognized as an impermeable material. Therefore,
each laboratory experiment related to permeability on UHPC, takes a long time to become
complete and time plays an important role in design of tests. In the other side, the precision of
laboratory instruments applied for UHPC specimens should be adequate to guarantee accuracy
of test results. In this project, a comprehensive experimental program was designed to obtain
essential parameters which are required as an input data in numerical model. These
parameters include chloride diffusion coefficient, water diffusion coefficient, water sorption
coefficient, concrete resistivity, Tafel slope, compressive strength and porosity. The
comprehensive finite difference numerical model, test methods as well as experimental results
have already been written by the author and will be presented as PhD Thesis.
4 Validation Test
In order to simulate the macro cell steel corrosion in cracked concrete, three reinforced UHPC
beams of 700150150 mm in dimension were casted. The artificial cracks were made by
plastic plates, which were placed exactly in the middle of steel bar during the specimen
preparation process. The potentially cathodic reinforcement next to crack section was simulated
by adding six reinforcing steel sections with different lengths on each side of the crack, allowing
generated current to be determined as a function of crack distance [12]. The steel sections had
been connected by non-resistance copper wires, end of which were kept exterior side of the
concrete body, in order to be able to measure the generated current between the sections
during the steel corrosion in concrete; see Figure (1).
Reservoir
Crack
Figure 1: Assembled reinforcement (Left) and final specimen (Right) used in the validation test.
The rods diameters were 10 mm, which were embedded in three different concrete cover
depths of 10, 20 and 30 mm for each case of specimen. The concrete beams were covered with
plastic foil kept wet for 48 hours after casting. Thereafter, the plastic plates were removed and
the specimens were soaked in water saturated with calcium hydroxide for 28 days. After the
361
curing time, the beams were taken out and the side faces of them were coated to prevent rapid
drying of the concretes from these areas. As well, the bottom sides of the beams were soa ked
in water.
In order to accelerate the macrocell corrosion of steel in the crack area, a salt water reservoir
was placed exactly above the crack zone for each beam. After the preparation process, all
specimens were stored in climate room at 20C and 65% relative humidity. The corrosion
currents were then measured regularly by the multimeter in the different time durations to
validate the results obtained by the numerical model. The schematic set up of the experiment is
shown in Figure (2). Furthermore, comparisons have been made between the corrosion current
measured by multimeter during one year and outputs of numerical model which has briefly been
described in the previous sections. These comparisons are illustrated in Figure (3) to Figure (5).
Figure 2: The schematic set up of the validation test.
Figure 3: Comparison between the reality and model for UHPC specimen with 10mm concrete cover.
362
5 Summary and Conclusions

A comprehensive finite difference model for predicting the corrosion current as well as steel
cross section loss in cracked concrete exposed to chloride ions has been developed. The
model includes the effects of changes in exposure conditions, temperature, concrete age, crack
width, concrete microstructure, and concrete cover on the corrosion behavior. The significant
agents that contribute to the rate and amount of steel corrosion such as temperature, moisture,
chloride, oxygen movement and distribution, have been modeled by the second order explicit
finite difference method. The corrosion current and steel dissolution amount are predicted
based on the potential distribution around the concrete-steel interface, which is obtained by
solving the Laplaces equation. The polarization characteristics of the steel surface impose the
boundary conditions for current densities along the concrete-steel interface. The model results
have been validated by the self-designed laboratory experiments on beam specimens with
different concrete types and concrete covers. The reasonable compatibility between the model
prediction and the measured test data confirms that despite ignoring many complexities of
corrosion process, the current theories could well satisfy the realities.
6 Acknowledgements
This research was supported by a grant from the Department of Structural Materials and
Construction Chemistry of University of Kassel in Germany, which is thankfully acknowledged.
References
[1] Jieying Z.; Zoubir L.: Sensitivity analysis of simplified diffusion-based corrosion initiation model of
concrete structures exposed to chlorides. Cement and Concrete Research, 36, pp.13121323, 2006.
[2] Gowripalan, N.; Mohamed, H.M.: CHLORIDE-ION INDUCED CORROSION OF GALVANIZED AND
ORDINARY STEEL REINFORCEMENT IN HIGH-PERFORMANCE CONCRETE. Cement and
Concrete Research, 28(8), pp.11191131, 1998.
[3] Schmidt, M.; Teichmann, T.: New development in Ultra High Performance Concrete non corrosive
PVA-fibers and glueing of structural elements. 2nd fib congress, pp. 326-337, Neapel 2006.
[4] Ema K.; Yoshitaka, K.; Taketo, U.: Development of simulation model of chloride ion transportation in
cracked concrete. Journal of advanced concrete technology, 3(1), pp.85-94, 2005.
[5] Yu, W.; Long-yuan, L.; Page, C.L.: Modelling of chloride ingress into concrete from a saline
environment. Building and Environment, 40, pp.15731582, 2005.
[6] Burkan Isgor, O.; Ghani Razaqpur, A.: Modeling steel corrosion in concrete structures. Materials and
Structures, 39, pp.291-302, 2006.
[7] Kim Anh, T.V.; Stewart, M.G.: Structural reliability of concrete bridges including improved chlorideinduced corrosion models. Structural Safety, 22(4), pp.313-333, 2000.
[8] Zhang, J.: PEM Fuel Cell Electrocatalysts and Catalyst Layers, Fundamentals and Applications.
Springer-Verlag London, p. 93, ISBN 978-1-84800-935-6, 2008.
363
[9] Youping, L.: Modeling the Time-to-Corrosion Cracking of the Cover Concrete in Chloride
Contaminated Reinforced Concrete Structures. Doctor thesis of philosophy in civil engineering,
Virginia Polytechnic Institute, P.5, Blacksburg, Virginia. 1996.
[10] Markeset, G.; Myrdal, R.: Modeling of reinforcement corrosion in concrete - State of the art. COIN
P4 Operational service life design, SP 4.1 F Service life modeling and prediction, 2008.
[11] Winston, R.R.; Herbert, H. U.: Corrosion and Corrosion Control. Hoboken New Jersey, John Wiley &
Sons, Inc.
[12] Raupach, M.: Chloride-induced macrocell corrosion of steel in concrete-theoretical background and
practical consequences. Construction and Building Materials, 10(5), pp.329-338, 1996.
364

Michael Thomas1, Brian Green2, Ed ONeal2, Vic Perry3, Sean Hayman1, Ashlee Hossack1
1: University of New Brunswick, Fredericton, NB, Canada
2: U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, Vicksburg, MS, USA
2: Lafarge North America, Calgary, AB, Canada
Three series of ultra-high performance concrete mixtures have been placed at the mid-tide level of the
marine exposure site at Treat Island, Maine, over the past 15 years. The exposure conditions at Treat
Island are considered to be very severe with 6-metre tides and more than 100 freeze-thaw cycles per
year. Specimens from each of the three series of mixes were retrieved in 2009 and 2010 for laboratory
testing. The testing included measurements of strength and stiffness, electrical properties, chloride
profiling, corrosion activity of reinforcing steel (if present) and microstructural evaluation. No visible
deterioration was evident after exposure periods of 5 to 15 years and there was no evidence of any
degradation of mechanical properties after more than 1500 freeze-thaw samples in some cases. The
depth of chloride penetration was extremely low, much lower than observed for typical high -performance
concrete in the same environment.
Keywords: UHPC, durability, marine performance, chloride resistance, freeze-thaw resistance
1 Introduction
Since 1995 three series of ultra-high performance concretes (UHPC) have been placed at the
mid-tide level of a marine exposure site at Treat Island, Maine. The first was a series of fibrereinforced very-high strength concrete (VHSC) beams that were produced at the laboratory of
the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE) in 1995 using locally-available materials. In 1996
the USACE also produced reactive powder concrete (RPC) beams containing steel reinf orcing
bars at cover depths of 25, 19 and 10 mm. In 2004, specimens of RPC were produced at the
University of New Brunswick (UNB) using either steel or plastic fibres; some of these specimens
were pre-cracked prior to installation. The exposure conditions at Treat Island are very
aggressive for concrete with tides in excess of 6 m and an average of 100 cycles of freezing
and thawing per year. At yearly intervals concrete specimens were subjected to a visual
inspection and measurement of resonant frequency and pulse velocity. Samples from each
series were retrieved after between 5 to 15 years of exposure for testing in the laboratory at the
University of New Brunswick (UNB). The testing consisted of compressive and flexural strength,
static modulus of elasticity, electrical properties, chloride profiling, corrosion activity of
reinforcing steel (if present) and microstructural evaluation of the concrete.
2 Details of UHPC Mixtures

RPC (USACE)
This series of concrete mixtures were produced at the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers (USACE)
Waterways Experiment Station (WES) as part of an evaluation of reactive powder concrete
(RPC) for producing sewer, culvert and pressure pipes [1]. Materials and proportions were
selected based on criteria established by Bouygues, and details of the wet mixture used in this
study are given in Table 1. The cement was a Class H oil well cement, the sand was a silica
sand with a maximum particle size of 0.6 mm, metallic fibres were 0.16 mm diameter x13 mm
long, and the high-range water-reducing admixture was a naphthalene sulfonate sodium salt.
Concrete specimens were cured for 1 day in the forms, 6 days in limewater, 4 days in hot water
at 90C, and 2 days in air at 90C.
365
To evaluate corrosion protection three concrete beams (152 x 152 x 533 mm) containing 13mm diameter steel reinforcing bars with cover depths of 25, 19 and 10 mm were placed on the
mid-tide deck at the Treat Island exposure site in 1996. These beams were reportedly [1] stored
in limewater for 28 days prior to being shipped to the exposure site. Two beams were retrieved
in 2009 at an age of 13 years for testing at UNB.
Table 1: Mixture Proportions (kg/m3) of UHPC.
USACE
RPC 200
VHSC
Ductal
RPC1
Cement
942
796
712
Silica Fume
236
199
231
Silica Flour
110
211
Fine aggregate
1036
897
1020
Fibres
160
235
156
Material
Water
136
207
Typical composition reported by Graybeal for Ductal [2]
109
VHSC (USACE)
The VHSC series of mixtures (Table 1) were also produced at WES and beams (152 x 152 x
533 mm) were placed at Treat Island in 1995. Sand with a maximum particle size of 4.75 mm
and hooked-ended steel fibres 30 mm in length and 0.5 mm in diameter were used in these
mixtures. Four beams were retrieved in 2010 at an age of 15 years.
RPC (UNB)
Two series of concrete mixtures were produced at UNB using a premixed RPC formulation
produced by Lafarge and marketed under the name Ductal . The premixed material contains
cement, silica fume, silica flour and fine sand; although the precise composition material is not
provided a typical composition of RPC produced using this product is given by Graybeal [2]
and is presented in Table 1. The two series produced at UNB differed in the type of fibre used,
metallic (FM) or PVA (FO) and in the water content; the mixture proportions are given in Table
2. The metallic fibres had a diameter of 0.2 mm and a length of 12.7 mm, the maximum particle
size of the sand was 0.6 mm and the HRWRA was a polycarboxylate. FM and FO specimens
were cured for 2 days in the forms at 20C and were then wrapped in pre-soaked burlap and
plastic. FM specimens were then cured for a further 2 days at 90C and FO specimens for 3
days at 60C.
Table 2: Mixture Proportions (kg/m 3) of RPC (UNB).
Material
FM
FO
Ductal Premix
2195
2195
Metallic Fibres (2%)
156
50.4
130
167
PVA Fibres (4%)

Water
Six concrete beams (152 x 152 x 533 mm) were produced from each mixture. Three beams
were loaded in flexure until the first crack appeared. All six specimens were then placed on the
mid-tide deck at Treat Island in 1994 and one cracked and uncracked specimen was retrieved
from each mixture in 2009 (at an age of 5 years). Cylindrical specimens were also cast for
compressive strength tests and for the determination of the chloride diffusion coefficient using a
bulk diffusion test (ASTM C 1556).
366
3 Experimental Methods
Beam samples were collected from Treat Island in 2009 and 2010, and were subsequently
tested at UNB. Beams were first broken in flexure (VHSC and UNB test series only) and then
cores (75-mm diameter) were cut to determine the compressive strength, static modulus of
elasticity and chloride profile. Additional 100-mm cores were cut from the 15-year-old VHSC
series to determine the chloride permeability using ASTM C 1202 and the bulk-diffusion
coefficient (ASTM C 1556), but these data are not reported here. Samples of the UNB
concretes were also tested for strength, chloride permeability and bulk diffusion prior to placing
the beams at Treat Island.
Chloride profiles were measured by grinding cores and collecting powder samples in 1-mm
increments from the surface to a depth of at least 15 mm. The chloride content of the samples
was determined by extraction in nitric acid and subsequent titration of the solution.
4 Results
All specimens retrieved from Treat Island were in excellent condition with no evidence of
surface scaling, mass loss or cracking. The beams that were pre-cracked prior to exposure
were still intact and the cracks did not appear to have widened significantly, having a max imum
crack width of just 2.5 mm. This is somewhat surprising as it was expected that the multiple
freeze-thaw cycles (approximately 500 over the 5-year period) would have widened the crack
significantly. A piece of embedded reinforcing steel with nominally 10-mm cover was extracted
from one of the beams was found to be in pristine condition.
Table 3 shows results from strength tests on cores cut from the beam samples after marine
exposure and cylinders stored under laboratory conditions for 28 days. The strength data for the
cores extracted from the beams appears to be highly variable and the reason for this is not
known. However, in many cases the core strengths after marine exposure exceed the strength
of laboratory-stored, cast cylinders determined prior to exposure of the beams. Overall the
results would indicate that there has not been any regression in the mechanical properties due
to marine exposure.
Table 3: Results of Strength Tests before and after Marine Exposure.
Property, Study
Exposure
period (y)
Strength (MPa)
Before
After
Compressive strength, RPC-USACE
13
214 [ref 1]
160, 224
Compressive strength, VHSC
15
157 [ref 3]
173, 188, 194, 183
*Flexural strength, VHSC
21.7, 23.1, 19.9, 27.4
Compressive strength, UNB-FM
209, 206
175, 192, 203, 256
Compressive strength, UNB-FO
129, 121
119, 134, 123, 120
*Flexural strength, UNB-FM
20.3
21.9
*Flexural strength, UNB-FO

*Load at first crack
10.1
9.4
Fig. 1 shows the chloride profiles for the various UHPC specimens collected from Treat Island.
The maximum depth of penetration of chlorides for all specimens ranges from approximately 7
to 12 mm after between 5 to 15 years exposure to the marine environment.
Only one profile was measured for the RPC specimens from USACE and UNB, and these
appear to be similar despite the different durations of exposure (5 versus 13 years). Profiles
were measured for all four VHSC specimens and these data show a considerable amount of
367
scatter. In addition, the shape of the profiles for the VHSC specimens is different as the chloride
contents in the increments closest to the surface (0-1 and 1-2 mm) are reduced compared to
the maximum values that occur in the third increment (2-3 mm). This shape of profile is often
observed in concretes that are exposed to chlorides intermittently, such as highway structures
exposed to deicing salts and concrete in the splash zone (above high tide level), but is not
typical for concrete in the tidal zone. It is possible that reactions between the seawater and the
hydrates led to densification of the surface layers in these samples; for example, the production
of brucite or magnesium silicates is known to occur in concrete exposed to seawater.
Microstructural analysis of the samples is currently underway.
VHSC-USACE (15y)
RPC-USACE (13y)
0.4
#22
Chloride (% mass)
UNB-FM (5y)
#24
UNB-FO (5y)
0.3
#26
#38
0.2
0.1
0
0
10 0
Depth (mm)
10
12
Depth (mm)
Figure 1: Chloride Profiles for UHPC.
The bulk diffusion test (ASTM C 1556) conducted on laboratory-cured samples of RPC (without
fibres) produced at UNB yielded a diffusion coefficient of D = 1.3 x 10 -13 m2/s after 63 days
exposure to NaCl solution (165 g/L). The chloride permeability (ASTM C 1012) was measured
on two samples and the charge passed after 6 hours was 0 and 19 coulombs.
5 Discussion
Regardless of the shape of the profiles, all of the concretes show a very high resistance to
chloride-ion penetration as can be seen in Fig. 2 which compares the profiles for the UHPC
after 5 to 15 years with the profiles for high-performance concrete (HPC) with 8.5% silica fume
and w/cm = 0.33 after 12 years at the mid-tide level at Treat Island [4]. Also shown in Fig. 2 is
the range of chloride threshold, Ct, often used in service-life modelling (0.05 to 0.10% total
chloride by mass of concrete). The depth of penetration, dt, of the threshold, Ct, of UHPC
ranges from 4 to 8 mm after 5 to 15 years marine exposure whereas dt ranges from 17 to 23
mm after 12 years. Assuming diffusion to be the dominant chloride transport mechanism for
concrete at mid-tide and assuming the diffusion coefficient to be constant with time (reasonable
assumption for mature heat-cured concrete with very low w/cm?) then the rate of penetration of
the threshold concentration, Ct, can be expected to be proportional to the square-root of time; in
other words: dt = kt.
368
RPC-USACE (13y)
1.2
UNB-FM (5y)
VHSC-USACE (15y)
1.0
Chloride (% mass)
HPC (12y)
0.8
0.6
Range of
Chloride
Threshold, Ct
(0.05 - 0.10%)
0.4
0.2
0.0
0
10
15
20
25
Depth (mm)
Figure 2: Comparison of Chloride Profiles for UHPC and HPC.
Fig. 3 shows the depth, dc, of the chloride threshold for Ct = 0.05 and 0.10% plotted against the
age of the concrete for the UHPC concrete tested in this study and for the HPC (8.5% si lica
fume and w/cm = 0.33) tested in a previous study [4]. Also shown is extrapolation of the data
assuming dt = kt. This indicates that the UHPC can be expected to provide considerably
greater protection to embedded steel reinforcement than typical HPC.
Depth of Threshold, d t (mm)
80
Ct (%), Concrete
0.05, UHPC
0.10, UHPC
0.05, HPC
0.10, HPC
60
40
HPC
dt = kt
20
UHPC
0
0
20
40
60
Age (Years)
80
100
Figure 3: Rate of Penetration of Chloride Threshold for UHPC and HPC.
Table 4 shows the results of the bulk diffusion and rapid chloride permeability tests conducted
on the laboratory-stored RPC produced at UNB compared with data for typical HPC samples
with w/cm = 0.35 to 0.40 and with various levels of supplementary cementing materials (SCM)
369
tested at UNB at ages between 28 and 91 days. The data shows that typical HPC containing
SCM and with w/cm 0.40 is significantly more resistant to chlorides than the minimum quality
of Portland cement concrete (PCC) generally specified for chloride environments (e.g. w/cm
0.40 in ACI 318), but that UHPC is more than an order of magnitude more resistant than HPC.
Table 4: Comparison of Chloride Permeability and Chloride Diffusion Test Results for UHPC and HPC .
Age
(days)
RCPT
(Coulombs)
Diffusion Coeff, D
(x 10-13 m2/s)
RPC (produced at UNB)
28
0 - 19
1.3
PCC (0.40, no SCM)
91
2200
80
HPC # 1 (0.35, 8% SF)
28
975
HPC # 1 (0.35, 8% SF)
56
850
13
HPC # 2 (0.40, 4% SF + 22% SG)
91
500
19
Type of concrete (w/cm, SCM)
HPC # 3 (0.35, 5% SF + 20% FA)

91
450
17
RCPT = rapid chloride permeability test (ASTM C 1202), SF = silica fume, FA = fly ash, SG = slag
PCC = Portland cement concrete without SCM
It is encouraging that the piece of embedded steel reinforcement with nominally 10-mm cover
which was retrieved from one of the RPC samples was in pristine condition after 13 years
exposure. However, it has been found in previous studies at Treat Island that there is
insufficient oxygen in concrete at the mid-tide level to sustain corrosion even in PCC.
Consequently, one of the remaining steel-reinforced RPC specimens was relocated to the hightide level to ensure that oxygen would be available. The corrosion activity of the steel bars in
this specimen will be monitored periodically.
6 Conclusions
UHPC beams produced in three separate studies were placed at the mid-tide level of the
marine exposure site at Treat Island, ME. After periods of exposure ranging from 5 to 15 years,
with approximately 100 freeze-thaw cycles per year, the beams appear to be in excellent
condition. The depth of chloride penetration is very low being approximately 1/3 of that of typical
high-performance concrete (HPC) with 8.5% silica fume and w/cm = 0.33 after 12 years
exposure to the same conditions.
References
[1] Campbell, R.L., ONeil, E.F., Dowd, W.M. and Dauriac, C.E. Reactive Powder Concrete for
Producing Sewer, Culvert, and Pressure Pipes. U.S. Corps of Engineers, Technical Report CPAR
SL-98-3, 1998.
[2] Graybeal, B.A. Material Property Characterization of Ultra-High Performance Concrete. Federal
Highways Administration, Report FHWA-HRT-06-103, 2006.
[3] ONeil, E.F., Neeley, B.B. and Cargile, J.D. Tensile Properties of Very-High-Strength Concrete for
Penetration-Resistant Structures. Shock and Vibration, 6, 1999, pp. 237-245.
[4] Thomas, M.D.A. and Bremner, T. Performance of Lightweight Aggregate Concrete after 25 Years in
a Harsh Marine Environment. Cement and Concrete Research, 2011.
370
Evaluation of Durability Parameters of UHPC Using

Accelerated Lab Tests
Julie Pirard, Bram Dooms, Niki Cauberg
Belgian Building Research Institute (BBRI), Limelette, Belgium
Ultra-High Performance Concrete (UHPC) mixes are characterized by a very low water-to-cement (w/c)
ratio and high powder contents. A compressive strength of 130 MPa or more can be obtained without
heat treatment or other special measures. Apart from high strength, extremely high durability is generally
recognized to be one of the distinctive features of UHPC, even when exposed to severe environments.
This paper aims to quantify some durability parameters of UHPC using typical lab tests such as
accelerated carbonation, chloride penetration, sulphate attack and freeze-thaw cycling with and without
de-icing salt. Compared to normal strength concrete, the duration of the tests has been prolonged
several times in order to get measurable results. In addition, the durability results are linked to porosity
measurements (microstructure) and probabilistic models are used to predict the service life of structural
elements or structures made of UHPC.
Keywords: Ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC), porosity, permeability, durability, carbonation,
chloride diffusion, sulphate attack, freeze-thaw attack.
1 Introduction
Ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC), a family of concretes with compressive strengths
exceeding 130 N/mm, offers the possibility to design exciting and innovative structures.
Because this concrete type is relatively new in Belgium, some properties have still to be
validated for mixes made of local materials.
In order to evaluate the performances of UHPC exposed to different aggressive
environments, the water porosity and the gas permeability of the concrete were measured and
the following accelerated tests were performed: carbonation, chloride diffusion, sulphate attack
and freeze-thaw cycling with and without de-icing salt.
The performances were compared to those of normal strength concrete and high
performance concrete (HPC). In addition, probabilistic models were used to evaluate the benefit
in the lifetime of the structure and the possible need to review some design rules related to
durability.
2 Materials and curing

Three concrete mixes were subjected to the test program. The UHPC types M1, M2 and M3
represent different approaches of UHPC-design, ranging from compositions with larger
aggregate size and minimal cement content (M1) to reactive powder concrete with high powder
contents and complete removal of coarse aggregates (M3). The mix proportions and the
properties of the fresh concrete mixes are given in table 1. In some cases, 2 vol.% (i.e. 156
kg/m) steel microfibres of 6 mm length are added to the mix (in this case, for carbonation test
only). Silica fume slurry and quartz powder are used to densify the matrix. The addition of high
dosages of polycarboxylate based superplasticizer ensures a suitable fluidity, close to that of a
self-compacting concrete.
All concrete specimens were demoulded 24 hours after casting and then stored at 20 2C
and more than 95% RH until testing (up to an age of 90 days for the specimens used for
durability testing). No heat treatment was applied.
371
Table 1: Mix design of M1, M2 and M3 and properties of the fresh concrete mixes.
M1
M2
M3
kg/m
786
335
1060
Quartz powder (d 50 = 12 m)
kg/m
50
83
211
Basalt 1/3 mm
kg/m
510
Basalt 5/8 mm
kg/m
386
Porphyry 2/4 mm
kg/m
776
CEM I 42.5 R HSR LA (c)
kg/m
500
830
777
Silica fume (sf)
kg/m
100
166
156
Mixing water (w)
kg/m
150
178
162
Superplasticizer (SP, con. 30%)
kg/m
15
24
28
(w/c)-ratio (SP included)
0.32
0.23
0.23
(sf/c)-ratio
0.20
0.20
0.20
Slumpflow
mm
750
750
800
Fresh density
kg/m
2490
2420
2430
Air content
vol.%
2.5
2.0
3.5
3 Mechanical properties and microstructure

The compressive strength was obtained by testing cubes with an edge length of 100 mm (see
table 2). Other mechanical properties of the three mixes are provided in [1] and [2].
The total water absorption was measured by immersing concrete cores. A water porosity
ratio was calculated (see table 2) using the following expression:
mssd md
100 (vol.%)
mssd msusp
(1)
where mssd is the mass of water saturated surface dry concrete (in g), md is the mass of
concrete oven-dried at 105C (in g) and msusp is the mass of concrete suspended in water (in g).
Typical values for normal strength concrete range from 12 to 16 vol.% [3, 4].
As a supplemental durability indicator, the oxygen permeability was also measured by using
the AFREM recommendation entitled Gas permeability of hardened concrete [3]. The test
involves measuring the steady-state volumic flowrate of gases passing through a sample under
a constant pressure gradient, and then deducing its permeability to gas (in this case, oxygen)
using Darcys law. The results given in table 2, corresponding to the material in its dry state, are
very close to the detection limit of the method (10 -19 m) and seem to be in accordance with the
French Guidelines for UHPC [4]. Typical values for normal strength concrete range from 10 -15 to
10-16 m [3, 4].
Table 2: Compressive strength and porosity of the tested UHPC mixes.
M1
M2
M3
28-day compressive strength
MPa
130 - 140
140 - 160 (*)
140 - 160 (*)
Water porosity ratio (P)
vol.%
N.D.
N.D.
Oxygen permeability (kapp)
10
-19
(*) up to 200 MPa for heat treated specimens.
372
4 Durability properties
Accelerated carbonation test
The resistance against carbonation was determined on prisms having a cross-section of
100100 mm. Prior to the test, the prisms were oven-dried at 50C during 14 days and then
placed in a climate chamber at 20 2C and 60 5% RH during 7 days. The prisms were then
stored under a 1%-CO2 atmosphere for accelerated aging and the carbonation front was
regularly analyzed by spraying a phenolphtaleine acid/base indicator solution on a fresh
fracture. It should be noted that the carbonation front is sometines difficult to observe due to the
darker colour of UHPC compared to concrete without silica fume.
The results of these measurements are plotted in figure 1. After a one-year exposure to 1%CO2 atmosphere (duration of this test is generally limited to 56 days), a carbonation depth of
only 1.5 to 2 mm was reached. A coefficient of carbonation can be calculated (see fig.1 and
table 3) using the following equation:
xc kc t
(2)
where xc is the carbonation depth at time t (in mm); kc is the coefficient of carbonation which
represents the carbonation rate (in mm/day) and t is the exposure period (in days).
Carbonation depth [mm]
3.0
M1 (R = 0.91)
2.5
M2 (R = 0.99)
2.0
M3 (R = 0.95)
1.5
1.0
0.5
0.0
0
10
15
20
25
30
Exposure period [day]

Figure 1: Carbonation depth vs. exposure period to 1%-CO2 atmosphere for fibre reinforced UHPC mixes.
From a practical point of view, this coefficient can be used as input data in predictive
approaches like the DuraCrete Model [6] to estimate the carbonation depth in real conditions as
a function of time. In order to compare the performances of an ordinary concrete (kc = 1.5
mm/day), a HPC (kc = 0.6 mm/day) and a UHPC (kc = 0.1 mm/day) in the same conditions
(see also [1]), we can for example calculate the minimum concrete cover needed to reach a
lifetime (towards carbonation induced rebar corrosion) of 100 years. We obtain values of 65 mm
for ordinary concrete, 25 mm for HPC and less than 5 mm for UHPC.
Accelerated chloride diffusion test
The resistance against chloride diffusion was determined on drilled cores of 90 mm diameter by
accelerated testing in non-steady state conditions, according to the Nordtest method NT Build
443 (1995). In this test, a Ca(OH)2 saturated surface is exposed to a chloride solution, obtained
by dissolving 165 g of dry NaCl in one litre of water, while the other surfaces are coated with
epoxy resin. After an exposure period of at least 35 days (in this case extended to 90 days),
373
thin successive layers (1 mm thick) are ground off parallel to the exposed surface. The acidsoluble chloride content of each layer is then determined by potentiometric titration.
According to the test results (see chloride ingress profile in fig.2), the chloride penetration
after 90 days of accelerated testing is restricted to the outer 2 to 3 mm. Similar intrusion depths
were observed by Scheydt et al. [7] for UHPC subjected to real-time testing. A chloride diffusion
coefficient (Dapp) can be calculated using a mathematical model based on the Ficks second law
of diffusion. This coefficient is found to be as low as 0.210-12 m/s (see table 3), while typical
values for normal strength concrete are in the range from 510-12 to 5010-12 m/s [3, 4].
Chloride concentration [mass % of dry

sample]
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
0
10
Depth below exposed surface [mm]
Figure 2: Chloride ingress profile of UHPC-type M2 after 90 days of exposure to a saline solution. The dotted
line represents the regression analysis according to the mathematical model (1st experimental point excluded).
Freeze-thaw attack
The frost resistance of UHPC was tested according to the reference method (Slab Test)
described in the technical specification CEN/TS 12390-9 (Freeze-thaw Resistance Scaling,
2006). In this test, four concrete cores (diameter 113 mm, height 50 mm) are subjected to
freeze-thaw attack in presence of a 52 mm deep layer of de-ionised water or 3% sodium

chloride (NaCl) solution. All surfaces of the specimens except the test surface are coated and
insulated according to the test set-up in figure 3. The freeze-thaw resistance is generally
evaluated by the measurement of the mass of material (in kg/m) which is scaled from the
concrete slab after 56 freeze-thaw cycles (i.e. 56 days). In this case, the duration of the test
was extended to 112 cycles.
The results indicate that the mass losses of the specimens (i.e. the masses of scaled
material) after 112 cycles are extremely low, even with NaCl solution. The values are limited to
0.3 kg/m (see table 3) and seem to be in good agreement with those obtained by Cwirzen et al.
[8]. For comparison, values up to 2 kg/m after 30 cycles are generally accepted for road
applications.
374
Figure 3: Slab Test set-up. A = Temperature measuring device, B = Evaporation protection, C = Freezing
medium, D = Concrete specimen, E = Epoxy resin, F = PVC tube, G = Thermal insulation.
Sulphate attack
The sulphate resistance was evaluated based on the CUR Recommendation 48 (The
Netherlands, 1999). Prisms of 40x40x160 mm are immersed in a sodium sulphate solution
(Na2SO4, 16g SO42- per litre) and the length variation is regularly measured. The results indicate
no expansion nor deterioration, even after 500 days of immersion.
Table 3: Durability results for M1, M2 and M3.
Coefficient of carbonation by 1% CO 2 (kc)
mm/day
-12
M2
M3
0.12
0.10
0.09
0.23
0.23
N.D.
Apparent chloride diffusion coefficient (Dapp)
10
Surface scaling after 56 cycles with de-ionised water
kg/m
0.16
0.02
0.04
112 cycles
kg/m
0.22
0.03
N.D.
kg/m
0.17
0.10
0.06
kg/m
0.27
0.12
N.D.
Surface scaling after 56 cycles with NaCl solution

112 cycles
Length variation after 365 days in a sulphate solution
m/s
M1
5 Conclusions
This study investigated the durability parameters of three concrete mixes, covering a broad
range of UHPC types. The results indicate a spectacular improvement in durability compared to
normal strength concrete and even HPC. No significant difference was observed between the
tested UHPC mixes since the mix M1 with a rather limited powder content and a (w/c)-ratio
above 0.30 gives results of the same order of magnitude. The influence of the fibre
reinforcement was not investigated here.
The resistance to carbonation of the UHPC mixes being very high, steel rebars and
reinforcing fibres are much longer protected from carbonation induced corrosion then in
ordinary concrete mixes. However, the possible corrosion of some steel fibres directly at the
concrete surface could be a problem for aesthetic considerations. UHPC mixes also show a
very strong resistance against ingress of aggressive materials such as chloride ions and
sulphate water. Moreover, the deterioration caused by freeze-thaw attack is negligible. These
results are in good agreement with previous studies and existing recommendations [4, 5].
The highly dense hardened state of UHPC, caused by a very low w/c-ratio and high powder
contents, is the primary reason for this enhanced durability. The porosity could be reduced even
more by applying a specific heat treatment, especially for the mixes M2 and M3 (for example,
curing the concrete at 2 days for about 4 days at 90C).
From a practical point of view, the mechanical and durability properties of UHPC allow for the
design of slimline concrete structures and components with high structural capacities and a very
375
long life span. The minimum requirements for the concrete cover with regard to durability for
reinforcement steel, as specified today in the Eurocode 2 (EN 1992-1-1 and national annexes),
are however not adapted for UHPC structures. Such a study could be used as an impulse to
review this aspect of said standard.
6 Acknowledgements
The authors gratefully acknowledge the project partner Vrije Universiteit Brussel (VUB) and the
financial support of IWT, the Flanders Agency for Innovation by Science and Technology.
References
[1] Pirard, J.; Cauberg, N.; Remy, O.: Evaluation of Durability and Cracking Tendency of Ultra -High
Performance Concrete. Proceedings of the 8 th International Conference on Creep, Shrinkage and
Durability of Concrete and Concrete Structures (CONCREEP 8), Ise-Shima, Japan, 2008, p.695700.
[2] Cauberg, N.; Remy, O.; Parmentier, B.; Pirard, J.; Van Itterbeeck P.: Shrinkage Behavior and
Cracking Tendency of UHPC. Proceedings of the 9 th International Symposium on High Performance
Concrete Design, Verification and Utilization, Rotorua, New Zealand, 2011.
[3] Baroghel-Bouny, V. & al.: Conception des btons pour une dure de vie donne des ouvrages
Matrise de la durabilit vis--vis de la corrosion des armatures et de lalcali-raction Etat de lArt
et Guide pour la mise en oeuvre dune approche performantielle et prdictive sur la base
dindicateurs de durabilit (in French). Association Franaise de Gnie Civil (AFGC), France, July
2004, 252p.
[4] Ultra-High Performance Fibre-Reinforced Concretes: Interim Recommendations. AFGC/SETRA,
France, January 2002.
[5] Uchida, Y & al.: Review of Japanese Recommendations on Design and Construction of Different
Classes of Fiber Reinforced Concrete and Application Examples. Proceedings of the 8 th Symposium
on Utilization of High-Strength and High-Performance Concrete, Tokyo, Japan, 2008, p.92-100.
[6] DuraCrete: General Guidelines for Durability Design and Redesign, EU-Project (Brite EuRam III),
109 p., 2000.
[7] Scheydt, J.C.; Herold, G.; Mller, H.S.: Long Term Behaviour of Ultra High Performance Concrete
Under the Attack of Chlorides and Aggressive Waters. Proceedings of the 2nd International
Symposium on Ultra High Performance Concrete, Kassel, Germany, 2008, p.231-239.
[8] Cwirzen, A.; Habemehl-Cwirzen, K.; Penttala V.: The effect of heat treatment on the salt freeze-thaw
durability of UHSC. Proceedings of the 2nd International Symposium on Ultra High Performance
Concrete, Kassel, Germany, 2008, p.221-230.
376
Bond Strength between UHPC and Normal Strength Concrete

(NSC) in accordance with Split Prism and Freeze-Thaw
Cycling Tests.
Miguel A. Carbonell1,2, Devin K. Harris1, Ph.D. , Sarah V. Shann1, Theresa M Ahlborn1
1: Michigan Technological University, USA
2: Polytechnic University of Valencia, Spain
An experimental study was performed to assess the bond performance of UHPC for overlay applications.
Pre-wetting conditions, surface preparation, freeze-thaw cycling and indirect tensile strength were
variables taken into account to study such performance. A total of 60 composite and 7 monolithic
concrete specimens, 102x76x394 mm, were cast to test in indirect tension. Experimental results showed
that samples subjected to 300 freeze-thaw cycles present greater bond strength than samples of the
same age without freeze-thaw cycles, and all samples in which the moisture condition of the substrate is
saturated before placing UHPC achieves excellent bond strength which amply satisfies the range
specified in the ACI Concrete Repair Guide.
Keywords: UHPC, bond, concrete repair, splitting tensile test, freeze-thaw cycles, roughness, surface
treatment.
1 Introduction
Bridge deck protection
The rehabilitation of concrete structures, particularly within the transportation infrastructure
network, is a major challenge for transportation agencies in the United States. This is especially
true for concrete bridge decks, which are frequently subjected to severe operating conditions,
both environmental and man-made. Often, the most appropriate strategy to preserve or
rehabilitate these structures is to provide some form of a protective coating or barrier. These
surface treatments have typically been some form of polymer, asphalt, or low-permeability
concrete, but the application of Ultra-High Performance Concrete (UHPC) has shown promise
for this application mainly due to its negligible permeability, but also as a result of its excell ent
mechanical properties, self-consolidating nature, rapid gain strength, and minimal creep and
shrinkage characteristics. However, for widespread acceptance, durability and performance of
the composite system must be fully understood, specifically the bond between UHPC and
Normal Strength Concrete (NSC) often used in bridge decks. It is essential that the bond offers
enough strength to resist the stress due to mechanical loading or thermal effects, while also
maintaining an extended service-life performance [1].
Literature review
The bond strength between two different concrete materials is influenced by many factors, such
as substrate surface (wetting conditions, roughness, presence of microcracks, cleanliness),
compaction method, curing process, concrete substrate (strength and aggregate gradation),
use of bonding agents, age of the bond, and overlay material (strength and thickness) [2 - 4].
There is a broad consensus among research of how some of these factors influence the bond,
for example, hydrodemolition followed by power washing has been shown to be the best
unsound concrete removal and surface preparation technique. The impact methods (scabbling,
milling, scarifying) present the advantage of being the most economical treatment to remove the
damaged concrete, but one major shortcoming is that they fracture the remaining concrete
surface, causing a low fracture tensile strength. Substrate surfaces prepared by these methods
usually achieve half of the bond strength of that prepared by hydrodemolition method [3, 5 - 7].
377
On the other hand, there are conflicting opinions between engineers about how other factors
affect the bond. The moisture condition of the substrate material is one example. It is hard to
draw a general conclusion about how the saturated concrete substrate helps to improve the
bond strength because it depends on the sorptivity and porosity characteristics of the substrate
material. A large porosity could produce a weak interface zone due to the lack of water for
proper hydration, but in contrast a low porosity could reduce the mechanical interlock between
the substrate and overlay materials [4].
Freeze-thaw cycling is one of the most common causes of repair failure in a bridge deck;
therefore, a proper performance evaluation of the bond between concrete materials should
include this effect. Li and Geissert [8, 9] presented a new method based on the ASTM C 666
[10] and a modification of ASTM C 496 [11] to study how freeze-thaw cycling influences the
bond strength between the old and repair concretes because there are currently no ASTM
standard tests for assessing this. The method consisted of casting composite specimens,
102x76x406 mm, that fit within the freeze-thaw apparatus. The specimens were cut into four
small prisms, 102x76x76 mm, after being subjected to 300 freeze-thaw cycles according to
ASTM C 666. Finite element analysis and experimental results showed that small prisms,
102x76x76 mm, had a more uniform distribution along the bond surface than that of large
prisms, 76x102x178 mm, due to the width-height ratio. They concluded that four cast
specimens, which produced 16 test prism samples, provided a reasonable estimation of the
indirect tensile strength. Previously, Ramey [12] studied the splitting tensile strength between
two different materials using composite cylinders instead of monolithic ones. Wall [13] and
Momayez [2] used composite splitting prisms, 102x102x102 and 150x150x150 mm respectively,
to assess indirect tensile strength between concrete substrate and repair materials, without
including freeze-thaw cycles as made by Li and Geissert [8, 9]. The splitting tensile results
obtained in these different studies were consistent, verifying that the splitting tensile test is an
appropriate method to assess the bond strength between overlay and substrate materials. All
these studies used Eq. (1), based on elasticity theory, to estimate the indirect tensile strength:
fsp =
2P
A p
(1)
where fsp is the splitting tensile strength, P is the maximum applied load and A is the area of the
bonding plane.
2 Experimental work
To assess how different surface treatments, substrate moisture conditions and freeze-thaw
cycles affect the splitting tensile bond strength, 60 composite and 7 monolithic specimens were
cast and tested. The composite specimens, with a nominal dimension of 102x76x394 mm, were
made up of NSC and UHPC layers of 38 mm each. Ductal brand UHPC manufactured by
Lafarge North America was used as overlay material. Graybeal [14] presented an extensive
mechanical and durability characterization of this material. NSC mixes were designed to satisfy
the requirements given by Michigan Department of Transportation Bridge Design Manual [15].
These requirements consist of a 28-day compressive strength greater than 31 MPa, a minimum
cement content of 390 kg/m3, an entrained air of 4.51.5 %, and a slump of 25150 mm. The
maximum size for the coarse aggregate used in the NSC mixes was 9.5 mm to avoid
compaction problems. Table 1 lists the number of composite specimens assigned to each case
study. Four composite prisms were obtained from each beam for testing under indirect tension.
378
Bond Strength between UHPC and NSC in accordance with Split Prism and Freeze-Thaw cycling tests.
Preparation of concrete substrates

The first and second of a total of three NSC mixes of NSC were used to cast substrates for the
composite samples. A third mix was used to cast monolithic specimens with the same size as
those of composite specimens. All concrete substrate samples were demoulded 24 hours after
casting and cured in a lime water tank.
Table 1: Composite specimens distribution for each case study.
Dry Substrate
Saturated Substrate
With freeze-thaw
cycling
Without freeze-thaw
cycling
With freeze-thaw
cycling
Without freeze-thaw
cycling
3 specimens per each

surface treatment

surface treatment

surface treatment

surface treatment
When the concrete substrates reached 28 days of age, the surface preparation was carried out.
Smooth, chipped, grooved, brushed and sandblasted surfaces were chosen in order to cover a
broad range of different roughness profiles and to represent some of the most widespread
surface preparation techniques [3, 16]. Figure 1 shows these different surfaces. The grooves
had dimensions at approximately 6-11 mm wide by 7-11 mm deep. It is necessary to mention
that at first the smooth surface was considered to be without any surface treatment and the
chipped surface to be only with small holes produced by a hand drill, but after casting the UHPC
for the samples in the dry moisture condition, all the composite specimens where the concrete
surface was chipped or smooth failed prematurely after demoulding. This was due to the fact
that no dust removal method was applied to these surfaces; therefore, no bond was achieved
between new and old materials. These samples were slightly brushed, and a new layer of
UHPC was poured on them, obtaining composite specimens that did not split after demoulding.
(a) Chipped surface, slightly

brushed.
(b) Smooth surface, slightly

brushed.
(d) Sandblasted surface.

(e) Brushed surface.
Figure 1: Different NSC substrate surfaces.
(c) Smooth surface, no dust

removal treatment applied.
(f) Grooved surface.
Roughness measurement
Two methods were used to evaluate the degree of roughness obtained by each surface
treatment: the macrotexture depth test [17] and the Concrete Surface Preparation index (CSP)
given by [7]. The macrotexture depth determines the area covered by a known volume of glass
spheres spread on the concrete surface. The volume of the glass beads used in the test was 2
ml, although the minimum value specified in [17] is 25 ml, because the size of the samples were
not large enough. The test was repeated four times in each concrete specimen. The CSP index
provides 9 different rubber profiles that replicate different degress of roughness. The resuts of
both tests are summarized in the Table 2.
379
Table 2: Results of the macrotexture depth test and classification of the surfaces according to CSP.
Surface treatment
ICRI Profile
Macrotexture Depth (mm)
Smooth
1, 2
0.64-0.74
Brushed
1, 3
0.67-0.88
Chipped
No applicable
0.86-1.05
Sandblasted
4, 5
0.92-1.29
Grooved
No applicable
No applicable
Placing overlay material

The loose particles on the concrete substrate were removed by high-pressure air before placing
the overlay material. As mentioned previously, two different moisture conditions were used. Dry
concrete substrate is considered as the concrete substrate that was kept in environmental
conditions for a period longer than 28 days. Saturated concrete substrate is defined as the
concrete substrate that was submerged in a water tank for a period of at least 24 hours, and
then covered by a damp cloth to keep the moisture until placing the overlay material, as shown
in Figure 2(d). The surface was wet, but with no free water on it. After pouring the overlay
material, the composite specimens were covered by plastic sheets for three days before
demoulding.
Freeze-thaw cycling
Those samples which were subjected to 300 freeze-thaw cycles, Figure 2(b), were cured in
ambient air for at least 14 days prior to testing according to ASTM C 666, Procedure B [10].
Once the freeze-thaw test was completed, each specimen was cut into four small prisms,
102x76x76 mm, discarding approximately 46 mm of each end, as described in [8, 9].
(c) Composite specimen.
(b) Composite samples in the

(a) The set-up for the
chamber.
splitting tensile test.
Figure 2: Several steps of the experimental work.
(d) Wet cloths covering the

concrete substrate.
Loading test
Compression loading was applied at a constant rate of 8 kN/min until the sample was split,
Figure 2(a). All samples were exposured to the same environmental conditions and tested
approximately at the same age. Therefore, the differential shrinkage between samples was kept
constant, avoiding the introduction of a new variable into the test matrix [16]. To estimate the
indirect tensile stress along the bond interface, Eq. (1) was applied despite the fact that the
prisms were made up of two different materials. The nominal area, 102x76 mm, was used.
380
Results
Table 3 gives the compressive strength of the repair and old layers on the same day as the
splitting test was carried to have a measure of the quality of both materials.
Table 3: Age and compressive strength of overlay and substrate materials on the day indirect tension test.
Composite UHPC/NSC Samples

Dry Substrate
Saturated Substrate
N
Age
Strength
N
Age
Strength
5 270-278
46.8
4
278-280
44.5
10 221-231
154.9
6
185-186
152.7
Material
NSC
UHPC
Note: N: number of cylinders. Age in days. Strength in MPa.
Monolithic concrete
samples
N
4
Age
227-228
Strength
59.4
A number of the composite specimens cast, with the old substrate being dry, failed during the
cutting process, indicating a general failure of the bond from construction. Table 4 shows the
percentage of prisms that split before the loading test. Only those specimens with a grooved
substrate surface were fully successful, due to the fact that the bond was achieved by fitting
UHPC in the grooves rather than any adhesive mechanism since no dust removal treatment
was applied in the grooved surface, as shown in Figure 1(f). The tensile strength of prisms with
grooved substrate surface and the coefficient of variation (COV) in % are given in the Table 5.
Table 4: Percentage of prisms that failed prematurely under dry concrete substrate condition.
Case
Sb FT
Sb W/o
Br FT
Br W/o
Percentage of failure (%)

50
16.7
83.3
66.7
Case
Sm FT
Sm W/o
Ch FT
Ch W/o
Percentage of failure (%)

50
75
100
100
Note: Sb: sandblasted, Br: brushed, Sm: smooth, Ch: chipped, FT: 300 freeze-thaw cycles, W/o: without
freeze-thaw cycles.
Table 5: Results of grooved surface under dry concrete substrate condition.
Prism (strength+failure mode)

N
1
Gr FT 2
3
1
Gr W/o 2
3
4.4 G 5.8 G
5.1 G/C 4.6 G/C
5.0 G 5.1 G
5.3 G 4.9 G
4.2 G/C 5.2 G
5.0 G/C 5.4 G
6.8
7.2
5.0
5.3
4.3
5.2
G
G
G
G
G/C
G
6.0
6.0
2.2
5.7
3.8
5.3
G
G
G
G
G
G
Average
strength,
specimen
5.7
5.8
4.3
5.3
4.4
5.2
COV,
specimen
17.2
19.8
32.8
5.9
12.8
3.0
Average
strength,
case
study
COV,
case
study
5.3
24.4
5.0
11.2
Note: N: number of the specimen, Gr: grooved, FT: 300 freeze-thaw cycles, W/o: without freeze-thaw cycles,
G: failure in the grooves, G/C:mixture failure between bond and concrete. Strength in MPa.
However, excellent bond performance was achieved under saturated concrete substrate, with
the exception of a specimen of sandblasted surface that presented scattered results. The test
results for the saturated substate samples are presented in Table 6 along with descriptions of
the failure modes. The rest of the samples widely satisfied the range of 1.7 to 2 MPa at 28 days
specified in the ACI Concrete Repair Guide [18] for an acceptable bond strength and 2.1 MPa
that Sprinkel [19] defined as an excellent bond. These values refer to direct tensile bond. This
comparison with indirect tensile strength is based on results from Momayez [2] that
demonstrated the bond strength obtained with the pull-off test (direct tensile strength) to be
equal or slightly lower than that of the splitting test (indirect tensile strength).
381
Table 6: Summary of indirect tensile strength composite sample results under saturated concrete substrate.
Prism (strength+failure mode)
Sb
FT
Sb
W/o
Br
FT
Br
W/o
Sm
FT
Sm
W/o
Ch
FT
Ch
W/o
Gr
FT
Gr
W/o
N
A
1 5.3
C
2 3.0 B/C
3 4.9
C
3.2
4.0
4.6
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
1
2
3
3.8
4.4
2.9
4.9
4.3
3.9
3.8
4.2
3.6
4.3
4.1
4.6
3.4
4.4
4.4
4.6
3.9
4.4
4.3
3.9
4.6
5.2
4.9
5.0
4.4
4.4
5.1
4.0
4.5
3.8
4.8
3.6
4.1
4.2
3.9
4.4
4.4
3.6
4.5
2.6
3.3
4.5
5.2
4.5
4.7
3.7
3.6
3.9
6.8
5.9
6.2
5.0
4.0
5.1
C
B/C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
B/C
C
B
B/C
C
C
C
C
C
B/C
B/C
G
G/C
G
G
G
G/C
C
B/C
C
3.4
4.7
4.3
B
B
B
C
C
C
C
C
C
B/C
B/C
C
B
C
C
C
C
C
C
B/C
C
C
G/C
G
G
G
G/C
2.5
4.2
1.0
3.9
3.9
3.9
4.2
3.8
4.5
3.6
5.0
5.0
2.8
4.0
4.1
4.8
4.4
4.2
3.3
4.2
4.8
4.5
5.5
6.4
4.3
3.9
4.7
C
C
C
3.9
4.4
5.1
B
B/C
B
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
B/C
B
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
C
G/C
G/C
G
G/C
G/C
2.3
3.5
0
4.8
4.6
4.0
4.7
4.4
3.8
4.3
3.8
3.6
3.3
3.5
3.6
4.3
4.7
4.3
4.2
4.2
3.9
3.2
5.3
9.2
5.3
4.2
7.1
C
C
C
Average
strength,
specimen
4.0
4.0
4.7
B
B
B
C
C
C
C
C
C
B/C
B/C
B/C
B
C
B/C
C
C
C
B/C
C
B/C
C
G/C
G
G
G/C
G/C
3.2
4.2
1.9
4.6
4.1
4.0
4.2
4.1
4.1
4.2
4.1
4.4
3.0
3.8
4.1
4.7
4.4
4.4
3.9
4.0
4.3
4.9
5.4
6.7
4.8
4.1
5.5
COV,
specimen
24.4
18.9
7.2
Average
strength,
case
study
COV,
case
study
4.2
17.9
3.1
45.8
4.2
10.5
4.1
8.3
4.2
11.7
3.6
16.9
4.5
7.8
4.1
10.1
5.7
25.8
4.8
18.1
27.9
10.8
90.0
10.2
11.3
2.0
8.4
7.0
11.0
8.3
15.0
13.0
12.0
13.0
9.7
8.4
8.6
4.3
11.1
6.7
10.8
30.4
7.3
26.5
10.2
4.8
20.1
Note: N:number of the specimen, Sb: sandblasted, Br: brushed, Sm: smooth, Ch: chipped, Gr: grooved, FT:
300 freeze-thaw cycles, W/o: without freeze-thaw cycles, C: failure in the concrete, B: failure in the bond, B/C:
mixture failure between bond and concrete, G: failure in the grooves, G/C: mixture failure between bond and
grooves. In Sb W/o, N 1, prism A, the load was removed before splitting of the prism. Strength in MPa.
Table 7 shows the results of 7 monolithic NSC specimens that were cast for use as a
benchmark to assess the quality of the bond. These samples were subjected to the same
conditions as those of the composite specimens.
Table 7: Summary of indirect tensile strength monolithic NSC sample results.
N
1
FT 2
3
4
Average
strength,
specimen
4.9
5.2
4.6
4.9
COV,
specimen
6.4
2.9
4.8
6.8
Average
strength,
case study
4.9
COV,
case
study
6.7
Average
strength,
N
specimen
1
4.7
W/o 2
4.5
3
4.2
COV,
specimen
Average COV,
strength, case
case study study
8.6
14.3
16.9
Note: N:number of the specimen, FT: 300 freeze-thaw cycles, W/o: without freeze-thaw cycles.
Strength in MPa.
382
4.5
12.9
In the splitting tensile test, the bond interface is subjected to the greatest tensile stress in the
specimen. It should be emphasized that when the failure of the composite prism takes place in
the concrete substrate, the bond strength is considered greater than the failure stress of the
sample. Only in the cases in which failure occurred fully in the bond that stress value can be
taken as the bond strength. Figure 3 shows the different failure modes considered in this study.
(a) G/C: groove-concrete.
(b) G: grooved.
(d) C: concrete.
(e) B: bond.
Figure 3: Representive failure modes of composite specimens.
(c) B/C: bond-concrete.
(f) Failed prism samples.
3 Conclusions and discussion

The results from this study highlight that the moisture condition of the concrete substrate is a
critical factor for achieving good bond performance. The bond between UHPC and NSC gives
excellent results under indirect tensile stress if the moisture condition of the concrete substrate
is saturated before placing the overlay material, regardless of the surface treatment applied . In
contrast, a general premature failure occurred with those samples cast on a concrete susbstrate
with a dry moisture condition. Smooth, sandblasted, brushed and chipped surfaces presented
similar strengths which indicates that the surface treatment is not a critical factor, at least under
this loading configuration. Additional testing under different states of stress will be used to
further study the effect of surface roughness, with more appropriate testing configurations [1, 2].
Macrotexture depths equal or greater than 1.5 mm are often related with good bond strength
based on field experience [5], but in this research, the different substrate surfaces had
macrotexture depths between 0.64 and 1.29 mm, and all of them presented outstanding
strengths. Therefore, it can be concluded that when UHPC is used as overlay material on a
saturated substrate, a simple surface treatment that removes the dust from the concrete surface
is enough to achieve a good bond that satisfies the bond strength ranges given by [18, 19]. In
all cases, 300 freeze-thaw cycles have a benefitial effect on the bond strength.
The low COV for the monolithic samples confirms the consistency of the splitting tensile test.
Whereas the COV for the composite specimens with brushed, smooth or chipped substrate
surfaces was acceptable. The COV for grooved samples is slightly greater due to the variation
in the size of grooves. The COV for sandblasted samples was higher due to the fact that two
prisms had strengths significantly below the mean strength. The latter might be due to an error
in some stage of the prism preparation. For the composite specimens with a smooth, brushed
or chipped substrate surface, the average strengths attained were about 81% to 92% of the
strength of monolithic samples. For sandblasted substrate surface, this range varied from 69%
to 87% due to those two outlier prisms previously mentioned. The grooved surface obtained
better results, between 107% and 117%, approximately. This was due to the fact that in the
plane in which the force was applied, the UHPC that filled the grooves was bearing most of the
indirect tensile stress.
383
4 Futher research and acknowledgment

Future work will include the evaluation of more composite samples subjected to 600 and 900
freeze-thaw cycles and slant shear and pull-off tests to evaluate behavior of the bond under
different states of stress. The rise of freeze-thaw cycles will assess if the increase of bond
strength stabilizes or if there is a turning point from which the bond strength decreases. The
slant shear is more sensitive to the surface preparation [1, 2]. The pull-off test can be carried
out in situ or in the laboratory giving the opportunity of correlation among the others tests. The
authors thank Lafarge North America for their support of the highlighted research activities.
References
[1] Harris, D.K.; Sarkar, J.; Ahlborn, T.M.: Interface Bond Characterization of Ultra High Performance
Concrete Overlays. Transportation Research Board (TRB) 90th Annual Meeting, Transportation
Research Board, Washington, D.C., 2011.
[2] Momayez, A.; Ehsani, M. R.: Comparison of methods for evaluating bond strength between concrete
substrate and repair materials. Cement and Concrete Research 35 (4), p. 748-757, 2005.
[3] Silfwerbrand, J.: Improving concrete bond in repaired bridge decks. Concrete International 12, p. 6166, 1990.
[4] Beushausen, H.: The influence of concrete substrate preparation on overlay bond strength.
Magazine of Concrete Research 62, p. 845-852, 2010.
[5] Sprinkel, M. M.: Preparing bridge decks for overlays. Aberdeen's Concrete Repair Digest 8, p 242247, 1997.
[6] Hindo, K. R.: In-place bond testing and surface preparation of concrete. Concrete International 12, p.
46-48, 1990.
[7] ICRI Guideline. No. 03732. Selecting and Specifying Concrete Surface Preparation for Sealers,
Coatings, and Polymer Overlays. International Concrete Repair Institute, IL., USA, 1997.
[8] Li, S. E.; Geissert D. G.: Freeze-thaw bond durability of rapid-setting concrete repair materials. ACI
Materials Journal 96, p. 242-249, 1999.
[9] Geissert, D. G.; Li, S. E.: Splitting prism test method to evaluate concrete-to-concrete bond strength.
ACI Materials Journal 96, p. 359-366, 1999.
[10] ASTM C666 / C666M - 03. Standard Test Method for Resistance of Concrete to Rapid Freezing and
Thawing. West Conshohocken, PA., 2008.
[11] ASTM C496/C496M. Standard Test Method for Splitting Tensile Strength of Cylindrical Concrete
Specimens. West Conshohocken, PA., 2004.
[12] Ramey, G.E.; Strickland, A.M.: An experimental evaluation of rapid-setting patching materials used
in the repair of concrete bridges and pavements. Alabama Highway Research, Project 930-103, Part
II, pp. 48 56, 1984.
[13] Wall, J. S.; Shrive, N. G.: Testing of Bond between Fresh and Hardened Concrete. Adhesion
Between Polymers and Concrete, Proceedings of an International Symposium, France, 1986.
[14] Graybeal, B.: Material Property Characterization of Ultra High Performance Concrete, FHWA-HRT06-103, Federal Highway Administration, U.S Department of Transportation, Washington,D.C., 2006.
[15] Michigan Department of Transportation. MDOT Bridge Design Manual. Lansing, MI., 2009.
[16] Julio, E. N. B. S.; Branco, F. A. B.: Concrete-to-concrete bond strength: Influence of an epoxybased bonding agent on a roughened substrate surface. Magazine of Concrete Research 57, p. 463468, 2005.
[17] ASTM Standard E965-96. Standard Test Method for Measuring Pavement Macrotexture Depth
Using a Volumetric Technique. West Conshohocken, PA., 2006.
[18] Concrete Repair Guide (546R-04). American Concrete Institute. Farmington Hills, MI., 2004.
[19] Sprinkel, M. M; Ozyildirim, C.: Evaluation of high performance concrete overlays placed on route 60
over Lynnhaven inlet in Virginia. VTRC 01-R1. Virginia Transportation Research Council, VA., 2000.
384
Alkali-Activated Ground Granulated Blast Furnace Slag

Binders for High Performance Concretes with Improved Acid
Resistance
Ricarda Tnzer1, Dietmar Stephan2, Michael Schmidt1
2: Building Materials and Construction Chemistry, Berlin Institute of Technology, Germany
This paper presents the approach from fundamental investigations of alkali-activated GGBFS with
different types of alkali silicates as activators to mortars and concretes that c an be used for sewage pipes
with improved acid resistance. Methods such as flow-table test, compressive strength or scanning
electron microscopy and mercury intrusion porosity as well as the examination of the acid resistance are
used to characterise the properties of the binders, mortars and concretes in fresh and hardened state.
Finally the production of a pipe in laboratory scale is represented.
Keywords: ground granulated blast-furnace slag, alkali silicate binders, sewage pipes
1 Introduction and background

The item High and Ultra High Performance Concrete is usually defined by a high compressive
strength [1] and dense microstructure. Derived from this, other performance criteria like
improved chemical resistance can be mentioned. Currently used concrete pipes that form part
of sewer systems are increasingly exposed to aggressive fluids. Concretes based on
conventional cements have a restricted resistance especially to acid attack even if the y fulfill the
structural and strength requirements for HPC or UHPC. Because of that plastic or ceramic
materials with a higher acid resistance are preferably used.
Therefore, alternative binders with an improved acid resistant attract more and more
attention. One opportunity is based on alkali-activated ground granulated blast-furnace slag
(GGBFS) and fly ash, also referred to as cold ceramics. Activating agents such as alkali salts
(carbonates, sulfates), alkali hydroxides or alkali silicates, also known as waterglass, can be
used for producing binders which harden at temperatures lower than 100C and also provide a
high degree of chemical and mechanical resistance.
One requirement for the activator is to attack and dissolve the glass network of the GGB FS
or fly ash [2]. The basic mechanism of these reactions was described by Glukhovsky [3] in three
steps: destroying glass network of the raw material and precipitation; precipitation and
condensation as well as condensation and crystallization. According to the CaO-content in the
raw materials different reaction products are formed. At high CaO-contents mainly C-S-H and
C-A-H phases can be found in the binders. With decreasing CaO-content this proportion is
reduced and the proportion of zeolite-like phases is rising [4]. If blast-furnace slag is mixed with
solids low or free in calcium such as fly ash or metakaolin, reaction products of both C -S-H and
C-A-H phases and an aluminosilicate network are formed [5-8].
In particular, the application of waterglass as activator results in a consistent silicification of
the material structure, because of the high amount of silicate in the liquid. This reaction has a
significant influence on the pore structure and thus on the impermeability and physical
resistance of the binder.
In the following paper the whole development from binder investigations over mortar to the
concrete mixing design and finally the production of a pipe in laboratory scale is represented.
385

Ground granulated blast furnace slag and alkaline activators
The used GGBFS had a glass content of 99.9 wt.-% and a Blaine fineness of 4150 cm/g. The
chemical composition is shown in Table 1.
Table 1: Chemical composition of the industrial GGBFS in wt.-%.
wt.-%
SiO2
Al2O3
FeO
TiO2
MnO
CaO
MgO
Na2O
K 2O
S2-
GGBFS
37.4
10.0
0.25
0.80
0.23
38.7
10.3
0.27
0.62
1.14
As alkaline activators several sodium and potassium silicates were used, which differ in their
modules (defined as molar ratio SiO2/Me2O). Table 2 shows the abbreviations and explanations
of the activators used in this investigation. Furthermore, for all binders a water to slag ratio of
0.35 was defined, to allow a comparability of all binders, because of the different solids contents
of the waterglasses.
Table 2: Composition of the alkaline activators.
abbreviation
waterglass
molar ratio
SiO2/Me2O
alkali concentration
in mol/kg
solid
content
Na-WG-0.5
2 mol/kg Na
sodium waterglass
0.5
2.0
9.2
Na-WG-1.0
2 mol/kg Na
sodium waterglass
1.0
2.0
12.2
Na-WG-2.0
2 mol/kg Na
sodium waterglass
2.0
2.0
18.2
K-WG-0.5
2 mol/kg K
potassium waterglass
0.5
2.0
12.4
K-WG-1.0
2 mol/kg K
1.0
2.0
15.4
K-WG-2.0
2 mol/kg K
2.0
2.0
21.5
Experimental Investigation
At first sample specimen (222 cm) of alkali-activated slags were prepared for investigating
the characteristics of the hardened binders. They were kept in moulds at 20 C and 65 % RH for
one day. After demoulding the hardened binders were stored at 20 C and 100 % RH until
testing the compressive strength after 1, 7, 28 and 180 d, respectively. In order to analyze the
pore size distribution and microstructure of the binders the hydration of some speci men was
stopped by means of vacuum drying 28 d after the preparation. For these investigations a
mercury intrusion porosimeter (Poremaster 60 GT, Quantachrome) and a scanning electron
microscope (XL 30, Phillips) were used. The setting time of the binders was detected with an
automatic Vicat apparatus according to DIN EN 196-3.
The mortars were prepared with a mortar mixer according to DIN EN 196-1. To determine
the workability in dependence of the time, the slump was measured in accordance with DIN EN
1015-3 4 minutes after zero time as well as 10, 20, 30 minutes, and if possible 40 minutes after
zero time. In addition the acid resistance of mortars were checked. At the age of 28 d, prism
(4416 cm) were exposed to sulfuric acid, nitric acid and lactic acid (each pH-value 4 and 2)
and for comparison in water and air. After 14 days, the specimens were removed from the
solution, and stored two more days under standard conditions before testing their flexural and
For the concrete two quartz gravels (2/8 and 8/16) were used as aggregates. It was prepared
with a concrete mixer ZZ 150 HE by Zyklos company with 150 l of usable volume. First the dry
ingredients were pre-mixed to homogenize them for two minutes. Subsequently, the liquid
component, consisting of the waterglass K-WG-0.75 and water were added and the concrete
was mixed 4 more minutes.
386
compressive strength [N/mm]
Binder
150
The compressive strength of the binders in
140
K-WG-0.5 (2 mol/kg K)
130
Figure 1 depict several findings. After 1 d, the
120
binders containing waterglasses with low
110
Na-WG-0.5 (2 mol/kg Na)
100
SiO2/Me2O-ratios
show
slightly
higher
90
strength compared to the binders containing
80
70
waterglasses with higher SiO 2/Me2O-ratios.
60
50
But from a reaction time of 7 d the strength is
40
increasing with increasing module. This effect
30
20
becomes more obvious when taking a closer
10
look at the binders with sodium silicates.
0
1
7
28
180
High compressive strengths were achieved
time [d]
with potassium waterglasses, in particular Figure 1: Effect of the SiO /Me O-ratio of the
2
2
K-WG-1.0. This binder reached already after waterglass activators on the compressive strength of
1 d a strength of nearly 40 N/mm, which the activated GGBFS.
increases over time up to 120 N/mm after
180 d.
The porosity of alkali activated binders depend on the modulus of the waterglass used and
can be very low. Figure 2 shows the pore size distribution of selected binders with potassium
waterglas with moduli of 0.5, 1.0 and 2.0 compared to a hardened cement paste ma de from
CEM I 42.5 R (water to cement ratio 0.35). After 28 d of hydration the hardened cement paste
had a broad pore size distribution between 2 and 300 nm with a total porosity of 21.4 vol-%,
where of 5.4 vol-% are in the range of gel pores. The total porosities of the alkaline-activated
binders are all lower compared to cement paste sample. The majority of this porosity is formed
from gel pores. The binder with K-WG-0.5 had the highest porosity with 15.2 vol-%. The lowest
porosity had the binder with potassium waterglass with molar SiO 2/Me2O-ratio of 1.0.
Cumulative Hg-intrusion volume [ml/g]
0,125
gel pores
< 10nm
capillary pores
10nm < r < 100m
0,100
CEM I w/c=0.35
GGBFS + K-WG-0.5
GGBFS + K-WG-1.0
GGBFS + K-WG-2.0
0,075
0,050
0,025
0,000
0,01
pore radius [m]
0,1
Figure 2: Pore size distribution of alkali-activated

GGBFS with different potassium water-glasses as
activator compared to a hardened cement paste
(CEM I 42.5 R, water to cement ratio= 0.35).
Figure 3: SEM photomicrographs of a binder after

28 d of reaction (GGBFS with K-WG-1.0).
In Figure 3 scanning electron microscopy (SEM) images of the binder with K-WG-1.0 is
represented. The selected specimen shows an extremely dense and obviously closed surface
without visible pores. It is assumed that gel structures are formed during the hardening process,
that cross-linked the slag particles. In contrast to CEM cements no distinct network of capillary
pores is formed, which explains the density of the binder [9]. The high density is assumed to
387
have a positive effect on the

performance of these binder systems,
especially
regarding
the
high
mechanical strength and the resistance
against chemical attack, caused by the
exposition to aggressive liquids and
gases.
For the evaluation of the workability
times of these alkali-activated binders
the setting times were measured twice
with an automatic Vicat needle
apparatus. Figure 4 presents the setting Figure 4: Setting times of alkali activated binders with
times of the alkali activated binder GGBFS and waterglasses with different molar ratios of
SiO2/Me2O (black part of the bar: time between the initial set
pastes with sodium and potassium
and end set).
waterglasses. The clear dependency of
the waterglass modulus becomes obvious. With rising SiO 2/Me2O-ratio the setting times
decrease. A possible explanation for this behavior could be a condensation of the colloidal silica
oligomers of the waterglass resulting in a stiffening of the binder [9, 10]. The ratio of SiO2/Me2O,
has a high impact on the resulting setting times, which is shorter with a rising content of SiO 2.
Mortar
The consistency and the workability time are important practically relevant properties of mortars
and concretes. For practical use, it is specially necessary to influence the consistency, hence
not only thin liquid mortar for coatings but also stiff concretes for pipes can be manufactured.
For the investigation of consistency and processing time first a mix design for mortar was
formulated which consists of GGBFS (Table 1) and a quartz sand 0/2 as well as waterglass and
water as the activator. According to the calculation algorithm of Schwanda and Reschke
[11, 12] to optimize packing density of broken material, GGBFS (40.8 wt.-%) and quartz sand
0/2 (59.2 wt.-%) were selected, resulting in mixtures with a low content of voids, and hence a
maximum space filling of 0.799. The ratio of granulated slag and waterglass was the same as in
the binder pastes. The water contents had to be adjusted because of the different solid contents
of the waterglasses and the selected water to binder value.
Figure 5: Value of flow table test of different mortars with alkali activated GGBFS (flow table 30 cm).
The mortar with K-WG-0.5 as activator has the softest consistency (see Figure 5), and remains
fluid and workable for a certain time after mixing. In contrast to that the mortar with K -WG-1.0
388
compressive strength [N/mm]
has a soft and fluid consistency at the beginning, but after 20 minutes it began to stiffen very
fast resulting in a total loss of workability. The mortar with K-WG-2.0 stiffens even faster and the
slump cone could not be filled for a second test after 10 min. Therefore, another activator was
required, combining the high slump and long workability of K-WG-0.5 with the high strength of
the binder with K-WG-1.0. All the advantages can be combined in the waterglas K-WG-0.75. As
can be seen in Figure 1 the compressive strength after 1 d is around the same level like the
binder with K-WG-1.0. The mortar with K-WG-0.75 shows a pronounced thixotropic behaviour.
The slump is not as fluid as with K-WG-0.5, but the workability of mortar is good. With low
mixing energy it is possible to stir up a plastic consistency again and keep it for more than 40
minutes.
This mortar was chosen for testing the acid resistance. Figure 6 on the left side represents
the strength (relative to the residual cross-section) of the mortar with GGBFS and K-WG-0.75
after 14 d of storage in various media. The compressive strength of the prism embedded in
sulfuric acid (pH=4 and pH=2), nitric acid and lactic acid (each pH=4) are comparable to the
strength of the references in air or water. A loss in compressive strength could be observed in
consideration of the specimens that have been exposed to nitric acid and lactic acid (pH=2).
On the right side of Figure 6 photomicrographs of two prism after 14 d storage in lactic acid
(pH=2) are represented. The mortar above contains alkali-activated GGBFS as a binder, the
mortar below is based on Portland cement. The latter is attacked until complete destruction. It
was not possible to measure a compressive strength on these deformed specimens. This
comparison shows that alkali-activated systems have great potential for acid resistance mortars
in the case of sulfuric acid attack, als well as in the case of exposure to organic acids.
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
pH=4 pH=2 pH=4 pH=2
air water sulfuric acid nitric acid
pH=4 pH=2
lactic acid
Figure 6: left side: Strength of mortar with K-WG-0.75 activated GGBFS after 14 d storage in various media;
right side: Comparison of two prism after 14 d storage in lactic acid (pH=2); above: alkaline-activated mortar
with K-WG-0.75, below: cementitious mortar.
Concrete
The final step was the transfer from mortar to concrete scale and the production of an
prototype. For the concrete products industry characteristics such as high green strength, good
properties for demoulding and a high dimensional stability are necessary. These properties can
be achieved with earth-moist concrete, which has a very stiff consistency and a high proportion
of aggregates. The used binder paste or mortar must have a flowable consistency to allow a
complete coating of the aggregate. For this reason, the mortar with K-WG-0.75 (water to binder
value 0.45) was chosen. In order to achieve an immediate demoulding property, a high
dimensional stability and a closed surface of the manufactured cylinders, it was necessary to
find the optimum mortar to aggregate proportion. In Table 3 the concrete compostions
depending on the ratio of mortar to aggregate are listed.
389
The specimens from earth-moist concrete (cylinder diameter 20 cm) were produced under
load (27.5 kg) while compressing on the vibrating table. The proportion of mortar rises from 35
up to 50 vol-%. It was possible to produce green stable cylinders with high contour accuracy. As
illustrated in Figure 7 the surface becomes denser with increasing binder content. Because the
specimens with 45 and 50 vol-% do not differ so much, the concrete with a ratio mortar to
aggregates of 45 : 55 was used for the prototype pipe for the lower content of waterglass.
Table 3: Concrete composition based on mortar with GGBFS and K-WG-0.75 with different mortar to
aggregate ratios (water to binder value 0.45).
Weight for 1 m concrete [kg]

Ratio Mortar (M) to Aggregates (A)
[vol-%]
Mortar
Aggregates
M:A
35 : 65
M:A
40 : 60
M:A
45 : 55
M:A
50 : 50
GGBFS
259
296
333
370
K-WG-0.75
100
114
128
143
Water
31
35
39
44
Quartz sand 0-2
375
429
482
536
Gravel 2/8
984
909
833
757
Gravel 8/16
738
681
625
568
21
24
27
30
Amount of paste [vol-%]

Paste = GGBFS + WG + H 2O
Figure 7: Dimensional stability and surface appearance of concrete specimens with different ratios of mortar to
aggregate
At first a formwork was prepared for a 1 m long pipeline with a wall thickness of 5 cm (inner
diameter 20 cm, outer diameter 30 cm). After mixing the concrete it was poured in layers in the
formwork, which was fixed on a vibrating table. To simulate the industrial manufacturing
process the pipe was demoulded immediately. Figure 8 shows the described production
process of the pipe demonstrator as well as the finished pipe, a sectional area and the surface
of the hardend tube. Due to the mechanical treatment after demoulding a largely non -porous
surface could be achieved on the inside and outside of the tube. This rework of the surface is
quite commen in concrete factories e.g. in pipe manufacturing.
390
Figure 8: Production process of the pipe demonstrator (filling the formwork and demoulding), the finished pipe
(iner diameter 20 cm, wall thickness 5 cm, height 1 m) as well as the sectional area and the surface of the
hardend tube.
4 Conclusions
In this paper the development from binder over mortar and concrete to a prototype pipe was
represented. Key finding of the investigation is that the specific choice of the waterglass is a
dominant control variable to influence the binder, fresh and hardened mortar and concrete
properties. With the decision whether a sodium or potassium waterglass is used with a high or
low waterglass module (molar ratio SiO 2/Me2O), the processing properties (consistency and
processing time), the solidification and hardening and solid-state properties can be controlled in
general. As a consequence mortar and concrete recipes can be developed that are adapted to
application requirements. Furthermore, the production of the demonstrator shows that with
these binders it is possible to produce concrete which is suitable for the concrete industry and
has a good resistance to aggressive external conditions.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank the Bundesministerium fr Bildung und Forschung for financial support.
Thanks are also expressed to Mr. Ehrenberg (FEhS) and Mr. Krakehl (Woellner) for supply of
materials.
References
[1] DAfStb: Sachstandsbericht Ultrahochfester Beton, Heft 561. 1. Auflage, Beuth Verlag, Berlin, (2008).
[2] Shi, C., Krivenko, P. V. and Roy, D.: Alkali-Activated Cements and Concrete. Taylor and Francis,
New York, (2006).
[3] Glukhovsky, V. D.: Soil silicates. Their properties, technology and manufacturing and fields of
aplication, Doct Tech Sc. Degree thesis, Civil Engineering Institute. Kiev, (1965).
[4] kvra, F.: Alkali activated material - Geopolymer, Proc. International Conference Alkali Activated
Materials (Prague, 2007), pp. 661-676.
[5] Buchwald, A., Hilbig, H. and Kaps, C.: Alkali-activated metakaolin-slag blends - performance and
structure in dependence of their composition, Journal of Materials Science, vol. 42, no. 9, pp. 3024 3032 (2007).
[6] Buchwald, A.: Geopolymer binders - Part 1: What are geopolymers?, ZKG International, vol. 60, no.
12, pp. 78-84 (2007).
[7] Yip, C. K., Lukey, G. C. and van Deventer, J. S. J.: The coexistence of geopolymeric gel and
calcium silicate hydrate at the early stage of alkaline activation, Cement and Concrete Research,
vol. 35, no. 9, pp. 1688-1697 (2005).
[8] Yip, C. K. and van Deventer, J. S. J.: Microanalysis of calcium silicate hydrate gel formed within a
geopolymeric binder, Journal of Materials Science, vol. 38, no. 18, pp. 3851-3860 (2003).
[9] Zellmann, H.-D.: Metaphosphat - modifizierte Silikatbinder als Basis surebestndiger
Beschichtungsmaterialien, doctoral thesis, Bauhaus-Universitt, (2008).
391
[10] Goberis, S. and Antonovich, V.: Influence of sodium silicate amount on the setting time and EXO
temperature of a complex binder consisting of high-aluminate cement, liquid glass and metallurgical
slag, Cement and Concrete Research, vol. 34, no. 10, pp. 1939-1941 (2004).
[11] Schwanda, F.: Der Hohlraumgehalt von Korngemischen, beton, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 12-17 (1959).
[12] Reschke, T.: Der Einfluss der Granulometrie der Feinstoffe auf die Gefgeentwicklung und die
Festigkeit von Beton. Verlag Bau und Technik GmbH, Dsseldorf, (2000).
392
Part Four
STRUCTURAL BEHAVIOUR
393
394
Direct and Flexural Tension Test Methods for Determination

of the Tensile Stress-Strain Response of UHPFRC
Benjamin A. Graybeal 1, Florent Baby2, Pierre Marchand2, Franois Toutlemonde 2
1: Federal Highway Administration, TFHRC, McLean (VA), United States of America
2: Paris-Est University - IFSTTAR, Bridges and Structures Department, Paris, France
The tensile stress-strain response of Ultra-High Performance Fiber Reinforced Concrete (UHPFRC) is a
fundamental mechanical behavior, and knowledge of this response is necessary for appropriate use of
the concrete. To date, direct tension test methods aimed at assessing this property have generally found
limited application due to their complexity and impracticality when considered in terms of a commercial
testing environment. A joint research effort recently completed by the U.S. Federal Highway
Administration and the French IFSTTAR (formerly LCPC) has succeeded both in further advancing the
field of flexure testing as well as in developing a novel, practical direct tension test method. The direct
tension test can be considered as a reference method as it directly reports the uniaxial tensile stress strain response of the concrete both pre- and post-cracking without requiring the use of any complex
stress or strain transformations. Moreover, it can be completed relatively quickly through the use of
commercially available mechanical testing equipment on cast or extracted specimens of cross -sectional
dimension up 51 mm square. The flexural test remains easier to perform, while data processing requires
special care. The paper describes the direct tension and flexure test methods, as well as results obtained
from applying these tests to multiple UHPFRC-class materials.
Keywords: Ultra-High Performance Fiber Reinforced Concrete, UHPFRC, UHPC, direct tension test,
flexure test, uniaxial stress-strain response, inverse analysis
1 Introduction
The tensile stress-strain response of Ultra-High Performance Fiber Reinforced Concrete
(UHPFRC) is a fundamental mechanical behavior, and knowledge of this response is necessary
for appropriate use of the material. However, accurate assessment of this mechanical property
is quite difficult in general due to the brittle, discontinuous nature of the response of
cementitious materials. To date, this property has primarily been either indirectly assessed via
flexure or biaxial tension-compression, or directly assessed through cumbersome, timeconsuming test methods. A joint research effort recently completed by the U.S. Federal
Highway Administration and the French IFSTTAR (formerly LCPC) has succeeded both in
further advancing the validation and analysis of flexure testing as well as in developing a novel,
practical direct tension test method.
The direct tension test can be considered as a reference method as it directly reports the
uniaxial tensile stress-strain response of the concrete both pre- and post-cracking without
requiring the use of any complex stress or strain transformations. Additionally, the method can
be completed relatively quickly through the use of commercially available mechanical testing
equipment on cast or extracted specimens of cross-sectional dimension up to 51 mm square.
The flexure test method provides for a potentially more robust capture of the specimen
response. The associated inverse analysis method is presented and compared with results from
direct tensile tests. Advantages and limitations of the experimental and analysis methods are
derived.
2 Test Program
The test program was designed to allow for the development and assessment of a novel direct
tension test method. In order to assess the applicability of the test method, two different
395
commercially available UHPFRCs were engaged along with two different steel fiber
reinforcement contents. The curing regime applied to the UHPFRC was also a variable, with
one of the UHPCs being used to create both steam treated and ambient laboratory cured
specimen sets. The direct tension test specimens, prism flexure specimens, and associated
compression test specimens in each set were all fabricated simultaneously from a single
UHPFRC mix.
The UHPFRCs engaged in this test program all had compressive strengths ranging from 190
to 237 MPa, modulus of elasticity ranging from 59 to 65 GPa, and density ranging from 2560 to
2690 kg/m3. The fiber reinforcement for one of the UHPFRCs was 13 mm long, 0.2 mm
diameter, straight steel fibers. These fibers were included at either 2 percent or 2.5 percent by
volume. The other UHPFRC contained 20 mm long, 0.3 mm diameter, straight steel fibers
included at 2.5 percent by volume.
Sets of test specimens nominally included at least 10 identical prisms, with five allocated for
the direct tension test and five for the prism flexure test. All prisms had a 51 mm by 5 1 mm
cross section. Prisms were cast in open-top steel forms by pouring the UHPC into the form at
one end then allowing it to flow toward the other end. Tests were completed after the UHPC
has been allowed to cure for at least 3 months.
3 Direct Tension Test

The development of this direct tension test was necessitated by the need for a standardized test
method which is applicable to a wide variety of UHPC-class materials in either cast or extracted
form. As such, the requirements for the test method included: 1) applicability to cast or
extracted (i.e., cut) specimens as opposed specifically-made dogbone specimens [1-2], 2)
capability of being conducted on commercially available testing equipment, 3) minimization of
flexure stresses on test specimen, 4) test duration allowing at least 6 tests to be completed in
four hours, and 5) high likelihood of any individual test being completed successfully.
The direct tension test developed in this test program builds on work completed previously in
this topic area as well as on tensile testing commonly completed on alternate structural
materials. Much of the previous direct tensile test work on concrete, fiber reinforced concrete,
and UHPFRC has focused along two paths. The first engaged unique dog-bone shaped
specimens specially cast or milled for the test. The second engaged adhesives to glue the
ends of a specimen to the cross-heads of a testing machine. Although both paths present the
possibility of producing reliable test results, neither is conducive to the rapid completion of
multiple tests on cast or extracted specimens. References [3-4] provide a representation of the
work that has been completed in this area.
ASTM E8 Standard Test Methods of Tensile Testing of Metallic Materials [5] presents a set
of standardized tests for metals. One particular test, the tension test for plate-type specimens,
allows for the uniaxial tensile testing of a prismatic metal specimen in a commonly available
computer controlled, closed-loop hydraulic uniaxial testing machine. In practice, hydraulicactuated wedge grips are used to grasp the enlarged grip length of the dogbone-shaped
metallic specimen. Developing a test which engages the existing metals testing infrastructure
thus enhances the broad applicability of the UHPFRC direct tension test proposed herein.
The direct tension test demonstrated herein involves the fixed-end, uniaxial tensile testing of
51 mm by 51 mm by 431.8 mm prismatic specimens. The basic test setup is illustrated in
Figure 1, along with a photograph of a specimen under test. The prismatic specimen has
tapered aluminium transfer plates epoxied to two parallel faces at each end. These full width
plates have a constant thickness of 4.8 mm for 108 mm then a linear transition to a 1 mm thick
tip over 50.8 mm. The plates are glued to the specimen with a thin layer of high strength, high
396
Direct and Flexural Tension Test Methods for Determination of the Tensile Stress-Strain Response of UHPFRC
stiffness structural epoxy. The testing machine hydraulic wedge grips then apply a clamping
stress of approximately 40 MPa which facilitates the uniaxial loading of the specimen.
88.9 mm
Grip3.50
Length
19.1 mm
2.75 Length
Transition
50.8 mm
6.4 mm
101.6 mm
Gage4.00
Length
Extensometer
Bearing Points
UHPC
Aluminum
Transfer
Plate
152.4 mm
Wedge
Grip
127.0 mm
Figure 1: UHPC direct tensile test setup with a 51 mm by 51 mm by 431.8 mm prism.
The test is completed under cross-head displacement control at a rate of 0.00254 mm/sec.
Initially, the specimen is loaded in compression to a stress of approximately 7 MPa, and then is
loaded in tension through tensile failure. The strain within the 101.6 mm gage length is
measured via a 4 LVDT parallel ring extensometer as shown in the photograph in Figure 1.
This extensometer design both provides a simple, reusable measurement system, while
simultaneously providing a clear means of capturing both the average response and any
bending response that might be applied to the specimen.
Figure 2 provides a sample of the results obtained from the direct tension testing. Three out
of six specimens were successfully tested within this series, with success being defined as
capture of the full tensile stress-strain response of the UHPFRC including strain localization
within the instrumented gage length. The stresses from these three responses at each strain
increment were then averaged to create the average response for this set of specimens.
Qualitative assessment of the response of the UHPFRC can also be obtained by mapping the
cracking observed on the test specimen. Figure 3 shows the cracks observed on the surface of
one of these test specimens after the conclusion of the test.
The overall results observed throughout the direct tension test program implemented herein
indicate that the conceptual UHPFRC tensile mechanical response can be described as
illustrated in Figure 4. This idealized representation includes four distinct phases, namely I:
Elastic, II: Multi-Cracking, III: Crack Straining, and IV: Localized. As their names suggest, these
phases refer to specific performance states which occur through the uniaxial straining of the
UHPC. Note that this conceptual response is highly dependent on the efficiency of the fiber
397
reinforcement and may not be observed in practice if appropriate fiber reinforcement dosage,
dispersion, or orientation are not achieved.
Figure 2: Analyzed direct tension stress-strain results from a set of test specimens.
Figure 3: Cracking observed after completion of direct tension test.
Multi-Cracking
Localized
Crack Straining
Fiber Bridging
Strength
III
Localization
II
Crack Saturation
Cracking Strength
First Cracking
Uniaxial Tensile Stress
I Elastic
IV
Uniaxial Tensile Strain
Figure 4: Idealized tensile mechanical response of UHPFRC.
Phase I, the elastic phase, generally continues through first cracking of the section which
occurs at the tensile strength of the cementitious composite. Phase II, the multiple cracking
phase, refers to the portion of the behavior wherein the cementitious matrix repeatedly cracks
within the gage length. Given that the post-cracking strength of each cracked section, as
afforded by the steel fiber reinforcement, is greater than the cementitious matrix cracking
strength, the specimen accumulates elastic strain both within cracks and in the uncracked
sections of the cementitious matrix between cracks, but does not experience significant
widening of individual cracks. Also note that this phase is characterized by a nearly constant
stress level, which is attributed to the homogeneity of the cementitious matrix. Phase III, the
crack straining phase, is the portion of the behavior characterized by the accumulation of strain
within the existing set of cracks. At the start of this phase, the crack density, which is a function
of the fiber reinforcement dispersion, orientation, geometry, and bond properties, is such that
the generation of additional cracks is unlikely. The increasing strain is thus predominantly due
to an increasing crack opening as opposed to further crack initiation. In the crack straining
phase, a degrading increase in stress capacity is observed as the fiber reinforcement
398
undergoes a combination of elastic straining and interface debonding. The phase ends when
the fiber bridging strength is reached leading to crack localization. The final phase, localization,
is characterized by a widening of an individual crack as the fibers bridging that crack fully
debond and pull-out of the matrix. The remainder of the specimen elastically unloads in this
phase, meaning that the behavior in this phase is based on crack-opening, not strain. The
specimen stress continually decreases throughout this phase.
A key goal in the development of the tensile test method is to allow for the creation of a
characteristic design response applicable to a particular UHPC under a particular set of casting
and curing conditions. As such, the obtained results from each set of test specimens w ere
analyzed to determine an average and a characteristic design response. An elastic -plastic
uniaxial stress-strain model was assumed. One set of results is shown in Figure 2. The key
performance indicator in this model is the average stress observed during the multicracking
phase. For the average design response, this phase begins at the intersection with the elastic
response as defined by the modulus of elasticity and concludes at the start of crack localization.
The key parameter in the characteristic response is again the stress during the multicracking
phase, defined as the average stress minus the t-Student coefficient times the standard
deviation. This plastic portion of the response extends from the elastic response through the
minimum last cracking strain observed in any of the specimens within the set.
4 Prism Flexure Test

Analytical inverse analyses for four point flexural tests on UHPFRC or HPFRCC have been
developed by many researchers ([6-10]) with some success. The focus of this research was to
optimize an analysis method for deriving the tensile stress-strain response of UHPFRC from
four point flexural tests ensuring consistency with the direct tension determination. The midspan
strain measurement on the specimen tensile face, as captured by two staggered
extensometers, is used to obtain the experimental curve Bending moment Midspan Strain on
Tensile Face and also to determine the crack localization. Then a point-by-point inverse
analysis is used to derive the tensile stress-strain relationships. Thus, the UHPFRC tensile
stress-strain relationship is derived through a method which reduces the reliance on assumed
behaviours.
Determination of crack localization
The use of a pair of staggered LVDTs allows for simplified identification of crack localization. It
helps distinguish the onset of bifurcation of the cracking process, with crack localization over
one of the gauge lengths while cracking remains diffuse over the other gauge length (Figure 5).
In some cases, two localized cracks can occur before reaching the main failure crack, or the
localized crack can be detected by both LVDTs (case (c) in Figure 5). For these latter cases,
the crack localization is assumed to correspond to the maximum bending stress. In case (a)
three steps can be observed: (1) elongations measured by both LVDTs increase, (2) one
elongation stops increasing, and (3) an unloading branch occurs with a decreasing value for
one elongation. In this case, the Bending Moment Midspan Strain on Tensile Face curve can
exhibit a long plateau with little increase of the load before reaching the maximum load. During
this step, the elongation rate reported by one elongation stops increasing. This step could be
explained by a very low stress decrease in the localized crack combined with the bending
configuration which allows stabilization of or a small increase in the load.
399
Figure 5: Midspan strain measurement including staggered extensometers on the tensile face (at left) and
proposed method to detect the crack localization with identification of the elastic unloading (at right).
Point-By-Point Inverse Analysis

The experimental curve Bending Moment Midspan Strain on Tensile Face is converted into
a tensile stressstrain curve through an inverse method applicable from elastic loading through
crack localization. The stress-strain curve is derived from the equilibrium of moments and forces
in a sectional analysis for each value of midspan strain on the tension face and the
corresponding bending moment. This approach, based on the method described in [7], does not
need to assume the profile of the tensile stress-strain relationship. The main difference with [7]
is the fact that the experimental midspan strain at the extreme tension fiber is directly
measured, not derived from a global measurement. The strain and stress distributions in the
compressed zone are considered as linear. For each strain measurement, the position of the
neutral axis and correspondingly the depth of section in tension are determined via the inverse
analysis, as detailed from Eq.1 to Eq. 13. The width and the height of the specimen are noted b
and h. E is the elastic modulus, nh is the height under tension and the curvature.
Compressive stresses and strains are considered as negative and tensile stresses and strains
as positive. Thus, in the zone under compression:
N c b E n 1
2
h2
(1)
2
h6
and M c b E 2 n 3 n
3
(2)
In the zone under tension: t t ( z ) n h z (3)

At the extreme tension fiber, t is equal to tf and at the neutral axis, t is equal to zero.
nh
tf
tf
( )
( )
N t b t t dz b t t d (4) and M t n h N t b t t2 t d (5)
0
0
0
The tensile stress-strain relationship ( t ,i , t ,i ) is discretized considering successive loading
steps i and i+1. Between these two loading steps, the strain at the extreme tension fiber
increases from tf ,i to tf ,i 1 and the corresponding stress changes from t ,i to t ,i 1 . For these two
steps, there are two different curvatures and two neutral axis positions. Therefore, at the
loading step i:
tf , i
N t ,i b

t ( t )
d (6) and M t ,i n, i h N t ,i b t ( t ) t2 d (7)
i
0
i
tf , i
tf , i 1
At the loading step i+1: N t ,i 1 b
t t
d i N t ,i b
i 1
i 1
400
tf , i 1
tf , i
t ( t )
d (8)
i 1
M t ,i 1 n,i 1 h N t ,i 1
i2
M t ,i n,i h N t ,i b
i21
tf , i 1
t
d (9)
2
i 1
t ( t )
tf , i
For both previous equations, the last term can be expressed in discrete form using the
trapezoidal
N t ,i 1
method
for
integral
computation,
so
that N t ,i 1 and M t ,i 1 read:
i
1 t ,i 1 t ,i
N t ,i b
tf ,i 1 tf ,i (10)
i 1
i 1
2
M t ,i 1 n,i 1h N t ,i 1
t ,i 1 tf ,i 1 t ,i tf ,i
i2
M t ,i n,i h N t ,i b
tf ,i 1 tf ,i (11)
2
i 1
2 i21
All parameters at loading step i are considered as already determined. Thus, solving this
inverse problem consists in determining the parameters n,i+1 and t,i+1 in order to satisfy the
mechanical equilibrium in the section:
N t ,i 1 N c,i 1 0 (12) and M c,i 1 M t ,i 1 M i 1experimental (13)

The validation of the proposed model has been established using a simple self-consistency
case which consists of generating a curve Bending Moment Strain by a direct calculation
and then verifying that the result obtained with the inverse analysis is similar to the tensile
stress-strain relationship used in the direct calculation. Moreover, in Figure 6, the average
tensile stress-strain relationships obtained from the proposed point-by-point inverse analysis
method and the average experimental curves obtained from the direct tensile tests are
presented for two specimens groups.
Figure 6: Average tensile stress-strain curves for two specimens groups: Point by point inverse analysis
method and direct tension test (DTT) method.
In terms of strain, the proposed point-by-point inverse analysis method overestimates the strain
capacity when considering average curves and characteristic curves. Indeed, the flexural tests
involve an overestimation of the strain capacity due to the fact that the side under higher
tension corresponds to the zone where the preferential orientation of fibers is optimal. This
phenomenon has already been observed on hardening UHPFRC [11]. Completing the tests on
larger prisms would minimize the strain gradient effect and thus allow the results to be closer to
the DTT results. In terms of strength, the comparison between both methods differs when
considering the average or the characteristic curves, due to a statistical scale effect. For the
flexural tests, the tensile area is smaller than in the direct tensile tests. As a consequence, the
average results are better for flexural tests, but the impact of an eventual composite (matrix and
fibers) flaw is greater and the standard deviation is more important. Thus the characteristic
strength can be inferior for flexural tests.
401
5 Conclusions
This joint US-French research effort has succeeded in advancing the practice and analysis of
tensile testing of UHPFRC. Specifically:
1. The developed direct tension test method presents a reliable, practical method to
directly capture the uniaxial tensile stress-strain response of UHPFRC.
2. The developed direct tension test method facilitates the creation of strain-based
structural design criteria representative of the direct tensile response of UHPFRC.
3. An improved testing and processing method based on flexural tests has been developed
to determine the tensile stress-strain response of UHPFRC.
4. The average tensile stress-strain response of UHPFRC derived from flexural tests is
slightly higher in terms of strength and strain capacity when compared to curves
obtained from direct tensile tests. This results from a smaller tested tensile zone for
flexure tests. Coincidently, the characteristic values can be inferior for flexural tests due
to a larger standard deviation. This conclusion has been demonstrated through the use
of an inverse method (for flexural tests analysis) which reduces the reliance on assumed
behaviours, thus providing more realistic and reliable results.
6 Acknowledgements
This research was jointly funded by the U.S. Federal Highway Administration and IFSTTAR
(formerly LCPC). The authors gratefully acknowledge the support for this international
collaboration provided by Henri Van Damme, Sylvie Proeschel, and Patrick Malljacq from
IFSTTAR, and by Debra Elston and Ian Saunders from FHWA.
References
[1] Behloul, M., Analyse et modlisation du comportement dun matriau matrice cimentaire fibre
ultra hautes performances, E.N.S. Cachan, France, PhD Thesis, in French, December 1996, 182 p.
[2] Jungwirth J., Zum Tragverhalten von zugbeanspruchten Bauteilen aus Ultra-HochleistungsFaserbeton, cole Polytechnique Fdrale de Lausanne (EPFL), Thesis No. 3429, Lausanne,
Switzerland, 2006, 214 p.
[3] Boulay, C.; Rossi, P.; Tailhan, J.-L.: Uniaxial Tensile Test on a New Cement Composite Having a
Hardening Behaviour. Fiber Reinforced Concretes BEFIB 2004, Proceedings of the Sixth
International RILEM Symposium, 2004, pp. 61-68.
[4] RILEM, TC 162-TDF: Test and Design Methods for Steel Fibre Reinforced Concrete
Recommendations: Uni-axial Tension Test for Steel Fibre Reinforced Concrete. Materials and
Structures, 34(1), 2001, pp. 3-6.
[5] ASTM E8: Standard Test Method for Tension Testing of Metallic Materials. American Society for
Testing and Materials Standard Practice E8, Philadelphia, PA, 2009.
[6] AFGC-SETRA, 2002, Ultra High Performance Fibre-Reinforced Concretes, Interim
Recommendations, SETRA, Bagneux, France.
[7] Ostergaard, L., Walter, R., and Olesen, J.F., 2005, Method for Determination of Tensile Properties
of Engineered Cementitious Composites (ECC), Proceedings of ConMat'05, Vancouver, Canada.
[8] Chanvillard, G., 2006, Report on Mthode inverse applique au comportement des plaques en
BFUP .(in French), PN MIKTI, France.
[9] Kanakubo, T., 2006, Tensile characteristics evaluation Method for DFRCC, Journal of Advanced
Concrete Technology, Vol. 4(1), pp. 3-17.
[10] Qian, S., and Li, V.C., 2008, Simplified inverse method for determining the tensile properties of
SHCCs, Journal of Advanced Concrete Technology, Vol. 6(2), pp. 353-363.
[11] Tailhan, J.-L., Rossi, P., and Parant, E., 2004, Inverse Numerical Approach to Determine the
Uniaxial Tensile Behaviour of a Stress Hardening Cement Composite From Its Bending Behaviour,
Proceedings of the Sixth International RILEM Symposium, 2004, pp. 913-922.
402
Experimental and Analytical Analysis of the Flexural

Behavior of UHPC Beams
Eric T. Visage, K. D. S. Ranga Perera, Brad D. Weldon, David V. Jauregui, Craig. M.
Newtson, Lucas Guaderrama
New Mexico State University, United States of America
Scaled beams are designed using ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) and tested to investigate the
flexural (moment-curvature) behavior of the beams. Design parameters are varied including compressive
strength of concrete, main steel reinforcement, and percent by volume of steel fibers in the concrete
mixture proportions. The test results are compared to traditional methods of estimating moment -curvature
relationships.
Keywords: moment curvature, flexure, UHPC, fiber reinforced
1 Introduction
Ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) has the potential to influence many applications in
structural design. However, due to the lack of design codes and analytical tools for UHPC there
has been limited use of this material, particularly within the United States. To expand the use of
UHPC in structural design, there is a need for cost effective mixture proportions and simplified
but reliable analytical tools and design procedures capable of predicting the flexural behavior of
UHPC prestressed and reinforced concrete members. Thus, this research looks to investigate
the behavior of an UHPC that consists of materials local to New Mexico, USA through an
experimental program examining the moment-curvature relationship of scaled reinforced
concrete beams under four-point bending.
The fundamental requirement in predicting the moment-curvature behavior of a flexural
member is the understanding of the behavior of its constituents. With UHPC, the constituents
have changed from typical normal strength and high strength concretes. In order to ach ieve the
high compressive strength, a lower water-to-cementitious material (w/cm) ratio is used. Coarse
aggregates are removed and steel fibers are added. In addition to the increase in compressive
strength, adding steel fibers to the mixture proportions improve the tensile strength and ductility.
This in turn changes the typical flexural and shear behavior of UHPC beams. To investigate the
behavior of UHPC in structural members, moment-curvature data was collected on several
beam test specimen. Beams parameters varied included: concrete compressive strength,
percent volume of fibers, reinforcement ratio, and beam length. The results are also compared
to moment-curvature estimations based on traditional methods to examine the influence of
UHPC and the various parameters on the behavior of the flexural beams.
2 Mixture Proportion and Curing Regimen

The UHPC mixture proportions used a water-to-cementitious material (w/cm) ratio of 0.15. To
improve workability, a high range water reducing admixture was used. Silica fume was used in
the mixture proportions to improve the thermal properties of UHPC. Class F Fly Ash was used
to help minimize the amount Silica fume required and angular sand with a specific gravity of
2.58 from Placitas, New Mexico, USA passing through a No. 30 sieve (0.595 mm nominal sieve
opening) was used. Prior to sieving, the sand was oven-dried to remove moisture. It was then
washed over a No. 200 sieve (0.074 mm nominal sieve opening) to remove dust particles and
oven-dried again. The steel fibers used were 13 mm in length, continuously deformed (wavy)
403
with an aspect ratio of 24, and had a yield strength of 344 MPa. Type I/II portland cement and
water are the additional constituents used.
Once mixing was completed the concrete was poured into steel molds and consolidated on a
vibrating table. Once the specimens were cast they were covered with plastic sheeting to
prevent bleeding. Following casting, the specimens were allowed to cure in an ambient
environment for 24 hours until removed from their molds. After demolding, the specimens
underwent a combined steam and dry heat curing regimen. Finally, the specimens were
removed from their curing environment and tested.
Test Specimens
Beam test specimens measuring 152 mm x 152 mm x 610 mm and 152 mm x 152 mm x 762
mm were constructed for testing (see Figure 1). Two to four specimens were constructed for
each batch of concrete. Cubes measuring 100 mm were prepared at the same time to test for
the compressive strength of the concrete. Parameters varied for the test specimens included:
compressive strength, amount of reinforcement, percent volume of steel fibers; and beam
length. Tensile mild steel reinforcement (if present) was placed at an effective depth of 127 mm.
The reinforcement ratio, varied between 0 and 0.013. The percent volume of fibers was varied
between 0% and 2.0%. Table 1 shows the parameters for each of the beam specimens.
Figure 1: Beam dimensions.
On the day the beam specimens were tested, 100 mm cube specimens were tested following
British Standard (BS) 1881: Part 116 standard methods for the compressive strength of the
UHPC. The loading rate was modified to achieve failure in an adequate period of time.
Graybeals [1] research concluded a load rate of 62 MPa/minute was acceptable for cube
specimens. Typically, it is expected that higher load rates will result in higher compressive
strength. However, Graybeal [1] conducted compressive strength tests with varying load rates
on 24 cylinders with a 76 mm diameter. The results indicated that there was no significant
change in the compressive strength, the modulus of elasticity, or Poissons ratio. Thus, it was
determined that an increased rate of loading would be beneficial to reduce the overall testing
time while having negligible effect on the material characteristics.
Two material samples for each batch of reinforcing bars used in the beams were tested
monotonically in tension using an Instron 5882 universal testing machine with an 89 kN
capacity. The strains were measured using an Instron extensometer with a 25 mm gauge
length. The specimens were approximately 200 mm long. Figure 2 shows a photograph of a No.
10 bar being tested and the measured monotonic tensile stress-strain relationship for the two
batches of No. 10 bars used. Table 2 summarizes the material properties of the reinforcing
bars. The yield strength was determined as the lower yield point on the measured stress -strain
relationship. The yield strain can be determined by dividing the yield strength with the m easured
Youngs modulus, which was determined based on the slope from two points on the linear elastic portion of the measured stress-strain relationship.
404
Table 1: Beam Properties and Test Results.
Type
Normal
Strength
(w/cm=0.5)
High
Strength
(w/cm=0.35)
UHPC
(w/cm=0.15)
Batc
h
Compressive
Strength
Age
(days)
fc
(MPa)
Fibers
(% by
volume)
Measured Strength
Beam Length
(in)
Vu (kN)
11770 (F)
78.44
11950 (F)
87.83
13390 (F)
80.76
12310 (F)
87.05
13270 (F)
77.02
11740 (F)
82.81
12620 (F)
79.04
12050 (F)
51.32
7320 (S)
59.07
9000 (S)
52.88
8060 (F)
54.78
8350 (F)
45.70
8440 (S)
45.70
6960 (S)
56.88
8670 (F)
58.67
8940 (F)
48.05
7320 (F)
44.19
6730 (F)
28.42
4330 (S)
25.98
3960 (S)
21.36
3250 (F)
19.12
2910 (F)
22.30
3260 (F/S)
20.30
2920 (S/F)
83.20
12300 (S/F)
130.3
14900 (S/F)
610
98.80
14400 (S/F)
762
94.80
13100 (-)
72.25
11010 (F)
73.28
11170 (F)
44.53
6790 (F/S)
42.01
6400 (F/S)
78.20
11920 (F)
77.79
11860 (F)
43.05
6560 (F/S)
45.67
6960 (F/S)
66.51
10140 (F)
67.97
10360 (F)
0.007
43
67.6
610
0.007
45
82.84
610
0.007
35
84.43
1.5
610
0.007
35
85.81
610
11
0.013
28
66.53
1.5
610
28
66.86
610
0.013
28
79.29
610
13
0.007
43
67.60
610
15
0.007
35
84.43
1.5
762
21
0.013
149.2
610
22
138.6
1.5
610
23
0.007
137.2
1.5
610
24
0.007
145.5
1.42
610
25
0.007
131.7
1.5
0.007
14
143.0
610
0.007
14
137.7
762
0.007
12
141.1
1.5
610
0.007
12
140.3
1.5
762
0.007
14
142.3
610
26
27
28
405
(kN-mm)
77.20
12
Mu
Table 2: Reinforcement Material Properties.
Reinforcement
No. 10 Batch
2
No. 10 Batch 3
No. 13 Batch
1
E (GPa)
189.7
203.5
160.9
Yield (MPa)
473.5
327.1
379.2
Ultimate (MPa)
775.9
476.9
530.9
(a)
(b)
Figure 2: No. 10 bar material test: (a) No. 10 bar stress vs. strain relationship, (b) tension test.
3 Test Procedure
Each beam was loaded under four-point flexure to create a pure moment region spanning 152
mm at the center of the beam. The load was applied at a rate 10 MPa/minute up to initial
cracking of the beam. After cracking, the load was applied in displacement control at the same
displacement rate at which first cracking occurred. The beam was loaded to failure at this rate.
These load rates are based off the load rates required for the ASTM Standard C 38 -02 for the
modulus of rupture measurement. The testing apparatus used in this research was a Tinius
Olsen compressive machine that has a maximum capacity of 1780 kN.
4 Instrumentation
Each beam is instrumented with load cells and displacement transducers. A load cell is placed
under each support to measure the load applied to the beam. A string potentiometer (not
shown) is attached to the top of the beam at the centerline to measure the vertical displacement
as the beam is loaded. Linear Variable Displacement Transducers (LVDTs) are placed on the
east side of the beam at a distance of 25 mm from the top and bottom of the beam (see Figure
3) directly below the vertical point load on the north end of the beam. Reaction plates are
placed directly under the point load on the south end of the beam. This allows for deformation
measurements to be read over the pure moment region on the beam and capture the opening
of flexural cracks within this region. Figure 3(a) shows the placement of the instrumentation on
the beam, and Figure 3(b) shows the exaggerated displaced shape of the beam under load.
The instrumentation and test set-up can be seen in Figure 4.
406
(a)
(b)
Figure 3: Beam test set-up (a) instrumentation; (b) exaggerated displaced configuration.
Figure 4: Beam test setup.
5 Results and Preliminary Conclusions

The results from the experimental program are compared using estimations of the momentcurvature behavior based off of kinematics, constitutive relationships, and equilibrium. To verify
the procedure, a normal strength concrete baseline beam and two high strength concrete
beams were tested. The beams use similar geometry and reinforcement ratios as the UHPC
beams. The design compressive strengths for the normal strength and high strength concrete
were 41.3 MPa and 67.6 MPa, respectively. The stress-strain curves from the reinforcement
material tests were used to model the reinforcement behavior and a uniform stress block was
used for the concrete. Figure 5 shows the test results (solid line) compared to the estimations
(dashed line), which predict the behavior very well. In addition, several additional normal
strength and high strength beams with varying reinforcement ratios, percent volume of fibers,
and compressive strength have been tested and the measured strengths are presented in Table
1.
407
(a)
(b)
Figure 5: (a) Baseline design beam, (b )Batch 13.
A similar procedure was used to estimate the behavior of the UHPC beams. To account for the
difference in concrete behavior, a triangular distribution was used for UHPC. In addition, a
uniform stress distribution was used to estimate the contribution of the fibers to the UHPC
beams. This stress was assumed to act over a depth from the neutral axis to the effective depth
of the reinforcement once yield was reached. Due to the cracks remaining small and both the
concrete and reinforcement remaining linear-elastic, it was assumed that the fibers did not
contribute until the nonlinear region was reached. The nonlinear estimations used an iterative
procedure to predict the moment-curvature behavior. For the UHPC, the modulus of rupture
was based off the results of the beam tests (Batch 22) with no mild steel reinforcement [see
Figure 6(a)] and the modulus of elasticity was estimated using the equation developed by
Graybeal [1].
Eight UHPC batches of beams were constructed for testing. All batches used the same
UHPC mixture proportions. Batch 22 had no mild steel reinforcement. Batch 21 had a
reinforcement ratio of 0.013 and remaining batches had a reinforcement ratio of 0.007. Batches
23, 25, and 27 have a volume of fibers, vf of 1.5%. Batch 24 has a slightly lower vf at 1.42%.
Batch 26 and 28 had a vf of 1.0% and 2.0%, respectively. Up to four beams were constructed
for each batch. Each batch had beam specimens measuring 152 mm x 152 mm x 610 mm.
Batches 25, 26, and 27 also included specimens with an increased beam length of 762 mm.
Two dashed line in Figures 6(b) 6(f) show the predicted behavior of the beams. (Please note
that not all specimens are shown in Figure 6.) The upper bound includes the effect of the fibers
on the moment capacity, while the lower bound does not include any fiber contribution. It is
expected that the behavior would fall within this range or above the upper bound.
Table 1 lists the measured strength for all beams tested. In addition, the failure type is shown
following the measured moment (S = shear, F = flexure, F/S = flexure-shear; S/F = shear with
flexural cracks). In the case of a shear failure, yielding of the reinforcement did not occur.
408
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
(f)
Figure 6: Beam test results-(a) Batch 22,(b) Batch 23,(c) Batch 24,(d) Batch 25,(e) Batch 26,(f) Batch 28
The results of the batches 23 - 25 show some variability in the behavior of the beams. Batch 23
beam 1 failed in flexure but also suffered significant shear damage [see Figure 7(a)]. Batch 23
beam 2 failed in shear; however, the failure was not a typical catastrophic failure. Rather, it had
a gradual loss in strength as the crack propagated. Both capacities fell above the upper bound
of the estimations shown. This could be due to variation in fibers (orientation and amount)
within the beam.
Both beams of batch 24 as well as beam 1 of batch 25 failed in shear as shown in Figures
6(c) and 6(d). Significant flexural cracks were observed during these tests; however, the beams
ultimately failed in shear [see Figure 7(a)]. A decrease in curvature observed in Figure 6(c) is
due to the LVDTs capturing some of the shear behavior. However, the moment capacities are
close to the estimations up to failure of the test specimens.
409
Batch 25 beam 2 experienced longitudinal splitting of the concrete at the location of the mild
steel reinforcement. This led to unsymmetrical behavior. The moment capacity of this beam is
closer to the lower bound of the predicted results (i.e., more similar to a beam without fibers).
This is most likely due to the splitting of the concrete reducing the effect the fibers had on the
behavior.
Batches 26 and 28 showed more consistent flexural failure as shown in Figures 6(e) and 6(f).
Beam 3 of batch 26 had an increased length. It is noted that beams with increased beam
lengths also developed significant shear cracks. The estimations are similar to the measured
behavior during the tests.
(a)
(b)
Figure 7: Typical failures (a) flexure-shear; and (b) flexure.
Based on the results of the experiments that have been conducted and comparisons made with
the moment-curvature estimations, the following observations were made:
The fibers have a large effect on the moment capacity of the beams.
Due to the variation in the results, including failure mode, the distribution and orientation of
the fibers could play a role in the behavior and capacity of the beams. This large variation in
behavior could potentially be attributed to the small scale of the beams.
The moment capacity of the beams was significantly increased with UHPC. Flexural failure
was often accompanied by significant shear damage or the beam failed in shear.
Shear failure was more ductile due to the crack bridging fibers. However, there was
variation in the behavior, which could depend on the distribution and orientation of the fibers.
The modeled behavior provided good estimations of the initial stiffness, cracking moment,
post-crack stiffness, and yield point. Due to the variable results, the post-yield behavior needs
further investigation and will be refined as this study progresses.
This research is currently ongoing and continues to investigate the moment-curvature
behavior of UHPC beam. Work is currently investigating the effect the fibers play in the
behavior of the beams. Beams with varied percentages of fibers will be tested, as well as
different types of fibers. In addition, to help investigate the size effect on the variability of the
behavior of the beam, different beam geometries will be tested.
In addition to the experimental work, a companion analytical program is underway. Based on
the experimental results, a finite element model and a fiber beam column analytical model are
being developed to further investigate the behavior of the UHPC beams under vario us loads
and varied design parameters. These models will be used as a basis to develop full scale
models of UHPC beams.
References
[1] Graybeal, B. Material Property Characterization of Ultra High Performance Concrete. FHWA-HRT-06103, McLean, VA, 2006
410
Characterization of the Fracture Behavior of UHPC under

Flexural Loading
Eric L. Kreiger, Theresa M. Ahlborn, Devin K. Harris, Henrique A. de Melo e Silva
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Michigan Technological University, USA
Currently, in the United States, UHPC is not readily used, since the understanding and knowledge base
has yet to be properly developed. One of the key aspects of UHPC, which enables it to have improved
properties under tension/flexure, is its intrinsic composite nature due to the dispersion of discontinuous
fibers. These improved properties include strength (before and after cracking), anelasticity (ductility),
and fracture energy. In order to develop a model to describe the fracture behavior of this material, a
series of three point notched prism tests were performed. This study tested the effects of variables, such
as age of curing, span-to-depth ratio, and prism cross section on the fracture behavior of a Ductal
brand UHPC with steel fibers at 2% by volume. The results of these tests were used to determine
material properties and develop a model to describe the fracture behavior of UHPC.
.
Keywords: Ultra High Performance Concrete, UHPC, Flexure, Fracture Modeling, Weibull
1 Introduction
Perhaps the most intriguing aspect of Ultra-High Performance Concrete (UHPC) is its ability to
resist fracture, due to the inclusion of randomly dispersed discontinuous fibers within a
cementitious matrix, commonly referred to as a fiber reinforced cementitious composite
(FRCC). The matrix in UHPC is typically termed as being densified, which is achieved through
the omission of large aggregates and optimization of small particulates (fine aggregates, silica
fume, fly ash, cement)[1]. This densification leads to improved compressive strengths, and can
be referred to as DSP (Densified Small Particulate) Concrete, but may go by other names [2].
Fibers can come in many different varieties, but one of the more frequently used materials is
steel, due to its high strength and ductility.
In a FRCC such as UHPC, the fracture behavior is dependent upon the material properties of
the matrix, the fibers, and the way in which they interact or bond [3, 4]. The bond and the
strength of the fibers are the primary mechanisms which drive a FRCCs ability to resist fracture
[4]. For UHPC, the dense matrix leads to improved bonding because of low porosity reducing
the size of the weak interfacial transition zone [5]. In short, UHPC can be defined as a
composite material consisting of a densified cementitious matrix reinforced by randomly
dispersed fibers with improved strength and ability to resist fracture.
The purpose of this study was to develop a model based upon preliminary tests, which
describes the fracture behavior of steel fiber reinforced UHPC under flexural loading. This
model could be used by designers to determine design parameters, by inspectors to determine
the expected capacity of a cracked structure, or by researchers to predict the behavior of tested
specimens beyond normal testing ranges. The type of tests performed were 3-point bending
tests conducted on a single-edge notched prisms (SNP) using a crack mouth opening
displacement (CMOD) controlled system. This test method was chosen over other fracture tests
due to its simplicity, commonality, and relevance to actual applications.
Currently, the tensile behavior of UHPC is based on a multi-linear model [6], which tends to
be overly conservative. It was proposed that a model based on either a Modified Weibull
probability distribution function (PDF) or a Modified Lognormal PDF could be used to describe
the post cracking tensile behavior of UHPC under flexural loading. This paper focuses on the
411
modelling of a Load-CMOD (P-w) curve, which is one step in the progression towards the
greater research project-goal to develop a model for the Stress-CMOD (-w) curve.
2 Testing
Parameters
As part of the larger initiative, it was decided that five parameters would be tested to study their
effect on UHPCs fracture behavior. These are fiber content, curing regime, prism aspect ratio,
prism cross sectional area, and age of specimen. For the sake of brevity, all results that appear
in this study are based on ambient cured specimens with a 2% by volume fiber content (see
Table 1).
Table 1: Test Matrix.
Age
days
3
7
28
56
51x229
X
X
X
X
Prisms
Height x Length (mm x mm)
51x343
51x457
76x343
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
51x699
X
X
X
-
As shown, five square prism sizes (51x229, 51x343, 51x457, 76x343, 51x699) were tested,
where each specimen is named for its depth/width (mm/mm) by span (mm). The control
specimen was the 51x229 having an aspect ratio of 4.5, and a cross sectional area of 2580
mm2. From this, the length was increased, which increased the aspect ratios to 6.75, 9, and on
the long range 13.75. The cross sectional area was tested by increasing the depth and width of
the prism to 76 mm, while maintaining a 4.5 aspect ratio. All specimens except for the 51x699,
which was only tested at 3-, 7-, 28-days, were tested at ages of 3-, 7-, 28-, and 56-days.
Mixing and Testing
For this research a Ductal brand UHPC was used, consisting of a Ductal premix, ASTM 820
grade 14 mm x 0.185 mm straight steel fibers, superplastisizer, and water. The mix procedure
was done according to recommendations from LaFarge North America. Based on previous
research [7, 8], prisms were cast by filling the mold from one end, which due to UHPCs
flowable rheology allowed the mix to travel to the opposite side. This procedure was performed
in two equal volume lifts, after each lift the mix was vibrated for a short amount of time to
release any entrapped air. A vibration time of 0-to-10 seconds was used, because during
preliminary mixing it was noticed that if the vibration exceeded 10 seconds the fibers would
settle and their distribution in the matrix would favor the bottom edge of the prism. Casting was
done in this manner in an attempt to align the fibers in a one dimensional orientation along the
length of the prism.
Testing of each specimen was performed using a CMOD controlled closed-loop system
connected to a MTS 318.25 810 Material Testing System (250 kN) test machine, which
recorded measurements of time, applied force, crosshead deflection, and CMOD. The UHPC
prisms were tested using the 3-point flexure test as recommended by RILEM TC 162-TDF for
FRCCs [9]. However, the testing procedure was based on the SETRA recommendations for
UHPC [6]. Since the purpose of this study was to model the fracture behaviour, testing was
continued well beyond the typical range to a CMOD value of 10 mm. As such, a rate of 0.00045
mm/s was used until the CMOD reached a value of 1.2 mm, which was chosen because it was
412
Characterization of the Fracture Behavior of UHPC Under Flexural Loading
far from the peak load. At this point the rate switched to 0.2 mm/min until the end of the test. A
data acquisition rate of 5 Hz was used throughout the entirety of the test. The increased length
of testing limited the number of prisms that could be tested, since all testing was performed with
respect to the ASTM time tolerances specified for compressive testing of concrete [10]. The
number of prisms that were tested at 3-, 7-, 28-, and 56-days was limited to 2, 4, 6, and 12,
respectfully
CMOD was measured perpendicular to the face of the prism using an Epsilon-Technology
3541 Fracture Mechanics Clip-on Gage. This set up (see Figure 1) was chosen as opposed to
mounting the gauge directly under the specimen to protect the gauge from being harmed during
testing and to obtain a direct measurement of the CMOD. This was only possible due to the
rigidity of the gauge arms in the direction perpendicular to the face of the prism. One day prior
to testing, all specimens were notched using an adjustable circular saw with a diamond tipped
blade to a depth of 10% the specimen height, which is the minimum depth recommended by
SETRA [6], and clips used to hold the clip-on gauge were adhered to the bottom edge of the
prism using a 5-minute epoxy.
Figure 1: Fracture Test Configuration.
3 Results
Testing Data
The test results were used to develop mean P-w curves for prisms of similar parameters. Due to
the limited number of samples this was done by performing an arithmetic mean of P and w
values at each data point. A curve comparison as parameters are varied could then be
performed. An example of such a comparison is the variation in load for the ambient curing age
of 76x343 prisms (see Figure 2), which, as expected, shows that as age increases the strength
does as well.
From these plots, values for CMOD (w), load (P), and stress () were determined for the
elastic limit or first crack (w f, Pf, f) and plastic limit (w p, Pp, p), as well as the fracture energy
required to reach 40% of the maximum load on the descending branch (Gf,40). The first crack
load was determined as the point where the data diverted from a linear path.
413
Figure 2: P-w curve for 76x343 specimens, ambient cure and variable age.
After which the corresponding wf was found and f was calculated using the expression (1)
given by RILEM [9] for a 3-point bend test.
3PL
2bd2
(1)
In this equation P is the applied load, L is the span of the prism, and bd2 is the unfractured area
multiplied by the midspan depth of the prism (d), where b is the prism width and d is the total
depth of the prism subtracted by the crack depth.
Following the elastic limit, the prisms undergo deflection hardening until the plastic limit is
reached, after which the prism undergoes a considerable amount of deflection softening. The
plastic limit load and CMOD were found by determining the maximum load of the data and the
corresponding CMOD value. The stress was estimated using equation (1), as recommended by
RILEM [9]. It is important to note that this stress value is an underestimate of the actual stress,
because the effective area is reduced due to fracturing of the specimen.
Introduced by Hilleborg [11], the fracture energy (Gf) is a commonly used parameter to
describe the behavior of concrete under fracture. The fracture energy is defined as the area
under the stressCMOD curve. This was estimated by dividing the area under the curve,
calculated using the trapezium rule, by the unfractured area (bd) of the prism. Due to the limited
amount of data for some of the specimens, the fracture energy was only calculated up to a 60%
reduction in force (Gf,40). This value is reasonable because if a structure fails to 40% of the
design load it would be thought of as unsafe and not fit for its intended purpose.
It has been well documented that brittle materials, such as the UHPC matrix, undergo
reductions in stress when size is increased, due to an increased probability of flaws in the
material [12]. This is commonly referred to as the scale effect and for UHPC has been shown to
conform to the following expression (2) used as a multiplier [14], which is referenced to a 100
mm deep prism. This expression was applied to the calculated stresses and fracture energy, in
order to normalize the size change between the 51 mm and 76 mm deep specimens.
St =Sf
2 h
ho
0.7
1+2 h h
o
(2)
0.7
414
Here the scale effect is used to relate the direct tensile strength (S t) to the flexural strength (S f),
where h is the height of the specimen and h 0 is the reference height of 100 mm.
For comparison purposes wf, Pf, f , wp, Pp, p , and Gf for each prism have been tabulated
(see Table 2). From this data, it can be concluded, that as the age of the specimen increases all
values except for plastic limit location, which only shows a possible slight increase, exhibit an
obvious increase. The values for the CMODs and stresses at each age of curing tend to be
fairly constant. The fracture energy decreases as the length of the prism increases, which is
understandable because the ability to resist fracture should decrease due to an increase in
moment for any given load. Increasing the cross sectional area, however, shows inconclusive
results. For 3- and 7-day samples their fracture energy is similar as area is increased, but
appears to decrease at 28 days and increase at 56 days. It should be noted that the values
obtained for the first crack strength for ambient cured 28-day specimens agree with values
obtained by others [13, 14], therefore the research presented should be applicable for general
UHPC applications and are not just specific to this research.
Table 2: Fracture Data.
Curing
Days
28
56
Prisms
L/d
Samples
#
51x229
51x343
51x457
51x699
76X343
51x229
51x343
51x457
51x699
76X343
51x229
51x343
51x457
51x699
76X343
51x229
51x343
51x457
76X343
4.5
6.75
9
13.75
4.5
4.5
6.75
9
13.75
4.5
4.5
6.75
9
13.75
4.5
4.5
6.75
9
4.5
2
3
3
1
3
3
3
3
2
2
12
2
4
1
2
3
4
2
2
Modified Weibull
wf
mm
0.012
0.0116
0.0139
0.0118
0.0100
0.0118
0.0135
0.0132
0.0136
0.0106
0.0327
0.0274
0.0390
0.0276
0.0230
0.0651
0.0358
0.0387
0.0335
0.0000
Pf
kN
2.78
1.59
0.94
0.86
4.94
2.93
1.83
1.31
0.76
5.67
5.66
3.87
2.72
1.80
10.74
6.8
4.35
3.28
12.96
5.67
f
MPa
4.81
4.13
3.26
4.53
4.35
5.06
4.76
4.54
3.89
4.93
9.81
10.04
9.44
9.51
9.33
11.77
11.31
11.35
11.27
9.81
wp
mm
0.4303
0.348
0.4492
0.4815
0.4707
0.4913
0.4254
0.581
0.3225
0.4672
0.519
0.512
0.437
0.288
0.446
0.4028
0.5543
0.479
0.5198
0.501
Pp
kN
7.97
4.42
3.82
2.8
17.12
9.99
6.05
4.36
2.94
20.23
10.66
7.63
5.07
3.41
21.95
10.09
8.13
5.4
22.42
10.37
p
MPa
13.80
11.48
13.24
14.87
14.88
17.30
15.7
15.08
15.54
17.59
18.47
19.82
17.55
18.04
19.08
17.29
21.12
18.71
19.49
17.95
Gf,40
kJ/m2
6.31
3.49
2.85
2.38
6.91
8.05
4.78
3.67
2.24
7.56
9.05
5.63
3.86
2.47
7.51
6.85
6.44
3.98
8.47
8.72
Modeling
The two models proposed in this study to describe the fracture process were based on common
probability distribution functions (PDFs). The lognormal function is frequently used in reliability
analysis [15] and the Weibull function [16] has been well established to describe the strength of
brittle materials [12, 17] and in some research has been used to describe the fracture process
[18]. The following expressions (3) and (4), respectfully, are modified versions of these
distributions and are used to describe the applied load as a function of w during the fracture
process.
415
1 w-w -
A
f
Pw=
exp - ln
2
w-w f
(3)
In the case of the modified lognormal PDF, A is the equation modifier, and are the lognormal
mean and variance, respectively, w is the measured CMOD, and wf is the experimentally
determined first crack CMOD.
Pw
w-w f

wo
m 1
w-w
f
exp
wo
(4)
The Modified Weibull PDF has a shape parameter m, a skewness parameter w 0, is the
distribution modifier, where w and wf are the measured CMOD and first crack CMOD.
These parameters were estimated by limiting the curve so that it underestimated or equated
the strength and CMOD values, while minimizing the value of the 2 goodness of fit test. The 2
test is one of many possible methods that could be used to estimate these parameters [19, 20]
and can be explained using the following.
n -e 2
i i <c
ei 1-,f
i=1
(5)
where ni is the observed frequency of n number of values within a certain range of values, ei is
the theoretical frequency estimated for that same range, c1-,f is the critical 2 value at
cumulative probability of 1-, and f degrees of freedom, and can be found using a 2 table. The
values , and f can further be explained, respectively, as the significance level and the number
of samples subtracted by the number of unknown parameters.
This procedure is demonstrated for a 28-day 51x229 specimen. The best fit of the modified
Lognormal PDF and the modified Weibull PDF were graphically compared to the fracture curve
for a 51x229 prism undergoing 28 days of curing (see Figure 3). The Modified Weibull achieved
a better fit than the Modified Lognormal, suggesting that UHPC follows a Modified Weibull
distribution.
Figure 3: Curve Fitting of 51x229 Prism Fracture Curve.
The best fit was tested only for values of force above 2 kN, because the data collected during
the fracture process never dropped below this value. The force ranges were in increments of
0.5 kN until values above 10 kN (see Table 3), which lead to an n of 18. For both models the f
416
value would be 13, because there are four unknown parameters. If a confidence level () of
0.05 was chosen the corresponding 2 reference value (c 1-,f) would be 23.7 [20]. Based on this
analysis it can be concluded that the Modified Weibull distribution passes and the Modified
Lognormal fails the 2 test.
Table 3: 2 Goodness of Fit Test.
Force
kN
<2.0
2-2.5
2.5-3.0
3.0-3.5
3.5-4.0
4.0-4.5
4.5-5.0
5.0-5.5
5.5-6.0
6.0-6.5
6.5-7.0
7.0-7.5
7.5-8.0
8.0-8.5
8.5-9.0
9.0-9.5
9.5-10.0
>10.0
Sum
ni
51x229
59
227
288
218
196
170
164
149
136
129
132
123
129
149
157
199
560
1617
4802
ei
Weibull
0
232
250
215
189
170
214
143
135
128
124
123
127
140
166
214
565
1667
4802
(ni-ei)2/ei
Weibull
NA
0.11
5.78
0.04
0.26
0.00
11.68
0.25
0.01
0.01
0.52
0.00
0.03
0.58
0.49
1.05
0.04
1.50
22.34
ei
Lognormal
596
363
357
303
273
250
238
230
228
235
247
272
322
432
456
0
0
0
4802
(ni-ei)2/ei
Lognormal
NA
50.95
13.34
23.84
21.72
25.60
23.01
28.53
37.12
47.81
53.54
81.62
115.68
185.39
196.05
NA
NA
NA
NA
Based upon this analysis the parameters A, , for the Modified Lognormal and those of , m,
and w0 for the Modified Weibull were determined to be 21.95, 1.4, 1 and 230.6, 4.45, 1.1,
respectively.
From the above plot and the passing of the 2 test, it can be determined that the Modified
Weibull distribution is better for describing the fracture process of UHPC prisms. The values
calculated from the fracture curves in the previous section were also calculated for the modified
Weibull (see Table 2). This model tends to underestimate or agree with the values for the actual
51x229 28-day cured specimen. It is for these reasons that the Modified Weibull distribution will
be used in the greater research to describe and model the variations in fracture data from the
previously mentioned parameters.
4 Conclusions
The results of the fracture tests show that as age increases the parameters describing the
fracture behavior of UHPC, even after 28 days, show some amount of increase. The stress and
crack opening for the elastic and plastic limit are fairly constant for any size prism at a given
curing age. As the length of the prisms increases the fracture energy decreases. In addition, the
results from the 28-day tests reaffirm previously determined 28-day first crack stress values for
UHPC.
Furthermore, it has been shown that the fracture curve obtained from performing these tests
can be modelled using a Modified Weibull distribution. This model will be subject to further
study, and will be fit to all tested UHPC prisms. The final model will incorporate the variables of
fiber content, prism aspect ratio, prism cross sectional area, curing regime, and age of curing. It
is proposed that this model can be utilized in the design of future UHPC structures, UHPC
research, and inspection of damaged UHPC structures.
417
5 Acknowledgements
The researchers would like to acknowledge the members of the Michigan Tech UHPC group,
the staff at Benedict Laboratory, Epsilon Technology, MTS Systems, and LaFarge North
America for all their help during this research.
References
[1] Richard, P.; Cheyrezy, M.: Composition of Reactive Powder Concretes. Cement and Concrete
Research 25(7), p. 1501-1511, 1995.
[2] Rossi, P.: Development of New Cement Composite Materials for Construction. Proceedings of the
Institution of Mechanical Engineers, Part L, Journal of Materials, Design and Applications, Paris
2005.
[3] Bentur, A.; Diamond, S.; Mindess, S.: The Microstructure of Steel Fibre-Cement Interface. Journal of
Materials Science 20, p. 3610-3620, 1985.
[4] Bentur, A.; Mindess, S.: Fibre Reinforced Cementitious Composites. New York, NY, Taylor and
Francis, 2007.
[5] Reda, M.M.; Shrive, N. G.; Gillott, J.E.: Microstructural Investigation of Innovative UHPC. Cement
and Concrete Research 29, p. 323-329, 1999.
[6] SETRA; AFGC: Ultra High Performance Fiber Reinforced Concrete-Interim Recommendations.
France, 2002.
[7] Peuse, E.J.: Impact of Age at Thermal Treatment on the Mechanical Properties of an Ultra-High
Performance Concrete, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Michigan Technological
University: Houghton, MI. 2008.
[8] Kollmorgen, G.A.: Impact of Age and Size on the Mechanical Behavior of Ultra High Performance
Concrete, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Michigan Technological University:
Houghton, MI. 2004.
[9] RILEM TC162-TDF: Bending test Final Recommendation. Materials and Structures 35(November
2002), p. 579-582, 2002.
[10] ASTM International: Annual Book of ASTM Standards. C-39 Standard Test Method for Compressive
Strength of Cylinders, 2005.
[11] Hillerborg, A.: Existing Methods to Determine and Evaluate Fracture Toughness of Aggregative
Materials: RILEM Recomendations on Concrete, Fracture Toughness and Fracture Energy. Test
Methods for Concrete and Rock, ed. Mihashi, H., et. al, p. 145-151, Balkema, Rotterdam 1989.
[12] Baant, Z. P.; Planas J.: Fracture and Size Effect in Concrete and Other Quisibrittle Materials. CRC
Press, Boca Raton, FL 1998.
[13] Graybeal, B.A.: Characterization of the Behavior of Ultra-High Performance Concrete, Department of
Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Maryland: College Park, MD 2005.
[14] Chanvillard, G.;Rigaud, S.: Complete Characterisation of Tensile Properties of Ductal UHPFRC
According to the French Recommendations. International Workshop High Performance Fiber
Reinforced Cement Composites, p. 21-34, 2003.
[15] Steinberg, E.: Structural Reliability of Prestressed UHPC Flexure Models for Bridge Girders. Journal
of Bridge Engineering 15(1), p. 65-72, 2010.
[16] Weibull, W. A.: A statistical distribution function of wide applicability, Journal of Applied Mechanics
18, p. 292-297, 1951.
[17] Chawla, K. K.: Ceramic Matrix Composites. Chapman and Hall, London, UK 1993.
[18] Chen B.; Liu, J.: Experimental study on AE characteristics of three-point-bending concrete beams.
Cement and Concrete Research 34, p. 391-397, 2004.
[19] Leon, M.; Kittl, P.: On the Estimation of Weibulls Parameters in Brittle Materials. Journal of Materials
Science 20, p. 3778-3782,1985.
[20] Ang, A. H. S.; Tang, W. H.: Probability Concepts in Engineering: Emphasis on Applications to Civil
and Environmental Engineering. Wiley, 2007.
418
Bending Behaviour and Variation of flexural Parameters of

UHPFRC
Johannes Grger1, Nguyen Viet Tue1, Kay Wille2
1: Institute for Structural Concrete, Graz University of Technology, Austria
2: Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Connecticut, USA
A series of 60 four-point-bending tests was carried out in order to study the bending behaviour and the
variation of bending parameters of ultra-high performance fibre reinforced concrete. Five different types
of ultra-high performance fibre reinforced concretes have been included in this research, which have
been altered by the length and the amount of steel fibers. In order to investigate the variation of bending
parameters each series of three beams was carried out four times.The research show that the length and
the amount of fibers influences the variability, which might need to be considered in design guidelines of
ultra-high performance fiber reinforced concrete for future application.
In order to facilitate the quantification of the material tensile stress-strain relationship, needed for the
design, the second part of this research has been emphasized on the development of a numeric al model
to back calculate the tensile stress-strain-relationship of ultra-high performance fibre reinforced concrete
from bending tests without using Finite Element Method.
Keywords: UHPFRC, steel fibre, fibre content, deflection hardening/softening, stress-strain-relationship
1 Introduction
Superior mechanical and durability properties of ultra-high performance fibre reinforced
concrete (UHPFRC) have attracted many researchers, agencies and contractors worldwide.
Previous experiences show that influences of fibres on the mechanical behaviour are not easy
to determine, particularly for development of design rules [1-4]. The variability of the mechanical
properties especially regarding the tensile performance of UHPFRC can be seen as one reason
holding back the broad application of UHPFRC.
The first part of the paper is focused on the investigation of the variability of the bending
behavior of UHPFRC. In the second part the development of a numerical model to back
calculate the tensile stress-strain-relationship of UHPFRC from bending tests without using
finite element method is emphasized. The success of accelerating the development of design
guidelines and the application of UHPFRC in the construction market depends on the simplicity
and reliability of methods to characterize the design strength of UHPFRC.
A series of 60 four-point-bending tests was carried out in order to study the bending behaviour
and the variation of bending parameters of UHPFRC. Five different types of ultra-high
performance fibre reinforced concretes have been included in this research, which have been
altered by the fibre length (6.0 mm, 12.7 mm) and the volumetric amount of steel fibers (0 %,
0.75 %, 1.5 %).
Materials and specimen preparation
The mix composition of the five different materials used in this research is shown in Table 1.
The fibre volume fraction was varied from 0, 0.75 to 1.5 percent by replacing the equivalent
volume of sand. Two types of straight steel fibres were used in this research. Fibre type I and II
are characterized by a diameter of 0.15 mm and a tensile strength of 2100 N/mm. The length
of fibre type I and II is 6.0 mm and 12.7 mm, respectively.
419
Table 1: UHPC / UHPFRC mixture [kg/m3].
Component
UHPFRC
1
CEM I 42,5 R-HS
725
725
725
725
725
Silica fume
131
131
131
131
131
Quarz powder
391
391
391
391
391
Watera
159
159
159
159
159
32
32
32
32
32
58.5
117
58.5
117
Type I
Type I
Type II
Type II
922
902
882
902
882
Superplasticizer
Steel fibre
UHPC
Quarz sand
water to cement ratio = 0.25, bsolid content 30 %
For each of the five series three bending beams were cast. In order to investigate the variation
of bending parameters each series of three beams was carried out four times (four different
days), thus 60 specimens in total. In addition to the bending beams at least three cylinders
(d = 100 mm, h = 200 mm) were cast with each series. The mixing procedure and the casting
method were not varied throughout the research for consistency.
All beams have been cast from one end of the formwork. Due to the flowability (spread
value 730 mm) of the concrete, self-consolidating and good release of entrapped air was
maintained without compacting. This ensures a uniform fibre distribution in the centre region of
the beams.
Subsequent to casting the free concrete surface was covered with plastic sheet for two days.
Afterwards the specimens were demolded and cured under standard climate conditions for
26 days.
Cylindrical specimens were used to determine the compressive strength as well as the elastic
modulus for each type of concrete. As expected the different fractions of steel fibres did not
have a significant influence on the material strength. The compressive strength has been tested
in excess of fc = 160 N/mm for all series. The elastic modulus has been tested to
Ec = 48000 N/mm.
Test setup and procedure
All 12 beams of each type of concrete have been tested at a concrete age of 28 days. The four
point bending test setup corresponding to the guideline Faserbeton (Fibre Reinforced
Concrete) [5] by the German Committee for Structural Concrete was used in this research. The
test setup is illustrated in Figure 1. The specimens were rotated by 90 so that the top surface
during casting faced sideways during testing. It should be noted that the specimens have been
supported by steel bars to ensure low horizontal forces due to support friction (see [6]).
Figure 1: bending test specimen and setup.
420
The specimens have been tested accordingly to the guideline Faserbeton [5]. The load was
applied displacement controlled by the test equipment (accuracy class 1 to DIN 51220 [ 7]) at a
rate of 0.1 mm/min up to peak load. The descending branch was performed at a higher
displacement rate of 0.25 mm/min at begin of descending and at 0.5 mm/min when the load
became smaller than 50 percent of the peak load. The mid-span deflection was measured by
displacement transducers at both sides of the beam.
3 Results & Discussion

The equivalent bending stress mid-span deflection relationship for all concrete mixes with
steel fibres are given in Figure 2 and 3. Figure 2 illustrates test results of UHPFRC1 and
UHPFRC2 including 6.0 mm fibres at a volume fraction of 0.75 % and 1.5 %, respectively.
Figure 2: bending stress mid span deflection of UHPFRC1/2 (Fibre 6.0 mm).
The addition of 6mm long steel fibres of 0.75 % volume fraction results in deflection softening
behaviour. After the tensile strength of the concrete matrix is reached the material tensile
resistance decreases considerably which results in a reduction of the equivalent bending stress
up to 40 percent at a deflection of 0.1 mm. After the stress drop a slight increase of bending
stress is observed, which is followed by deflection softening.
If the content of steel fibres is raised up to 1.5 volume percent, deflection hardening of
UHPFRC2 is observed. However, nearly 50 percent of the tested specimens also show a
decrease in bending stress after the tensile strength of the concrete matrix (t 7.5 MN/m2)
was exceeded. Figure 2 illustrates that the equivalent bending strength and also its variation is
increased by a higher fibre volume fraction.
Figure 3: bending stress - mid-span deflection of UHPFRC3/4 (Fibre 12.7 mm).
421
Figure 3 summarizes test results of UHPFRC3 and UHPFRC4 including 12.7 mm long fibres at
a volume fraction of 0.75 % and 1.5 %, respectively.
The addition of 12.7 mm long steel fibres results in a more uniform bending behaviour.
Deflection hardening was observed for all 24 specimens with 0.75 as well as 1.5 volume
percent steel fibres (supercritical fibre content). According to the test results of UHPFRC1+2 the
increase of fibre content results in a higher equivalent bending strength. An increase in variation
of bending strength with increase of fibre volume fraction was not observed by using 12.7 mm
long steel fibres.
Table 2 summarises the variation of the investigated flexural parameters of UHPC and
UHPFRC1-4. The average value and the coefficient of variation are shown for the
equivalent bending strength eqfl and for the deflection at load maximum Peak for each of the
five different concretes.
Table 2: statistical analysis.
Fibre
UHPC
UHPFRC
1
eqfl [N/mm]
6.56
6.53
10.59
15.92
20.30
0.285
0.142
0.259
0.135
0.121
0.08
0.37
0.48
2.25
1.88
0.02
0.306
0.329
0.164
0.206
Peak [mm]
The statistical analysis points out the strong distinctions between the five different concretes.
Using steel fibres improves the brittle load bearing behaviour of UHPC considerably, as it can
be seen by the high values of Peak for UHPFRC1-4, e.g. UHPFRC1/2 (6.0 mm fibre length)
results in a more than four times higher deflection at load maximum compared to UHPC, which
is further increased up to over 20 times for UHPFRC 3/4 (12.7 mm fibre length). Based on these
results the value of Peak is primarily influenced by the length of the fibre. In summary Table 2
points out that longer fibre leads to higher equivalent bending strength, higher values of Peak
and lower coefficient of variation. Note, that this conclusion is only valid as long the failure
mechanism is primarily controlled by fibre pull-out.
4 A model to formulate stress-strain-relationship of UHPFRC

A numerical model has been developed to analyse four-point-bending tests corresponding to
the guideline Faserbeton [5]. The model considers Euler-Bernoulli beam theory and formulates
the stress-strain-relationship for structural design of UHPFRC. In comparison to simulations
based on finite elements the computational time of the numerical model is decreased, and thus
leading to a more efficient analysis.
The numerical model is able to take into account deflection hardening and softening
behaviour. Therefore the development of multiple cracking up to peak load as well as
localisation of macro-crack opening during softening is considered. Required input parameters
to calculate the polygonal tensile stress-strain relationship are the experimental load-deflection
curve, the UHPFRC compressive stress-strain relationship and the position of the macro-crack.
422
Basic Concept of the Model

The numerical model bases on dividing the beam in a finite number of sections along the beam
axis. By strain-level iteration the rotation angle of the cross-section is calculated according to
the associated bending moment. Hereby the tensile forces, determined by the selected stress strain relationship, equilibrate the compressive forces, defined by materials uniaxial
compressive behaviour. Along the beam axis the moment distribution is divided in parts and the
rotation at every section based on the strain distribution over beam height is determined. The
mid-span deflection is calculated by double integration of the rotation values. After load
maximum the kinematics of the bending beams changes due to the development of a macro crack, this initiates the softening behaviour. Given the location of the opening crack the
numerical model predicts the descending load-deflection branch and allows for the back
calculation of the complete tensile material behaviour of UHPFRC.
Backward Calculation
To demonstrate the quality of the developed model two characteristic bending tests were
analysed representing the behaviour of UHPFRC2+4. UHPFRC4, reinforced with 12.7 mm long
fibres, shows a highly deflection hardening behaviour in comparison to UHPFRC2.
Figure 4: bending stress - mid-span deflection (1.50 Vol.-%) UHPFRC 2/4.
The label I in Figure 4 marks the load level when concrete matrix fails. If short fibres are used
this point nearly equals to the state when macro-crack starts to open (signed by arrow). If long
fibres are used the matrix fails at nearly the same level. If the load bearing capacity of fibres is
higher than matrix strength, the equivalent bending stress increases until point II is reached.
Label II marks the state when multiple cracking ends and macro-crack starts. The bending
behaviour during opening of the macro-crack depends strongly on fibre length. The beam with
the short fibres shows a small increasing range after the concrete matrix failed, followed by the
deflection softening. Both, the hardening as well as the softening range, are resulting from one
macro-crack.
Figure 5: required input parameters: a) material behaviour under compression, b) position of macro-crack.
423
The developed model is able to consider these different bending behaviours. Controlled by the
different characteristics of the tensile stress-strain relation (user input) the model is able to
calculate every possible bending state.
Three input parameters are required for the numerical model as follows:
1) the equivalent bending stress mid-span deflection curve of the bending test (Fig. 4)
2) the compressive stress strain relationship determined in this research with
100 x 200 mm cylindrical specimen (Fig. 5a)
3) the position of the macro-crack in relation to the centre axis (Fig. 5b)
In this example the macro-crack position for the beam reinforced with 6.0 mm fibres is at
xC = 0.08 m and for the beam reinforced with 12.7 mm fibres at x C = 0.06 m (see Figure 5).
Results
On a step-by-step basis a backward analysis was performed considering piece-wise linear
material uniaxial tensile behaviour, also called poly-linear approximation method. This method
is described and has been used in [6, 8-10].
Figure 6: results of bending test compared with simulation results.
424
For the tested beams a good correlation between the simulations results and the bending test
response was obtained. The model allows accurately following the experimental bending stress
mid-span deflection curves. Figure 6 illustrates that deflection hardening as well as softening
and even combined macro-crack opening behaviour can be simulated with the model.
With a distance of 5.0 mm between the sections of the model the maximum tensile strain t,fat
(1) an d the corresponding crack opening w c (2) can be calculated.
lF
2 5.0 mm
(1)
w c t elast 5.0 mm
(2)
t,fat
The backward calculated polygonal stress-strain relationships are shown in Figure 7. The beam
reinforced with 6.0 mm fibres is simulated with the stress-strain relation labelled Model 1. After
an elastic branch up to 9.0 N/mm the tensile stress is reduced to 3.5 N/mm and then
increases slightly before the softening starts with a tensile strain higher 85 .
Figure 7: backward calculated stress-strain relationship.
Contrary to the stress-strain relation of the short fibres (Model 1) the Model 2 shows hardening
after the tensile strength of the concrete matrix is exceeded. The maximum tensile strength of
t = 9.0 N/mm is reached at a strain of 5.0 . Because of the fibre length of 12.7 mm the
softening branch must be defined up to 1200 (see equation 1). Up to this strain or equal to a
maximum crack opening of about 6.0 mm (lF / 2) fibres can bridge a gap.
5 Conclusions
This study investigated the bending behaviour of UHPFRC compared to UHPC and the
variation of flexural parameters. The results can be summarised as follows:
The variation of flexural parameters like equivalent bending strength or displacement

at peak load can be reduced by adding steel fibres.
Longer fibres not only increase flexural strength at same fibre volume fraction, they
also decrease the variation of flexural parameters.
A new numerical model has been developed to effectively back calculate the tensile
stress-strain relationship from four-point-bending tests. The results show that the
numerical model is able consider deflection hardening, softening and macro-crack
opening.
425
References
[1] Leutbecher, T.: Rissbildung und Zugtragverhalten von mit Stabstahl und Fasern bewehrtem
Ultrahochfesten Beton (UHPC); Dissertation, Kassel 2007.
[2] Jungwirth, J.: Zum Tragverhalten von Zugbeanspruchten Bauteilen aus Ultra-HochleistungsFaserbeton; Dissertation, Lausanne 2006.
[3] Lappa, E.S.: High Strength Fibre Reinforced Concrete, Static and fatigue behaviour in bending;
Dissertation, Delft 2007.
[4] Grnewald, S.: Performance-based design of self-compacting fibre reinforced concrete; Dissertation,
Delft 2004.
[5] Deutscher Ausschuss fr Stahlbeton: Richtlinie Stahlfaserbeton. DAfStb, Berlin, 2010-03.
[6] Wille, K., and Parra-Montesinos, G., Effect of Beam Size, Casting Method and Support Conditions
on the Flexural Behaviour of Ultra High Performance Concrete, ACI Materials Journal, in press,
2012.
[7] DIN standard: Werkstoffprfmaschinen Allgemeines zu Anforderungen an Werkstoffprfmaschinen
und zu deren Prfung und Kalibrierung. DIN 51220, Beuth Verlag, Berlin, 2003-08.
[8] Uchida, Y., Kurihara, N., Rokugo, K., Koyanagi, W., 1995 Determination of tension softening
diagrams of various kinds of concrete by means of numerical analysis, FRAMCOS-2, Germany,
AEDIFICATION, pp. 17 30.
[9] Kitsutaka, Y., 1995 Fracture parameters for concrete based on poly-linear approximation analysis of
tension softening diagram, FRAMCOS-2, Germany, AEDIFICATION, pp. 199 208.
[10] Hong, K.N., Kang, S.T., Kim, S.W., Park, J.J., Han, S.H., 2010 Material properties of air -cured ultrahigh-performance steel-fiber-reinforced concrete at early ages, International Journal of the Physical
Sciences, Vol. 5, No. 17, pp. 2622 2634.
426
Tests on the Flexural Tensile Strength of a UHPFRC

subjected to Cycling and Reversed Loading
Bjrn Frettlhr1, Dominique Corvez 2, Emmanuel Chatoux3 ,Karl Heinz Reineck1
1: ILEK Institute for Lightweight Structures Conceptual and Structural Design, University of Stuttgart, Germany
2: Lafarge, Paris, France
3: cole des Ponts, ParisTech, France
The paper presents the results of tests on the flexural tensile strength under cycling and reversed loading
up to 250 cycles on prisms out of Ductal of Lafarge with a compressive strength of 211 MPa.
In a first phase the following test were performed on prisms with h = 50 mm: 6 cycling tests and 12 tests
under reversed cycling loading. The upper load was set at 2,25-times the elastic limit of the flexural
stress respectively 71 or 76 % of the flexural tensile strength. It could be shown that for cycling and
reversed loading the flexural tensile stresses can be utilized up to 2-times the elastic limit respectively 70
% of the flexural tensile strength.
In a second phase additional 7 displacement controlled bending tests were performed of prisms h = 50
mm and b/h = 3 under reversed cycling loading. Different levels for the displacement amplitude were
selected and were increased until failure occurred. The evaluations of the results comprised the
development of the stiffness and ductility as well as the energy dissipation.
Keywords: flexural tensile strength, cycling loading, reversed loading, UHPC, seismic
1 Aim of test program and test set-up

Aim of test program
The aim of the test program was to assess whether flexural stresses higher than the elastic limit
can be utilized in design of UHPFRC members subjected to cycling and reversed cycling
loading. In this range of micro-cracks appear before localization occurs, and the question is
whether this range can be utilized in the design. If this would have to be avoided only stresses
up to the elastic limit could be tolerated and this could be uneconomical. This is especially
relevant for containments, like e.g. hot-water tanks for the utilization of solar heat [1]. For such
tanks reversed bending moments occur due to temperature differences in the wall which are
stresses in tension. Since this loading occurs seasonally the number of loading cycles is not
high and for the tests up to 250 cycles were run. This is also critical for seismic design of
structures where material properties should be assessed with symmetric reversed cyclic loading
before making any equivalent static analysis, through modal pushover analysis for ins tance.
The range of 250 cycles appears to be also convenient based on statistical analysis of the
number of cycles observed during the El Centro ground motion [2].
The paper presents the results of tests on the flexural tensile strength under cycling and
reversed loading up to 250 cycles. Full details are reported in [3]. All tests were performed with
the UHPFRC Ductal of Lafarge with a compressive strength of 211 MPa and a modulus of
elasticity of 53.071 MPa. The fibre content of the material was 2 Vol-% with fibres of 13 mm
length and 0,175 mm diameter. The axial tensile strength was about 14,5 MPa and the flexural
tensile strength of prisms 4040 mm was on average 42,3 MPa. The testing program consisted
of 2 phases which are reported separately in Chapter 2 (phase 1) and Chapter 3 (phase 2).
1.2 Test set-up
The test set-up for all the to cycling and reversed cycling bending tests was designed by the
first author and is shown in Fig. 1 and Fig. 2. In this test set-up prisms with a height of 50 and
75 mm and a maximum width of 250 mm could be tested, and the span was 450 or 675 mm.
Special considerations were paid to the kinematic support conditions shown in Fig. 3. The two
427
upper and lower roller supports were in a distance of h = 10 mm in order to avoid any
clamping effects and account for tolerances. The deflection at midspan was measured by 2
ERS- gauges as shown in Fig. 2.
Figure 1: Test specimens.
Figure 2: Foto of test set-up.
Figure 3: Kinematic support conditions.
2 Test program and test results for phase 1

In phase 1 the following test were performed:
- 3 cycling tests each on prisms with h = 50 mm and ratios of b/h = 1 and 5; altogether 6 tests.
- 3 tests each under reversed cycling loading on prisms with h = 50 mm and ratios of b/h = 1, 3
and 5, as well as 3 tests on prisms with h = 75 mm and b/h = 3; altogether 12 tests.
The upper loads were determined from the relevant static tests and was set at 2,25 -times the
elastic limit fct,el of the flexural stress respectively, which is about 71 to 76 % of the flexural
tensile strength. At 1,75-times the elastic limit 50 cycles were performed, and after that the load
increased to the value of 2,25 fct,el and the remaining 200 cycles applied. After that the flexural
tensile strength was determined, unless a prior failure had occurred under cycling loading. The
lower load of the cycling tests was set at 0,10fct,el. For the reversed cycling tests the lower load
was set at 1,75-times the elastic limit for the lower side, which was lower than that determined
for the upper side with the due to the reversed moment causing tension on the rough top side of
the specimen at casting.
The results of the cycling test on one of the specimens with b = h = 50 mm is shown in Fig.
4a, where the applied flexural tensile stress is plotted versus the deflection at midspan. For
comparison also the 3 curves of the static tests are plotted. It can be seen that this specimen
did not attain the 200 cyles at the higher load level but it failed after 122 cycles. This was the
only specimen of the cycling test which exhibited a premature failure due to cycling. All other
428
Tests on the Flexural Tensile Strength of a UHPFRC subjected to Cycling and Reversed Loading
specimens survived all cycles and could be tested up to failure under static loading, as shown
in Fig. 4b for a specimen with b = 3h and h = 50 mm, which attained the flexural tensile
strength of the 3 static tests.
a) prism with b=h=50 mm (failure after 122 cycles) b) prism with b=5h and h=50 mm
(static test after 200 cyles)
Figure 4: Flexural tensile stress versus deflection at midspan for cycling test of two prisms.
For the tests under reversed cycling loading 4 out of the 12 specimens did not survive 250
cyles. Fig. 5 shows the flexural tensile stress plotted versus the deflection at midspan for two
prisms with h = 50 mm and b=5h. In case of the prism shown in Fig. 5a localisation and failure
occurred after 137 cycles, whereas the prism in Fig. 5b could be tested up to failure after 250
cycles had been applied.
a) prism with failure after 137 cycles
b) prism with static test after 205 cycles
Figure 5: Flexural tensile stress versus deflection at midspan for reversed cycling tests of two
prisms with h=50 mm and b = 5h.
In concluding, it could be shown that in a design for cycling and reversed cycling loading the
flexural tensile stresses can be utilized up to 2-times the elastic limit respectively 70 % of the
flexural tensile strength.
3 Test program and test results for phase 2

In phase two, the experimental approach remains with the program testing a series of
displacement controlled 4 points bending reversed cyclic on similar plates with a focus on
displacement behaviours. The idea is to focus on stiffness degradation, ductility and energy
dissipation. The loading is realized by trains of cycles (that is to say a series of a given
number of cycles at a given displacement amplitude) with an increasing displacement
(see Fig. 6), at a loading rate near to the maximal force reached under static loading.
429
Displacement
[mm]
0,2
0,5
1,5
2,5
3,5
Number of
cycles
10
20
20
40
20
20
40
40
40
Figure. 6: Displacement levels and associated number of cycles.
During the casting of the 7 tested samples (L = 550 mm, b = 150 mm, h = 50 mm), the priority
was to cast two similar faces since they would be sollicitated symmetrically and it was
necessary to apply the same load on both sides to reach similar displacements with same
damage. The UHPC was then poured softly from one side of a vertical formwork to make it
flows itself to the other side. The flexural tensile stress versus deflection results are presented
in Fig. 7 with a comparison with monotone static loading.
Figure 7: Flexural tensile stress versus deflection for a given specimen subjected to cyclic displacement
levels (green) compared to static behaviour (in yellow, red and blue)
After 10 cycles in the linear elastic, first micro-cracking is observed on the second cycle train
which corresponds to a change of stiffness (damage) in the hysteretic. The muli-cracking phase
would continue with the crack propagating through the width of the sample in direction of the
casted side. The stiffness measured on the linear part of the curves between 20% and 80%
430
flexural tensile stress is gradually decreasing with cyclic trains corresponding to an increasing
plasticization with an increasing displacement.
It has been observed also that for a given displacement, the sample would damage at each
cycle reaching an asymptotic hysteretic curve (see Fig 7). In Fig 8, the initial response (n1 in
Fig. 8b) and the ultimate (n2 in Fig. 8b) are presented. The average loss of strength is between
10% - 20% (last cycle excluded). A the end, for large displacements, two localized cracks are
observed on each side. Concrete splits along the crack when it re-enters in compression. Fibres
buckling can even be noticed.
a) Initial and intermediate curves for a given cyclic train
b ) First and last cycle curves of the "trains"

Figure 8: Flexural tensile stress versus deflection for a given specimen subjected to cyclic displacement
levels (green) compared to static behaviour (in yellow, red and blue).
4 Discussion
The first observation is that, after cracking, for a given displacement, a loss of strength that is
limited to 20% is observed. The intermediate curves converge to an asymptotic curve.
Second observation, the initial curve in Fig. 8a corresponding to the opening of the crack and
the intermediate curves have a different shape, with a remaining hysteretic area which is lower.
The energy dissipation in initial cycles of each train combined cracking and other phenomenon
431
as matrix fibre friction, thermal dissipation etc. In intermediate cycles, the crack is already
opened. It could be then possible to extract the energy dissipation provided by the material after
cracking energy dissipation. A post cracking viscous energy dissipation can be introduced.
A third observation is that a ductility remains in reversed cyclic loading. An energetic
approach from Chopra based on an elasto plastic model is used to define a pseudo ductility
factor (see Fig. 9). On that geometry, an average remaining pseudo ductility factor equal to 6
is observerd for reversed cyclic loading compared to a pseudo ductility factor equal to 8 for the
corresponding monotone loading. The material ductility in cyclic loading still exists after
cracking but has carefully to be lowered by a factor 0,75.
a) Elastoplastic approach for building pseudo ductility factor b) Application on reversed cyclic curves
Figure 9: Definition of a pseudo ductility factor.
Last, it has been tempted to plot Stiffness versus Pseudo Ductility factor (see Fig. 10). A
correlation close to a hyperbolic law can be established. This simple relation could be helpful in
calibrating a numerical material model in term of energy (trough ductility) and stiffness in future
research combining UHPC and reinforcements.
Figure 10: Stiffness versus ductility factor following a hyperbolic law.
432
In conclusion of this part, it has been observed, through those symetric reversed cyclic testings,
on 50 mm plates that:
Flexural strength in the hardening phase remains with a convergent and limited loss of
strength of around 20% at a same level of imposed deformation (for the specimen geometry
tested);
Energy dissipation could be split with this testing between cracking energy and a post
cracking viscous energy dissipation;
A pseudo ductility factor can be introduced with a decreased value in case of reversed and
cyclic loading compared to monotone static loading;
A correlation between stiffness and pseudo ductility factor can be made with an
hyperbolic law which could be helpful in numerical analysis.
5 Conclusions
Reversed cyclic loadings results were presented in this study. In phase 1 it has been shown
that the material was able to endure reversed cyclic loading at a constant load corresponding to
70% of the flexural strength for around 250 cycles. In a design for cycling and reversed cycling
loading the flexural tensile stresses can be utilized up to 2-times the elastic limit respectively 70
% of the flexural tensile strength.
A limit of the study in phase 1, was that the two faces were not sollicitated symmetrically like
in case of seismic solicitations. A second experimental approach that consists in 4 points
bending reversed cycle trains was developed in phase 2 which allowed us to test the
deformation capacity of the material by proceeding with displacement steps for a given plate
geometry.
A pseudo ductility factor was introduced for Ductal samples, which should apply with no
consideration of the number of cycles to be applied. A ductility factor decreased by 25%, in
average, compared to the one in monotone loading was observed with a limited loss of strength
of around 20%. This has to be investigated for different geometries. One should pay attention
that after crack localization, the stiffness is decreasing quickly. Before localization an hyper bolic
law is proposed to link stiffness and pseudo ductility factor. Finally the study of samples
energy dissipation shows us that, during the hardening phase, a large energy is being
dissipated through cracking but also through friction and viscosity phenomenon as a postcracking viscous energy dissipation
The following step corresponding to that observation, would be to evaluate , with the same
protocol, the energy dissipation of a reinforced UHPC elements to asses the energy dissipation
that could be provided by the fibre content. This could open the way to dedicated fibre content,
UHPC formulation and reinforcement for critical structural details like plastic hinges in seimic
design.
References
[1] Reineck, K.-H.; Lichtenfels, A.; Greiner, S.; (2004): Hochfester und ultrahochfester Beton fr
Heiwasser-Wrmespeicher. Beton Werk International 7 (2004), H. 2, April, 66 - 80
[2] Chopra, A K; (2007). Dynamics of structures. New Jersey : Pearson Prentice Hall, 2007, 876 p
[3] Frettlhr, B; Reineck, K.-H. (2009). Versuche zum Mastabseinfluss bei kombinierter
Beanspruchung aus Biegung und Lngskraft von dnnen Bauteilen aus ultrahochfestem
Faserfeinkornbeton. (Tests on the size effect of thin members out of Ultra-High-Performance fibre
reinforced concrete subjected to combined bending and axial forces). Abschlussbericht zum
Forschungsvorhaben RE 813/6-1 der Deutschen Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG). Universitt
Stuttgart, Institut fr Leichtbau Entwerfen und Konstruieren (ILEK). September 2009
433
434
Flexural Model of Doubly Reinforced Concrete Beams Using

Ultra High Performance Fiber Reinforced Concrete
Chuchai Sujivorakul
Dept. of Civil Technology Education, King Mongkuts University of Tech. Thonburi, Thailand
This paper presented a flexural model to predict the relationship between moment and curvature of
doubly reinforced concrete beams using ultra high performance fiber reinforced concrete (UHPFRC).The
model was developed from linear strain compatibility, stress-strain relationship of UHPFRC in
compression and tension, and equilibrium of forces. Muli-linear relationship was assumed in both
ascending and descending parts of the stress-strain relationship of UHPFRC under Tension. Some
parametric studies also presented in this paper, such as effect of different volume fractions of fibers (V f),
effect of different positive reinforcement ratios ( s), and comparison between the use of UHPFRC and
ordinary performance fiber reinforced concrete (OPFRC). The results from this model showed that the
use of UHPFRC in doubly reinforced concrete beams led to a significant increase in rigidity and nominal
moment resistance of beams.
Keywords: reinforced concrete beams, ultra high performance concrete, UHPFRC
1 Introduction
The addition of discontinuous fibers to concrete, resulting in fiber reinforced concrete (FRC),
enhances the ductility and the tensile strength (post-cracking strength) of concrete due to the
fibers bridging the cracks through bond between fibers and concrete. The ductility and the post cracking strength of FRC is dependent on volume fraction of fiber, length of fiber, tensile
strength of fiber, and compressive strength of concrete [Oluokun and Malak (1999), Sujivorakul
and Naaman (2003)]. It is currently reported that the use of high-strength deformed steel fibers
(hooked or twisted steel fibers with tensile strength of 2800 MPa) at volume fraction of 1.5%2.0% with ultra high performance concrete (UHPC) with compressive strength of 150 -200 MPa
could lead to ultra high performance fiber reinforced concrete (UHPFRC), which shows the
strain hardening and multiple cracking behavior [Frettlhr et al. (2011), Wille et al. (2011), Kim
et al. (2011), and Park et al. (2012)]. They reported good tensile performance of UHPFRC with
strain capacity about 0.5% and the post-cracking strength up to 18 MPa.
Reinforced concrete (RC) is a type of composite materials, which are the most widely used in
building structures and infrastructures. It is the combination of steel reinforcing bars and
concrete, because concrete is good under compression, while steel reinforcing bars is good
under tension. RC beam is the structural member used in carrying moment and shear. It is
generally known that the nominal moment resistance of RC beam is mainly dependent on the
amount of positive reinforcing bars, while an increase in compressive strength of concrete
enhances slightly nominal moment resistance. Thus, the only use of ultra high strength concrete
in RC beams does not seem to improve their flexural properties. This paper presents the
flexural behavior of doubly reinforced concrete beams using UHPFRC through the analytical
model developed in this study, it is showed a significant improvement in flexural strength and
behavior of RC beams when UHPFRC is used instead of ordinary performance concrete (OPC)
and UHPC.
2
Objective and Research Significance
The main objective of this research is to develop an analytical model for predicting resisting
moment and curvature of doubly reinforced concrete beams using ultra high performance fiber
435
reinforced concrete. The model is based on strain compatibility and equilibrium of forces over
the cross section of beams. This research also investigates some parameters such as volume
fraction of fibers and positive reinforcement ratio on the flexural performance of RC beam. This
model would help structural engineers to predict the nominal resistance of flexural RC members
as well as their behavior when UHPFRC is used.
3 Flexural Model of Doubly RC Beam Using UHFRC

Basic Concept and Assumptions
The flexural model of doubly reinforced concrete beams using UHPFRC developed here is
based on the equilibrium of forces obtained from strain compatibility. The model is based on the
following assumptions.
1. The stress-strain relationship of UHFRC in compression is assumed to be a parabola
relationship in ascending part and a linear relationship in descending part (Figure 1(a)).
Multi-linear relationship is assumed in ascending and descending parts of the stressstrain relationship of UHPFRC in tension (Figure 1(a)).
2. When moment is applied to a reinforced concrete beam, it is assumed that plane section
of the beam remains plane, and the strain throughout the cross section of the beam is
linearly from the neutral axis (N.A.) as shown in Figure 2(b).
3. Prefect bonding between UHPFRC and steel reinforcing bars is assumed.
4. The stress-strain relationship of reinforcing bars is linear equal to the elastic modulus of
steel, until the steel is yielding. After that the relationship becomes a constant equal to
the yield strength of steel.
5. Pure concrete is not able to carry load in tension, while UHPFRC is able to carry load in
tension and its ability is dependent on the type of fibers, volume fraction of fibers and
compressive strength of concrete.
Figure 1: Assumed Stress-Strain Relationship of UHPFRC under Compression and Tension
Definition of Symbols
As , As'
= cross sectional area of positive and negative steel reinforcing bars
b, h
= the size of beam section
d ,d
'
= effective depth of bottom and top steel reinforcing bars
Es
= elastic modulus of bottom and top steel reinforcing bars
Et
= elastic modulus of UHPFRC in tension
436
Flexural Model of Doubly Reinforced Concrete Beams Using Ultra High Performance Fiber Reinforced Concrete
f c' , c'
= compressive strength of UHPFRC and corresponding strain
f s , f s'
= actual tensile stress of positive and negative steel reinforcing bars
ft'
= tensile strength of UHPFRC at first crack
fy
= yield strength of steel reinforcing bars
ft ' , t'
= tensile stress and strain of UHPFRC at bottom surface of beam
ftp1, tp1
= tensile strength of UHPFRC at post crack 1 and corresponding strain
ftp 2 , tp 2
= tensile strength of UHPFRC at post crack 2 and corresponding strain
= compressive strain of UHPFRC at top surface of beam
p1, p 2
= ascending modulus of UHPFRC in tension after first crack
= descending modulus of UHPFRC under compression
= descending modulus of UHPFRC under tension
Figure 2: Strain and Stress Distribution throughout the Section of Beam using UHPFRC
Analytical Formulation
From the parabola relationship in ascending part of UHPFRC under compression (Fig. 1a)
when c c' , the following relationship can be expressed as follows:
fc 1 c 2 c 3
2
Find
constants 1 , 2 and 3 from
the
(b) f c f c' , c c' ; (c)
(1)
'
fc
'c 2
; 2
boundary
conditions:
i.e.
(a)
f c 0, c 0 ;
dfc
0, c c' . Thus, it leads to
d c
2 f 'c
'c
; and 3 0
(2)
Substituting Eq. (2) into Eq. (1), we will obtain

f'
2f '
f c c 2 c2 ' c c
'
c
c
when
c c'
(3)
The descending part of UHPFRC under compression can be expressed as follows:
f c f c' c c c'
when c c'
437
(4)
It is noted that c has a negative value. Tensile stresses in the reinforcing bars can be obtained
from stress-strain relationship as follows:
f s Es s f y
(5)
f s' E s s' f y
(6)
c d'
and s' c
(7)
c
c
The tensile stress calculated in Eqs. (5), (6) and (7) must not be higher than the yield strength
where s
d c
of steel, f y .Two equilibrium equations at any section of beam (Figure 2(b)) are:
Fx 0
or
Cc Cs Ts Tc
M 0
or
M Ts d c y c Tc y c y tc Cs y c c d '
(8)
(9)
The correct value of c obtained by trial and error in Eq. (8), and moment resistance at any c can
be calculated from Eq. (9). The value of Cc , Cs , Ts , Tc and y c , y tc can be calculated as follows:
(i) In case of c c'
Cc
2
5c
f c (cb) ; Cs As' f s' ; y c
3
8
(10a,b,c)
(ii) In case of c c'
2 ' ' f c f c'

c yc' b ; Cs As' f s'
yc f c b
3
2
Cc
'
2 ' ' 5 yc
f c c yc'
f c yc
3
8
yc
(11a,b,c)
c yc' 1 '
f c f c c yc'

2 2
2 ' ' f c f c'

c yc'
y f c
3 c
2
'
c
where y 'c
'
c
c yc'
c' c
c
(iii) In case of t t'
h c
c
1
2
Tc ft (h c)b ; Ts As f s ; y tc h c
3
2
where ft Et t
t
(12)
(13a,b,c)
(iv) In case of t' t tp1
Tc
1 ' ' ft ' ft

h c yt' b ; Ts As f s
ft yt b
2
2
y tc
1 ' ' 2 '

'
'
ft yt yt ft h c yt
2
3
(14a,b,c)
h c2 y
1
yt' ft ft ' h c yt'
2
'
1 ' ' ft ft
h c yt'
ft yt
2
2
where t is expressed in Eq. (12), yt'
'
t
c t'
, and f t f t ' p1 t t'
438
23 (h c y ) y

'
t
'
t
(v) In case of tp1 t tp 2
Tc
f t ' f tp1
f ft
1 ' '
ytp1 yt' b tp1
h c ytp1 b ; T A f
f t yt b
s
s s
2
2
2
(15a,b,c)
1 ' ' 2 '

'
'
f t yt yt f t ytp1 yt
2
3
tp1
1
yt' f tp1 f t ' ytp1 yt'
2
yt'
23 ( y

tp1
yt' ) yt'
h c ytp1
1
f tp1 h c ytp1
ytp1 f t f tp1 h c ytp1 (h c ytp1 ) ytp1
2
3
2
y tc
'
f tp1 f t
1 ' ' f t f tp1
h c ytp1
f t yt
ytp1 yt'
2
2
2
c t'
, ytp1
c tp1
, and f t f tp1 p 2 t tp1
(vi) In case of t tp 2
'
f tp1 f tp 2
1
f t ftp1
ytp 2 ytp1 b
Tc f t ' yt' b
ytp1 yt' b
2
2
2

Ts As f s
1 ' ' 2 '

'
'
f t yt yt f t ytp1 yt
2
3
tp1
yt'
1
yt' f tp1 f t ' ytp1 yt'
2
ft
h c ytp 2 b
(16a,b,c)
tp 2
23 ( y
tp1
yt' ) yt'
ytp 2 ytp1
1
f tp1 ytp 2 ytp1

ytp1 f tp 2 f tp1 ytp 2 ytp1 ( ytp 2 ytp1 ) ytp1
2
3
2
h c ytp 2
1
f t h c ytp 2
ytp 2 f tp 2 f t h c ytp 2 (h c ytp 2 ) ytp 2
2
3
2
y tc
'
f tp1 f tp 2
f ft
1 ' ' f t f tp1
ytp 2 ytp1 tp 2
h c ytp 2
f t yt
ytp1 yt'
2
2
2
2
c t'
, ytp1
c tp1
, ytp 2
c tp 2
and f t f tp 2 t t tp 2
The curvature of beam at any c can be obtained as follows:
(17)
c
c
Fig. 3 summarizes the procedure to obtain the relationship between resisting moment ( M ) and
curvature ( ) of RC beam using UHPFRC.
4 Results and Discussion from Parametric Study

In this parametric study, the size of RC beams is assumed to be 0.2 m x 0.4 m, the effective
depth is fixed as d = 0.35 m and d'= 0.05 m, and yield strength and elastic modulus of
reinforcing bars are 400 MPa and 200,000 MPa, respectively. Table 1 summarized parameters
investigated here, i.e. s = 0%, 0.5%, 1.0%, and 1.5%; 's = 0%, and 0.5%, and the compressive
strength of UHPFRC is 170 MPa with coefficients under compression and tension as given in
Table 1.
439
Table 1: Parameters and Properties of UHPFRC used in this study
Properties of UHPFRC
[%]
' s
[%]
Vf
[%]
0 to
1.5
0&
0.5
0
1
1.5
2.0
Compression
f'c
[MPa]
170
Tension
' c
0.0025
-113333
-85000
-68000
-56667
f't
[MPa]
8
8
9
10
ftp1
[MPa]
0
9
12
15
ftp2
[MPa]
0
10
14
18
' t
tp1
tp2
0.0002
0.0002
0.0002
0.0002
0
0.0012
0.0012
0.0012
0
0.005
0.005
0.005
0
-2000
-2800
-3600
Figure 3: Procedure for Obtaining Moment and Curvature Relationship of RC Beam Using UHPFRC
For performance comparison, some parametric studies of ordinary performance concrete

reinforced with steel fibers (OPFRC) and steel reinforcing bars are also investigated and then
compared the results with those of UHPFRC. OPC used here has the compressive strength of
50 MPa, and the tensile strength of steel fibers is 1100 MPa.
Fig.4 presents moment and curvature relationship of RC beams using UHPFRC obtained
from the model developed in this study. It is observed in Fig.4 (left) that when there is no steel
fibers (Vf = 0), the resisting moment of beams depends on the amount of steel reinforcing bars
(s). An increase in the amount of reinforcing bars increases the nominal moment res istance as
well as flexural behavior. When the steel fibers are added in UHPC, the nominal moment
resistance as well as flexural behavior is significantly improved. Moreover, it is observed that
resisting moment and rigidity of RC beams increase with an increase in volume fraction of steel
440
fibers. Fig. 4 (right) expresses the contribution of resisting moment, which consists of two
components: resisting moment from steel reinforcing bars (Ms) and resisting moment from
UHPFRC or OPFRC (Mc). It is seen that the contribution due to Ms from UHPFRC is nearly the
same as those from OPFRC, while the contribution due to Mc from UHPFRC is significantly
higher than those of OPFRC. Thus, the nominal moment resistance, rigidity, and flexural
behavior of UHPFRC are much better than those of OPFRC.
Fig. 5 shows the effect of volume fraction of fibers on nominal moment resistance (Mn), the
curvature at Mn, the strain catMn, and the distance c at Mn of RC beam using UHPFRC. It is
clearly seen that an increase in volume fraction of fibers leads to an increase in Mn, and the
distance c at Mn due to the contribution of fibers in tension zone of the beam section. As a
result, the compression zone (related to the distance c) increases with an increase in volume
fraction of fibers. Furthermore, when Vf = 1.0% to 2.0%, the curvature at Mn is slightly increase
with an increase in volume fraction of fibers. This means the ductility of RC beams enhances
with an increase in volume fraction of fibers. However, without using of steel fibers in UHPC
and OPC, the large curvature of beams would be attained due to the yielding behavior of steel
reinforcing bars. Finally, it is seen that the maximum strain of concrete at Mn (c) decrease
significantly with the use of steel fibers in UHPC or OPC due to the contribution of steel fibers in
tension zone as mentioned before. However, when Vf = 1.0% to 2.0%, the strain c at Mn
increases slightly with an increase in volume fraction of fibers.
5 Conclusions
In this research, the flexural model of doubly reinforced concrete beams using ultra high
performance fiber reinforced concrete is developed to predict the relationship between moment
and curvatute of beams. Some parameters such as volume fraction of fibers and positive
reinforcement ratio are investigated in order to study the effect of these parameters on the
nominal moment resistance and rigidity of beams. The results show that an increase i n volume
fraction of fiber leads to an increase in nominal moment resistance, rigidity, and flexural
behavior of beams due to the contribution of fibers in tension zone of the beam section. This
model could be applied for any high performance concrete structures reinforced with steel
reinforcing bars and different types of fibers. However, before using this model, it is
recommended firstly to determine the stress-strain relationship of the high performance fiber
reinforced concrete. Moreover, it should be reminded that the size of the tensile specimen and
interaction between UHPFRC and reinforcing during loading affect the strain capacity of
UHPFRC, therefore the standard size of tensile specimens and some correction coefficients
should be determined in the future research.
Figure 4: Moment and Curvature Relationship of RC Beam Using UHPFRC: Left Figure - Comparison of Different
Vf; Right Figure - Contribution of Resisting Moment from UHPFRC or OPFRC and Reinforcing Bars.
441
Figure 5: Effect of Vf on Mn, Curvature at Mn, catMn, and Distance c at Mn of RC Beam Using UHPFRC.
References
[1] Oluokun, A. F., and Malak, S. A. J., Some Parametric Investigations of the Tensile Behavior of
Slurry Infiltrated Mat Concrete (SIMCON), High Performance Fiber Reinforced Cement Composites
- HPFRCC 3. H. W. Reinhardt and A. E. Naaman, Editors, RILEM Pro 6, RILEM Publications
S.A.R.L., Cachan, France, pp.271-297, 1999.
[2] Sujivorakul, C. and Naaman, A. E., "Tensile Response of HPFRC Composites Using Twisted
Polygonal Steel Fibers, ACI-Special Publication on Innovations in FRC for Value (SP216-11), edited
by N. Banthia, M. Criswell, P. Tatnall, and K. Folliard, 2003.
[3] Frettlhr, B., Reineck, K. -H., Reinhardt, H. W., Size and Shape Effect of UHPFRC Prisms Tested
Under Axial Tension and Bending, High Performance Fiber Reinforced Cement Composites HPFRCC 6. G. J. Parra-Montesinos, H. W. Reinhardt and A. E. Naaman, Editors, RILEM Pro 6,
RILEM Publications S.A.R.L., Cachan, France, pp.351-358, 2011.
[4] Wille, K., El-Tawil, S., Naaman, A. E., Strain Rate Dependent Tensile Behavior of Ultra-High
Performance Fiber Reinforced Concrete, High Performance Fiber Reinforced Cement Composites HPFRCC 6. G. J. Parra-Montesinos, H. W. Reinhardt and A. E. Naaman, Editors, RILEM Pro 6,
RILEM Publications S.A.R.L., Cachan, France, pp.367-373, 2011.
[5] Kim, D. J., Wille, K., Naaman A. E., El-Tawil, S., Composite Properties in the Fresh and Hardened
States; 1 Strength Dependent Tensile Behavior of Strain Hardening Fiber Reinforced Concrete,
High Performance Fiber Reinforced Cement Composites - HPFRCC 6. G. J. Parra-Montesinos, H.
W. Reinhardt and A. E. Naaman, Editors, RILEM Pro 6, RILEM Publications S.A.R.L., Cachan,
France, pp.2-9, 2011.
[6] Park, H. P., Kim, D. J., Ryu, G. S., and Koh, K. T., Tensile Behavior of Ultra High Performance
Hybrid Fiber Reinforced Concrete, Cement & Concrete Composites, 34, pp.172-184, 2012.
442

Simone Strwald1, Ekkehard Fehling2
1: Institute for Construction and the Environment, HSR Hochschule Rapperswil, Switzerland
Ultra High Performance Concrete (UHPC) is a smart and innovative material because of its high
compressive strength and its durability. In order to carry flexural tension of bending members effectively,
fibres are combined with conventional bar reinforcement even for economical reasons. Thereby, the
structural and deformation behaviour is affected significantly.
For flexural loading, a mechanical model based on equilibrium and compatibility is proposed. It includes
the development of the largest crack width as well as the estimation of the load capacity.
The mechanical model is verified by bending tests of prismatic beams. Theoretical and experimental
results demonstrated that positive influences of fibres, rebars and bond stiffness on the cracks in SLS
lead to the negative effect of reduced ductility in ULS. However, the tests showed that a small amount of
fibres fits well structural and economical requirements.
Keywords: UHPC, UHPFRC, Flexion, Fibres, Rebars, Design
1 Introduction
A family of Ultra High Performance Concretes (UHPC) with a compressive strength of about
180 N/mm was developed at the University of Kassel. The high compressive strength of the
material is attended by an extremely brittle behaviour, which is prevalently improved by adding
fibre reinforcement. For economical and ecological reasons, it is recommended to keep the fibre
content as low as possible. However, to attain long-span beams under systematical utilisation of
the high compressive strength of the UHPC-matrix, additional bar reinforcement in the tensile
area is required. This also reduces the effects of scattering in fibre orientation and distribution.
Modelling of the combined action of two reinforcement types has to take into account
differences of the structural behaviour to ensure a safe application of such structures. For the
design in serviceability and ultimate limit state the equilibrium as well as the compatibility of
deformations have to be considered. The reinforcement configuration primarily influences
stiffness and cracking process. Bearing capacity and ductility are significantly affected as well.
Within the research project the flexural behaviour of structural members made of Ultra High
Performance Concrete (UHPC) having a combined reinforcement of steel fibres and
conventional bars was investigated. First, an experimental program was carried out. Material
and bond properties were tested to get realistic input values and four-point bending tests on
prismatic beams were performed. The aim of this study is to obtain more information about the
interaction of both reinforcement types in variable load ranges. Parameters like the beams
height, the fibre content, the type of rebars and the bar reinforcement ratio were varied.
Second, mechanical approaches for the calculation of the structural behaviour in the critical
cracked section have been developed. Based on theoretical and experimental results, a
simplified model for an efficient design in ultimate limit state was invented.
2 Material and Bond Properties

An experimental programme [6] was carried out to determine the material properties, the tensile
behaviour of UHPC with fibre reinforcement and the bond properties of steel bars in UHPC.
Materials
Within the research project a fine aggregate UHPC-mixture named M3Q was used, which was
developed at the University of Kassel [1], [2].
443
Table 1: Properties of UHPC-matrix, range of test results.
UHPC matrix
Unit
M3Q
compressive strength fc,cyl
MPa
180 - 200
tensile strength fct
MPa
5-8
elastic modulus Ec
MPa
45000 - 50000
The UHPC-matrix itself has a low tensile strength in comparison to its compressive strength and
a very brittle failure mode. The improvement by smooth micro fibres depends on the fibres
type, content, geometry and orientation. The geometrical parameters (length lf / diameter df in
mm) of the applied steel fibres were 20/0.25. The applied fibre dosage was varied (0.0; 0.5 and
1.5 % by volume). Within the test series, conventional rebars BSt 500 and ribbed high strength
steel bars St 1375/1570 were used.
Tensile behaviour of UHPFRC
The tensile behaviour of fibre reinforced UHPC was derived from tension tests on notched
prisms and presented as a stress crack opening relationship. For a fibre content of 0.5 % by
vol., a maximum stress carried by fibres - the fibre efficiency - of cf0 = 4.0 N/mm and for 1.5 %
by vol. a fibre efficiency of cf0 = 10.3 N/mm could be determined experimentally.
Model
Model
2.5
7.5
Figure 1: Tensile test on notched prism (left), mean test results and model (right).
Based on the fibre efficiency, the characteristic stress - crack opening relationship can be
formulated by the model given by Leutbecher [3].
Bond of rebars
To investigate the bond behaviour at large slips and the influence of the steel stress or strain,
pullout tests were carried out. The relative displacement was measured at the unloaded end of
the bars.
444
casting direction
bond length
lb = 1.5 1.8 ds
Figure 2: Test setup with specimen (left), mean test results and derived bond law (right).
For rebars BSt 500, ds = 12 mm, the bond strength (maximum average value along bond
length) was b,max = 73 N/mm. Compared to the results of Leutbecher [3] (b,max = 55 N/mm) and
Oesterlee [4] (b,max = 40 N/mm), a much higher bond strength could be observed because of a
higher compressive strength of the concrete. The bond strength of high strength steel bars St
1375/1570 was lower (b,max = 52 N/mm) due to a smaller relative rib area. The proposed bond
law is based on the relationships given in MC 2010 [5].
3 Bending Tests
0.15 or 0.35
Test setup and test procedure

The experimental work focused on the investigation of the flexural behaviour of combined
reinforced UHPC members subjected to four point bending tests. A total of ten beams were
examined. Detailed information for all beams is given in [6]. Below, the results of three beams
with different fibre dosages are compared. The beams geometry and the test setup are shown
in principle in Fig. 3.
0.70
0.35
1.00
0.35
0.15
2.00
Figure 3: Test setup with specimen, 4 LVDTs and load cell on top (left) and both halves of a specimen after
pullout test (right).
The tests were performed deformation controlled. Deflection and rotation angles at the beams
ends were measured continuously by LVDTs. Integral deformations at the top and bottom of
specimens were detected over the total length of monitoring area to determine average strains.
445
Figure 4: Exemplary pictures of the cracks: 0.04 mm (left) and 1.1 mm (right).
During several stops at certain average strain rates, cracks were marked within the monitoring
area the bottom of the beam and pictures of the cracks were taken. After the tests, crack
spacings were measured and crack widths were determined by analysing the pictures (see the
example pictures of the cracks in Fig. 4).
Test results
The influence of the fibre dosage was very significant. In the following, three beams with
different fibre content (0 % by vol., 0.5 % by vol., 1.5 % by vol.) were compared. The beams
height was 35 cm and the ribbed bar reinforcement was 3 11.5 mm with a type of high
strength steel St 1375/1570.
1.5 % by vol.
0.5 % by vol.
0.0 % by vol.
Figure 5: Moment versus mid span deflection (left) and failure pattern (right).
The influence of the fibres on the beams stiffness, load bearing capacity as well as on the
failure pattern is very obvious. The failure of the beam H35-3St-F20-1,5, which had a high fibre
dosage, occurred due to localisation of deformation in one crack. Accordingly, its rotation
capacity and ductility was reduced.
Beam H35-3St-F0 without fibre reinforcement failed in a brittle manner by spalling of the
concrete cover and crushing in the compressive zone. The observed crack spacings and crack
widths were significantly higher. Although ductile behaviour in tension could be expected, it was
limited by the brittle concrete compression failure.
Beam H35-3St-F20-0,5, with a medium fibre dosage of 0.5 % by vol., failed by rupture of the
bar reinforcement. The localisation of deformation in about five cracks within the monitoring
area began when the rebars were already in the plastic range. The crack widths were limited
446
and brittle failure could be avoided. No localisation of deformation in a single crack was
observed.
As well known, a higher bar reinforcement ratio increased the stiffness of the test beams in
the elastic state of bar reinforcement as well as the load bearing capacity. However, i t could
also be confirmed that a higher bar reinforcement ratio reduces the beams rotation capacity if
concrete failure in the compression zone of the beam becomes decisive.
During the tests, it was observed, that the beams compression zone became very small and
most of the beams were damaged in the top layers. Due to the very high concrete stress,
surface defects like small blisters or pores could lead to premature failure at the top layer.
4 Mechanical Model
Leutbecher [3] has developed a mechanical model to describe the crack development and
deformations of tensile members with combined reinforcement in the elastic range of steel bars.
Based on this, the model was adopted to flexural loadings and extended to the plastic range of
steel bars.
Flexural crack element
The basis of the model is a flexural crack element, which is a beam segment with a length sr
equal to the crack spacing (see Fig. 6).
Figure 6: Model of a critical flexural crack element and the assumed stress distribution.
For the calculation of stresses and crack widths, the following assumptions are made. A beam
is divided into crack elements which are independent from each other. Within the crack, tensile
loads are transferred by steel bars and by fibre reinforcement but not by the UHPC-matrix. The
compressive stress-strain relationship of UHPC is assumed to be linear. Crack surfaces as well
as the integral flexural crack element remain plain. Tensile stress, transferred by steel fibres,
depends on the crack width and follows the determined stress crack opening relationship.
Hence, for the calculation, the equilibrium as well as the compatibility have to be considered.
The bond behaviour is defined nonlinear according to the determined bond law.
Within the bond length, forces are transmitted from the rebars to the surrounding concrete
the effective tension zone. If the stress in cross section I in the effective tension zone reaches
the fracture stress fctf, a new crack will form.
Effectiveness of the fibre dispersion
The fibre efficiency is a scattering size. The scatter depends on numerous factors such as
geometry, casting conditions, compaction method or the consistency of the concrete, which are
difficult to quantify. However, the cross section with the lowest fibre efficiency defines the critical
447
crack with the maximum crack width. There, the bearing capacity is reached. Based on current
design codes the characteristic fibre efficiency was estimated as 70 % of the average value.
Maximum crack spacing
The largest possible crack width occurs where the lowest fibre efficiency and the largest crack
spacing merge. The largest possible crack spacing is obtained if the tensile stress in the
effective tension zone approaches the fracture stress between two cracks.
Within the model, the maximum crack spacing and the moment is calculated for a certain
crack width. While increasing the assumed value of crack width stepwise, the critical crack
element can be calculated. The maximum bending moment thus correspond to the load
capacity of the cross section.
5 Validation of the Models by Experimental Results

The influence of the fibre dosage was very significant. The theoretical and test results of the
previously presented three beams are shown.
Figure 7: Moment versus maximum crack width of test results and calculation.
Figure 7 presents the measured maximum crack widths of the tests and the results of the model
for the critical crack. The comparison demonstrates that the curves are covered well. The
maximum difference between measured and calculated crack widths amounts to 4 %. The crack
width development of the critical crack can thus be understood well.
6 Simplified Design Model in ULS

For the practical design in ultimate limit state, a simplified approach can be used. Based on the
assumptions that the fibre efficiency is reached when the behaviour of rebars gets plastic and
that the subsequent softening of the fibre concrete is dominant, the maximum moment can be
estimated. Tensile stress transferred by fibres in the cracked cross section is represented by a
stress block, which gives the quantity and position of the resultant in this case well. Parameter
studies on prismatic beams have shown that the parameters of the stress block can be
assumed to k = 0.9 and = 0.9. For UHPC, the stress distribution in the compression zone can
assumed to be linear even in ULS.
448
Figure 8: Moment versus mid span deflection (left) mean and failure pattern (right).
For the recalculation of the load capacity of the presented beams, the fibre efficiency in the
critical crack is assumed with 70 % of the average value. The results are compared with
experimental results in Table 1. The design model shows a good agreement with the
experimental results. The maximum deviation of 5 % was observed for beam H35-3St-F20-0,5,
because of hardening in the plastic range.
Table 2: This is the table description.
Specimen
H35-3St-0
H35-3St-F20-0,5
H35-3St-F20-1,5
cf0;0,7
[N/mm]
Test
max M [kNm]
Model
max M [kNm]
0
2.45
6.32
137
167
179
140
158
183
7 Conclusions
The flexural behaviour of UHPC beams with combined reinforcement was investigated. First the
material behaviour of UHPC was determined. The stress-crack opening behaviour of fibre
reinforced UHPC could be characterized by tensile tests on notched prisms. Pull out tests of the
applied bar reinforcement in UHPC led to a bond law (stress-slip relationship) according to MC
2010 [5]. Bond tests showed very stiff bond behaviour between bar reinforcement and UHPCmatrix.
Flexural tests on beams made of UHPC with combined reinforcement of bars and steel fibres
were performed to investigate the development of cracking as well as the load bearing capacity.
Results of the test series demonstrate that additional fibre reinforcement has positive effects
to reduce crack widths, crack spacings and to improve the stiffness in SLS as well as to
improve the load bearing capacity in ULS. Nevertheless a high fibre dosage limits the rotation
capacity because of crack localisation. To avoid this in the plastic range of rebars, the
hardening effect of bar reinforcement has to be more dominant in comparison to the softening
of fibre reinforcement. Hence, the higher the fibre dosage, the more bar reinforcement is
needed to achieve a ductile behaviour.
Decisive for the load capacity is the behaviour of the critical crack, where the fibre efficiency
has a minimum and the crack spacing is maximal. For representation of the critical crack, a
mechanical model has been formulated. In addition to the equilibrium conditions, the
compatibility conditions in the cracked cross section are considered. A comparison with
experimental results like measured crack widths and crack spacings shows good agreement.
449
The mechanical model allows to estimate the load capacity and the associated maximum crack
if the scatter of fibre efficiency was known.
On this basis, a simplified design model was derived, in which it is assumed that the load
capacity is reached when the yield strength of bar reinforcement is attained. For small crack
widths, the stresses transferred by fibres are represented by a simplified stress block. The
comparison with experimental results verifies the approach. For the design of structural
elements, a suitable safety concept has to be considered.
8 Acknowledgements
This project was part of the Priority Programme SPP 1182 Building Sustainable with UltraHigh-Performance Concrete (UHPC) and supported by the German Research Foundation
(DFG). All support is gratefully acknowledged.
References
[1] Fehling, E. et al.: Entwicklung, Dauerhaftigkeit und Berechnung Ultra-Hochfester Betone (UHPC),
Forschungsbericht DFG FE 497/1-1, Structural Materials and Engineering Series, No. 1, Kassel
University, 2005.
[2] Strwald, S.: Bending Behaviour of UHPFRC combined with Rebars, 8th fib PhD Symposium
Copenhagen, Denmark, June 2010.
ultrahochfesten Beton (UHPC), PhD Thesis, University of Kassel, Germany, 2008.
[4] Oesterlee, C.: Tragverhalten von Verbundbauteilen aus bewehrtem UHFB und Stahlbeton, Betonund Stahlbeton 104, Heft 8, pp. 462, 2009.
[5] fib Bulletin 56: Model Code 2010, First complete draft, 2010.
[6] Strwald, S.: Versuche zum Biegetragverhalten von UHPC mit kombinierter Bewehrung,
Forschungsbericht (technical report), Fachgebiet Massivbau, Fachbereich Bauingenieurwesen,
Universitt Kassel, 2011.
450

Niki Cauberg1, Julie Pirard1, Benoit Parmentier1, Olivier Remy2
1: Belgian Building Research Institute, Belgium
2: Vrije Universiteit Brussel, Belgium
Ultra-high-performance concrete (UHPC), a very high performance concrete with usually a compressive
strength of 130 N/mm2 or more, is obtained with a number of mix design modifications compared to HPC.
These modifications include, among others, the use of high quantities of cement and superplasticizers
and the addition of fillers and microfillers (often silica fume) combined with rather specific granular
distributions and sometimes a post-treatment. Altogether, this gives the wanted low porosity and high
performance of the concrete, with an influence on all concrete properties compared to HPC or normal
strength concrete for which the Eurocode 2 describes material properties and design rules. Research
illustrates that UHPC sometimes shows a different material behavior, consequently resulting in the
requirement for a case-by-case specification and material check. This paper focuses on a general check
of the material behavior and the comparison with Eurocode 2. More specifically, the paper describes the
research on the shear capacity of UHPC, which has been tested with a set of 45 beams. The research
used three mix designs to cover a broad range of UHPC (dmax from 0.5 mm to 8 mm), without heat
curing (fcm between 130 and 180 N/mm 2). UHPC with and without fibres have been used (up to 2 %), and
two a/d-ratios have been studied.
Keywords: UHPC, shear, beam
1 Introduction
Problem description
Due to its specific mix design, questions arise about the shear capacity of ultra-high
performance. Mainly the absence of coarse aggregates might have a negative influence on the
shear capacity. Secondly, the large amounts of cement, fillers and microfillers might have a
negative effect as well. On the other hand, the mechanical performance of UHPC, for instance
the compressive and tensile strength, might indicate a good behaviour for shear capacity.
Eurocode 2 (EN 1992-1-1:2004, EC2) allows for the calculation of a design strength for shear
capacity, and Model Code 2010 gives a proposition to include (steel) fibre reinforcement. This
paper presents some empirical results, comparing these calculations and test results on
medium scaled beams (2.3 meter length, 0.16 meter height and 0.25 meter width).
Test set-up
A simple test set-up has been used, as can be seen in Figure 1: An isostatic configuration, with
a span of 2 meters in between the supports. The detailed beam and longitudinal reinforcement
configuration can be found in Figure 3. An important reinforcement ratio was needed to avoid
flexural rupture. For some beams, additional shear reinforcement has been placed: stirrups
diameter 8 mm, with an interspace of 180 mm. The force has been applied in four loading
steps. This allowed for an inspection of the cracks in the middle part of the beams. The analysis
of the evolution of these crack width measurements will be studied as a seperate project.
Three parameters have been varied in this study: the a/d-ratio (2 ratios), the fibre
reinforcement dosage (4 fibre dosages) and the mix design of the UHPC (3 compositions M1,
M2 and M3). The force has been applied with an a/d-ratio of 1.8 and 3, in order to study
different types of rupture (compression and shear, as described in literature or reference works,
see Figure 2 and [1]). Some details about the mix design and fibre reinforcement are given in
the next chapter. For each situation, three beam tests have been performed.
451
Figure 1: Simple test set-up.
Figure 2: Different situations for shear rupture, according to [1].
Figure 3: Beam configuration for testing.
Mix design
The used UHPC-types M1, M2 and M3 represent different approaches of UHPC-design,
ranging from compositions with larger aggregate size and minimal cement quantity (M1), to
reactive powder concrete with large powder quantities and complete removal of coarse
aggregates (M3). Table 1 gives the detailed mix compositions and some basic material
parameters as tested in this research. Two fibre reinforcement types have been used, at
dosage from 0 % to 2 % in volume: only short fibres (6 mm length, 0.16 mm), or a fibre mix
(70 % short fibres and 30 % longer fibres 30 mm length and 0.38 mm).
452
Table 1: Mix design and basic material parameters of the tested UHPC-compositions.
UHPC compositions
Component
Cement CEM I (C)
Quartz powder
Quartz sand
Type
M1 [kg/m]
M2 [kg/m]
M3 [kg/m]
42.5 R HSR LA
500
830
777
dav = 7m
50
83
211
0/0.5
786
335
1007
Porphyry
1/4
723
Basalt
1/3
510
Basalt
5/8
327
powder fraction
100
166
156
150
178
162
Silica fume (SF)

Water
Fibres
6 mm and/or 30 mm
(up to 2%)
(up to 2%)
(up to 2%)
Superplasticizer (SP)
polycarboxylate, 30%
15
24
28
Average density [kg/m]
2498
2392
2393
W/C (SP included)
0.32
0.23
0.23
W/Binder
0.27
0.20
0.19
Basic material parameters (28 days)

Slumpflow, without fibres [mm]
Compressive strength (cubes 100 mm side) [N/mm]
130
Compressive strength, thermal treatment [N/mm] (1)
145
Splitting tensile strength [N/mm]
7.4
Tensile strength (from splitting test) [N/mm]
6.7
Uniaxial tensile strength (measured) [N/mm]
>6
Max. flexural tensile strength, 2% fibres [N/mm] (2)
19.8
f_Ftsm / f_Ftum with w = 1.5 mm [N/mm] (3)
8.5 / 5.0
(1) Thermal treatment at 90C, started 48h after casting, during 96h.
(2) 3-point bending test with notch according to EN 14651.
(3) According to Rilem TC 162 TDF or draft fib Model Code 2010.
600 - 800
160
150
190 - 210
8.0
9.9
7.2
8.9
>5
>5
25.0
18.5
10.3 / 6.7
7.8 / 5.1
Shear capacity of fibre reinforced UHPC

Draft Model Code 2010 provisions [2] have been used to predict the shear capacity of fibre
reinforced UHPC (equation 1). To simplify the design equations, the contribution of the fibres to
the shear resistance is mainly based on the improvement due to pull-out mechanism. The
analytical expression for the calculation of the shear capacity is rearranged from the EC2
expression by adding a term 7.5 fFtuk/fctk to the longitudinal reinforcement ratio. For this study,
safety coefficients have been set to 1, in order to obtain a realistic estimation of the ultimate
strength. Furthermore, average values have been used, for instance for the ultimate residual
tensile strength and the tensile strength for the concrete matrix, rather than characteristic
values.
3
0.18
f Ftuk
VRd,F
k 100 1 1 7.5
f ck 0.15 cp bW d
f ctk
with:
C
k
[tensioni in MPa]
(1)
is the partial safety factor for the concrete without fibres (1,5) ;
is a factor taking the effect of the depth of the cross-section into account :
k=
with d in mm, as defined before;
453
the longitudinal reinforcement ratio :

l
fFtuk
fctk
cp
bw
is the characteristic value of the ultimate flexural residual tensile strength of the
fibre reinforced concrete by considering wu=1.5 mm [MPa] ;
is the characteristic value of the tensile strength for the concrete matrix [MPa] ;
is the average stress acting on the cross-section due to an axial force (loading or
prestressing action);
is the smallest width of the cross-section in the tensile area.
To determine the value of f Ftuk in the above equation, two approaches can be followed to
describe the post-peak behaviour of the fibre reinforced concrete. These approaches are based
on two distinctive stress-crack opening constitutive laws in tension: the linear elastic model and
the rigid-plastic model (see Figure 5).
Figure 4: Simplified post-cracking constitutive laws: stress-crack opening (continuous and dashed lines refer to
softening and hardening post-cracking behaviour respectively).
The linear elastic model is used for the analysis of this test results, and defines the residual
strength significant at ultimate limit state f Ftu by:
fFTu fFts
wu
(fFTs 0.5fR 3 0.2fR1 ) 0
CMOD 3
(2)
With fRj is the residual flexural tensile strength corresponding with CMOD = CMOD j:
f R, j
3 Fj l
(3)
2 b hsp2
Fj
l
b
hsp
fFTs
is the load corresponding with CMOD = CMODj ;

is the span length [mm] ;
is the width of the specimen [mm] ;
is the distance between the notch tip and the top of the specimen [mm], 125 mm ;
corresponds the serviceability residual strength given by:
(4)
fFts = 0.45 fR1
wu
is the crack opening corresponding to the ultimate limit state. A value of wu = 1.5
used in the following, is considered on the safe side.
For the rigid-plastic model, it is assumed that the whole compressive force is concentrated in
the top fibre of the section and the static equivalence is taken into account. So, the following
relationship can be applied:
(5)
454
Testing of basic parameters

A number of basic material parameters have been determined, such as compressive strength,
tensile strength and residual flexural strength. Compressive tests are performed on cubes with
side 100 mm. Uni-axial tensile tests have been performed on cylinders with diameter 150 mm
and heigth 300 mm. Residual flexural strength has been determined based on Rilem
recommandations and testing standard EN 14651, based on notched beams of 150 mm width
and 600 mm length.
2 Test results
A 2 % fibre mix (70 % short fibres and 30 % longer fibres 30 mm length and 0.38 mm) has
been applied for all three UHPC mix compositions and two a/d-ratios, resulting in six test series,
for which Figure 5 shows the average test results. The horizontal lines are the minimum and
maximum predictions for the six test series.
For UHPC type M2 a large range of situations has been studied. The average results for the
test situations given in Table 2 can be found in Figure (a/d = 1.8) and Figure 7 (a/d = 3.0).
These graphs compare the predicted shear forces, based on EC2 and MC10, with the actually
measured shear forces. In Figure (a/d = 1.8), all test results show an underestimation
Table 2: Different test specimens and failure mode (beam1/beam2/beam3).
Test specimens
a/d = 1.8
a/d = 3.0
UHPC beam without fibre reinforcement or stirrups (indicated on

the figure as VRd,c)
A/A/A
B/B/B
UHPC beam without fibre reinforcement, with stirrups (VRd,s)
A/A/A
A/A/A
UHPC beam with 0.5 % fibre reinforcement, a fibre mix of 6 mm

and 30 mm length (VRd,F (0.5 % mix))
B/B/A
A/B/A
UHPC beam with 2 % fibre reinforcement, fibres 6 mm length

(VRd,F (2 % 6 mm))
A/C/C
UHPC beam with 2 % fibre reinforcement, a fibre mix of 6 mm and

30 mm length (VRd,F (2 % mix))
B/B/B
Failure modes:
(A) shear compression failure.

(B) shear bond failure.
(C) flexural failure.
* no detailed description available .
455
Figure 5: Average test results for all tests situations with 2 % fibre mix (70 % short fibres and 30 % longer
fibres 30 mm length and 0.38 mm), for three UHPC mix compositions and 2 a/d-ratios.
Figure 6: Test results for mix design M2, a/d-ratio = 1.8, with different fibre dosages or stirrup
shear reinforcement.
456
Figure 7: Test results for mix design M2, a/d-ratio = 3.0, with different fibre dosages or stirrup
shear reinforcement.
3 Conclusions
First conclusions based on the beam tests with different a/d-ratios, mix compositions and shear
reinforcement types (stirrups and fibre reinforcement):
The shear capacity of the studied fibre reinforced UHPC is much higher than
predicted by draft Model Code 2010 if we take into account the contribution of the
fibres. The most important difference between test and prediction can be noted for
a/d = 3. Design of fibre reinforced beams without additional stirrup reinforcement
seems feasable with sufficient security.
The shear capacity of UHPC without fibres is rather low, and in some cases an
extrapolation of EC2 provides even an overestimation of the shear capacity, creating
an unsafe prediction. This situation has been noted for mix design M2, with a/d-ratio
= 3, with and without stirrups as shear reinforcement (capacity overestimation up to
30%). Some similar results can be found in literature, where this lower shear capacity
is attributed to the lower aggregate volume and the resulting decreased aggregate
interlocking.
Although preliminary test on notched beams show the highest residual flexural
strengths for mix composition M2, the large beam tests show a better performance,
both for a/d = 3 and a/d = 1.8.
Further research should demonstrate if these conclusions remain valid for
pretensioned beams as well.
4 Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge gratefully the financial support of the IWT, Flanders agency for
innovation by Science and Technology.
References
[1] Cap J.-F., Calcul Organique du Bton Arm, 2002.
[2] CEB Fib, Bulletin 55, Model Code 2010 First complete draft, 2010..
[3] Minelli F. and Plizzari G.A.: Shear design of FRC members with little or no conventional shear
reinforcement, Proc. Fib-symposium Tailor Made Concrete Structures, Amsterdam, 2008.
457
458
Interface Shear Capacity of Small UHPC / HPC Composite TBeams

Charles Kennan Crane1, Lawrence F. Kahn2
1: United States Army Engineer Research and Development Center, Vicksburg, MS, USA
2: Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Georgia Institute of Technology, Atlanta, GA, USA
The purpose of this research study was to evaluate AASHTO LRFD and ACI interface shear
requirements for composite T-beams having a precast ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) web
and a cast-in-place high performance concrete (HPC) deck. Five T-beams were cast using UHPC (200
MPa compressive strength) for the rectangular web and HPC (83 MPa compressive strength) for the
deck. For each beam, the surface roughness and reinforcement ratio were varied. The beams were
tested in three-point bending with a span length of 2.90 m. Both the ACI and the AASHTO shear friction
equations conservatively predicted the performance of those beams with fluted interfaces . The AASHTO
shear friction equation, however, was unconservative in predicting shear strength of smooth interfaces
even with relatively high levels of reinforcement. Based on the results of these tests, it was
recommended that a fluted surface be created at any cold-joint between UHPC and HPC.
Keywords: UHPC, HPC, shear friction, interface shear, composite beams, surface roughness
1 Introduction
The purpose of this research was to evaluate American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials (AASHTO) Load and Resistance Factor Design (LRFD) and American
Concrete Institute (ACI) interface shear requirements for composite T-beams with a precast
ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) web and a cast-in-place high performance concrete
(HPC) deck. The goals were to compare the results obtained with current code provisions and
to determine if the current codes can be used to satisfy strength and serviceability requirements
in precast UHPC girders with HPC decks.
The scope of the research was restricted to five T-beams cast using UHPC for the web with
a compressive strength of 200 MPa and HPC for the deck with a design compressive strength
of 55 MPa, which yielded an actual strength of 83 MPa. Each beam was constructed with
either a smooth interface (no roughening), burlap roughened, or a fluted form liner (6 mm
roughened) interface between the web and the deck slab. The transverse reinforcement ratio
ranged between zero and 0.286 percent for all beams.
2 Significance and Background

Ultra high performance concretes (UHPCs) are being considered for construction of precast
pretensioned highway bridge girders. These concretes have self-consolidating properties,
include steel fiber reinforcement, and use a maximum size aggregate of less than 2mm. These
properties create a smooth surface upon placement and also prevent the concrete surface from
being roughened by raking. Therefore, it is not possible to create, in the usual manner, the 6
mm surface roughness specified by ACI 318 [1] and AASHTO LRFD [2]. The interface
properties between UHPC girder and cast-in-place concrete deck must be investigated to
determine if current shear friction concepts can be utilized in design with UHPC.
AASHTO LRFD [2] provides an equation for shear friction along an interface between two
concretes cast at different times. As long as minimum transverse reinforcement requirements
are met, the nominal shear resistance of the interface plane is given in Eq. (1):
Vn cAcv [ Av f y Pc ]
459
(1)
not greater than the smaller of
K1 f 'c Acv
or K2Acv
ACI 318 [1] gives a similar equation for shear friction along an interface with minimum
transverse reinforcement. This equation is given in Eq. (2):
Vn 1.8 0.6v f y bv d 3.4bv d
(2)
Furthermore, both AASHTO LRFD [2] and ACI [1] permit the shear friction equation given in Eq.
(3) to be used when evaluating interface shear strength:
Vn Av f y
(3)
not greater than the smaller of:
0.2 fc ' Acv ,

(3.3 0.08 fc ') Acv ,
or 11Acv
Neither Eq. (1) nor Eq. (2) takes into account the concrete compressive strength (fc), and Eq.
(3) only uses compressive strength as an upper boundary. Yet several authors have
investigated the influence of fc on nominal shear strength of beams. Loov and Patnaik (1994)
performed tests on 16 composite beams with varying concrete strengths, web widths, stirrup
spacing and two different flange lengths. They also made sure that the surface between the
flange and web was roughened and that the coarse aggregates were protruding at the concrete
surface. Loov and Patnaik [3] proposed Eq. (4), which calculates nominal shear stress capacity
and takes into account the roughed surface as well as fc:
vn k (0.1 v f y ) f c '
(4)
where k = roughness constant equal to 0.6 for rough surfaces and 0.5 for smooth surfaces.
Loov and Patnaik concluded that the stirrups did not contribute to shear resistance until the
horizontal shear stress reached 1.5 to 2 MPa, suggesting that the roughened surface provided
adequate shear resistance before this stress range.
Fifty push-off specimens were tested by Kahn and Mitchell [4] to determine if current design
standards may be used for high strength concretes. Concrete compressive strengths ranged
between 47 and 123 MPa, and transverse reinforcing ratios ranged between 0.0037 and
0.0147. Testing concluded that both AASHTO and ACI methods yielded conservative estimates
for shear resistance when using high strength concretes. Kahn and Mitchell introduced Eq. (5)
that is applicable for both monolithic concrete and as-cast cold joints, with a friction coefficient
equal to 1.4:
v n 0.05 f c 1.4 v f y 0.2 f c
(5)
Kahn and Slapkus [5] tested 6 composite beams with precast, high strength concrete webs with
compressive strengths of 83.6 MPa, and cast-in-place decks with compressive strengths of
either 50.2 or 77.8
MPa. The tests concluded that both AASHTO and ACI provisions were a
conservative estimate for interface shear resistance of composite beams with high strength
concrete made with an intentionally roughed interface with protruding coarse aggregate.
3 Test Setup
The five composite beams were constructed to replicate the tests run by Kahn and Slapkus [5].
Each beam was 3.05 m long with 2.90 m span between supports. The cast-in-place deck slab
had a reduced length of 2.24 m in order to force an interface shear failure. The precast web
460
had a depth of 254 mm and a width of 152 mm, while the slab depth was 140 mm deep by 419
mm wide as shown in Figures 1 and 2. The confined area under the compressive load was not
assumed to resist interface shear, so the interface area, Acv, of each beam was calculated to be
0.298 m2.
10M stirrups
10M bars
140
10M stirrups
10M bars
254
57
29M bars
44
133
152
133
140
Figure 1: Typical T-beam cross section. All dimensions in mm.
4-10M top longitudinal
406
76
10M double leg stirrups crossing

interface (varied spacing)
2,240
2,900
2-10M bars (typ.)
76
4-29M bottom longitudinal

10M double leg stirrups
Figure 2: Typical reinforcement for all beams. All dimensions in mm.
The web was cast using UHPC at a precast concrete plant operated by Tindall Corporation,
Conley, GA, USA. Two days after casting, the web was thermally treated at 90C for 48 hours.
The UHPC was Lafarge Ductal using 2% by volume steel fiber reinforcement. The 28-day
mean compressive strength was 199.5 MPa (the strength was not significantly different at time
of testing). Three hundred forty-two days after casting the web, the deck was placed using
conventional high performance concrete (HPC) (19 mm maximum size aggregate) delivered by
ready-mix. The HPC had a mean compressive strength at the time of testing of 83.9 MPa. All
461
reinforcement was ASTM A615, Grade 60 (415 MPa). The elastic modulus for both the 29 M
and 10 M bars was taken as 200 GPa.
The main variation between each composite beam was the interface between the web and
the flange and the number of stirrups. The top surface of the UHPC beams proved impossible
to roughen by raking, brooming, or cutting with a trowel. To make a rough interface, a form liner
was used to create 6 mm flutes analogous to the roughness amplitude required by codes. The
variations between all five of the beams tested can be seen in Table 1. Burlap was placed atop
the interface of one beam containing no reinforcement. The goal of including burlap was to
create a textured surface, which would provide an improved bond to the deck slab. The burlap
proved difficult to remove from the surface after the initial 48-hour cure, and significant wire
brushing was required. Further, while moving a sixth beam that contained a smooth interface
and no reinforcement, the deck fell off, indicating that there was little bond between the web
and slab. The latter beam was not included in any tables, but data for the non-composite UHPC
section by itself are included in load-deflection results.
Table 1: Summary of Experimental Results.
Beam
v
(percent)
Clampin
g Stress
(kPa)
Maximu
m Load
(kN)
Load at
slip (kN)
Numbe
r of
Stirrups
Type of
Interface
0-B
0.000
281
61
Smooth
4-S
0.190
786
288
65
Smooth
7-S
0.286
1179
316
80
Smooth
0-FL
0.000
297
219
Fluted
7-FL
0.286
1179
415
415
Fluted
The beams were designated using the following convention X-Y where the first term indicates
the number of double-legged 10 M stirrups crossing the interface, and the second term
indicates the type of interface between the web and the flange. B denotes a burlap interface, S
denotes a smooth cold joint interface, and FL denotes a form liner interface with 6 mm deep by
13 mm wide flutes.
Each beam was tested between 697-703 days after web casting and 355-361 days after
deck casting. Each beam was loaded in three-point bending. Four mechanical strain gauges
made with linear variable displacement transducers (LVDTs) were placed at the midspan of the
beam on both sides near the bottom and top of the web. Each had a gauge length of 406 mm.
Along with the strain gauges, two LVDT slip gauges were placed on one side of the beam. The
body of the LVDT was attached to the web, while the extension portion of the LVDT was
attached to the underside of the cast-in-place deck to measure slip between the beam and
deck. Finally, the midspan deflection was measured using a string potentiometer.
4 Experimental Results and Discussion

For all five beams, the primary failure mode was cracking and slipping between the web and
the flange an interface shear failure. Figure 3 compares the load deflection curves for all five
composite beams plus a plain beam without a deck. Interface failure was assumed to occur
when there was a significant decrease in flexural stiffness and a sudden jump in the slip
between web and flange. This interface failure is denoted on Figure 3 with a circle on each load
deflection curve.
462
Even prior to the noted interface slip, there were distinct differences in the slopes of the
load-deflection (P-) curves for each specimen. Table 2 gives the stiffnesses for each
specimen prior to the interface slip marked in Figure 3. Based on these values, it is clear that
even prior to loss of full composite action or gross slipping of the deck, only partial composite
action was attained in the beams with smooth interfaces. Among these beams, the preliminary
stiffness increased as the reinforcement ratio increased. This trend suggests that larger
amounts of interface steel do reduce initial slippage. The two beams with fluted interfaces
showed the highest stiffnesses initially. This shows that the fluted surface creates a more fully
composite connection than does a smooth surface.
There was a drastic difference between the slip load for beams that had a smooth or burlap
interface and the beams that had fluted interfaces. It was observed that the greatest interface
shear capacity was obtained from the beam that contained a form liner interface along with
seven stirrups crossing the interface. The beam with a burlap-roughened interface and no
stirrups had the least interface shear capacity. After composite action was lost, the beams
behaved similarly to the plain beam as can be seen in Figure 3.
Fluted 7 Stirrups
400
Smooth 7 Stirrups
350
Fluted 0 Stirrups
Load, kN
300
250
200
Plain Beam
150
100
4-S
Smooth 4 Stirrups
50
0
0B
7-S
Burlap 0 Stirrups
10
20
30
40
Midspan deflection, mm
50
60
Figure 3: Load-deflection plots for beams with slip and max load denoted.
Table 2: Initial stiffnesses of composite t-beams.
Beam
Interface
Surface
Preparation
Interface
Reinforcement
Ratio, v, percent
Initial Slope
of LoadDeflection
Curves, kN/m
Initial
Composite
Stiffness [EI],
kN*m2
Plain Beam
N/A
N/A
15.6
7,700
0-B
Smooth
0.000
19.4
9,800
4-S
Smooth
0.190
31.3
15,800
7-S
Smooth
0.286
34.5
17,500
0-FL
Fluted
0.000
50.1
25,300
7-FL
Fluted
0.286
47.5
24,000
463
Figure 4 compares the moment-curvature diagrams for four of the composite beams and the
plain beam to the theoretical moment curvature calculated using the computer program
Response 2000 developed by Bentz [6]. The beam designated 0-FL is not included, because
there was insufficient data to calculate an experimental curvature.
Initially stiffer behavior in
experimental beams than predicted by Response 2000 can be explained by the non -negligible
tensile capacity of the UHPC. After slipping of the deck, Response 2000 showed a strain
hardening response, where strain softening was observed in the test. It was unclear what
modeling assumptions created this discrepancy.
0,4
0,35
0,3
Moment, kN-m
0,25
0,2
0,15
0-B
4-S
7-S
7-F
Plain Beam
Theoretical Non-Composite
Theoretical Composite
0,1
0,05
0
0
0,00001
0,00002
0,00003
0,00004
0,00005
Curvature, rad/mm
Figure 4: Moment-curvature plots for beams with theoretical moment-curvature curves plotted.
The grooves made with the form liner were the key component in providing composite strength.
The beams that did not use the form liner failed at an average load of 68.7 kN, while the beams
that did use the form liner failed at an average load of 317.1 kN. For the beam containing both
stirrups and form liner, the maximum load was the load at interface failure; therefore, this
combination provided the greatest composite interface shear capacity.
Table 3 compares the experimental interface shear stress based on two loads: the load at
interface failure and the maximum load. These two criteria were chosen because, while there is
still a substantial amount of strength remaining in the beam once the interface has failed, the
stiffness has been substantially reduced. The experimental interface shear stress was obtained
using ACI interface stress from Equation (2):
V
(6)
exp u
bv d
Along with the experimental interface shear stress, Table 3 contains the interface shear stress
capacities calculated using the Equations 1 through 5.
464
Table 3: Experimental and predicted interface shear stresses, MPa.
Beam
Experim
ental (Max)
vexp
Experim
ental (Slip)
vexp
ACI
Shear
Friction Eq.
(3)
Kahn
and
Mitchell
Eq. (5)
Loov
and
Patnaik
Eq. (4)
AAS
HTO
LRFD
Eq. (1)
ACI
Eq. (2)
0-B**
2.87
0.59
4.19*
1.48*
0.52
1.79*
4-S
2.94
0.67
0.47
5.30*
4.32*
0.99
2.26*
7-S
3.23
0.81
0.71
5.85*
5.19*
1.23
2.50*
0-FL
3.03
2.24
4.19
1.48
1.93
1.79
7-FL
4.25
4.25
1.18
5.85
5.19
3.11
2.50
*These equations assume a roughened interface that was not provided.

**0-B assumed unroughened surface because in. amplitude was not achieved with the burlap
interface.
Tables 4 and 5 give the ratio of the experimental interface shear stress (both maximum and slip
loads) to the theoretical interface shear stress calculated using the Equations 1 through 5
above. It was observed that the ACI equation (2) provided the best conservative estimate for
stress along the interface when compared to the experimental interface shear stress due to
maximum loads. At the experimental interface shear stress due to slip loads, the ACI interface
shear equation (3) was the only equation to provide consistently conservative performance
estimates. It should be noted that ACI equation (2) assumes a roughened surface and was
conservative for specimens with fluted surfaces.
Table 4: Ratio of vexp max, observed interface shear stress at max load, to predicted interface shear stress.
Beam
vexp max /
ACI Shear
Friction
Eq. (3)
vexp max /
Kahn and
Mitchell Eq.
(5)
vexp max /
Loov and
Patnaik Eq.
(4)
vexp max /
AASHTO
LRFD
vexp
/
max ACI
Eq. (1)
Eq.
(2)
0-B**
0.68*
1.94*
5.55
1.60*
4-S
6.28
0.56*
0.68*
2.99
1.30*
7-S
4.55
0.55*
0.62*
2.63
1.29*
0-FL
0.72
2.06
1.57
1.69
7-FL
3.60
0.73
0.82
1.37
1.70
Mean
4.81
0.65
1.22
2.82
1.52
Standard Deviation
1.36
0.08
0.64
1.49
0.18
Coefficient of
Variation
28.2%
12.1%
52.0%
53.0%
12.0
%

interface.
465
Table 5: Ratio of exp slip, observed interface shear stress at slip load, to predicted interface shear stress.
Beam
vexp slip /ACI

Shear Friction
Eq. (3)
vexp slip
/Kahn and
Mitchell Eq.
(5)
vexp slip
/Loov and
Patnaik Eq.
(4)
vexp slip /
AASHTO
LRFD Eq. (1)
vexp
slip / ACI
Eq.
(2)
0-B**
0.14*
0.40*
1.15
0.33*
4-S
1.43
0.13*
0.15*
0.68
0.30*
7-S
1.14
0.14*
0.16*
0.66
0.32*
0-FL
0.53
1.52
1.16
1.25
7-FL
3.60
0.73
0.82
1.37
1.70
Mean
2.05
0.33
0.61
1.00
0.78
1.35
0.25
0.52
0.28
0.58
65.6%
75.0%
84.4%
28.3%
75.0
%
Standard
Deviation
Coefficient of
Variation

interface.
5 Conclusions and Recommendations

It is evident that a smooth UHPC interface, even when reinforcement is present, does not
provide the interface shear capacity anticipated by equation 1 (AASHTO LRFD). Based on
these small beam tests, Equation 2 (ACI) was a close indicator of performance of smooth
interfaces in composite beams but is not recommended for use in design due to the high
variability of smooth interface performance. Smooth interfaces were also shown to create only
quasi-composite action even prior to full slip . Therefore, it is recommended that any cold-joint
between UHPC and HPC use a form liner or other technique to create a fluted surface which
provides strong mechanical interlock between the adjacent placements of concrete. Under
these conditions, both Equations 1 and 2 with constants based on roughened interfaces can be
used to conservatively design UHPC-HPC interfaces.
6 Acknowledgements
This research was funded by the Georgia Department of Transportation (GDOT) research
project No. 2043, Task Order No. 02-08 and project No. 07-05, Task Order No. 02-37. Jeremy
Mitchell, Kate Howard, Roshanak Gharaat, Danielle Simpson, and John Bennett assisted in
performing this research. Their support is gratefully acknowledged. Permission to publish was
granted by the Director, Geotechnical & Structures Laboratory. The opinions, conclusions, and
recommendations presented herein are those of the author and do not necessarily represent
the opinions and recommendations of the cooperating organizations.
7 Notation
Acv = area of concrete considered to be engaged in interface shear transfer (bvidv)
Av = area of interface shear reinforcement crossing the shear plane within the area Acv
bv = interface width considered to be engaged in shear transfer
bvi= interface width considered to be engaged in shear transfer
c = cohesion factor,
0.52 MPa for a clean concrete surface, not roughened,
466
1.9 MPa for a roughened surface with a 6 mm amplitude,

2.8 MPa for concrete cast monolithically
d = distance from top of slab to centroid of bottom tensile reinforcement (note difference from dv
in AASHTO equation).
dv= the distance between the centroid of the tension steel and the mid-thickness of the slab to
compute a factored interface shear stress.
fc = unconfined 28-day compressive strength (taken as weaker of deck or girder for Equation 1,
3-5)
fy = yield stress of transverse reinforcement
Pc = permanent net compressive force normal to the shear plane
K1 = concrete cohesion term that is related to strength,
0.3 for cast in place slab cast against roughened girder
0.25 for normalweight concrete placed monolithically, normalweight and
lightweight concrete with a roughened surface,
0.2 for normal weight concrete placed against non-roughened surface or cast against
studded steel girders
K2 = maximum allowable interface stress
12.4 MPa for normal-weight concrete deck cast against roughened girder,
10.3 MPa for normal-weight concrete cast against roughened concrete or placed
monolithically
9.0 MPa for lightweight concrete deck cast against roughened girder,
6.9 MPa for lightweight concrete cast against roughened concrete or placed monolithically
5.5 MPa for concrete cast against studded steel girders
s = spacing of transverse reinforcement
vn = nominal shear stress
Vn = nominal shear strength
= friction factor
1.0 for a roughened surface with a 6 mm amplitude
0.6 for a not intentionally roughened surface
1.4 for concrete cast monolithically
Av
= transverse reinforcement ratio, bv s
v
References
[1] ACI Committee 318 (2008). Building code requirements for structural concrete: (ACI 318-08); and
commentary (ACI 318R-08). Farmington Hills, Mich., American Concrete Institute.
[2] AASHTO (2010). AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications. Washington, D.C., American
Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials.
[3] Loov, R. E. and A. K. Patnaik (1994). "Horizontal Shear Strength of Composite Concrete Beams."
PCI Journal 39(1): 48-67.
[4] Kahn, L. F. and A. D. Mitchell (2002). "Shear Friction Tests with High-Strength Concrete." ACI
Structural Journal 99(1): 98-103.
[5] Kahn, L. F. and A. Slapkus (2004). "Interface Shear in High Strength Composite T-Beams." PCI
Journal 49(4): 102-110.
[6] Bentz, E. C. (2000). Sectional Analysis of Reinforced Concrete Members. Civil Engineering. Doctor
of Philosophy Thesis. University of Toronto, Toronto.
467
468
Numerical Study on the Shear Behavior of Micro-Reinforced

UHPC Beams
Martina Schnellenbach-Held, Melanie Prager
Institute of Structural Concrete, University of Duisburg-Essen, Germany
To ensure ductility of the inherently brittle Ultra High Performance Concrete (UHPC), usually micro steel
fibers are added. This paper presents an alternative to these steel fibers the utilization of an innovative
micro-reinforcement. The main focus here is the affected shear bearing behavior due to a targeted
orientation of this micro-reinforcement. Based on the main findings of the current research concerning
the structural behavior of micro-reinforced UHPC, in the paper the results of physical nonlinear finite
element analyses referring to the shear capacity of beams with different steel volume fractions of microreinforcement, varying longitudinal reinforcement and shear-span/depth ratios will be presented. Material
models applied herein are obtained from experimental studies. In addition, the findings are compared to
steel fiber-reinforced UHPC beams without stirrups and finally evaluated.
Keywords: UHPC, micro-reinforcement, shear behavior, nonlinear finite element analyses
1 Introduction
Background
Because of its dense structure, Ultra High Performance Concrete (UHPC) shows extremely high
compressive strength and excellent durability properties. Beside these advantages UHPC is
completely brittle. To ensure sufficient ductility, usually fibers are mixed into the fresh concrete.
However, the random distribution and orientation inside the matrix cause fibers to be an
incalculable factor. Additionally, steel fibers along untreated surfaces are predicted to leave
displeasing rusty spots. An alternative for the application of fibers provides the microreinforcement, constructed of spot welded thin wires (see Fig. 1a). Concerning the mechanical
properties, the utilization of micro-reinforcement in UHPC leads to at least comparable
compressive, tensile and flexural strength [1]. Because of the grid-structure and therefore
improved bond characteristics, the material behavior after cracking is even stiffer.
An experimental study on the orientation of the micro-reinforcement mats in UHPC beams
showed, that sensible integration of the mats into the structure has a decisive influence on the
shear loading capacity. Due to the grid-structure of the micro-reinforcement, there are wires in
and perpendicular to the load bearing direction (see Fig. 1b). The vertical wires act as stirrups
by carrying the vertical stresses. In the following chapters, results of numerical investigations
are presented to demonstrate, that these additional vertical components improve the
deformation and load bearing behavior, so that stirrups can be reduced or even omitted.
Figure 1: (a) Micro-reinforcement ( 1mm, mesh 10mm).
469
(b) targeted orientation of the micro-reinforcement.
Numerical Test Program

Reliable design of new composite structures require combinations of theoretical and
experimental studies. Within this article the theoretical investigations on shear resistance of
micro-reinforced UHPC beams are presented. In general, for numerical modeling it is
appropriate to simulate already conducted experiments (or setups taken from the literature). On
the one hand this procedure provides a verification of basic parameters for the calculation, on
the other hand it offers a direct comparison e. g. between different materials or reinforcement
types.
The results of the finite element analyses shown in this paper are mainly based on the
experimental setup published by Fehling and Thiemicke [2] (see Fig. 2). To study the effect of
fibers on the shear resistance of UHPC, a 3-point beam, composed of 2 different cross-sections
a rectangle and an I-section was chosen. The studies of [2] were focused on the profiled
part of the beam, which was supposed to fail in shear. To clarify the influence of fibers, a
variation of the shear reinforcement in the web was conducted. The following shear
reinforcement types were varied: (i) vertical bars (5/10.5), (ii) steel fibers (/L = 0.175/13
mm), (iii) combination of vertical bars and fibers. As reference, a beam without
reinforcement/steel in the profiled region was checked.
Figure 2: Geometry and test setup of the specimen [2].
In this paper the effect and efficiency of the micro-reinforcement on the shear capacity is
evaluated by performing numerical simulations. Within these calculations the properties of the
beam are varied according table 1. Additionally, calculations with vertical bars (5/10.5,
arranged in the I-girder) and those without shear reinforcement in the I-shaped cross-section
are conducted as references.
The shear-span/depth ratio of 4.0 results from the setup given in [2]. Furthermore a quotient
of a/d = 2.5 is chosen, to consider the investigations by Kani [3]. The shear-slenderness of 2.5
is realized by moving the right support towards the loading point.
Three flexural reinforcement ratios were defined with respect to their effect on the shear
capacity of the studied beam: (i) a minimum reinforcement according to DIN 1045-1 [4] for the
profiled cross-section (l = 2.45 %), (ii) a high reinforcement ratio (l = 21.82 %, represents the
main reinforcement given by [2]) and (iii) an average reinforcement ratio (l = 12.13 %). It
should be noted, that the horizontal wires of the micro-reinforcement are ignored here.
The variation of the micro-reinforcement in the web of the I-girder is performed as follows: (i)
0.5 % by volume steel (1 mat), (ii) 1.0 % (to draw a comparison to fiber reinforced I-girders, as
this is a typical fiber content), (iiI) 2.5 % by volume steel (results in an equivalent shear
resistance of vertical bars 5/10.5, whereas different yield values of the stirrups and the microreinforcement are considered), (iv) 5,0 % by volume steel and (v) 7.85 % by volume steel
(maximum value for geometric reasons with a concrete cover of 3 mm and closest positioning of
the mats like Ferrocement [5] or Ducon [6]).
470
Table 1: Calculation matrix.
2.5 / 4.0
shear-span/depth ratio
longitudinal reinforcement ratio l=Asl/(bwd) [%]
2.45 / 12.13 / 21.82
micro-reinforcement content (% by vol. steel)
0.5 / 1.0 / 2.5 / 5.0 / 7.85
2 Nonlinear finite element analyses

General
The finite element analyses are performed with the software DIANA. Because of the failure
mechanisms of the beams are expected to be mainly influenced by cracking of the concrete in
tension, yielding of the reinforcement/micro-reinforcement or crushing of the concrete,
physically nonlinear analyses are performed.
Material models
For the concrete the smeared crack concept is applied. In detail, a total strain based crack
model is adopted, which describes the tensile and compressive behavior of concrete with one
stress-strain relationship. Beside the definition of basic properties like the Youngs modulus
(here: 52.500 MPa), the total strain crack model requires the input of the material behavior in
tension, shear and compression. Material properties, taken from conducted experiments
ensure, that the real structural behavior is simulated. In the case of unreinforced UHPC, direct
tension tests and uniaxial compression tests lead to a quasi brittle failure with negligible fracture
energy. DIANA offers predefined stress-strain functions, which need to be completed by
appropriate parameters. As a consequence of the brittleness, the function brittle is chosen in
tension (see Fig. 3a) with a measured peak stress ft = 10 MPa. In compression, a brittle
behavior leads to unstable calculations, thus the function according to Thorenfeldt [7] (see Fig.
3b) with a peak-stress of fc = -150 MPa is employed. Lateral influences (cracking and
confinement) are neglected.
The ability of diagonally cracked concrete to transmit tension and shear is considered. Figure
3c presents the shear stress () over the corresponding shear strain (). The shear retention
factor reduces the shear stiffness (G) after cracking: G cr = *G. For normal strength concrete
[8] recommends = 0.1. Because of the fine grain and therefore smoother roughness of the
cracked surface, the transmission in UHPC is expected to be less, so that a value of = 0.075
is assumed.
b)
c)
400
Tensile Strength [MPa]
a)
d)
350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
Strain [%]
Figure 3: Stress-strain relationship for concrete in a) tension, b) compression, c) shear and d) for microreinforcement.
The main reinforcement as well as the stirrups are embedded and smeared to the
corresponding concrete elements. This reinforcement is defined by the yield condition/criterion
of Von Mises with a yield value of 500 MPa.
471
A material law for the discrete modeled micro-reinforcement results from direct tension tests
of the micro-reinforcement. The resulting stress-strain relationship (Fig. 3d) serves as an direct
input for the calculation.
Elements and meshing
Two-dimensional quadrilateral plane-stress elements based on quadratic and Gauss integration
are chosen to model the concrete structure. The main bars and stirrups are modeled as
smeared reinforcement, while the micro-reinforcement is modeled discrete by applying threenode beam elements, which are also based on Gauss integration. To ensure a load transfer
from concrete to micro-reinforcement, the welded intersections of the wires are directly linked to
the closest concrete node.
To prevent singularity evoked by discontinuity of the cross-section, the transitions from the
full cross-section to the I-shaped one is smoothed. This is also performed for the area
web/flange.
Due to the parametric study there are three main models with a shear slenderness a/d = 4.0
(Fig. 4) and three ones more with a ratio of 2.5.
a) web without shear reinforcement
b) web with vertical bars
c) web with micro-reinforcement
Figure 4: Finite-element models a/d = 4.0.
Analysis options
Load increments are applied as deformations and vary after cracking between 0.01 mm and
0.005 mm.
For the analysis of the structural system the Regular Newton-Raphson method is applied. To
determine the iterative increment (deformation), the tangential stiffness matrix is evaluated in
every iteration. The tolerance for convergence (here: energy norm) is set to be 0.0001 and the
maximum number of iterations is set to 35. Convergence behavior is observed carefully to
exclude incorrect results due to consecutive problems of convergence and stability.

General Behavior
To compare and evaluate the results of the conducted calculations, 14 load-deflection diagrams
are presented (see Fig. 5), separated by the type and amount of shear reinforcement. Every
diagram contains three curves, which differ in the main reinforcement ratio (minimum, average,
high). The shear force of the I-girder is given on the y-axis over the corresponding deflection
under the loading point on the x-axis. A dropout of single curves means that the convergence
criterion was not fulfilled five load steps in a row.
In all diagrams, three distinct stages can be observed: As the first stage, a linear elastic
response is plotted. Depending on the main reinforcement ratio (and the micro-reinforcement
content), the drop resulting from first flexural crack describes the second stage. The third part
differs substantially by the type of shear reinforcement, amount of longitudinal reinforcement
and failure of the beam.
472

80
a/d = 4.0 - without shear reinforcement
a/d = 2.5 - without shear reinforcement
60
40
20
0
100
a/d = 2.5 with micro-reinforcement (0.5%)
80
60
40
20
0
100
80
60
40
20
Shear force [kN]
0
100
a/d = 2.5 with vertical bars
a/d = 4.0 with vertical bars
80
60
40
20
0
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
180
150
120
90
60
30
0
200
160
0
0
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
shear force [kN]
40
7
80
80
without shear reinforcement - a/d = 2
70
60
without shear reinforcement - a/d = 2,5
50
40
without shear reinforcement
- a/d = 2,5
30
20
10
0
0
1
2
3
4
shear force [kN]
80
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
shear force [kN]
120
Deflection under the loading point [mm]

0
l = 2.45 %
l =4 2.45 %
l = 12.13 %
deflection under the loading point [mm]
l ==2.45
2.45
l
%%
4
==12.13
12.13
l
%%
l ==21.82
21.82
l
%%
Figure 5: Load-deflection curves.
Variation of the main reinforcement

Independent of the shear slenderness a minimum main reinforcement ratio leads, with the
exception of beams without shear reinforcement, to a flexural failure mode, which is initiated by
one of the vertical cracks widening. The location of the major crack is influenced by the microreinforcement content. Due to its grid structure, the micro-reinforcement contains not only wires
in vertical direction, but also in longitudinal direction, affecting the load bearing behavior. Micro 473
l = 12.13 %
deflection under the loading point [m

6
deflection under the loading point [mm]

l6
7
l
8 = 21.82 %
reinforcement contents from 2.5 % by volume steel for a/d = 4.0 and from 5.0 % by volume
steel for a/d = 2.5 respectively cause a flexural failure of the beam in the rectangular cross section (see Fig. 6, left) with cracks propagating towards the top flange. Lower contents lead to
a failure under the loading point. Omitting vertical reinforcement in the profiled section yields in
a shear failure, with a diagonal crack emanating in the web from the loading point, propagating
to the bottom flange and a final tearing crack (see Fig. 6, right).
Figure 6: a/d= 4.0, minimum main reinforcement, principal strains, micro-reinforced with 7.85% by vol.steel
(left), without shear reinforcement (right).
For average and high reinforcement ratios, the load bearing behavior (see Fig. 5) and failure is
almost indistinguishable. Higher deflections solely follow from the lower stiffness of the beams
with average longitudinal reinforcement ratios.
Variation of shear slenderness (a/d)
Figure 5 explains, that the load bearing capacity increases with decreasing shear slenderness.
Beams with a/d = 4.0 show an extended shear span of the I-girder (60 % longer) in comparison
to beams with a/d = 2.5. Comparing the curves with a minimum main reinforcement and
therefore failure in bending, it comes clear, that ratios of a/d = 2.5 lead to
60 % higher bending capacities. The shear capacity also rises with a shear slenderness of
a/d = 2.5, whereas an influence of the shear reinforcement must be mentioned here. While
beams with low shear reinforcement ratios (0, 0.5 and 1.0 % by vol. steel micro-reinforcement
content) show an high dependence of the shear slenderness, beams with vertical bars or microreinforcement contents above 1.0 % by vol. steel are less affected by the shear slenderness.
Variation of the micro-reinforcement content
Independent from the shear slenderness, low micro-reinforcement contents (0.5 % and 1.0 %
by vol. steel) lead to primarily web reinforcement failure. One dominant shear crack in the web
starting at the loading point proceeds to the bottom flange (similar to beams without s hear
reinforcement) and causes debonding of the bottom flange with yielding of the vertical wires of
the micro-reinforcement. In contrast to beams without shear reinforcement, this process is
followed by debonding of the top flange and a second dominant diagonal crack at the support. A
parallelogram-shaped area of the web (see Fig. 7, left) is separated by cracks from the
surrounding concrete. At post peak load, the top flange of the girder is rotated at distinct
locations. Subsequent failure occurs due to high compressive strength in the strut connecting
the loading point and the support of the beam (see Fig. 7, right).
Figure 7: a/d = 2.5, micro-reinforced 1.0 % by vol. steel, shaped beam (left) and principal stresses (right).
Micro-reinforcement contents above 1.0 % by vol. steel show with increasing load finely
distributed shear cracks across the span of the profiled section (see Fig. 8, left). After yielding of
474
the vertical wires of the micro-reinforcement, at peak load many fine cracks occur in the web
and thin struts in steep angles finally fail in compression (see Fig. 8, right). High microreinforcement contents (5.0 and 7.85 % by vol. steel) even cause yielding of the stirrups in the
rectangular cross-section.
Figure 8: a/d = 4.0, micro-reinforced 5.0 % by vol. steel, principal strains (left) and principal stresses (right).
Comparison of vertical bars versus micro-reinforcement

Consecutively, the behavior of beams with vertical bars is compared to the behavior of beams
with a micro-reinforcement content of 2.5 % by vol. steel (equivalent shear resistance under
consideration of different yield values) in the profiled section. In general, it can be seen, that the
first drop down after the first crack is less (see Fig. 5 G-J) resulting from the additional
longitudinal wires of the micro-reinforcement and therefore enhanced bearing capacity.
Replacing vertical bars by micro-reinforcement leads to an average increase in shear force of
20 % and distinct deformation capacity (see Fig. 5 G-J). Crack formation differs substantially
due to uniformly distributed vertical wires of the micro-reinforcement in the web. Failure differs
likewise: while the close distance of the micro-reinforcement wires results in steep struts, failing
(after yielding of the wires) in compression (see Fig. 9, right), beams with vertical bars fail due
to yielding of these bars and formation of one dominant diagonal flat crack, emanating from the
loading point to the support (see Fig. 9, left)).
Figure 9: a/d = 2.5, left: vertical bars, principal strains; right: micro-reinforced 2.5 % by vol. steel, principal
stresses.
Comparison of the experimental and numerical results

Investigations conducted by [2] lead to the load-deflection curves presented in Figure 10 (left).
The calculated beam without shear reinforcement (1) as well as that one with vertical bars (2)
behaves more stiff. Peak load is therefore reached at less deflection (compare Fig. 6 B, H ). Due
to the failure of the bars and subsequent concrete spalling, the numerical results for the beams
with vertical bars are only available till peak load. A comparison of the maximum values of the
shear force shows good correlation the behavior is simulated reliably.
3
Figure 10: Load deflection curve [2], beam with fibers after test [2], beam with micro-reinforcement at failure.
475
A comparison of the fiber reinforced (Figure 10 (left 3)) and the micro-reinforced beam (Figure 5
(F, high main reinforcement ratio)) reveals, that the maximum shear force of the fiber reinforced
beam is twice that of the micro-reinforced beam. This fact is due to the production of fiber
reinforced structures. In [2], the complete beam contains fibers with an amount of 1 % by vol.
steel. Micro-reinforced beams presented within this paper are only strengthened in the I-shaped
section, so that a direct comparison leads to a disadvantage of the micro-reinforcement.
Additionally, the compressive strength, which is set for the calculations to be fc = 150 MPa, fits
to experiments conducted in [1], but probably underestimates the UHPC-mixture of [2].
Nevertheless, the deformation capacities are comparable, although the steel content of the
micro-reinforced beam is less. Further investigations are required, to draw direct comparison
between these two shear reinforcement types.
4 Conclusions
This paper reports on an investigation of the shear resistance of micro-reinforced UHPC beams.
A total of 42 UHPC beams were calculated with varying ratio of longitudinal reinforcement, type
of shear reinforcement, amount of micro-reinforcement and shear slenderness.
Based on the numerical results, the following conclusions have been drawn:
1. The shear strength increases with a decreasing shear slenderness and an increasing amount
of micro-reinforcement, whereas significantly increase in strength can be observed for
contents of micro-reinforcement as from 2.5 % by vol. steel.
2. All beams containing micro-reinforcement developed numerous cracks before failure, vertical
cracks in flexural zone and diagonal cracks in shear span.
3. Increasing micro-reinforcement content leads to increasing angles of the struts.
4. Adding micro-reinforcement leads, with rotating of the top flange before tearing of the bottom
flange occurs, to a more ductile failure in contrast to beams without shear reinforcement.
5. Considering beams without shear reinforcement as reference, the bearing capacity of beams
with micro-reinforcement (especially contents as from 2.5 % by vol. steel) is more affected
with increasing shear slenderness (a/d = 4.0).
As the presented results are based on numerical calculations only, experimental tests are
required to validate the results for the micro-reinforced beams. Further research will focus on a
design concept for micro-reinforced UHPC structures.
References
[1] Schnellenbach-Held. M; Prager, M.: Mikrobewehrter Ultrahochleistungsbeton Trag- und
Verformungsverhalten. Beton- und Stahlbetonbau 106 (11), pp. 770-779, 2011.
[2] Fehling, E.; Thiemicke, J.: Shear Bearing Behavior of Ultra High Performance Concrete. Poster
presented at fib symposium 2011, Prague.
[3] Kani, N. J.: The Riddle of Shear Failure and its Solution. ACI Journal, April 1964, pp. 441-466.
[4] DIN 1045-1: Tragwerke aus Beton, Stahlbeton und Spannbeton - Teil 1: Bemessung und
Konstruktion, Ausgabe: 08/2008, Berlin, Beuth Verlag.
[5] ACI Committee 549: Guide for the Design, Construction, and Repair of Ferrocement. ACI 549.1R 88. ACI Structural Journal 85 (1988), pp. 325-351.
[6] Wrner, J.-D., Hauser, S.: DUCON, ein innovativer Hochleistungsbeton. Beton- und Stahlbetonbau
94 (2), pp. 66-75, 1999.
[7] Thorenfeldt, E., Tomaszewicz, A. and Jensen, J. J.: Mechanical properties of high-strength concrete
and applications in design. In: Symposium on Utilization of High-Strength Concrete, Stavanger,
Norway, 1987.
[8] Kotsovos, M. D.; Pavlovi M. N.: Structural Concrete: Finite-Element Analysis for Limit-State Design.
Thomas Telford Publications, 1995.
476
Experimental Investigations on I-Shaped UHPC-Beams with

Combined Reinforcement under Shear Load
Ekkehard Fehling, Jenny Thiemicke
The shear bearing behaviour of UHPC-beams with combined shear reinforcement of stirrups and fibres is
investigated in this paper. Eight beams with an I-shaped monitoring area and a shear slenderness of a/d
= 4 were tested in 3-point-bending tests; all of them failed in shear. To show the influence of fibres on the
shear bearing behaviour, different shear reinforcement was arranged:stirrups with a diameter of 5 mm
and a distance of 105 mm, a steel fibre content of 1 % by volume, a combination of these two shear
reinforcements, and no shear reinforcement at all. During the tests, the crack initiation and propagation,
the inclination of the compression strut, and the shear load bearing capacity were identified. The results
confirm the increase of the bearing capacity, the stiffness and the inclination of the crack angles when
steel fibres are added. This paper describes the experiments and its observed phenomena.
Keywords: shear, UHPC with combined shear reinforcement, stirrups, steel fibres, shear crack
1 Introduction
The shear bearing behaviour of beams, subject to research for more than 100 years, is
described in various models as a function of existing or non-existing shear reinforcement.
For members without shear reinforcement ZINK [1] developed a mechanical model. Here,
the main bearing capacity is attributed mainly to the capability of the compression zone to carry
shear stresses. Additional capacities are provided by the dowel effect of the bending
reinforcement, the aggregate interlock and in the compression damage zone (fig. 1a). ZINKSs
approach leads to identical results like the semi-mechanical approach on which the DIN 1045-1
(08.08) [2] is based.
For members with shear reinforcement made of rebars different models exist since many
years. These models describe the load transfer with struts and ties (fig. 1b) and account for
variable inclination of struts [2].
a)
b)
c)
Figure 1: Models of shear bearing behaviour [1], [2], [3].
The development of high (HPC) and ultra high performance concretes (UHPC) with their
pronounced non-ductile behaviour demands for the addition of fibres. These fibres increase the
deformation capacity of members made of HPC and UHPC. At the same time, they influence
the load bearing behaviour of these members. ROSENBUSCH [3] describes this increasing
influence of fibre reinforcement on the shear bearing capacities based on the compression
zone, the dowel effect of the bending reinforcement, and on the aggregate interlock (fig. 1c).
A testing programme on UHPC-beams was carried out to identify the influence of fibres on
the shear bearing behaviour. The tests presented in this paper show the influence of a variation
of shear reinforcement on in other respects identical beams.
477
2 Test specimens
UHPC-beams with two different cross sections and different shear reinforcement were
fabricated. To determine the material properties Youngs modulus, compressive strength, and
bending tensile strength, cylinders and prisms of every mixture were produced accompanyingly.
Materials
The test specimens of this research project were produced using the mixture M3Q, which was
designed by the department of building materials at the University of Kassel as a standard
mixture in the priority programme SPP 1182 of the German Research Foundation [4] and is a
fine aggregate concrete. Because of the specimens shape, it was necessary to get a free
flowing fresh concrete. Therefore, the w/c-value was set at an upper limit of 0.255.
Rebars made of BSt500S (fy = 500 N/mm) were used. The bending reinforcement consisted
of 425. Outside the monitoring area stirrups with a diameter of 8 mm at a spacing of 100 mm
were placed. Transverse reinforcement was added in the chords (fig. 2, fig. 3 left).
The very strong bending reinforcement resulted from the requirement, that a bending failure
must be avoided even for the specimens with combined shear reinforcement.
6
10/12
Longitudinal section
I
5 2 loops 5
212
425
10/12
II
10/12
II
5 2 loops 5
3 2 8/10
3 8 8/10
4 24 8/10.5
Figure 2: Standard reinforcement.
Steel fibres with a tensile strength of 2,500 N/mm were added. They had a length of 13 mm
and a diameter of 0.175 mm (fig. 3 right). The fraction of the mixture was 1.0 % by volume.
Figure 3, left: Reinforcement cage; right: Used fibres.
Dimensions
The specimens were 210 cm long. They had two different cross sections; outside the monitoring
area, it was rectangular with a width/height of 20/32 cm. In the monitoring area, it was I-shaped
with a web thickness of 3 cm as well as top and bottom chords with a medium height of 5,5 cm.
The monitoring area was 120 cm long and 20 cm high. There is a different shaped ending for
478
Experimental Investigations on I-Shaped UHPC-Beams with Combined Reinforcement under Shear Load
the beam named Q2-F1-1. Instead of arranging the monitoring area like shown in fig. 5, in this
beam the I-shaped cross section is continued until the end of the beam.
Variation of shear reinforcement
To identify the influence of the fibres on the shear bearing capacity, UHPC-beams with different
shear reinforcement were produced. Table 1 shows the variation.
Table 1: Variation of shear reinforcement.
Shear reinforcement
Q-B1
Q-F1
Q-F1-B1
Stirrups 5 mm, spacing: 10.5 cm
Fibres 0.175 mm, length: 13 mm,
1.0 % by volume
Fabrication of the beams

Following the recommendations of the priority programme [4], the concrete was produced and
inserted into the form work, where it stayed for 48 hours. To get the ultimate strength, the
specimens were heat-cured for another 48 hours at a temperature of 90C.
Till the day of testing, the beams and references were stored under in-door-conditions. All in
all eight specimens were produced.
Pre-damage due to residual stress behaviour and shrinkage
The first four beams were produced in the winter season of 2010. When hardening in the form
work, the specimens were exposed to very low temperatures during the night. Due to the
difference in temperature and shrinkage, residual stresses occured at an early concrete age
which caused cracking.
The specimens without fibres showed wider cracks in this context than beams with fibres.
Cracks occurred in the web and chords near to reinforcement bars (fig. 4), with partially crack
width of about 250 m. To reduce or eliminate this effect, the next four beams were stored
under in-door-conditions during hardening.
1 mm
Figure 4, left: Detail view of monitoring area - crack due to shrinkage, right: Pre-damage crack width
approx. 250 m.
Material properties
To determine the material properties, cylinders with a diameter of 100 mm and a height of 200
mm as well as prisms with the dimensions of width and height of 40 mm and a length of 160
mm were produced from every mixture. Testing the reference cylinders and prisms provided the
following material properties (table 2).
479
Table 2: Material properties.
Youngs
modulus of
cylinders
Compression
strength of
cylinders
Bending tensile
strength of prisms
N/mm
N/mm
N/mm
Q-1 (without shear reinforcement)
48,162
212.9
7.4
Q-B1-1 (stirrups only)
48,240
224.3
9.6
Q-B1-2 (stirrups only)
46,488
195.3
Q-F1-2 (fibres only)
45,873
201.2
23.2
Q-F1-3 (fibres only)
48,528
207.9
Q2-F1-1 (fibres only)
49,611
185.6
Q-F1-B1-1 (combined reinforcement)
45,717
197.8
23.6
Q-F1-B1-2 (combined reinforcement)
46,386
197.4
Specimen
3 Test setup
Test setup
The tests were carried out as 3-point-bending tests on UHPC-beams with indentical shape but
varying shear reinforcement [5] (fig. 5). The reduced thickness in the monitoring area made
sure that the failure occurred there. The dimensions of the test setup resulted in a shear
slenderness of 4. The supporting points allowed the horizontal movement of the test specimens.
The load was applied over a load application plate with a spherical hinge. The applied load
was controlled by a load cell. Displacement transducers measured the deflection under the load
application point, the horizontal deformation of the chords near the application point, and the
shear deformations on three places in the monitoring area (fig. 6).
Testing
The test was executed by displacement control. The loading velocity started with a value of
0.01 mm/s. During the test, the velocity was raised up to 0.1 mm/s. On some selected loading
points, the test was stopped and the crack initiation and propagation was documented.
Fmax
I
II
II
600
1,200
Section
I-I
Section
II - II
200
Figure 5: Test setup [5].
4 Test results
All tested beams showed a shear tension failure. In the beams with stirrup reinforcement, the
stirrups ruptured. Failure cracks occurred in the web of the monitoring area. After reaching the
ultimate load and during further deformation, these cracks either snapped through the
compression zone or grew along the bending reinforcement in the direction of the support.
In general, it could be observed, that except for the beam without shear reinforcement the
increase of load led to an increase of the number of cracks, but during further testing all
480
deformation concentrated in a few cracks, which developed large widths while the other cracks
reduced their width.
Figure 6, left: Instrumentation with measuring devices; right: Test setup (left support not visible).
Beam without shear reinforcement

In the UHPC-beam without shear reinforcement (no fibres, no stirrups) shear cracks developed
already at a low load level (fig. 9 left) with an inclination of approximately 30 (fig. 7). These
shear cracks were initiated by the cracks due to shrinkage (fig. 8 left) and crossed them. When
all shear cracks were developed, further increasing of the load was possible due to the dowel
effect of the bending reinforcement.
The snap through of the failure cracks into the compression zone induced a blast off of the
compression chord (fig. 8 right). Even though this beam didnt possess shear reinforcement, the
very strong bending reinforcement made sure that the failure came with preliminary signs.
Figure 7: Crack pattern of UHPC-beam with no shear reinforcement (Q-1).
Figure 8, left: Shear cracks starting from a crack due to shrinkage; right: Blast off of the compression chord.
481
Beams with stirrup reinforcement
Beam without shear reinforcement

45
120
Q-1
Q-B1-1
40
100
Q-B1-2
Shear Force (kN)
Shear Force (kN)
35
30
25
20
15
80
60
40
10
20
5
0
10
12
14
16
18
20
Deflection (mm)
10
12
14
16
18
20
Deflection (mm)
Figure 9, left: Beam without shear reinforcement; right: Beams with stirrup reinforcement.
Beams with stirrup reinforcement

Two UHPC-beams with stirrup reinforcement were tested. The shear cracks in the pre-damaged
beam (Q-B1-1) were also initiated by the cracks due to shrinkage and temperature and crossed
them. Hence, the beam without pre-cracking (Q-B1-2) developed a higher bending stiffness,
however not a significantly higher bearing load (fig. 9 right).
After reaching the ultimate load, further deformation was applied, which led to localisation in
two failure cracks (fig. 10). The stirrups crossing these cracks ruptured. One of the cracks
snapped through into the compression zone and led to a blast off of a part of the chord. The
inclination of the shear cracks amounted to 40.
Figure 10: Crack pattern of UHPC-beam with stirrup reinforcement (Q-B1).
Beams with fibre reinforcement

Three UHPC-beams with fibre reinforcement were produced. These UHPC-beams showed a
higher amount of cracks in the monitoring zone compared to the beams without fibres. These
cracks showed a more narrow spacing and smaller crack width than cracks in the beams
without fibres. The inclination of the cracks was between 30 and 45.
Two failure cracks occurred. One of them grew along the bending reinforcement in the
direction of the support and beyond, as well as into the compression zone but not with a blast
(fig. 11).
Figure 11: Crack pattern of UHPC-beams with fibre reinforcement (Q-F1).
482
Beams with fibre reinforcement
Beams with combined shear reinforcement
120
180
Q-F1-B1-1
Q-F1-2
160
Q-F1-3
140
80
Shear Force (kN)
Shear Force (kN)
100
Q2-F1-1
60
40
Q-F1-B1-2
120
100
80
60
40
20
20
0
10
12
14
16
18
20
10
12
14
16
18
20
Deflection (mm)
Deflection (mm)
Figure 12, left: Beams with fibre reinforcement; right: Beams with a combined shear reinforcement.
Beams with a combined shear reinforcement

Two beams with combined shear reinforcement were tested. They showed a similar crack
initiation and propagation like the beams with fibre reinforcement only, but with a steeper
inclination of the cracks of about 50 (fig 13). When reaching the ultimate load, the stirrups
crossing the failure cracks ruptured. One failure crack grew along the bending reinforcement in
the direction of the support and beyond. The most significant difference was seen in the higher
ultimate load (fig. 12 right).
Figure 13: Crack pattern of UHPC-beams with combined shear reinforcement (Q-F1-B1).
5 Discussion / conclusion
Failure mode
All tested beams showed a shear tension failure in the web of the monitoring area. Shear
cracks occurred in the monitoring area, which were initiated by already developed cracks due to
shrinkage and temperature. When stirrups were arranged, they ruptured. After reaching the
ultimate load, the load bearing capacity dropped to a plateau, reflecting the strong influence of
the bending reinforcement on the shear bearing capacity. The end of the test was either
characterised by a damage of the compression chord (in case of no fibre reinforcement) or the
damage of the bond of the bending reinforcement near the support (in case of fibre
reinforcement). The pre-damage due to shrinkage and temperature of the first four members
had no influence on the failure mode.
Shear bearing capacity
As figure 14 shows, the graph of the beam without shear reinforcement presents a different
behaviour compared to the beams with shear reinforcement. Due to pre-damages this beam
was developing shear cracks already at the shear load level of less than 20 kN. Further
increase of the load is related to the strong bending reinforcement. The shear bearing capacity
of the beams with stirrups or fibres reached approximately 90 kN and 110 kN, respectively. In
contrast the load bearing capacity of the beam with combined shear reinforcement added up to
145 kN. As figure 9 and 12 show, there is no significant influence of the pre-damage due to
shrinkage and temperature.
483
Force-deformation behaviour
In comparison to the beams without shear reinforcement, a smaller stiffness of the beams with
stirrups is obvious. This may be explained by the the reduced effective web thickness and
therefore a reduced stiffness after onset of cracking. In the post peak rage, a level of reduced
bearing capacity can be observed, even for substantial levels of deformation. This residual
bearing capacity can be attributed to the dowel effect of the strong bending reinforcement a
swell as on a Vierendeel type of frame action.
After reaching the ultimate load, the load-deformation graphs fall down to a level which
because of the strong bending reinforcement represents mailnly the dowel effect. For members
with either fibre or stirrup reinforcement the level was about 60 kN, for member with combined
reinforcement it reached about 90 kN. Here again, the influence of the fibres can be seen.
Different shear reinforcement

no shear reinforcement
160
stirrups
Shear Force (kN)
140
fibres
120
combined shear reinforcement

100
80
60
40
20
0
0
10
12
14
16
18
20
Deflection (mm)
Figure 14: Shear Force-Deformation of beams with different shear reinforcement.
Adding fibres increases the shear bearing capacity and stiffness. Now, analytical examination
and further detailed tests are recommended in order to describe how a combined reinforcement
acts together and to verify the results.
6 Acknowledgement
This research project is funded by the German Research Foundation in the priority programme
SPP 1182.
References
[1] Zink, M.: Zum Biegeschubversagen schlanker Bauteile aus Hochleistungsbeton mit und ohne
Vorspannung, Dissertation, B.G.Teubner Verlag, Stuttgart, 2000.
[2] DIN 1045-1 (08.08.) Tragwerke aus Beton, Stahlbeton und Spannbeton - Teil 1: Bemessung und
Konstruktion, Beuth Verlag, Berlin, 2008.
[3] Rosenbusch, J.: Zur Querkrafttragfhigkeit von Balken aus stahlfaserverstrktem Stahlbeton,
Dissertation, TU Braunschweig, 2003.
[4] DFG-Schwerpunktprogramm Nachhaltiges Bauen mit Ultrahochfestem Beton SPP 1182.
[5] Fehling, E.; Thiemicke, J.: Shear Bearing Behaviour of UHPC, proceedings of the fib Symposium
Prague 2011.
484
Ultimate Shear Strength of Ultra High Performance Fibre

Reinforced Concrete Beams
Florent Baby, Jol Billo, Jean-Claude Renaud, Cyril Massotte, Pierre Marchand, Franois
Toutlemonde
Paris-Est University - IFSTTAR, Bridges and Structures Department, Paris, France
In order to quantify the safety margin of shear design provisions for UHPFRC, an experimental campaign
has been carried out. In a Four-Point Bending configuration, shear tests have been conducted on eleven
3m-long I-shaped girders with varied types of shear reinforcement (links, fibers and both) or without
shear reinforcement, combined with longitudinal prestressing or passive reinforcement. These shear
tests have been analyzed thanks to a complete materials characterization. Moreover, in order to identify
the contribution of the fibers in the ultimate shear strength, prisms have been cut horizontally, vertically,
at 30 and at 45 in both extremities of the beams, to determine the effective orientation factor . A
detailed analysis has been carried out based on these experimental results both at the material and
structural scale. This analysis helps validate the safety of the shear design AFGC provisions at the
Ultimate Limit State (ULS).
Keywords: UHPFRC, UHPC, steel fibers, shear, stirrups, links, Ultimate Limit State.
1 Introduction
Many parameters such as the properties of concrete used, the slenderness, the presence or
absence of shear reinforcement, the tension reinforcement ratio and the cross section influence
the shear capacity of beams. For fiber reinforced concrete properties, main parameters are the
fiber content, their shape, their dimensions, the quality of cementitious matrix and the actual
fiber orientation ([1]). Many previous programs have indicated the major positive effect of fiber
content and presence of stirrups on shear behavior of beams and have shown the synergetic
effect of both factors (beyond a minimum shear reinforcement ratio) in the case of normal fiber
reinforced concrete ([2]). Concerning UHPFRC, previous researches have studied the shear
behaviour of reinforced or prestressed beams made of UHPFRC ([3-5]). AFGC provisions on
UHPFRC ([6]) had been based on careful extrapolation of FRC ([1]) and HPC ([7]) provisions,
yet verified on a limited number of test configurations. Nevertheless, in these experimental
campaigns, the real orientation of fibres in the tested structures had not been identified. Thus,
an experimental program was defined to analyse the shear behaviour of reinforced and
prestressed beams made of UHPFRC taking into account the actual orientation of fibres.
2 Shear Tests
Specimens and parameters
All specimens were fabricated in a precast factory (Veldhoven, the Netherlands), using four
concrete mixes (A, A-NF, B and B-OF), with main features presented in Table 1. During the
manufacturing of beams made of concrete A, the prestressed beam with stirrups was not
satisfactorily cast. An additional casting was decided for both prestressed beams. Consequently
two batches exist for the first concrete mix: A and A(2). Two days after casting, the beams
made of concrete B were placed during 48 hours in a climate-conditioned box at 90C with a
relative humidity of about 100 %. The intent of this step is to increase the mechani cal
characteristics of concrete and to complete maturation: the total further shrinkage is zero and
the creep is significantly reduced after the heat treatment. The main parameters studied in this
experimental program were the UHPFRC mix, the active or passive longitudinal reinforcement
485
and the presence of shear reinforcement (none, fibers, links, both) in the specimens. Eleven
beams of I-shaped cross section were tested. An overview of beams characteristics is given in
Table 2.
Table 1: UHP(FR)C mix characteristics.
fc cube
Concrete Mix
28 days
(MPa)
fc cylinders
About 11
months
Youngs
Modulus
(MPa)
Organic
straight fibers
Lf f
(mm)
Vf
(%)
(GPa)
Steel
straight fibers
Lf f
(mm)
About 11
months
195
203
60.7
20 0.3
--
2.5
A(2)
202
202
60.8
20 0.3
--
2.5
A-NF
170
187
58.6
--
--
--
212
205
56.0
13 0.2
--
--
proprietary
information
4.7
B-OF
150
157
46.5
Table 2: Parameters of the shear tests.
Specimen
Concrete Mix
Reinforced / Prestressed
Links
Prestressed
No
A(2)
Prestressed
No
Prestressed
No
A(2)
Prestressed
Yes
UHPFRC-B-PC-WS
Prestressed
Yes
UHPFRC-A-RC-NS
Reinforced
No
UHPFRC-B-RC-NS
Reinforced
No
UHPFRC-A-RC-WS
Reinforced
Yes
UHPFRC-B-RC-WS
Reinforced
Yes
UHPC-A-NF-RC-NS
A-NF
Reinforced
No
UHPFRC-B-OF-RC-NS
B-OF
Reinforced
No
UHPFRC-A-PC-NS
UHPFRC-A(2)-PC-NS
UHPFRC-B-PC-NS
UHPFRC-A(2)-PC-WS
The beams got a total length of 3 meters having a span of 2.0 meters and a total depth of 380
mm. The effective depth was 305 mm for all beams. The web was designed as a thin
membrane 65 mm-thick. The top flange was 270 mm wide and the bottom flange 230 mm. For
prestressed beams, the lower chord was pretensioned with six rectilinear T15S tendons, each
with a prestressing force of 170 kN. For other specimens, the passive longitudinal reinforcement
was realized with five #20 and one #25 rebar. The shear reinforcement consisted in #6 links
and was installed in four specimens with 75 mm spacing. The shear reinforcement ratio was 0.6
%. This value has been chosen to represent the ratio existing in real structures made of
UHPFRC (in which stirrups are generally used just as a local help for shear capacity) and to
produce a significant contribution of transversal steel reinforcement (approximately 20 % of the
total ultimate shear resistance). Only specimens with shear reinforcement had an upper steel
rebar (#10) for stability of the reinforcing frame. In order to get homogeneously distributed
fibers throughout the whole specimen, the distance between reinforcements or between
formwork and steel reinforcing bars was fixed higher than 30 mm (= the Maximum Fiber
Length). Indeed the combination of fibers and shear reinforcement could have shown a
negative effect due to fibre blockage if enough space for concrete flow into the mold could not
have been provided. The full details of dimensions and arrangement of reinforcement are
shown in Figure 1.
486
Figure 1: Cross section of prestressed beams with links (Left side)

and reinforced beams with links (Right side) Dimensions in mm.
All beam specimens were tested in a four point bending configuration. The span was 2 meters
and the shear span ratio was 2.5 in order to avoid an important arching action. More details are
provided in [8].
Experimental results
Figure 2 shows the experimental load-deflection curves for prestressed and reinforced beams,
respectively. Although they were fabricated with a different batch, the behaviour of beams
UHPFRC-A-PC-NS and UHPFRC-A(2)-PC-NS were very similar with approximately the same
ultime load. Except beams with passive longitudinal reinforcement and with stirrups, all
specimens have failed in shear, exhibiting a largely opened diagonal tension crack. Beams
UHPFRC-A-RC-WS and UHPFRC-B-RC-WS failed in bending but with large openings of
diagonal cracks which indicate that the maximum load applied was close to the ultimate shear
capacity. More details are provided in [8].
Figure 2: Load-deflection curves of prestressed beams (at left) and reinforced beams (at right).
3 Materials Characterization
Fibres orientation
In order to identify the contribution of the fibers in the ultimate shear strength as detailed in
AFGC provisions [6], prisms have been cut in both undamaged extremities of the beams, at
different inclinations to determine the real coefficient of orientation. The chosen angles for
each material are (Figure 3):
0, 45, 90 for the UHPFRC-B and 0, 45, 60, 90 for the UHPFRC-A (an additional
inclination has been tested in reason of a bigger number of specimens).
0, 45 for the UHPFRC-B-OF: only one beam had been cast.
487
Except for the UHPFRC-B-OF, for each considered inclination, six prisms 7cm*6.5cm*L
(L > 26 cm) have been extracted, notched (the un-notched height is equal to 6.1 cm) and tested
in 3 point bending configuration.
Figure 3: Prisms extraction for the UHPFRC-A (length in mm).
For both UHPFRC-A and B Mixes, from the average curves Bending Stress (BS) Measured
crack opening (wmeasured) corresponding to the different inclinations, an average curve has been
constructed in order to determine an orientation factor (1) for each angle [Figure 4] (as
recommended in [6]):
Orientatio n factor
Max(" BS w" )
Max Average(" BS w" 0; " BS w" 45; " BS w" 90)
(1)
For the UHPFRC-A [UHPFRC-A(2)], in order to keep the symmetry for the construction of the
average curve, the results corresponding with the angle 60 are not taken into account.
Figure 4: For each UHPFRC : Curves Equivalent Bending Stress (EBS) Measured crack opening (w)
obtained from the 3 point bending tests on sawn and notched prisms with different inclinations equal to 0, 45,
60 and 90 : corresponding average curve (without taking into account the results for 60) .
488
Table 3: Orientation factor for each inclination and for each UHPFRC.
Concrete
UHPFRC-A
UHPFRC-A(2)
UHPFRC-B
UHPFRC-B-OF
Inclination
()
Max BS-w at
(MPa)
Max Average Curve

(BS-w-0-45-90)
(MPa)
Orientation
factor
32.3
25.1
0.78
45
26.5
25.1
0.95
60
25.4
25.1
0.99
90
17.4
25.1
1.45
10.9
18.1
1.67
45
18.4
18.1
0.99
90
25.2
18.1
0.72
45
13.5
90
13.3
Reference Stress crack opening (-w) relationship
For each UHPFRC, the reference -w relationship is obtained from the average curve
Bending Stress (BS) Measured crack opening (w measured) derived from the average curves
BS wmeasured corresponding to the inclinations 0, 45 and 90. The inverse method described
in [6] is applied to average curves BS-wmeasured for each UHPFRC. The obtained -w curves
are then corrected concerning the limit of linearity. Indeed the notch realised for the third point
bending tests induces a stress concentration which can disturb the behaviour of the
cementitious matrix. Thus the value of the limit of linearity obtained from the four point bending
tests on un-notched prisms (7cm*7cm*28cm) is chosen ([6]) : ft is equal to 9.2 for UHPFRC-AA(2), 9.8 for UHPFRC-B and 9.0 for UHPFRC-B-OF. In the case of a soft-hardening behaviour,
the post-peak value is obtained by lopping at the maximum value post-peak. The -w curves
are also smoothed in using a third degree polynomial interpolation with an interval on the crack
opening equal to 0.05 mm (Figure 5).
Figure 5: Reference -w relationships obtained with inverse analysis for each UHPFRC.
489
Properties of passive and active steel reinforcements

The - relationship has been experimentally determined for both passive and active
reinforcement (Table 4).
Table 4: Characteristics of the - relationship for each kind of reinforcement.
Steel
Reinforcement
Youngs
Modulus
(GPa)
at 0.1%
(MPa)
at 0.2%
(MPa)
Ultimate Stress
(MPa)
Ultimate
Strain
()
Tendons T15S
195
1728
1772
1918
48
#20 and #25

rebars
199
551
618
53
#6 rebars
176
561
594
24
The prestress losses have been estimated from experimental results with assumption on strand
relaxation (initial prestressing force for each tendon equal to 170 kN):
30.5 % of prestress losses for beams made of UHPFRC-A[(2)] (x = 12.55 MPa)
32.5 % of prestress losses for beams made of UHPFRC-B (x = 12.3 MPa)

The important percentage of prestress losses is in particularly due to a low initial pretension.
4 Comparison with theoretical shear strength predictions

From the designers point of view, all the results are compared (Table 5) to the theoretical shear
strength prediction according to [6]:
Vult Vrb Va V f (2)

Vrb represents the contribution of the concrete, Va is the term for the contribution of the stirrups
and Vf the contribution of the fibers.
For reinforced concrete (without axial force):
Vrb 0.21
Va 0.9 d
f cj b0 d
w
lim
At
1 1
w dw
f y and V f 0.9 d b0 p with p
K wlim 0
st
For prestressed concrete:
Vrb 0.24
Va z
f cj b0 z
2 u
At
f y cot an u , with tan u
and V f b0 z p cot an u
st
cd
With :
-
b0 web width and d effective depth of the longitudinal reinforcement
z lever arm of internal forces.

f cj compressive strength and u ultimate shear stress
cd design value of the normal concrete stress in the centre line.
- p concrete post cracking tensile strength, f y yield strength of stirrups, At cross sectional
area of the stirrups and s t spacing of shear reinforcement.
- wlim = max (wu; wmax) wu being the crack opening at the bottom side, under the bending
moment exerted in the section and w max the crack opening corresponding to an
irreversible decrease of the stress in the reference -w relationship (wmax = 0.20 mm for
UHPFRC-A[(2)], wmax = 0.50 mm for UHPFRC-B and wmax = 0.47 mm for UHPFRC-B-OF)
490
All material safety factors have been taken equal to 1 for the purpose of design provision
validation. The French AFGC-Stra Recommendations on UHPFRC consider that the crack
opening which has to be taken into account for the calculation of the fibres contribution (for
ultimate shear strength) is determined from the bending moment related to the ultimate shear
force. Thus, in the case of our study, two options are possible :
- The crack opening corresponding to the ultimate shear strength is determined from the
calculated curve Bending Moment Crack Opening and the bending moment
corresponding to the ultimate shear force obtained experimentally.
- The experimental results are not considered in the calculations. The crack opening
corresponding to the ultimate shear strength and the compressive struts angle is
determined by iteration.
Both options have been studied in order to quantify their deviation.
Concerning the consideration of real fibers orientation inside specimens, the tensile residual
strength p is divided by an orientation factor depending on the compressive struts angle :
- Reinforced beams : orientation factor corresponding to 45 .
- Prestressed beams : orientation factor corresponding to with the inclination of
compressive struts with respect to the beam axis.
The orientation factor is assumed to be linearly variable with , thus derived from a linear
interpolation between the experimental points obtained for 0, 45 and 90. In the realistic
direction of the struts, this factor will be comprised between 0.92 and 0.99. For design purpose,
it is recommended ([6]) to take the most unfavourable value of orientation factor : 1.45 for
UHPFRC-A-A(2) and 1.67 for UHPFRC-B. It should provide a significant safety margin.
Table 5: Comparison of experimental and theoretical results according to [6].
Experimental results used
Experimental results not used

(With Iteration)
Type of
Failure
Predicted
Force
Exp
(kN)
(No Iteration)
Theory
Struts
Angle
()
wlim
(mm)
Predicted
Force
Exp
(kN)
Theory
Struts
Angle
()
wlim
(mm)
UHPFRC-A-PC-NS
Shear
632
1.36
35.1
0.2
587
1.47
37.6
0.4
UHPFRC-A(2)-PCNS
Shear
632
1.36
35.1
0.2
587
1.47
37.6
0.4
UHPFRC-B-PC-NS
Shear
527
1.92
33.5
0.5
433
2.34
38.8
0.99
UHPFRC-A(2)-PCWS
Shear
771
1.41
36.8
0.22
683
1.59
39.1
1.02
UHPFRC-B-PC-WS
Shear
663
1.90
35.7
0.5
532
2.37
40.0
2.02
UHPFRC-A-RC-NS
Shear
479
1.90
45
0.28
454
2.00
45
0.81
UHPFRC-B-RC-NS
Shear
362
2.47
45
0.5
356
2.51
45
0.85
UHPFRC-A-RC-WS
Flexure
596
1.82
45
0.42
528
2.05
45
1.76
UHPFRC-B-RC-WS
Flexure
484
2.15
45
0.5
416
2.50
45
3.2
UHPC-A-NF-RC-NS
Shear
114
3.17
45
114
3.17
45
UHPFRC-B-OF-RCNS
Shear
295
1.68
45
0.47
295
1.68
45
0.47
Given these experimental results, the approach proposed by the French recommendations is
conservative in all cases. The safety factor on the maximum applied load ranges from 1.36 to
2.37 for prestressed UHPFRC beams and from 1.82 to 2.50 for reinforced UHPFRC beams.
491
Concerning the specimens UHPFRC-A-RC-WS and UHPFRC-B-RC-WS, the theoretical

shear strength predictions obtained without iteration are underlined because they correspond to
a flexural failure. The predicted strength is thus a lower bond value.
The average deviation between the shear strength predictions obtained with and without
iteration is equal to 12.6% for the prestressed beams (with a maximum close to 20%) and 8.1%
for reinforced beams made of UHPFRC with steel fibers (the maximum being close to 15%).
Due to the influence of the compressive struts angle, the deviation is more important in the case
of prestressed beams.
5 Conclusions
Shear tests have been realized in a Four-Point Bending configuration on eleven prestressed or
reinforced UHPFRC I-shaped beams with different types of shear reinforcement: fibers or no
fibers and combination of links and fibers. In order to identify the contribution of the fibers in the
ultimate shear strength, prisms have been cut in the beams, at different inclinations to
determine the real orientation factor. This is very useful to analyse the experimental results in
particularly to identify the real contribution of fibres in the ultimate limit state. According to this
analysis, the approach proposed by the French recommendations is conservative in all cases.
6 Acknowledgement
This experimental program has been supervised by a committee chaired by J. Resplendino
(SETEC), also chairman of the French mirror group of fib TG8.6. Eiffage (A. Simon and T.
Thibaux) and Lafarge (L. Jacques and G. Molines) are gratefully acknowledged for their
sponsoring and contribution in the specimen preparation.
References
[1] Casanova, P., Rossi, P. 1996. Analysis of metallic fibre-reinforced concrete beams submitted to
bending. Materials and Structures, vol 29, July 1996, pp.354-361.
[2] Swamy R.N., Jones R., Chiam A.T.P. 1993. Influence of steel fibers on the shear resistance of
lightweight concrete I-beams, ACI Structural Journal, vol 90, n1, pp. 103-114.
[3] Graybeal, B. 2006. Structural Behavior of Ultra-High Performance Concrete Prestressed I-Girders,
U.S. Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration, FHWA-HRT-06-115, Aug.
2006,104 pp.
[4] Sato Y., Pansuk W., Den Uijl J.A., Walraven J.C. 2008. Shear Capacity of high performance fiber
reinforced concrete I-beams, 8th International Symposium on Utilization of High-Strength and HighPerformance Concrete, pp. 369-376.
[5] Bertram, G., and Hegger, J. 2010. Pretensioned UHPC beams with and without openings,
Proceedings of 3rd fib International Congress, Washington DC, USA, May 2010.
[6] AFGC-Stra. 2002. Ultra High Performance Fibre-Reinforced Concretes. Interim
Recommendations, Bagneux: SETRA.
[7] Toutlemonde, F., Four, B., de Larrard, F. 2003. Vrifications concernant la prise en compte
rglementaire de certaines proprits des btons hautes et trs hautes performances. BLPC,
Vol. 246-247, pp. 73-100.
[8] Baby, F., Billo, J., Renaud, J.C., Massotte, C., Marchand, P., Toutlemonde, F. 2010. Shear
resistance of ultra high performance fibre-reinforced concrete I-beams, FraMCoS7, B.H. Oh et al.
eds, Jeju (Korea), 23-28 May, pp. 1411-1417.
492
Shear Behavior of Pretensioned UHPC Beams Tests and

Design
Institute of Structural Engineering, RWTH Aachen University, Germany
Ultra High-Performance Concrete (UHPC) is a high-tech material opening new opportunities especially
for slender constructions. Within the priority program [1] supported by the German Research Foundation
(Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft DFG) sixty shear tests on prestensioned beams have been carried
out at the Institute of Structural Concrete at RWTH Aachen University. Different amounts of steel fibers
have been added to the concrete to ensure a sufficient ductility and also to serve as shear reinforcement.
Further main parameters were the prestressing, the shear slenderness, the number and position of w eb
openings, the opening diameter and additional shear reinforcement. The latest tests were focused on the
size effect. Generally, the effective depth is the most used influencing factor for size effects in shear
models. In case of fiber reinforced concrete, a further size effect due to the web thickness may occur,
which is based on different fiber orientations and distributions close to the formwork surface.
The investigations, which were carried out between 2006 and 2011, have been presented amongst
others in Kassel (UHPC 2008), Amsterdam (fib 2008), Tokyo (HPC/HSC 2008), London (fib 2009),
Washington DC (fib 2010), Rotorua (HPC 2011) and Salt Lake City (PCI 2011). An overview of shear
tests on beams with a height of 40 cm is given in the SCC2010 proceedings [6].
Keywords: Ultra-high Performance Concrete, fibers, shear, pretensioning, openings
1 Introduction
A priority program [1] on UHPC with over 20 projects in Germany started in 2005. The shear
behavior of pretensioned beams made of UHPC as well as the bond behavior of strands in
UHPC have been investigated in one of these projects at the Institute of Structural Concrete at
RWTH Aachen University. The bond behaviour is published in [8,9] and another paper at the
Hipermat [10].
The compressive strength of UHPC is about five times the strength of conventional normal
strength concrete. Therefore, a high degree of prestressing can be applied and thus, more
slender structures are feasible. This leads to significant savings in dead load and transportation
costs which is an important issue especially for precast members. The stringent production
requirements for UHPC restrict the main field of application to precast members, e.g. roof
girders of large span. Adding steel fibers to the concrete contributes to the shear resistance and
improves the post-cracking behavior. Thus, steel fibers eliminate the need for conventional
shear reinforcement. Generally, this is allowed in Germany according to the guideline for steel
fiber reinforced concrete [11], which contains additions to the German Design Code [12].
Prestressed members are not included in [11] due to the lack of basical knowledge. Web
openings influencing the ultimate shear carrying capacity are frequently arranged in the girders
to accommodate building utilities.
In order to investigate the shear strength of pretensioned UHPC beams with and without web
openings, an extensive experimental program consisting of a total of sixty shear tests was
carried out.The investigated test parameters were the fiber content, the grade of prestressing
applied, the shear slenderness, the location and number of web openings in the beams as well
as size effects. Furthermore, different shapes of additional shear reinforcement close to the
openings were investigated and compared to the bearing capacity of beams without such
reinforcement.
493
2 Experimental Investigations
Materials
The UHPC used in this study is flowable and nearly self compacting. No concrete vibrators
were used, merely a little poking to avoid air entrapments in the lower cord due to the lateral
covering formwork and the density of strands. All specimens were cast with the concrete
composition presented in Table 1. Merely the fiber type and ratio were varied. All fibers were
straight without hooks and of high strength steel. Two fiber ratios (0.9 % and 2.5 % per
volume) were investigated. The diameter of 0.15 mm is specified by the manufacturer and the
margin is 0.02 mm. In several spot tests the diameter was about 0.17 mm in average. The
steel fibers had a length between 9 mm and 17.5 mm and a strength f yf > 2200 N/mm. In some
tests on size effects, the fibers were enlarged in beams with a higher cross section (M1a , fyf >
1400 N/mm). The reference composition MR contained no fibers. Due to the slenderness of the
fibers and the short anchorage length (half of the fiber length), no tensile failure of the fibers is
possible but rather a fiber pull-out. This results in a more ductile tensile behavior of the UHPC
affecting the shear behavior of the beams as well. The slump flow spread of the concrete
mixtures M0 as well as M1 ranges between 66 and 72 cm. In mixture MR without fibers the
slump flow spread was increased to 75 to 80 cm, which has led to a partial settlement of the
basalt. In mixtures with fibres, no segregation was observed.
Table 1: Concrete composition with different fiber contents.
Mix/fiber ratio
Material
Cement CEM I
Silica fume
Quartz powder
Sand 0.125-0.5mm
Basalt 2-8mm
Steel fibers 9.0/0.15
Steel fibers 30/0.40
Water
Superplasticizer
[kg/m]
[kg/m]
[kg/m]
[kg/m]
[kg/m]
[kg/m]
[kg/m]
[kg/m]
[kg/m]
[kg/m]
M0
2.5% p.v.
650
177
456
354
598
194
158
31
M1
0.9% p.v.
660
180
463
360
606
70
161
32
M1a
0.9% p.v.
660
180
463
359
606
70
160
32
MR
w/out
666
181
467
363
612
162
32
Testing Program, Specimens and Setup

An overview of the conducted shear test program is given in the Tables 2 and 3. On each beam
with h = 40 and 70 cm, two shear tests were carried out (Fig. 1). The first test is denoted by a
and the second by b. On beams with h = 100 cm only one test was carried out due to the
restricted member size in the lab. Overall, there are five main groups of pretensioned beams:
beams without openings,
beams with single web openings,
beams with several web openings,
beams with additional shear reinforcement near the web openings,
and beams with varied height and web width (size effects).
For beams without openings, the fiber content, the prestressing and the shear slenderness
were varied (3.5 a/d 4.4). The clearance between the first opening and the support line as
well as the clearance between the openings were varied between 0.5d (150 mm) and 2.0d
(600 mm). The diameter of the openings was 0.5d for all beams except for beam T13, in which
494
Shear Behavior of Pretensioned UHPC Beams Tests and Design
the diameter of the opening was reduced to 0.33d (100 mm). The web openings were not
fabricated by sawing but by recesses in the formwork.
The material properties were determined at the day of the release as well as before the
shear tests. The compressive strength was determined with 100 mm cubes and the flexural
strength in a three point bending test on prisms 16 cm x 4 cm x 4 cm. In the last column, the
ultimate shear force V u at the support including the dead load is given.
3.8
3.8
3.8
3.8
3.8
3.8
3.8
4.4
3.8
3.8
4.1
3.5
3.8
3.8
3.8
3.8
3.8
3.8
3.8
3.8
3.8
3.8
3.8
3.8
3.8
3.8
3.8
3.8
3.8
3.8
3.8
3.8
3.8
3.8
3.8
3.8
3.8
4.4
3.8
3.8
3.8
4.4
7
9
7
9
7
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
*
**
***
Studs
Stirrups
Ring
Hook
M1
M1
MR
MR
M0
M0
M1
M1
M1
M1
M1
M1
M1
M1
M1
M1
M1
MR
MR
M1*
M1*
M0
M1
M1
M1
M1
M0
M1
M1
M1
M1
M1
M1
M1
M1
M1
M1
M1
M1
M1
M1
M1
Openings
no./a1/a2
Release
88.9
86.8
without opening
T1a
T1b
T2a
T2b
T3a
T3b
T4a
T4b
T5a
T5b
T18a
T19b
T21b
T6a
T6b
T7a
T7b
T9a
T9b
T10a
T10b
T12a
T8a
T8b
T11a
T11b
T12b
T13a
T13b
T14a
T14b
T15a
T15b
T16a
T16b
T17a
T17b
T18b
T19a
T20a
T20b
T21a
103.2
-/-/-
100.3
102.6
6
single opening
a/d
c,cube100 [MPa]
several
openings
Mix
[mm]
two openings with additional

rebars
Test
0.5 strands
Table 2: Testing parameters and main results of beams with h = 40 cm and bw = 6 cm.
6
8
6
8
8
10
6
6
8
6
8
6
8
1 / 0.5d / 1 / 1.0d / 1 / 1.5d / 1 / 2.0d / 1 / 0.5d / 1 / 1.5d / 1 / 0.5d / 1 / 1.5d / 1 / 1.0d / 2 / 1.0d / 0.5d
2 / 1.0d / 1.0d
2 / 1.0d / 1.5d
2 / 0.5d / 2.0d
2 / 1.0d / 1.0d
4 / 0.5d / 0.5d**
2 / 1.0d / 1.0d**
2 / 1.0d / 1.0d
2 / 1.0d / 1.0d
2 / 1.0d / 1.5d
2 / 1.0d / 1.5d
2 / 1.0d / 1.0d
2 / 1.0d / 1.0d
2 / 1.0d / 1.0d
2 / 1.0d / 1.0d
2 / 1.0d / 1.0d
2 / 1.0d / 1.0d
2 / 1.0d / 1.0d
2 / 1.0d / 1.0d
2 / 1.0d / 1.0d
116.4
105.9
113.3
89.0
112.8
108.7
120.5
123.6
110.7
110.8
123.6
104.1
113.4
114.3
122.2
103.0
116.4
105.9
100.4
113.3
Shear
Shear
Release
test
test
151
174
134
134
170
162
176
183
177
179
185
174
187
142
155
192
183
162
157
202
201
181
175
177
181
181
185
181
176
178
175
186
186
189
184
162
161
186
178
164
166
174
fiber content increased to 1.5 % p.v.

diameter of the web openings reduced to d/3 = 10 cm (d/2 = 15 cm in all other tests)
test abort due to bending failure
495
ct,fl [MPa]
8.9
22.1
16.5
14.6
27.9
20.5
19.8
18.8
16.9
8.3
31.5
24.6
22.0
24.6
20.1
15.1
16.7
28.0
18.6
27.9
20.5
18.2
19.8
22.7
21.2
10.7
12.3
23.1
24.1
19.1
20.2
20.1
34.1
24.3
22.6
22.8
23.0
26.0
24.7
12.8
15.4
35.9
36.3
30.0
27.8
31.0
26.8
25.0
27.7
21.8
22.2
24.7
20.6
31.0
30.0
23.2
25.6
34.4
25.2
23.8
25.0
Vu
[kN]
234
267
134
147
***
408
347
292
326
296
301
324
358
266
226
234
232
116
101
257
241
323
169
192
230
250
216
184
235
242
287
269
304
274
281
208
202
275
301
270
291
251
T22b M1 1,20 40 4
T23b M1 1,20 40 8
T24b M1 2,35 70 4
T25b M1 2,35 70 6
T26b M0 2,35 70 6
T27b M1 2,35 70 6
T28b M1 2,35 70 6
T29b M1a 2,35 70 6
T30
M1 3,50 100 4
T31 M1a 3,50 100 4
T22a M1 1,20 40 4
T23a M1 1,20 40 8
T24a M1 2,35 70 4
T25a M1 2,35 70 6
T26a M0 2,35 70 6
T27a M1 2,35 70 6
T29a M1a 2,35 70 6
T28a M1 2,35 70 6
*
6
12
12
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
6
12
12
18
18
18
18
18
Openings
no./a1/a2
studs
-/-/8/30
8/45
1 / 1,0d / 1 / 1,0d / 1 / 0,5d / 1 / 1,0d / 1 / 1,0d / 8/30
1 / 1,0d / 1 / 1,0d / 8/30 2 Op. 2 / 1,0d / 1,0d
without opening
Mix
/s
[mm]
single opening
Test
a
h bw
[m] [cm] [cm]
0,5
strands
Table 3: Testing parameters and main results on size effects.
c,cube100 [MPa]
ct,fl [MPa]
Shear
Shear
Release
Release
test
test
112.3
124.0
102.8
103.2
109.7
120.1
123.6
117.9
118.4
189
184
178
169
172
189
176
183
184
112.3
124.0
102.8
103.2
109.7
120.1
117.9
123.6
187
178
179
172
178
180
181
176
26.2
23.0
23.8
20.9
26.4
21.5
22.4
21.0
20.6
coming
26.2
23.0
23.8
20.9
26.4
21.5
21.0
22.4
25.6
29.6
23.7
31.5
30.2
25.1
23.0
soon
31.9
25.2
29.6
24.9
36.8
25.5
24.3
-
Vu
[kN]
174
454*
316
465
521
610
512
476
371
210
361
319
344
368
567
386
534
unexpected shear failure occurred on the second beam side due to a predamage of the first test
In tests on size effects the web thickness was varied between 4 and 8 cm, the height between
40 and 100 cm. Here, the shear slenderness a/d = 3.8 and the pressing stresses were kept
constant. Due to the limited length of the paper, only the beams with h = 40 cm and bw = 6 cm
are illustrated in Figure 1. Further details are given in [5,7]. Additionally, tests with openings and
shear reinforcement in the higher beams were carried out in selected cases. Because of a more
brittle failure of the higher beams, further tests with longer fibers (mix M1a) were added.
Figure 1: Test setup, side view and cross-section of the beams with h = 40 cm and b w = 6 cm.
The specific concrete cover was taken as c/p = 2.5 according to the previous small scale
beam tests [8-10] (p: diameter of the prestressing strands). In order to avoid an anchorage
failure, two stirrups 6 were arranged in the vicinity of the support.
The beams were fabricated in a prestressing bed. The 0.5 prestressing strands were
tensioned to a maximum value of 0.9fpk = 0.91500 MPa = 1350 MPa according to the German
496
Standard DIN 1045-1 [12], resulting in an initial strain 0 of 1350/200000 = 6.75 and a
maximum prestressing force of 125 kN per strand. The prestressing was released gradually
three days after casting with the concrete strength about 100 MPa. Before the shear tests, the
longitudinal concrete strain was measured. This way, the prestressing losses due to elastic
shortening as well as creep and shrinkage were estimated and the effective prestressing force
acting on the beam was determined.
The concrete strain in the lower chord was 0.9-1.0 after the release of prestressing. Until
the shear tests at the age of about four weeks, the concrete strain increased to 1.45 to 1.6
due to creep and shrinkage. As a consequence, the loss of prestressing - time dependent and
the elastic part ranged between 1 (6.75 1.45)/6.75 = 21 % and 24 %, where 6.75 is the
initial steel strain inside the prestressing bed. In beams with seven strands, the concrete
stresses due to prestress were less, which led to 18 % losses.
The shear tests were carried out when the compressive strength was between about
fc,cube100 = 160 MPa and 200 MPa (Tables 2 and 3). The deflection was measured with a LVTD
under the loading point.
3 Test Results
Effect of fiber ratio in case of solid beams
Generally, the shear tests showed a very stiff load bearing behavior due to the high
prestressing. In Figure 2 (left) the load-deflection curves for three beam tests without openings
and with different fiber ratios are presented. The comparison of the load-deflection curves of
T2b, T5a and T3b as well as the ultimate shear forces in Table 2 indicate the effectiveness of
the steel fibers as shear reinforcement. A steel fiber ratio of 0.9 % p.v. led to a substantial
increase of 119 % in the failure load (T5a: 326 kN) and an amount of 2.5 % p.v. increased the
failure load by 177 % (T3b: 409 kN) compared to T2b without fibers (149 kN). Figure 2 (right)
illustrates the ultimate shear force as a function of the fiber ratio and indicates the significant
effect of the steel fiber ratio on the shear resistance. The scatter for the beams of 0.9 % fiber
ratio and 9 prestressing strands may be related to the different casting method used for T1,
while test T4a forms the upper range of the scatter respectively. For the following comparisons
test T5a (326 kN) will be used as average reference.
Figure 2: Left: Load-deflection curves of solid beams with different fiber contents, Right: Ultimate shear force
versus fiber content.
Effect of degree of prestressing

The effect of the degree of prestressing on the shear resistance can be investigated by
comparing tests T1a, T2a and T3a (7 strands) with tests T1b, T2b and T3b (9 strands). The
effective depth remains the same because the centre of reinforcement was not varied (Fig. 1).
The effective prestressing force at the time of testing can be calculated from the concrete strain
497
measurements. As previously discussed, this results in an effective prestressing force of 857 kN

for 9 strands and 717 kN for 7 strands. Increasing the effective prestressing from 717 kN to
857 kN by 20 % resulted in an increase in the shear capacity from 134 kN to 149 kN by 12 %
for beam T2 without fibers and from 234 kN to 268 kN by 14 % for beam T1 with 0.9 % p.v.
fibers (Fig. 2, right). In beam T3a with 2.5 % p.v. fibers the shear capacity exceeded the
bending capacity with seven strands and hence the failure load is not comparable.
Effect of the shear slenderness
The effect of the shear slenderness on the shear strength is shown in Figure 3. An increase in
the shear slenderness from a/d = 3.5 (T19b) to a/d = 4.4 (T4b) resulted in a decrease in the
shear resistance from 324 kN to 292 kN (10 %). Test T4a seems to be in the upper range of
scatter (a/d = 3.8, Vu = 347 kN). The different stiffnesses in these tests were due to the different
spans (1.6 m + a). Generally, a significant influence of the shear slenderness was not expected
when the slenderness exceeds a/d = 3.5, even in prestressed members, nevertheless a slight
influence was observed.
Figure 3: Left: Load-deflection curves of beams with different shear slendernesses (0.9 % p.v.), Right: Ultimate
shear force versus shear slenderness.
Effect of single web openings

Single openings were arranged at a clearance to the support between 0.5d and 2.0d. In Figure
4 (left), the load-deflection curves for beams T6 and T7 are plotted. The beams were identical
except for the location of the opening. The fact is interesting that in test T6a the di stance was
0.5d and the shear carrying capacity reached a high value of 266 kN. It seems that, due to the
small distance of the opening in T6a, the arch action to the support was capable to develop
underneath the opening. When the distance was enlarged, the ultimate shear force was 234 kN
(T7a) and 232 kN (T7b). In Fig. 4 (right) the ratio V Test-/VTest-without is drawn as a function of the
relative distance a1/d from the face of the opening to the support. VTest- is the failure shear
force of beams with an opening, while V Test-without is the failure shear force of the corresponding
beam without opening (T2b, T5a, T3b). For example, the ratio 234/326 = 0.72 (T7a/T5a) shows
the remaining shear resistance with 0.9 % p.v. fibers and one opening in a distance a 1 = 1.5d.
Effect of two openings
The effect of two openings on the shear behavior can be studied using the test results of beams
T8 and T11. The beam tests T8a, T8b and T11a were identical with the first opening being
located at a distance a1 = 0.5d from the support. The distance between the second and the first
opening a2 varied between 0.5d and 2.0d. In Figure 5 (left), the load-deflection curves are
illustrated. The location of the second opening seems not to have a significant impact on the
initial stiffness of the beams. In Figure 5 (right), the ratio V Test-2/VTest-without is drawn as a
function of the relative distance a2/d between the openings. It can be concluded that the
capacity of beams with two openings is in the same range of beams with single openings (Fig.
498
4), if the spacing exceeds 1.5d. When the openings are closer to each other, the capacity was
decreased down to 50 % (T8a).
Figure 4: Left: Load-deflection curves of beams with one opening with a different distance to the support (0.9
% p.v.), Right: Specific ultimate shear force versus distance to support a 1/d.
Figure 5: Left: Load-deflection curves of beams with a different spacing between two openings (0.9 % p.v.),
Right: Specific ultimate shear force versus spacing a 2/d.
Figure 6: Influence of the web thickness and the beam height on the ultimate shear stresses of beams without
openings.
Size effects
To compare the results with different cross sections, the shear forces were normalized on the
shear stress u = Vu/(bwebd) where d = 31,7 cm for h = 40 cm, d = 61,7 cm for h = 70 cm and
d = 91,7 cm for h = 100 cm. These shear stresses are plotted for the beams without openings
against the web thickness as well as the height of the beams in Figure 6. While the web
thickness seems to have a minor impact on the shear stresses, the beam height shows a
significant effect. The shear stresses of the 70 cm high cross sections were decreased down to
about 70 % compared to the values of 40 cm height and in test T30 even to 60 %. The ultimate
shear stresses of beams with single openings had a larger scatter than the beams without
499
openings. Nevertheless, the tendencies are similar. Beam T29 with longer fibers did not result
in significantly higher capacities, but the cracking and failure behavior was improved. Test T31
with longer fibers will be tested soon and presented at the conference.
4 Summary and Outlook

Within the priority program funded by the German Research Foundation a total of sixty shear
tests were carried out. The effectiveness of the fibers was evident in beams 40 cm high and the
effect decreased with rising height. Further parameters like shear slenderness, prestressing,
openings or additional reinforcement were tested. The height and the web thickness were
varied in the last period, where a heavy impact of height was observed.
All tests were accompanied with finite element simulations to predict and to verify the test
results. The experimental and calculated results form the base for a calculation model for pretensioned UHPC beams with and without openings. The model will be presented at the
conference.
5 Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge the funding of the German Research Foundation.
References
[1] German Research Foundation, priority program (DFG SPP 1182), Nachhaltig Bauen mit UHPC
(Sustainable Construction with UHPC).
[2] Hegger, J.; Bertram, G.: Shear carrying capacity of steel fiber reinforced UHPC. Procee dings, 2nd
International Symposium on UHPC, Kassel, Germany in 2008, S. 513 520.
[3] Hegger, J.; Bertram, G.: Shear Carrying Capacity of Ultra-High Performance Concrete Beams.
Proceedings, International fib Symposium, Amsterdam, The Netherlands in 2008, S. 96 .
[4] Bertram, G.; Hegger, J.: Shear Carrying Capacity of Ultra-High Performance Concrete Beams.
[5] Bertram, G.; Hegger, J.: Pretensioned Concrete Beams made of Ultra-High Performance Concrete.
Proceedings, International fib Symposium, London, The United Kingdom in 2009, CD (Mon 16001730 D2).
[6] Bertram, G.; Hegger, J.: Pretensioned UHPC Beams with and without Openings. Proceedings,
SCC2010, Montreal, Canada, USB Stick: 1111-1118.
[7] Bertram, G.; Hegger, J.: Size Effects of Pretensioned Ultra-High Performance Concrete Beams.
Proceedings, 57th annual PCI convention and national bridge conference, Salt Lake City, US in
2011, in progress.
[8] Hegger, J.; Bertram, G.: Verbundverhalten von vorgespannten Litzen in UHPC - Teil 1: Versuche zur
Verbundfestigkeit und zur bertragungslnge (bond behavior of strands in UHPC part 1: tests on
bond strength and transfer length). In: Beton- und Stahlbeton 105 (2010), issue 6, p. 379 - 389.
[9] Bertram, G.; Hegger, J.: Verbundverhalten von vorgespannten Litzen in UHPC - Teil 2: Ableitung
eines Verbundmodells zur Berechnung der bertragungslnge (bond behavior of strands in UHPC
part 2: bond model derivation for the calculation of transfer lengths). In: Beton- und Stahlbeton 107
(2012), issue 1, print in progress.
[10] Bertram, G.; Hegger, J.: Bond Behavior of Strands in UHPC Tests and Design. Proceedings, 3rd
International Symposium on UHPC, Kassel, Germany in 2012, in progress.
[11] DAfStb-Richtlinie Stahlfaserbeton (guideline steel fiber reinforced concrete): Addition of DIN 1045-1
(German Design Code) and DIN EN 206-1. Scheduled for publishing in 2010.
[12] DIN 1045-1, German Design Code: Concrete, reinforced and prestressed concrete structures.
Berlin/Germany, 08.2008.
500
Experimental Investigations on UHPC Structural Elements

Subject to Pure Torsion
Ekkehard Fehling, Mohammed Ismail
In this paper, twelve UHPC beams with different combinations of steel fibers and traditional
reinforcement were experimentally investigated under pure torsion. Two types of steel fibers having
17mm length and 0.15mm diameter with volumetric ratios of (0.0, 0.5 and 0.9%) were used. The average
compressive strength of the reference UHPC standard cylinders was about 200 MPa.
The plain UHPC beams showed very brittle behavior. Meanwhile, the UHPC beams with steel fibers
showed a ductile behavior. It was found that the addition of longitudinal reinforcement alone to the steelfiber UHPC beams added much to the ductility and very little to the ultimate strength. The steel fibers
beyond a volumetric ratio of 0.9% together with the longitudinal reinforcement accomplished an effective
load carrying mechanism after cracking. Only the case of longitudinal and web reinforcement in addition
to steel fibers provided a very high increase both in ultimate torsion capacity and ductility.
Keywords: UHPC, torsion, steel fibers, ductility
1 Introduction:
Torsion appears in structural elements when the line of action of the shearing force does not
coincide with the shear center of the element. It appears, for example, in bridges, curved
structural elements and spandrel beams in buildings.
Ultra High Performance Concrete (UHPC) is characterized by a very high compressive
strength which may reach more than 200 MPa. The behavior of this material under tension and
compression actions has been established to be very brittle in nature. Discontinuous fibers
(normally steel fibers) are usually added to UHPC mix to introduce ductility.
UHPC attracted a lot of researchers in the last two decades to investigate its performance
under different load actions such as: tension [1], shear [2], [3], punching shear [4], bending
moment [5], biaxial loading [6], [7], biaxial compression [8], and multi-axial and fatigue [9].
However, until recently, almost no tests data about the performance of UHPC under torsion are
at hand.
As many UHPC structures - including bridges - have been already constructed worldwide,
this urges research to be done on this important field in order to understand the behavior of this
new structural material under torsion.
Principally, the deformation behavior and ultimate capacity of twelve UHPC beams with/out
steel fibers and with/out traditional reinforcement under pure torsion were investigated. The
detailed experimental plan is shown in table 1.
The test beams had square cross section and dimensions of (18cm18cm240cm) as shown
in figure 1, with extra enlarged reinforced ends of dimensions (28cm28cm) in cross section in
order to withstand the concentrated stresses due to load application at these areas and to
gradually transfer the stresses to the main tested part of the specimen. The tested part of the
beams had a length of 170 cm, see figure 1, except for the two beams UL(1.4)T(1.68)F1(0.5)
and UL(2.48)T(2.53)F1(0.5) where the tested part was reduced to a length of 95 cm because of
the limited deformation capability of the test setup. Reinforcement details for cross section A-A
for different beams are shown in table 1.
501
The parameters studied during the experimental program were: steel fiber type, steel fiber
volume, longitudinal reinforcement ratio and web reinforcement ratio. The varied steel fiber
volumetric ratios were (0.0, 0.5 and 0.9 %) and the varied longitudinal and web reinforcement
volumetric ratios were (0.0, 1.4, 2.48 %) and (0.0, 1.68 and 2.53 %) respectively.
Figure1: The original test beam (left), the modified test beam (right) (dimensions are in cms).
Table 1: The experimental program.
Group
No. of
beams
Fiber
vol.
%
Long. reinft.
L
Web reinft.
T
Code
UP
0.5
UPF1(0.5), UPF2(0.5)
0.9
UPF1(0.9)
0.5
412 mm, 1.4%
UL(1.4)F2(0.5)
0.5
416mm, 2.48%
UL(2.48)F1(0.5)
0.9
416mm, 2.48%
UL(2.48)F1(0.9)
0.5
412 mm, 1.4%
UL(1.4)F1(0.5)m
0.5
412 mm, 1.4%
8mm@45mm,
1.68%
UL(1.4)T(1.68)F1(0.5)
0.5
416mm, 2.48%
8mm@45mm,
1.68%
UL(2.48)T(1.68)F1(0.5)
0.5
416mm, 2.48%
8mm@30mm,
2.53%
UL(2.48)T(2.53)F1(0.5)
Cross section
(A-A)
Legend: U=UHPC, P=Plain concrete, L=Longitudinal reinforcement, T=Transverse reinforcement, F1,F2=Steel

fibers types, m=Longitudinal reinforcement in the middle of the cross sections sides, ( )=Volumetric ratio in %.
3 Materials
A fine-grained (maximum grain size of 0.5 mm) UHPC mix (M3Q) was used. This mix was
developed at the University of Kassel and was used as the reference mix in the priority program
(Sustainable construction with UHPC, SPP1182) of the German Research Foundation
(Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft DFG). It is considered as a further development of the
(M2Q) UHPC mix which is described in detail in (Feh, 2005). The (M3Q) mix proportions are
shown in table 2.
The consistency of the fresh UHPC was determined by slump tests executed immediately
after mixing. The resulted slump ranged between (70-80) cm.
502
For all the test beams, the average cylinder compressive strength was 205.37 MPa and the
average modulus of elasticity was 48000 MPa.
The reinforcing steel used was of the type Bst IV S with a yield strength of 570 MPa and an
ultimate strength of 630 MPa.
Two types of steel fibers (F1 and F2) having tensile strength of 2500 MPa and the same
dimensions, but different bond properties were used. The fiber length and diameter were 17mm
and 0.15mm respectively. To distinguish between the behavior of the steel fibers in the
hardened UHPC, axial tensile tests of notched UHPC prisms according to [1] having steel fiber
volumetric ratio of 0.5% and 0.9% have been conducted. Figure 2 shows the average stresscrack width diagrams for these tests, where it can be seen that the fracture energy of the steel
fibers F1 measured by the area under the stress crack width diagram is greater than that of the
other type F2. Hence, it can be concluded that the bond between the steel fiber F1 and the
UHPC is stronger than that between the steel fiber F2 and the UHPC.
Table 2: The used UHPC mix proportions (M3Q.)
Volume
(dm3)
Mass
(kg)
175
175
Cement
266.13
825.00
Silica fume
79.55
175.00
Superplasticizer
25.70
27.50
Ground Quartz
75.47
200.00
Sand 0.125/0.50
367.92
975.00
Component
Water
Water/Binder (0.19)
Steel fibers
(0.9 - 2.5 Vol. %)
fc,cyl (200 MPa)
Figure 2: Average axial tensile tests of notched
prisms for fibers F1 and F2.
4 Casting and treatment of the beams

The beams were cast in pairs together with the reference test specimens for the compression
and tension tests. A mixer with 400 l UHPC capacity was used, where the coarser materials
were added first followed by the finer materials. Steel fibers were added to the mix through a
sieve to insure that the fibers will not accumulate in bundles in the mix. The beams were
compacted using a vibrating table in order to keep the normal distribution of the fibers within the
mix. The room temperature of the laboratory and the temperature of the UHPC mix were
measured directly after mixing and were found to be between (17-20 and 26-30 degrees,
respectively) for all beams. After casting, the beams were left in forms for two days to harden,
then the forms were removed and the specimens were heat treated under 90 degrees Celsius
for two days.
5 The test setup

The test setup shown in figure (3) consists of several steel U-profiles connected together in a
way to facilitate the implementation of the torsion tests. It consists of four main components:
1- the rotating hinge at ''End 1'' of the beam, which is composed of two semi-circular UHPC
parts with a specific radius in cross section to allow for rotation about the cross sectional center
of the UHPC beams, 2- the fixed support at ''End 2'' and 3- the hydraulic cylinder which is
503
connected to the test setup by hinge connections, and 4- the strong floor of the laboratory to
which the whole setup was fixed.
6 The test procedure

As it is shown in figure 3, the load was applied at one end of the beam (End 1) by a manually
controlled hydraulic cylinder, while the other end (End 2) was fixed. The center of the beams
cross section at End 1 (point C) was fixed against movement but free in rotation by means of a
steel box profile attached horizontally to point C at one end and to a very stiff steel frame at the
other end. This fixing mechanism of point C prevented the introduction of any bending moment
to the beam. During the load application, the vertical position of the hydraulic cylinder was
monitored and maintained by means of a steel vice that was fixed below the hydraulic cylinder.
The hydraulic
cylinder
Fixed Support
Test beam
End 2
Stiff steel
frame
The steel
vice
Rotating hinge
End 1
Strong floor
Figure 3: The test setup for torsion.
The tests were conducted displacement controlled so as to get the full Load-Displacement
diagram including the post peak region. The tests were stopped at certain deformation stages
(angles of twist) to document the cracking behavior of the beams. These stages correspond to
angles of twist of (0.35, 0.85 Deg/m) for the second, the third and the fourth groups and (0.54,
1.32 and 3.37 Deg/m) for the fifth group of beams. The cracks pattern, their development,
lengths and widths were measured and documented.
7 Tests results
UHPC with/out steel fibers
Figure 4 shows the Load-Deflection diagrams of these beams, where the plain UHPC beams
(UP1 and UP2) showed very brittle behavior. They failed abruptly at the moment of reaching
their maximum tensile strength. No cracks were formed before failure.
The failure of the steel fiber UHPC beams: UPF1(0.5), UPF2(0.5) and UPF1(0.9) was
initiated by continuous widening of a single crack due to fiber pull out from the UHPC matrix.
The steel fiber UHPC beams UPF1(0.5) and UPF1(0.9) showed a different cracking behavior
than that of the plain UHPC beams. After reaching the UHPC tensile strength, few cracks
504
developed before a localized failure at one crack location happened. As for all the tested
beams, the cracks were initiated at the middle of the cross sectional walls, then propagated
inclined to the longitudinal axis of the beam to circulate around the beam walls. The initial
cracks were very narrow in widths, where they begun at widths of about (0.03-0.05) mm. Table
3 shows a summary of the cracking behavior of the steel fiber UHPC beams at the
aforementioned deformation stages. While the UHPC beam UPF1(0.9) showed more cracks
before failure than the UPF1(0.5) beam, the UHPC beam UPF2(0.5) however, did not show
cracking before failure. This can be attributed to the weaker bond strength of this type of steel
fibers (F2) in comparison with the other type (F1), which in turn affects the crack bridging
mechanism of the fibers. The UPF1(0.9) beam showed smaller average crack widths than the
other beams in this group.
Figure 4 shows that for the same type of steel fibers, the higher the steel fibers volumetric
ratio in the mix, the higher the cracking torsion, the ultimate torsion, the stiffness after cracking,
the toughness and the ductility of the Load-Deflection diagram.
Figure 4: Torsion tests results for UHPC

beams with/out fibers.
Figure 5: Torsion tests results for UHPC beams

with steel fibers and longitudinal bars.
Table 3: Cracking behavior of the steel fiber UHPC beams.
Beam deformation stage 1: Angle of twist = 0.35 Deg/m

Beam Code
Crack width (mm)
Crack angle (Degrees)
Average No.
of cracks/m
Min
Max
Average
Min
Max
Average
UPF1(0.5)
0.05
0.15
0.081
43
50
46.4
UPF1(0.9)
0.03
0.12
0.065
40
57
46.4
UPF2(0.5)
Only one crack was developed
44

UPF1(0.5)
0.05
0.54
43
52
46.65
UPF1(0.9)
0.04
2.3
0.22
43
57
46.82
UPF2(0.5)
Only one crack was developed
44
Table 3 shows that the addition of steel fibers did not cause much deviation of the cracking
angles from 45 degrees, where their values ranged between 40-57 degrees, but the average
values of these angles were around 45 degrees. This may be due to the random distribution of
505
the steel fibers within the mix. Addition of the steel fibers had essentially no influence on the
elastic torsional stiffness.
UHPC beams with steel fibers and longitudinal bars
This group of beams showed much ductile failure than the steel fibers UHPC beams as shown
in figure 5. Failure of these beams was initiated by the continuous widening of more than one
crack, where the final failure was due to yielding of the longitudinal reinforcement and pull out of
the steel fibers from the UHPC matrix.
These beams showed in general intensive cracking before failure as shown in table 4. The
intensity of cracks was directly proportional to the volumetric ratios of the steel fibers and the
longitudinal reinforcement. The cracks were uniformly distributed along the length of the beams
and closely spaced, while those of the steel fibers UHPC beams were non-uniformly distributed
but rather congested in a cracking zone. This may be attributed to the different load resistance
mechanisms of the two types of reinforcements: the fibers act locally, while the bar
reinforcements behave globally.
In comparison with the steel fiber UHPC beams, the addition of longitudinal reinforcement
alone with little steel fiber content (0.5%) added much to the torsional ductility and very little to
the ultimate torsional capacity. Only beyond a steel fiber content of (0.9%), the increase in the
ultimate torsion was significant as shown in the results of the UL(2.48)F1(0.9) beam. This
reflects the ability of the steel fibers beyond a certain volumetric ratio to accomplish an effective
load carrying mechanism together with the longitudinal bar reinforcement after cracking.
The UL(1.4)F2(0.5) beam showed better performance than that of the UL(1.4)F1(0.5)m. It is
to be concluded that placing the longitudinal bar reinforcement at the corners of the cross
section provides more efficient arrangement and enhances the behavior of the beam under both
the serviceability and ultimate limit states. This arrangement is shown to provide better
confinement to the UHPC core and hence prevents excessive cracking and loss of stiffness.
Table 4: Cracking behavior of the UHPC beams with steel fibers and longitudinal reinforcement.

Average
No. of
cracks/m
Min
Max
Average
Min
Max
Average
UL(1.40)F1(0.5)m
0.03
0.15
0.076
40
60
51.00
UL(1.40)F2(0.5)
0.05
0.30
0.080
45
72
55.13
UL(2.48)F1(0.5)
0.03
0.18
0.050
43
75
56.30
UL(2.48)F1(0.9)
0.03
0.12
0.040
43
62
51.54
Beam Code
Crack width (mm)

UL(1.40)F1(0.5)m
12
0.03
0.53
0.094
38
65
50.46
UL(1.40)F2(0.5)
0.05
0.35
0.085
45
72
52.20
UL(2.48)F1(0.5)
12
0.03
0.18
0.075
41
75
53.60
UL(2.48)F1(0.9)
14
0.03
0.19
0.065
40
62
47.93

UL(1.40)F1(0.5)m
16
0.01
1.94
0.154
33
65
49,67
UL(1.40)F2(0.5)
16
0.05
1.80
0.122
35
72
48.97
UL(2.48)F1(0.5)
24
0.03
1.50
0.128
33
75
49.56
UL(2.48)F1(0.9)
32
0.03
0.67
0.094
35
62
45.12
506
UHPC beams with steel fibers, longitudinal and web reinforcement

The Load-Deformation diagrams of the UHPC beams in this group are shown in figure 6. Unlike
that for all other beams, the increase in the ultimate torsion and ductility for this group of beams
was significant. Failure occurred after very intensive cracking by continuous widening of more
than one crack. The cracking behavior and pattern of these beams are documented in table 5.
The cracking documentation was carried out at the following deformation stages: (0.54, 1.32
and 3.37 Deg/m) in order to cover a wide range of the beams deformations.
The average number of cracks per meter, the minimum, maximum and average crack widths
and the minimum, maximum and average cracking angles in the three stage of deformation for
the beams in this group show very close values. This means that while the steel fiber volumetric
ratio is constant, increasing the reinforcement ratios in the beams beyond certain values has
very little effect on the cracking behavior and pattern.
Figure 6: Torsion tests results for UHPC beams with steel fibers
longitudinal and web reinforcements.
Table 5: Cracking behavior of the UHPC beams with steel fibers, longitudinal and web reinforcement.

Average
No. of
cracks/m
Min
Max
Average
Min
Max
Average
UL(1.40)T(1.68)F1(0.5)
13
0.01
0.13
0.049
34
69
50.21
UL(2.48)T(1.68)F1(0.5)
11
0.01
0.11
0.045
27
63
46.70
UL(2.48)T(2.53)F1(0.5)
0.03
0.10
0.054
29
70
46.76
Beam Code
Crack width (mm)

UL(1.40)T(1.68)F1(0.5)
25
0.01
0.17
0.054
34
69
48.17
UL(2.48)T(1.68)F1(0.5)
25
0.02
0.15
0.050
27
63
45.35
UL(2.48)T(2.53)F1(0.5)
26
0.03
0.21
0.064
29
70
46.17

UL(1.40)T(1.68)F1(0.5)
45
0.02
0.48
0.128
31
70
47.39
UL(2.48)T(1.68)F1(0.5)
47
0.02
0.46
0.120
27
63
44.37
UL(2.48)T(2.53)F1(0.5)
47
0.03
0.45
0.122
29
70
44.92
507
The absolute maximum and the maximum of the average crack widths for the first, second and
third stages of deformation for these beams are 0.13, 0.21, 0.48 mm and 0.054, 0.064, 0.128
mm respectively. So, at about 70% of the ultimate torsion, the maximum and average crack
widths are about 0.48 and 0.128 mm respectively. This confirms the high durability of the
reinforced steel fiber UHPC.
Figure 6 shows that increasing the steel reinforcement ratio of any type, whether longitudinal
or transverse, increases the ductility, toughness and post cracking stiffness, but the maximum
increase of these factors happens only when both the longitudinal and transverse reinforcement
have been increased together.
8 Conclusions
1. Addition of steel fibers to the plain UHPC beams increased both the cracking and
ultimate torsion capacity and added torsional ductility, post cracking stiffness and
toughness to the beams.
2. As the steel fiber volumetric ratio in the mix increases, the average number of cracks per
meter increases as well, yet having smaller average crack widths. The initial cracks were
very small in width, they begun at widths of about (0.01- 0.05) mm.
3. The addition of longitudinal reinforcement to the steel fiber UHPC beams with little steel
fiber volume enhanced very much the stiffness after cracking, the toughness and the
ductility of the beams but the resulted increase in the ultimate torsion was marginal. The
most significant increase of these factors happens only when both the longitudinal and
transverse reinforcement increased together.
4. The distribution and orientation of the steel fibers within the UHPC matrix when
combined with traditional reinforcement may influence the average inclination of cracks.
References
[1] Leutbecher, T.: Rissbildung und Zugtragverhalten von mit Fasern und Stabstahl bewehrtem
Ultrahochfesten Beton (UHPC), PhD Dissertation, Kassel 2008.
[2 Fehling, E.; Schmidt, M.; Teichmann, T.; Bunje, K.; Bornemann, R.; Middendorf, B.: Entwicklung,
Dauerhaftigkeit und Berechnung Ultra-Hochfester Betone (UHPC), Research report (DFG FE
497/1-1), Kassel 2005.
[3] Fehling, E.; Thiemicke, J.: Shear bearing behavior of ultra high performance concrete (UHPC), fib
Symposium, Prague 2011.
[4] Harris, D. K.; Roberts-Wollmann, C. L.: Characterization of Punching Shear Capacity of Thin UltraHigh Performance Concrete Slabs. Proc. Second International Symposium on Ultra High
Performance Concrete P. 727- 734, Kassel 2008.
[5] Fehling, E.; Strwald, S.: Zum Tragverhalten von UHPC mit einer Kombination aus Faser- und
Stabstahlbewehrung unter Biegebeanspruchung, Arbeitsbericht zum Forschungsvorhaben Fe
497/4-2. 2009.
[6] Fehling, E.; Leutbecher, T.; Rder, F.-K.: Structural behaviour of normal strength and ultra high
strength reinforced concrete with and without fibres under biaxial loading; Recent Developments in
Structural Engineering, Mechanics and Computation. P. 557-558, Rotterdam 2007.
[7] Fehling, E.; Leutbecher, T.; Rder, F.-K.; Strwald, S.: Structural behavior of UHPC under biaxial
loading. Proc. Second International Symposium on Ultra High Performance Concrete. P. 569-576,
Kassel 2008.
[8] Curbach, M.; Speck, K.: Ultra High Performance Concrete under Biaxial Compression. Proc. Second
International Symposium on Ultra High Performance Concrete. P. 477-484, Kassel 2008.
[9] Grnberg, J.; Lohaus, L.; Ertel, C.; Wefer, M.: Multi-Axial and Fatigue Behaviour of ultra-highperformance concrete (UHPC). Proc. Second International Symposium on Ultra High Performance
Concrete, Kassel 2008.
508
Torsional Test of Ultra High Performance Fiber-Reinforced

Concrete Square Members
Changbin Joh1, Jungwoo Lee1, In-Hwan Yang2, Byung-Suk Kim1
1: Structural Engineering Research Division, Korea Institute of Construction Technology, Korea
2: Dept. of Civil Engineering, Kunsan National University, Korea
The torsional behavior of Ultra High Performance Fiber-Reinforced Concrete (UHPFRC) members has
not been fully investigated yet. As a result, UHPFRC design recommendations of AFGC/SETRA and
JSCE recommend a designer to use the torsional design method of reinforced concrete, so-called thinwalled tube theory that does not consider the contribution of concrete in tension after cracking. This
paper reports the torsional test of UHPFRC square members with different reinforcement details. The
results showed that the UHPFRC member even with no rebar did not lose its torsional strength after
cracking due to the ductility of UHPFRC, and others also showed ductile behavior. Comparison of test
results with the modified thin-walled tube theory that considers the tensile strength of UHPFRC showed
that the modified theory seems to be reasonable to estimate the cracking torque and torsional strength of
UHPFRC members.
Keywords: ultra high performance fiber-reinforced concrete, torsional strength, skew bending theory
1 Introduction
Ultra High Performance Fiber-Reinforced Concrete (UHPFRC) has higher tensile strength and
ductility than normal concrete, which makes it possible to design UHPFRC members with
reduced amount of reinforcement. The studies on the flexural and shear behavior of UHPFRC
show that the UHPFRC girder can be designed without conventional stirrups in the web [1] and
the longitudinal reinforcement required to resist the flexural moment can be reduced remarkably
[2]. As a result, together with very high compressive strength, it is possible to design slender,
light and economical UHPFRC structures. However, this advantage might pale into significance
due to the little studies on torsional behavior of UHPFRC.
UHPFRC design recommendations by AFGC/SETRA and JSCE have no torsional design
method that considers the high tensile strength and ductility of UHPFRC [3, 4]. Instead, they
recommend a designer to use the torsional design method of reinforced concrete, so-called
thin-walled tube theory that does not consider the contribution of concrete in tension after
cracking [5]. Therefore, if the applied torque is greater than a quarter of the cracking torque of a
member, all the tension from the applied torque should be resisted by the stirrups and
longitudinal rebars. This probably requires unnecessary stirrups and longitudinal rebars for the
UHPFRC members, which diminishes the advantage of UHPFRC.
Thus, a different design procedure is required to estimate the torsional behavior of UHPFRC
members. The torsional resistance of the UHPFRC member will not drop suddenly after initial
cracking. It will increase or at least maintain the strength even after cracking due to the ductility
from the bridging action of steel fibers. Consequently, the torsional strength of the UHPFRC
member will be higher than the strength estimated by the thin-walled tube theory based on the
behavior of reinforced concrete members.
This paper reports the currently finished part of torsional test of UHPFRC square members to
understand their torsional behavior. Three UHPFRC square members with same cross section
but with different reinforcement details were subjected to pure torsion. The cracking torque and
torsional strength were investigated experimentally. The different torsional behavior compared
to the reinforced concrete member was carefully observed. In addition, this paper modified the
509
thin-walled tube theory to incorporate the tensile strength of UHPFRC and examines its
applicability to the torsional design of UHPFRC members.
2 Torsional test of UHPFRC members

UHPFRC composition and material properties
The UHPFRC composition developed by KICT (Table 1) was used for all UHPFRC test
specimens. The steel fibers differ only in length (L= 19.5 mm and 16.3 mm) were used 1% each.
The diameter of steel fibers was 0.2 mm and the tensile strength of the steel fiber was 2500
MPa. All UHPFRC specimens were steam cured for 72 hours at 90 degree after 24-hour curing
at room temperature.
Table 1: UHPFRC composition developed by KICT (by weight except for fibers).
W/B
Cement
Silica
fume
Sand
Filling
powder
Super
plasticizer
Steel Fiber ( f )
0.2
0.25
1.1
0.3
0.016
1% (L=16.3 mm)+
1% (L=19.5 mm)
Material tests were done to understand the compressive and tensile behaviors of UHPFRC
itself. Cylindrical specimens (diameter = 100 mm, height = 200 mm) were used for compression
tests. The UHPFRC tensile specimens (Fig. 1) with notches were tested using the UTM with the
capacity of 250 kN (Fig. 2). Clip gauges were attached to the notches to measure the crack
opening.
Unit: mm
Figure 1: Tensile test specimen with notches.
Figure 2: Tensile test setup for UHPFRC.
Table 2 shows test results of compressive and tensile strengths for each specimen.
Compressive strength is 184 MPa in average and tensile strength is 14.1 MPa in average.
UHPFRC specimems
All test specimens were 3.0 m long to accommodate the test setup in the laboratory, having a
square cross section of 300 mm by 300 mm (Table 2, Fig. 3). The cover thickness of 35 mm
was used considering the length of the longer fiber. Test specimen was composed of 3 regions;
a test region (1,600 mm) and two end regions (700 mm each). The end regions were reinforced
with additional stirrups to allow for failure to occur in the test region.
Test parameters were stirrups and longitudinal rebars. The specimen SS-F2-L00-S00 was to
investigate the torsional behavior of UHPFRC only. There was no reinforcement in the test
region. The other two specimens had reinforcement. The specimen SS-F2-L88-S00 had 4
longitudinal rebars at each corner of the cross section. D16 bars were used. This specimen was
510
to represent the reinforced UHPFRC girders without stirrups. The specimen SS-F2-L88-S35
had both longitudinal rebars and torsional stirrups. D16 and D10 bars were used for longitudinal
rebars and stirrups respectively. The spacing of the torsional stirrups was chosen in such a way
that at least one of the stirrups passes through the assumed inclined cracks of 45 degree. The
yield strength of rebars was 450 MPa for all specimens
Each specimen was made from a different mixing with same composition. The average
compressive and tensile strengths measured from the material tests explained in the previous
section are shown in Table 2.
Table 2: UHPFRC specimens for torsional test.
Specimen
Longitudinal
reinforcement
Compressive
Ultimate tensile
strength in Avg. strength in Avg.
(MPa)
(MPa)
As (%)
Torsional stirrups
Rebar
As (%)
Rebar
SS-F2-L00-S00
0.00
0.00
192
14.6
SS-F2-L88-S00
4D16
0.88
0.00
178
13.3
SS-F2-L88-S35
4D16
0.88
D10@200mm
0.35
184
14.3
Figure 3: Test specimens and reinforcement details.
511
Test setup
Details of the test setup for pure torsion are shown in Fig. 4. One of the ends was a rotational
one with axially movable arc bearing (Fig. 4 (b)) and the other was a fixed one (Fig. 4(c)). The
test specimen was clamped at both ends against rotation using steel frames. The arc bearing
allowed axial deformation of the specimen during the test.
A 1,000 kN hydraulic actuator was used to apply the load near the rotational end. The load
had an 800 mm lever arm from the centroidal axis of the specimen. The length of the lever arm
was chosen as same with the radius of rotation (800 mm). The load was introduced in
displacement control mode (0.1 mm/sec).
An aluminium frame was attached to the end of test region with a displacement transducer to
measure the rotation of the cross section of the specimen. At the rotational end, a tiltmeter was
also installed to measure rotation. In addition, to measure axial deformation, two displacement
transducers were installed at both ends of the specimen (Fig. 4(b) and 4(c)). The electric strain
gages were mounted on the stirrups and longitudinal rebars.
(a) Test setup for pure torsion

Figure 4: Test setup.
(b) Rotational end.
(c) Fixed end.
3 Test results and analysis

Torsional Behavior
Fig. 5 shows the applied torque-rotation relationship of three tested specimens. Initial torsional
stiffness and cracking torque were similar in each test, but, after initial cracking, the specimens
showed different behaviors according to their reinforcement details.
Figure 5:. Torque-angle of rotation relationship.
512
The crack pattern and failure of the SS-F2-L00-S00 that had no reinforcement are shown in Fig.
6. Initial cracks occurred near 79.1 kNm with the rotation of 0.0153 rad/m (Fig. 6(a)). After initial
cracks, additional cracks near the initial cracks were formed and, in spite of no reinforcement,
the specimen could take additional torque up to 88.5 kNm with the rotation of 0.0183 rad/m.
After exceeding ultimate torque, the specimen begun to soften as one of cracks started to open
(Fig. 6(b)). At the 0.025 rad/m, the specimen lost its torsional strength abruptly.
It should be noted that the torsional behavior of the SS-F2-L00-S00 is quite different from the
typical torsional behavior of unreinforced concrete members. It did not fail abruptly after initial
cracks as expected from the unreinforced concrete member.
(a) at the peak (79.1 kNm)

(b) at 0.025 rad/m (44.8 kNm)
Figure 6: Crack pattern and failure of SS-F2-L00-S00.
(c) at the ultimate rotation (0.03 rad/m)
Fig. 7 illustrates the crack pattern and failure of the SS-F2-L88-S00 that had longitudinal rebars
only. Initial cracks occurred at 87.2 kNm with the rotation of 0.0137 near the end zone, instead
of the designated test zone (Fig. 7(a)). However, as the load increased, additional cracks
started to form around the test zone (Fig. 7(b)). The torsional strength was about 95.1 kNm with
rotation of 0.016 rad/m, and the strength was maintained until the rotation reached 0.0315
rad/m. After the rotation of 0.0315 rad/m, the specimen showed softening behavior with
additional crack formations and opening one of cracks (Fig. 7(c)).
(a) at the initial crack (87.2 kNm) (b) at 0.015 rad/m (90.4 kNm)
(c) at 0.036 rad/m (opposite side)
Similar to the SS-F2-L88-S00, the initial cracks of the SS-F2-L88-S35 occurred at 88 kNm with
the rotation of 0.0162 in the end zone (Fig. 8(a)). However, different from the specimen with
longitudinal rebars only (SS-F2-L88-S00), this specimen that had longitudinal rebars and
stirrups showed hardening with multiple cracks as the load increased (Fig. 8(b)). The torsional
strength was about 114.7 kNm with rotation of 0.046 rad/m. After exceeding ultimate torque, a
softening behavior followed with additional crack formations and opening of the leading crack
similar to the other specimens. (Fig. 8(c)).
(a) at the initial crack (88.0 kNm). (b) at 0.031 rad/m (104 kNm).
(c) at 0.054 rad/m.
Modified thin-walled tube theory to consider the tensile strength of UHPFRC

To apply the thin-walled tube theory to UHPFRC members with a solid cross section, it is
necessary to define the equivalent thin-walled tube. Similarly to the thin-walled tube theory of
reinforced concrete beams [5], after cracking, an UHPFRC rectangular beam subjected to pure
torsion can be idealized as shown in Fig. 9. The resistance to torsion comes from outer
513
UHPFRC skin, stirrups and longitudinal rebars. The UHPFRC diagonals are at an angle ,
generally taken as 45 degree for non prestressed beams. The applied torque ( ) is divided into
and ). The area enclosed by a line around the
four shear forces along the wall ( , ,
equivalent tube at the mid thickness of the wall (
) can be decided empirically.
Figure: Thin-walled tube analogy for UHPFRC rectangular beams.
Figure 10: Portion of vertical side of space truss. Figure 11: Resolution of shear force in side 2 of space truss.
Nominal torsional strength ( ) can be derived from the equilibrium of forces in the idealized
thin-walled tube (Fig. 9). The shear force due to the torque in a vertical side of tube,
is
(1)
The portion of torque,
can be resisted by the forces of stirrups and the vertical component of
tensile force at the cracked UHPFRC surface. Assuming all the stirrups yield and UHPFRC
reaches tensile strength at the ultimate limit state (Fig. 10), the force equilibrium in the vertical
direction gives
(2)
where is the tensile strength of UHPFRC, is the thickness of the idealized thin-walled tube,
is the stirrups spacing, and
and
are the area and yield strength of stirrups respectively.
Substituting the value of
strength is
from Eq. (2) and taking
equals to
, the nominal torsional

(3)
where
and
are nominal torsional strengths resisted by stirrups and UHPFRC
respectively.
It is worthy to note that Eq. (3) becomes the nominal torsional strength for reinforced
concrete members if the tensile strength of UHPFRC is not considered (
=0). This theory
514
incorporates the tensile strength of UHPFRC in the torsional strength, which reduces the
amount of shear stirrups required to resist the applied torque.
The area of longitudinal rebars required to resist ,
can be calculated by considering the
equilibrium of horizontal forces on all four sides of the tube (Fig. 11). The detailed derivation is
omitted because similar derivation is in the reference [5]. As a result,
is given by Eq. (4).
(4)
where,
is the perimeter of
, and
is the yield strength of longitudinal rebars.
Again similarly to the thin-walled tube theory of reinforced concrete beams, although the tube
analogy is less obvious before cracking, Eq. (5) is used to predict the cracking torque ( ) to
maintain the consistency of the theory.
(5)
where,
is the cracking strength of UHPFRC.
Table 3 and 4 provide the comparison of the cracking torque and torsional strength of tested
specimens with the estimation based on the modified theory. In the estimation, similarly to the
ACI code, is assumed to be 45 degree, and the thickness of idealized tube ( and
are
respectively (
assumed to be
and
and
are the area and perimeter of
the uncracked UHPFRC section). Considering the ductile behavior of UHPFRC and simplicity,
the same and
are used for the estimation of both cracking torque and torsional strength,
although the ACI code recommends different and
for each. Little research is available for
the effect of biaxial stress tension-compression condition on the tensile behavior of UHPFRC.
But similar research on steel fiber reinforced concrete showed that this effect is negligible [6].
Based on this result, the biaxial effect is ignored.
Table 3: Comparison of test results with the estimated cracking torque based on the modified theory.
Specimen
mm
Tcr,cal
Tcr,test
mm
MPa
kNm
kNm
Tcr,cal/
Tcr,test
SS-F2-L00-S00
60000
56.25
13.5
91.1
79.1
1.15
SS-F2-L88-S00
60000
56.25
11.2
75.6
87.2
0.87
SS-F2-L88-S35
60000
56.25
11.7
79.0
88.0
0.90
Avg.
0.97
Table 4: Comparison of test results with the estimated torsional strength based on the modified theory.
Calculated
Ts
TUHPFRC
Specimen
= 45
Tu,test
Tn,cal/
Tu,test
mm2
mm
MPa
mm2
Mm
MPa
kNm
kNm
kNm
SS-F2-L00-S00
60000
56.25
14.6
0.0
N/A
450
0.0
98.2
88.5
1.11
SS-F2-L88-S00
60000
56.25
13.3
0.0
N/A
450
0.0
89.8
95.1
0.94
SS-F2-L88-S35
60000
56.25
14.3
71.3
200
450
19.3
96.8
114.7
1.01
Avg.
1.02
For cracking torque, the modified theory returns reasonable values between 115.0% and 87%
of the actual cracking torque (in average, 97%). For torsional strength, this theory returns a little
bit more accurate values between 111% and 94% of the actual strength (in average, 102%)
compared to the estimation of the cracking torque. This result also indicates that the thin-walled
tube theory for reinforced concrete members cannot be applied to the UHPFRC members (see
515
Ts). It is should be noted that considering the tensile strength of UHPFRC makes the modified
theory applicable to the UHPFRC members even with no reinforcement or stirrups.
The area of required longitudinal rebars ( ) is estimated using Eq. (4). The result shows that
the specimens without stirrups (SS-F2-L00-S00 and SS-F2-L88-S00) do not need torsional
longitudinal rebars, and the specimen with stirrups (SS-F2-L88-S35) needs longitudinal
reinforcement of 350 mm2 (only 44% of the actually used in the specimen).
As a result, although the result of only three tests is not enough to reach a definite
conclusion, the modified theory seems to work reasonably to estimate the torsional behavior of
UHPFRC members. Additional tests in progress will be used to verify this theory thoroughly and
to find more reasonable and .
4 Conclusion
This paper studied the torsional test of UHPFRC square members to understand their torsional
behavior. Based on the result, the following conclusions may be drawn.
The UHPFRC specimens with no reinforcement did not lose its torsional strength after
cracking due to the ductility of UHPFRC, and the UHPFRC specimen with longitudinal rebars
only also showed a ductile behavior. Those are different from the behavior of ordinary
reinforced concrete members. The UHPFRC specimens with longitudinal rebars and stirrups
showed hardening after cracking.
Comparison of test results with the modified thin-walled tube theory that considers the tensile
strength of UHPFRC showed that the modified theory seems to be reasonable to estimate the
cracking torque and torsional strength of UHPFRC members with/without torsional
reinforcement. Since the number of tests is limited and more analyses on many parameters are
required, additional tests in progress will be used to verify the modified theory more completely.
5 Acknowledgement
References
[1] Joh, C.; Lee, W; Yang, I. H.; Kim, B.: Shear test of Ultra High Performance Concrete girders without
stirrups. Proc. 9th International Symposium on High Performance Concrete, Rotorua, New Zealand
2011.
[2] Yang, I. H.; Joh, C.; Kim, B.: Structural behavior of Ultra High Performance Concrete beams
subjected to bending. Engineering Structures 32, pp.3478-3487, 2010.
[3] AFGC/SETRA: Ultra High Performance Fibre-Reinforced Concretes Interim Recommendations.
AFGC/SETRA, 2002.
[4] Japan Society of Civil Engineers (JSCE): Recommendations for design and construction of ultrahigh strength fiber reinforced concrete structures (draft). JSCE, 2004.
[5] MacGregor, J. G.; Ghoneim, M. G.: Design for torsion. ACI Structural Journal 92 (2), pp.211-218,
1995.
[6] Demeke, A.; Tegos, I. A.: Steel fiber reinforced concrete in biaxial stress tension-compression
conditions. ACI Structural Journal 91 (5), pp.579-584, 1994.
516

Martin Empelmann, Vincent Oettel
Institute for Building Materials, Concrete Construction and Fire Protection (iBMB), TU Braunschweig , Germany
The following paper will give an overview of torsion tests carried out on seven box girders constructed
with Ultra-High Performance Fibre Reinforced Concrete (UHPFRC). The bearing and cracking behaviour
of the box girders were investigated to understand the performance of this members under pure torsion
and under the combined loading of torsion moments and normal forces. Additionally, the experimental
results were compared with design equations for conventional reinforced concrete box girders based on
the space truss model.
Keywords: UHPFRC box girdes, torsion, steel fibers, space truss model, tension strut, concrete strut
1 Introduction
The achievable compression strength of UHPFRC as well as the enormous durability gives
engineers the possibility to design and construct innovative thin-walled elements, which are
weight-optimized and advantageous in regard to transport and installation on site. Under
loadings such components are not only stressed by bending and shear, but also torsion. In this
context, box girders are more favourable than rectangular or I-shaped cross sections with
regard to the torsional stiffness.
Currently, the design check for the torsional bearing capacity of UHPFRC components is
neither regulated in DAfStb-Heft 561 Sachstandsbericht Ultrahochfester Beton [1] nor in
DAfStb-Richtlinie Stahlfaserbeton [2]. Therefore, experimental and theoretical studies on
monolithic and segmental UHPFRC box girders were conducted at the iBMB of the TU
Braunschweig within the third funding period of the priority program SPP 1182 of the German
Research Society (DFG) [3].
2 Materials
The concrete mix used for the test specimens is based on the concrete composition called M3Q
of the priority programm [3] and summarized in Table 1. In order to ascertain the influence of
the steel fibers on the loading capacity the percentage volume fraction of steel fibers was
varied.
Table 1: Concrete composition M3Q.
Material [kg/m]
M3Q (0.00 vol.-%)
M3Q (1.25 vol.-%)
M3Q (2.50 vol.-%)
cement CEM I 52,5R HS-NA
795
785
775
silica fume
169
166
164
superplasticizer
24
24
23
quartz flour
198
196
193
quarz sand 0.125/0.5
971
959
946
98
196
188
186
183
straight steel fiber 13.0/0.19

water
The test specimens were reinforced with longitudinal and transverse reinforcement, composed
of deformed bars with diameters 8 mm and 12 mm of steel grade BSt 500 S.
517
3 Test Specimens and Test Setup

The geometry of the test specimens is shown in Figure 1. Each girder was sized 50 cm x 50 cm
x 335 cm with a wall thickness of 5 cm in the mid span. At the ends of the girders the wall
thickness was increased to 12 cm in order to reduce the effects of local stresses from the
supports and the loading equipment and to produce the torsional failure modes in the middle
region. Additionally, a higher percentage of longitudinal and transverse reinforcement was
placed at the girders ends. Table 2 gives the details of the chosen longitudinal and transversal
reinforcement in the middle region. To secure the concrete cover of 1.0 cm, selfmade UHPFRC
spacers were used.
Figure 1: Plan and section view of box girder specimens.
Test specimen V8 was constructed as a segmental girder using the concept of match casting in
order to study the effects of a prestressed dry joint. In order to compare the test results, V8 was
reinforced just as test specimens V6 and V7, with the difference that the longitudinal
reinforcement ( 8 mm in each corner) could not cross the joints.
Table 2: Box girder specimen details.
type
longitudinal
reinforcement
transverse
reinforcenment
fiber content
[vol.-%]
concrete cover
[cm]
V1
monolithic
2.50
V2
monolithic
1.25
V3
monolithic
12 12
12 / 21
1.25
1.0
V4
monolithic
12 12
12 / 21
0.00
1.0
V6
monolithic
4 8
12d / 11
1.25
1.0
V7
monolithic
4 8
12d / 11
1.25
1.0
V8
segmental
4 8 *)
12d / 11
1.25
1.0
Specimen
*) each segment.
518
Figure 2: Overall test setup.
All specimens were tested with both ends of the girder being rotated by stiff twist arms as
illustrated in Figure 2 and 3. Special torsion bearings were used to ensure free rotation around
the center line of the box girder. The load was recorded by means of a measuring box fixed
upon the hydraulic cylinder. The rotation was measured by inductive displacement transducers
under the girders. Furthermore, a grid sized 12.5 cm x 12.5 cm was drawn on the front, back
and upper side of the test specimens to facilitate the crack measurements. The box girders
were tested at incremental load stages so that the cracking could be observed in detail for each
load stage. The direction of the principal stresses was measured with sixteen 3-element rosette
strain gauges placed on the four sides of the specimen. Furthermore, strain gauges were
applied on the longitudinal and transverse reinforcement.
Figure 3: Test setup section view.
The test specimens V1 V4 were loaded with a torsion moment purely; V6 V8 received a
combined loading of torsion moment and normal force. The normal force was applied with a
unbounded tendon, which was installed in the center line of the girders and fixed at the end of
the girders. To assure that the tendon is not participating in the load transfer, axial spherical
plain bearings were arranged. The normal force was measured using strain gauges on the
tendon.
519
Investigations on the Tension Strut
Test Results
As explained in Chapter 3, the test specimens V1 V4 were loaded with pure torsion. The test
specimens V1 and V2 without reinforcement, but different fiber content, showed linear-elastic
torque-twist-curves and both failed after a few, single cracks which occurred nearly at the same
ultimate load. In contrast, the test specimens V3 and V4 presented a further load increase after
the first cracks and an announced failure mode. Figure 4 shows the torque-twist-responses and
the cracking patterns of the specimens V2 V4.
250
225
Torque T [kNm]
200
175
150
125
100
V2
75
V3
50
V4
25
0
0,0
0,5
1,0
1,5
2,0
Twist u [/m]
2,5
3,0
Figure 4: Torque-twist-response (left) and cracking patterns upper side (right) of the test specimens V2 V4.
The detailed investigation of the torque-twist-response of test specimen V4 (conventionally

reinforced with fiber content 0.00 vol.-%) shows three distinct phases: pre-cracking phase,
transition phase and post-cracking phase, which is quite similar to a torque-twist-response of a
normal strength concrete box girder without fibers. Although specimen V4 was designed for
transverse reinforcement failure and the transverse reinforcenment started to yield in the last
load stage, the concrete failed suddenly and separated the box girder into two pieces.
In comparison, test specimen V3 (same longitunal and transverse reinforcement as V4, but
fiber content of 1.25 vol.-%) shows a different torque-twist-behaviour. Here, only two
characteristic phases can be observed: pre-cracking phase and a combination of transition
phase and post-cracking phase. Furthermore, V3 reached a higher ultimate torsional strength,
which was induced by the failure of the transverse reinforcement. This follows to the conclusion
that the addition of fibers improved the stiffness after cracking and the ultimate torque. It can
also be observed, that the cracking torque is influenced by the addition of fibers.
For all test specimens V1 V4 the inclination angle of the cracks was about 45. The
addition of steel fibres resulted into smaller crack widths and a higher number of cracks in V3
compared to V4 (Table 3). Futhermore, due to the presence of steel fibres no spalling of the
concrete cover was obtained during the testing of V1, V2 and V3.
Table 3: Test results of tested box girders V1 V4.
cracking torque
[kNm]
ultimate torque
[kNm]
failure
[-]
crack width *)
[mm]
crack spacing
[cm]
V1
95.0
100.9
fibers
V2
87.5
91.6
fibers
V3
75.0
216.0
stirrup
0.3
17
V4
37.5
122.5
concrete
0.8
3 13
Specimen
*) crack width at T = 120 kNm.
520
Theoretical Investigation
As shown in Figure 4, the fiber-reinforced test specimens V1 and V2 could only be stressed up
to the cracking torsion moment. The maximum principal tensile stress is equal to the axial
tensile strength fctm, respectively to the shear stress resulting from the torsion (Figure 5). For
such box girders the torsional resistance can be determined with the following equation:
TRk,sy,f = fctm teff 2 Ak
(1)
Figure 5: Pattern of principal stresses in pre-cracking phase (left) and cross section (right).
For the reinforced box girders V3 and V4 a load increase beyond the single-cracking phase was
possible. The observed spiral cracking leads off to the known space truss model with the
coaction of reinforcement and concrete trusses (Figure 6). Additionally, Figure 6 shows for one
side a modified plane truss model considering the fibre effect, which results into a sewing of
the crack edges between the concrete struts.
Figure 6: Space truss model (left) and modified plane truss model for one side wall (right).
As the fibers are involved in the load transfer the torsion resistance has to consider the loading
capacity of the fibers. This can be done with the summation approach in equation (2) for the
longitudinal tension strut using the resistance capacity of the fibres in longitudinal direction with
equation (3) and the resistance capacity of the longitudinal reinforcement (according to DIN
1045-1 [4]) in equation (4). Accordingly, the summation approach for the vertical tension strut
results from the formulas (5) to (7). In the formulas (3) and (6), fct,f represents the post cracking
axial tensile strength of the fiber-reinforced UHPC.
with
TRk,sy,l = TRk,sy,fl + TRk,sy,sl
(2)
TRk,sy,fl = fct,f teff 2 Ak tan
(3)
TRk,sy,sl = asl fy 2 Ak tan
(4)
521
with
TRk,sy,w = TRk,sy,fw + TRk,sy,sw
(5)
TRk,sy,fw = fct,f teff 2 Ak cot
(6)
TRk,sy,sw = asw fy 2 Ak cot
(7)
Figure 7 illustrates the torque-twist-response and the theoretical results calculated with the
equations specified above. Comparing the experimental and theoretical torsional resistance, V2
and V4 show a good correlation. For test V3 an upper and lower range of torsional resistance is
presented, calculated with the post cracking axial tensile strength fct,f,L1 and fct,f,L2 according to
[2]. The final determination of the value for the applying post cracking axial tensile strength
requires further investigations.
250
Eq. (5) with fct,f,L1
225
Torque T [kNm]
200
Eq. (5) with fct,f,L2
175
150
125
Eq. (7)
100
Eq. (1)
75
V2
V3
V4
50
25
0
0,0
0,5
1,0
1,5
2,0
Twist u [/m]
2,5
3,0
Figure 7: Torque-twist-response (left) and theoretical results (right) of the test specimens V2 V4.
5 Investigations on the Concrete Compression Strut

Test Results
The test specimens V6 V8 were loaded with a combined loading of torsion moments and
normal forces in order to investigate the bearing capacity of the concrete compression strut.
Test specimen V7 was tested with a higher normal force to examine the influence of the
concrete strut angle . Furthermore, the influence of the prestressed dry joint of the segmental
box girder V8 should be compared with the monolithic box girder V6. Figure 8 gives the torquetwist-responses and the cracking patterns of the test specimens V6 V8.
700
Torque T [kNm]
600
500
400
300
V6
200
V7
V8
100
0
0,0
0,2
0,4
0,6
0,8
Twist u [/m]
1,0
1,2
Figure 8: Torque-twist-response (left) and cracking patterns front side (right) of the test specimens V6 V8.
522
The torque-twist-responses show for all specimens V6 V8 a linear-elastic behaviour up to a

torque of around 400 kNm and a similar nonlinearty up to the torsional failure, which is
corresponding to the torque-twist-curves of prestressed normal strength concrete box girders
without fibers. Although the concrete failures occured suddenly and the tested box girders got
separated into two pieces, no spalling of concrete cover could be observed up to the ultimate
torque. Table 4 presents the results of specimens V6 V8.
Table 4: Test results of tested box girders V6 V8.
ultimate torque
[kNm]
normal force
[kN]
failure
[-]
angle
[]
fc,cyl
[N/mm]
V6
636.7
5249
concrete
29.4
156.4
V7
500.7
5944
concrete
15.7
169.4
V8
551.4
5040
concrete
22.3
160.9
Specimen
The torque-twist-responses of the monolithic box girder V6 and the segmental box girder V8,
which were tested with nearly the same normal forces, show no difference. In conclusion, a
prestressed dry joint does not disturb the torsional load transfer, in case the box girder,
respectively the joint, is completely under compression up to the failure stage.
Theoretical Investigation
According to the mathematical fomula in DIN 1045-1 [4], which is based on the space truss
model (Figure 6, left), the torsional resistance of the concrete strut can be determined by the
following equation (8).
TRk,max = c,red fc,cyl 2 Ak teff / (cot + tan )
(8)
Because of cracking, transverse stresses due to reinforcement, strut deflection at the cross
section corner and bending stress of the wall due to twisting, the compressive strength fc,cyl has
to be attenuated with the reduction factor c,red. For normal strength concrete (NSC) this factor
is assumed to 0.525. If high strength concrete (HSC) is applied, the compressive strength
additionally has to be reduced by the safety factor 1/'c. Since DIN 1045-1 regulates only
concrete up to concrete strength class C100/115, a proposal for the safety factor for UHPC with
fibers and UHPC without fibers can be found in [1]. Figure 9 on the left-hand side gives an
overview of the safety factor 1/'c for the different concrete strength classes.
1,40
reduction factor c,red / 'c [-]
0,725
safety factor 1/'c [-]
1,30
1,20
NSC
HSC
UHPC
1,10
1,00
UHPC with fibers
0,90
0,80
UHPC without fibers
0,70
0,60
0,50
0,40
0,625
specimens with fibers
0,525
0,425
V4
0,325
V6
0,225
V7
0,125
V8
specimen without fibers
0,025
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
compressive strength fc,cyl [N/mm]
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
200
compressive strength fc,cyl [N/mm]
Figure 9: Safety factor 1/'c (left) and reduction factor c,red/'c (right) in relation to the compressive strength.
Figure 9 on the right-hand side shows the reduction factor divided by the safety factor in relation
to the concrete compressive strength and the experimental results. The results of the tested box
523
girders V6 V8 (UHPC with fibers) show a good correlation with the reduction factors of UHPC
with fibers. In contrast, the sudden failure of test specimen V4 (UHPC without fibers) indicates a
considerable deviation from the value of UHPC without fibers. Here, further investigations have
to be undertaken.
6 Conclusion
UHPFRC box girders have been examined to investigate the cracking and loading bearing as
well as to determine the capacity of the tension strut of the steel fibres under pure torsion and
the bearing capacity of the compression strut under combined loading by torsion moments and
normal forces.
Due to the results of the four torsion tests in regard to the tension strut the following
conclusions can be drawn:
The addition of steel fibers
causes smaller crack widths and more cracks,
increases the cracking torque,
improves the torsional stiffness after cracking and
increases the ultimate torque.
The tests on two monolithic and one segmental box girder in regard to the concrete
compression strut can be summarized as follows:
All test specimens showed no ductility and failed suddenly.
The prestressed dry joint does not disturb the load transfer, in case the segmental box
girder, respectively the joint, is completely under compression at the stage of failure.
Furthermore, mathematical equations have been developed from the space truss model to
determine the loading capacity of the tension strut of the fibers, which show a good correlation
with regard to the experimental torsional resistance. In regard to the bearing capacity of the
concrete strut a proposal for the reduction factor of the compressive strength of UHPC with and
without fibers has been presented.
7 Acknowledgement
This research project is part of the priority programm SPP 1182 which is founded by the DFG
(German Research Foundtation). The authors acknowledge the financial support.
References
[1] Deutscher Ausschuss fr Stahlbeton: Sachstandsbericht Ultrahochfester Beton. DAfStb 561,
Berlin, 2008.
[2] Deutscher Ausschuss fr Stahlbeton: DAfStb-Richtlinie Stahlfaserbeton. Berlin, 2009.
[3] German Research Society (DFG), Priority Program SPP 1182, Nachhaltig Bauen mit UHPC
(Sustainable Building with UHPC).
[4] DIN 1045-1: Tragwerke aus Beton, Stahlbeton und Spannbeton Teil 1: Bemessung und
Konstruktion, August 2008.
524
Bond Behavior of Strands in UHPC Tests and Design

Institute of Structural Engineering, RWTH Aachen University, Germany
Ultra-High Performance Concrete (UHPC) is an appropriate construction material for pretensioned

girders. To ensure an economic and safe design, a detailed knowledge of the behavior of pretensioned
strands in the anchorage zone is essential. The dimension of the bond anchorage zone favors the cost effective design of pretensioned girders, especially when the shear resistance is decisive. However, a
minimum concrete cover is required to avoid splitting cracks in the transfer zone, since they lead to an
uncontrolled increase in transfer length and may cause a premature anchorage failure.
Within a priority program [1] supported by the German Research Foundation (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft DFG) experimental and theoretical investigations on the bond behavior of strands in UHPC
were carried out at the Institute of Structural Concrete at RWTH Aachen University. The influence of the
Hoyer-effect [2-6] and the concrete cover were systematically investigated by pull-out-tests. Additionally,
small scale beam tests were carried out to determine the transfer length and the end slip. Furthermore,
the experimental as well as the theoretical results were verified on full scale beams. The detailed test
results were published in [7] and the calculation model in [8]. The bond model was derived based on the
test results and will be presented at the conference.
Keywords: Ultra-high Performance Concrete, fibers, Strands, bond, pretensioning, transfer length
1 Introduction
Generally, the number of strands in pretensioned girders results from the bending design. In
addition, the prestressing force above the support is essential to calculate the shear resistance.
A decisive part of the shear carrying capacity arises from arch action as presented in Figure 1.
When the anchorage length is shorter than the support overhang, the full prestressing force is
available to intensify arch action. The vertical support reaction corresponds with the
prestressing force and the arch action.
Figure 1: Principle of arch action with corresponding prestressing force.
The higher the bond stresses are between strands and concrete the shorter is the tran sfer
length. On the other hand, higher bond stresses lead to increased tensile stresses in the
concrete cover around the strands. Therefore, the minimum concrete cover for strands in UHPC
has to be determined. The compressive strength of UHPC is about five times higher than
normal strength concrete. The bond strength and the compressive strength, however, show no
linear coherence. Nevertheless, the concrete compressive strength is normally used in design
methods. To ensure a safe design, constitutive design rules to calculate the anchorage and
transfer length of strands in UHPC are required. The gradient of the bond forces is influenced
by the slip, the Hoyer-effect, the material properties and the concrete cover. With an adequate
525
theoretical method derived from test results, the transfer length can be determined merely
knowing the end slip, the compressive strength and the concrete cover.
2 Bond behavior of strands

While ribbed rebars rely on a direct load transfer between the ribs and the supporting concrete
under each rib, strands depend on friction to a greater extent. Hence, the stress-slip relation of
strands has a plastic branch after exceeding the ultimate bond strength. So far, several
investigations have been performed on the bond behavior of strands [2-6]. Generally, the bond
stresses can be described with three parts (Figure 2):
a constant part caused by the basic friction, also called the rigid-plastic bond behavior;
a stress dependent part which is based on the Hoyer-effect and which increases with the
transfer of pretensioning;
and a slip dependent part which is also independent of the prestressing. This effect can
be explained by the lack of fit which results from the geometry of the strands which is not
completely uniform.
Figure 2: Schematical stress distribution along the transfer length of strands.
Due to the dependency on slip and lateral strain, the bond stresses are not constant along the
transfer length (Figure 2). The slip as well as the lateral stresses rise from the difference
between steel and concrete strain while the pretensioning is released. At the end of the
member, the slip has the highest value and the longitudinal steel stress is zero. All three bond
parts are fully activated ((a) in Figure 2). In the middle of the transfer zone, the slip as well as
the lateral stresses are decreased. Hence, the bond stresses are on a lower level (b). At the
end of the transfer length, most stresses already have been transferred from steel to concrete.
Here the lateral stresses and the slip are very low and the bond is mainly established by the
base value of the bond (c). Outside the transfer length, there are neither bond nor lateral
stresses nor slip due to pretensioning (d).
526
To determine the bond stresses along the transfer length and to investigate the bond
behavior, pull-out tests with different steel stresses, which means different lateral strain, were
performed. In the next step, small scale beam tests were carried out to measure the transfer
length and to investigate the influence of the concrete cover. Finally, the results are used for
dimensioning the pretensioned I-beams [7-9]. The end slip and the transfer lengths of the
I-beams were measured to verify the results.
Concrete mixtures, fibers and strands
All specimens were fabricated with the concrete mix presented in Table 1. Merely the fiber ratio
was varied. All fibers were straight without hooks and of high strength steel (fyf > 2,200 MPa
(320,000 psi)). The diameter of 0.15 mm (0.06 in) is specified by the manufacturer and the
margin is 0.02 mm. In several spot measurements the diameter was about 0.17 mm in
average. The steel fibers had a length between 9 mm (M0 with 2.5 %) and 17.5 mm (M1 with
0.9 %). In the M7 mix a fiber cocktail with 6 and 13 mm long fibers was added and the reference
composition MR contained no fibers. The 7 wire strands with a cross section Ap = 93 mm
(diameter 0.5) respectively Ap = 140 mm (0.6) had an E-Modulus of 200,000 MPa and fpy
= 1500 MPa (218,000 psi).
Table 1: Concrete mix.
Mix/fiber ratio
Material
M0
M1
M7
MR
2.5% p.v.
0.9% p.v.
1.04% p.v.
w/out
Cement CEM I
[kg/m]
650
660
660
666
Silica fume
[kg/m]
177
180
180
181
Quartz powder
[kg/m]
456
463
463
467
Sand 0.125-0.5mm
[kg/m]
354
360
359
363
Basalt 2-8mm
[kg/m]
598
606
606
612
[kg/m]
194
[kg/m]
70
[kg/m]
39
[kg/m]
42
Water
[kg/m]
158
161
160
162
Superplasticizer
[kg/m]
31
32
32
32
Pull-out-tests
A total of 72 tests were performed (Table 2). The main test parameters were the fiber ratio, the
specific concrete cover and the concrete strength (age). Because of the high bond stresses,
short embedment lengths between 25 and 50 mm (0.98-1.97 in) were chosen. Each test batch
consisting of a total of 9 tests included three times three tests with different lateral strain stages
(0 %, 50 %, 100 %), where 100 % means a change of prestressing stress fp = 1200 MPa
(174,000 psi), 50 % means fp = 600 MPa (87,000 psi) and 0 % without a change. In the test
batches PO10-PO15, one test was carried out for each concrete cover and change of
prestressing. Figure 3 shows the sequences of the pull-out tests. Three strands have been
prestressed inside a rig before casting with the maximum allowed initial prestressing stress
0.91500 = 1350 MPa (P0 = 1350Ap) according to the German design code [10]. After three
527
days, the first three tests were carried out. Afterwards, the prestressing force was decreased
about 50 % (600 MPa) and the next three tests were performed. Finally, the last tests were
carried out with full release (100 %, 1200 MPa), which means nearly full lateral strain of the
strand. The remaining fp = 150 MPa were needed to avoid total relaxing of the strands on one
side while increasing the bond forces (Pb/2 on each side in Fig. 3, phase IV).
Table 2: Parameters of the pull-out tests (72 tests).
test batch
concrete
mix / age
concrete cover
c/dp [-]
strands
dp [in]
bond length lb
[mm (in)]
number
0 %/ 50 %/100 %
fc.cube100
[MPa]
PO1-PO3
M1 / 3d
4.4
0.6
30 (1.18)
3/3/3
116
PO4-PO6
M0 / 3d
4.4
0.6
30 (1.18)
3/3/3
118
PO7-PO9
M7 / 3d
4.4
0.6
30 (1.18)
3/3/3
111
PO10-PO12
M1 / 3d
1.5/2.0/2.5
0.6
30 (1.18)
1/1/1
113
PO13-PO15
M1 / 3d
1.5/2.0/2.5
0.6
50 (1.97)
1/1/1
112
PO16-PO18
M1 / 3d
5.5
0.5
25 (0.98)
3/3/3
107
PO19-PO21
M1 / 14d
4.4
0.6
30 (1.18)
3/3/3
154
PO22-PO24
MR / 3d
4.4
0.6
30 (1.18)
3/3/3
105
Figure 3: Fabrication and test sequences of the pull-out tests and test rig.
The diagrams in Figure 4 indicate, that the fiber ratio had no significant influence within the
tested range. With a concrete compressive strength of app. 100-115 MPa ( 15,000 psi) at an
age of three days a bond strength of 30 MPa ( 4,350 psi) was achieved with full lateral strain
(100 % release of prestressing), 20 MPa ( 2,900 psi) with 50 % release and about 12 to
14 MPa ( 1,900 psi) without a change of the prestressing force. The bond stresses fpb were
calculated with the nominal diameter dp.
fpb = Pb/(lbdp) with
fpb: bond stress

Pb: bond force
lb: bond length
The variation of the concrete cover showed no effect on the bond strength when the
prestressing remains unchanged as presented in Figure 5 (left diagram). A release of 50 %
(middle diagram in Fig. 5), however, led to a reduction of the bond stresses of about 10 to
15 %. When the full lateral strain was preset, visible splitting cracks appeared below a specific
528
concrete cover of c/dp = 2.5. Hence, the transferred bond stresses were reduced for 10 to 30 %
according to the existing concrete cover (right diagram in Fig. 5).
Figure 4: Influence of the fiber ratio and the prestressing (0 %, 50 %, 100 %) on the bond slip behavior of the
test batches PO1 to PO9, PO22 to PO24.
Figure 5: Influence of the concrete cover on the bond slip behavior of the test batches PO10 to PO12.
In further tests, the concrete age, the bond length and the strand diameter were varied. The
strand diameter had no effect on the bond stresses. The tests with a bond length lb = 50 mm
(PO13-PO15) confirm the tests with 30 mm (PO10-PO12), when the change of prestress was 0
or 600 MPa (0 %, 50 %). After full release (100 %), the bond forces were too high (up to 40 kN)
with lb = 50 mm. Hence, splitting cracks were intensified and the change of strain inside the
bond length might have influenced the results as well. More detailed test data is given in [8].
Small Scale Beam Tests
The main targets of these 14 tests were to determine the minimum dimensions of the concrete
cross section to avoid splitting cracks and the transfer length of the specimens which remained
uncracked. Furthermore, the corresponding end slip is important. Specimens with two strands
were chosen to investigate the minimum concrete cover (Figure 6). Four strands were required
to test the minimum spacing between the strands. The test parameters and the main results are
listed in Table 3. The concrete cross section bh results from the specific concrete cover c/dp
and the spacing s/dp horizontal as well as vertical.
Figure 6: Test setup of the small scale beam tests.
Similar to the pull-out tests, the specimens were fabricated in a rig. The 0.5 strands were
already prestressed at the time of concreting. After three days the prestressing was gradually
released in five steps of 20 %. At each load stage the concrete strains were measured along
529
the longitudinal axis of the specimen. This way, the transfer of prestressing could be derived
from the strain differences. In addition, the slip at the end of the specimen was measured
continuously with displacement transducers.
Table 3: Parameters and main results of the small beam tests.
mix/
stirrups
test
0.5
number
c/dp
s/dp [-]
mm
mm
[-]
hor. vert.
cracked fc.cube100
fct.fl
end slip
[mm]
transfer length
[mm]
left right
MPa
MPa
min max
left
right
SE1
M1
101.6 50.8
1.5
3.0
106
19.3
0.70 0.89
SE2
M1
114.3 63.5
2.0
3.0
106
19.3
0.53 0.67
SE3
M1
120.7 120.7
2.5
2.5 2.5
99
21.3
0.39 0.56
206
210
SE4
M1
127.0 127.0
2.5
3.0 3.0
99
21.3
0.42 0.56
205
206
M1
127.0 76.2
2.5
3.0
115
23.6
0.48 0.63
193**
195**
M1+6 127.0 76.2
2.5
3.0
115
23.6
0.63 0.71
239**
SE5
SE6#
SE7
M1
108.0 108.0
2.0
2.5 2.5
100
20.9
0.54 0.87
SE8
M1
108.0 101.6
2.0
2.5 2.0
100
20.9
0.59 0.75
SE9
M1
120.7 120.7
2.0
3.5 3.5
108
20.5
0.44 0.63
204
SE10
M1
114.3 114.3
2.0
3.0 3.0
108
20.5
0.44 0.88
SE11
M1
225.0 150.0
5.4
4.9
106
23.7
0.44 0.60
228
243
SE12
M1
158.8 101.6
3.5
3.5
110
20.6
0.43 0.53
213
219
SE13
M0
114.3 63.5
2.0
3.0
112
26.3
0.46 0.48
205
183
SE14
M0
127.0 76.2
2.5
3.0
107
23.4
0.44 0.56
225
205
Transfer zone cracked / transfer length not evaluable
**
Concrete strain measured with strain gauges (no manual measuring with gauge points)
Crack not observable visually, but concrete strain indicates cracks
Test carried out after 5 days
The specimen SE1 with a specific concrete cover c/dp = 1.5 started cracking when 70 % of the
prestressing was induced. Due to the splitting crack the stress depending part (Hoyer-effect)
diminished leading to a higher slip. SE2 with c/dp = 2.0 cracked at 95 %. The transfer lengths
were evaluated by a German method [11]. They become shorter compared to tests with high
strength concrete (HSC) or even normal strength concrete (NSC) 3 when cracks were avoided.
In these cases the measured transfer length in UHPC was about 20 to 24 cm (7.9 to 9.4 in).
Further data is given in [8].
Figure 7: Influence of specific concrete cover and fiber content on end slip and cracking .
530
The influence of the concrete cover and the fiber content on end slip and cracking is illustrated
in Figure 7. An end slip of app. 0.5 to 0.6 mm (0.20 to 0.24 in) indicates a transfer without
cracks. Compared to HSC a reduction of the minimum concrete cover c/dp = 2.5 could not be
accomplished. Most likely, the splitting stresses arose simultaneously due to the higher bond
stresses. Only when the specific concrete cover was at least c/dp = 2.5 the full prestressing was
feasible without visible cracks. With higher fiber content, a reduction to c/dp = 2.0 seems
possible.
Transfer length and end slip of the full Scale Beams
According to the small scale beam tests the specific concrete cover of the girders was always
c/dp = 2.5 (Fig. 8) and the prestressing was released after three days in the same way. The right
diagram shows the transfer lengths of 21 beams. The transfer length was slightly increased to
22 to 28 cm (8.7 to 11 in). There seems to be a slight coherence to the end slip, but splitting
cracks were not observed. The middle diagram in Figure 8 shows the average values of 362
measurements on the end slip. The end slip values of the middle and the lower strands did not
indicate any cracks as well. They are comparable to the small scale beam tests without cracks.
But it is remarkable, that the values of the upper strands are increased. There seems to be a
decreased bond strength due to the covering lateral form work.
Figure 8: Cross section of the beams and evaluation of the influence of the fiber content and strand position on
end slip and transfer length.
4 Conclusions and Outlook

The bond strength of strands in UHPC amounts app. 30 MPa ( 4,350 psi) with full release,
20 MPa ( 2,900 psi) with 50 % and 12 to 14 MPa ( 1,900 psi) without release. The local bond
stresses are affected by the concrete cover, when the specific concrete cover is reduced to c/dp
= 2.5 or more. The transfer length in the I-beams ranged between 22 and 28 cm (8.7 to 11 in),
primarily affected by the concrete cover and the strand density. Therefor a minimum specific
concrete cover c/dp = 2.5 as well as a minimum clearance s/dp = 2.5 is required. With 2.5 % p.v
fibers the concrete cover seems to be reducible to c/dp = 2.0.
Further details of the model are not described in this paper. The bond model as well as the
calculation method are published in [8] and will be presented at the conference. An English
Version of [8] will follow soon.
531
5 Acknowledgements
The authors acknowledge the funding of the German Research Foundation.
References
[1] German Research Foundation, priority project (DFG SPP 1182): Nachhaltig Bauen mit UHPC
(Sustainable Construction with UHPC).
[2] Hoyer, E.: Der Stahlsaitenbeton. Otto Elsner Verlagsgesellschaft, 1939, Berlin Wien Leipzig .
[3] Nitsch, A.: Spannbetonfertigteile mit teilweiser Vorspannung aus hochfestem Beton. Dissertation,
Aachen, Germany, 2001.
[4] Stocker, M.F.; Sozen, M.A.: Bond characteristics of prestressed strand. Investigations of prestressed
reinforced concrete of Highway bridges. University Illinois, Structural Research, 1969, Series No.
344.
[5] den Uijl, J.: Bond and splitting action of prestressing strand. Proceedings, Bond in Concrete, Riga,
1992, S. 2/79-2/88.
[6] Blte, S.: Zum Verbundverhalten von Spannstahllitzen unter Betriebsbeanspruchung (bond behavior
of strands under cyclic loading). Dissertation, Aachen, Germany, 2008.
[7] Hegger, J.; Bertram, G.: Verbundverhalten von vorgespannten Litzen in UHPC - Teil 1: Versuche zur
Verbundfestigkeit und zur bertragungslnge (bond behavior of strands in UHPC part 1: tests on
bond strength and transfer length). In: Beton- und Stahlbeton 105 (2010), Journal 6, p. 379 - 389.
[8] Bertram, G.; Hegger, J.: Verbundverhalten von vorgespannten Litzen in UHPC - Teil 2: Ableitung
eines Verbundmodells zur Berechnung der bertragungslnge (bond behavior of strands in UHPC
part 2: bond model derivation for the calculation of transfer lengths). In: Beton- und Stahlbeton 107
(2012), Journal 1, p. 23 - 31.
[9] Bertram, G.; Hegger, J.: Pretensioned UHPC Beams with and without Openings. Proceedings, 3rd
International fib Congress & PCI Convention, Washington DC, USA in 2010, DVD ID: 236.
[10] DIN 1045-1, Tragwerke aus Beton, Stahlbeton und Spannbeton (German design code, Concrete,
reinforced and prestressed concrete structures). Berlin, 2008.
[10] Bertram, G.; Hegger, J.: Anchorage Behavior of Strands in Ultra-High Performance Concrete.
[11] Deutsches Institut fr Bautechnik (German Building Authorities): Richtlinie fr die Prfung von
Spannsthlen auf ihre Eignung zur Verankerung durch sofortigen Verbund (Guideline for testing
pretensioned strands on their suitability for anchorage). Berlin, Germany, Juni 1980.
532
Experimental Investigations on Anchorage of Rebars in

UHPC
Ekkehard Fehling, Paul Lorenz, Torsten Leutbecher
Designing reinforced UHPC concrete structures requires information about the bond-behavior of nonprestressed rebars. Determining the influence of the main parameters in test series is necessary,
especially in order to acquire the basic information needed to develop design-regulations. Because of the
high compression strength, UHPC-structures are often filigree. Therefore the concrete cover and the
failure mode are the main parameters in these investigations. If fibers are used, it is important to know
how they influence the bond behavior or if they can replace a transverse reinforcement. Further important
parameters are the bar diameter, rib geometry, pouring direction of concrete and load direction. In the
building practice, the relevant influences of the aforementioned parameters are important. The main
intention is to find out the necessary bond length and concrete cover of non-prestressed rebars in UHPC
under these parameters.
Keywords: anchorage, bond, UHPC, UHPFRC, Rebars
1 Introduction
The material UHPC exhibits compression strengths near those of construction steel, which
enables a reduction of cross sections and the use of fewer resources. In terms of reinforcement
corrosion, the high packing density and the high resistance against ingress of fluids and gases
allows markedly smaller concrete covers. At the same time, minimum concrete cover
requirements must be observed in order to ensure a secure anchorage. For this purpose, the
differences in bond behavior in comparison with NSC must be explored. Through the load
transfer from the deformed bar along the ribs in the concrete, struts are formed, which are
balanced by a tensile ring. A failure of the tensile ring results in the formation of splitting cracks,
which negatively affect the multiaxial state of stress on the ribs. Due to the fact that the increase
in tensile strength in comparison with that of NSC is disproportionately lower than the increase
in compression strength, the focus must be placed on tensile failure. It is known that fibers have
positive effects on the tensile failure characteristics.
Figure 1: Spatial strut and tie model (left) and crack formation and concrete stresses (right) [7], [6].
533
Eligehausen et al. [8] examined various anchorage failure modes for NSC including pull-out,
pry-out, splitting as well as combinations of these individual modes. Each mode was influenced
by different parameters, for example confinement, the addition of fibers, relative rib area,
concrete cover, casting direction etc. For this reason, the relevant parameters must be
determined in order to assess anchorages for the ULS. These will be examined within the
framework of a project funded by the German Research Foundation.
2 Current State of Research

From NSC to UHPC
Rehm [10] made one of the most fundamental contributions to questions concerning the bond
between steel and concrete. In his work, he proposed to make initially all observations on a
very short reinforcement element and established the differential relationship of bond.
Martin [12] provided, among others, approximations for the differential relationship of bond.
Fehling [1] developed a bond model, which worked with rheological, spring and friction
elements [11] for both monotonic and cyclic loading.
Eligehausen et al. [8] examined anchorages in NSC. The obtained engineering models were
introduced in the ETAG 001 [9]. Further studies for NSC are shown in [14].
Aarup et al. [4] examined the bond behavior of CRC (Compact Reinforced Concrete) on pullout tests. Fiber contents of between 3 and 6 % by vol. were used. The concrete cover was
1.7 ds (ds = 8 mm) at a compression strength of 165 MN/m. A bond length of 6.3 ds was
sufficient to cause steel rupture prior to bond failure. In the case of smaller embedded lengths,
pull-out failure with splitting cracks was observed. In addition he found that transverse
reinforcement or lateral pressure is capable of causing a shortening of the bond length by 40 %.
A lateral pressure of 5 % of the compression strength is sufficient to increase the bond strength
by 60 %.
Based on fiber-reinforced fine-grained UHPC (DUCTAL), Reineck and Greiner [5]
determined a bond strength of between 43 and 51 MN/m on ribbed bars with ds = 4 mm and a
concrete cover of 4.5 ds. The bond length was 2 ds. Pull-out tests were conducted on fiber-free
fine-grained UHPC with a bond length of 3.3 ds. This resulted in bond strengths of between 46
and 49 MN/m. Thereby no negative impact from failing fibers could be established. No splitting
was observed.
Jungwirth [3] conducted pull-out tests on coarse-grained UHPC (CERACEM ) with threaded
bars. The compression strength of the concrete was 190 MN/m and the steel fiber content was
2 % by vol. (lf /df = 20 mm/0.3 mm = 66.7). The slip was measured at the unloaded end. The
result was an average bond strength of 59 MN/m (see Fig. 1 and Tab. 1). He observed splitting
failure at ds = 20 mm with a concrete cover ratio of 3.5 ds and showed that after splitting the
load droped sharper in the post failure stage than without splitting.
Leutbecher [2] conducted tests to examine the bond behavior of reinforcement steel and
high-strength steel in UHPC as well as in UHPFRC using the M1Q mixture [15]. Here, a total of
27 specimens were tested varying type of steel, the bar diameter, the concrete cover, and the
casting direction. Additionally, a fiber content of 1 % by vol. was examined. It turned out that for
high-strength steel and a concrete cover of 2.5 ds the maximum bond stress, that means for
high slip values, can be doubled by a addition of fibres i.e. a fiber content of 1 % by vol. in case
of splitting crack formation. An increase of bond stress for values under 0.2 mm, however, is
also achieved. Fiber addition showed no effect on the bond behavior if splitting crack formation
could be excluded.
534
3 Own Tests on Anchorage of Rebars in UHPC

Experimental Program
The specimens consisted of a panel with constant length and width (see Fig. 2). The ribbed bar
on which the bond behavior was to be observed was BSt 500 S with a diamameter of
ds = 12 mm. The embedded length lb and the concrete cover c of this bar was modified. The
casting direction was orthogonal to this bar and the concrete cover. The embedded length of
the other bar (ds =14 mm) was constant. In transverse direction to this bar, wire stirrups were
used in order to avoid bond failure. To avoid a tensile failure between the two bars mentioned
first, two additional bars with a diameter of d s = 10 mm were arranged. The fine-grained UHPC
M3Q with a fiber content of 1.5 % by vol. (lf /df = 13 mm/0.19 mm = 68.4) and a compression
strength of 170 MN/m was used for all specimens. The formwork was stripped after 48 hours.
Afterwards heat treatment at a temperature of 90 C was applied to the specimens for 48 hours.
An overview of the test program is presented in Tab 1. The investigated parameters were the
bond length and the concrete cover.
Figure 2: Specimen principle for ribbed bar Pull-Out with varying embedded lengths and concrete covers.
V12/1/4
V12/1/6
V12/1/8
V12/1/10
V12/1/12
V12/1.5/4
V12/1.5/5
V12/1.5/6
V12/1.5/8
V12/1.5/10
V12/2/2
V12/2/4
V12/2/5
V12/2/6
V12/2/8
V12/2.5/2
V12/2.5/3
V12/2.5/4
V12/2.5/5
V12/2.5/7
Table 1: Investigated parameters.
cnom / ds
1.5
2.5
l b / ds
4, 6, 8, 10, 12
4, 5, 6, 8, 10
2, 4, 5, 6, 8
2, 3, 4, 5, 7
Name of the specimen

Concrete cover
Bond length
Test Set-Up and Test Procedure

At first, the specimen was installed in the machine and the LVDTs were applied. The ribbed bar
on which the bond behavior was to be observed was free and not loaded at this time. After
starting the measurement, this bar was pinched in the machine and the load-application was
535
started in a displacement-controlled way with a velocity of 0.1 mm/sec. The steel strain on this
bar was obtained from the elongation lb as measured by the LVDT-Group B with a
measurement length lb (see Fig. 3). The slip between the steel and the concrete was measured
indirectly by the LVDT Group A. Here the measurement-length was la and the measured
elongation was la. The slip was calculated from the measured values (see Eq. 3) using the
assumption that the strains within la and lb are identical. This assumption is valid for elastic
behavior but not after onset of yielding.
s =lb / lb
(1)
s + la s = la
(2)
s = la la lb / lb
(3)
Additionally, perpendicular to the direction of tensile force, splitting cracks were monitored on
the concrete. Using three LVDT rows at the front side and three at the back of the specimen,
information about the opening of the splitting crack could be obtained.
Figure 3: Specimen in testing machine (left), LVDTs arrangement (right).
Results
During the test, various concrete failure modes could be observed and recorded. The major
modes are illustrated in Fig. 4 and 5. In most cases, mixed failure modes developed. For this
reason, failure modes were evaluated on the basis of the failure pattern and the remaining
crack width. The results of the observations are depicted in Fig. 5. Here, especially the
transition between concrete cone failure and V-type splitting can be seen to be very smooth.
The overlap between V-type splitting and splitting means that V-type splitting occurred, in
particular, near the load application, while splitting took place across the rest of the bond length.
The yielding failure mode was observed when the reinforcement reached the yield plateau in
the force-strain relationship.
536
Concrete cone failure
V-type splitting
Splitting
Figure 4: Concrete failure modes.
A transverse crack at the end of the

bond-length was observed in all
tests of this series
Figure 5: Major failure modes of the test specimens.
The steel stress-slip relationships of the individual tests are shown in Fig. 6 and Fig. 7. After
reaching the yield plateau (two-point-dash line), the slip could be determined only qualitatively
and should therefore be regarded with caution. The main parameters can be derived from the
test denomination. V12 represents an anchorage of a bar diameter of 12 mm. The two-digit
number without a decimal point after the letter C indicates the concrete cover ratio and the
number after L the anchorage ratio.
With a concrete cover of c = 1 ds and anchorage lengths of less than lb = 8 ds, increases in
the maximum steel stress could be achieved by increasing the anchorage length (see Fig. 6).
The failure mode observed here was V-type splitting. Increased anchorage lengths did not
result in increasing failure load. The steel stress-slip relationships for the anchorage lengths
8 ds, 10 ds and 12 ds are quite identical, even for slip values up to 14 mm (see Fig. 7). At the
end of the test, the residual steel stress was between 50 and 100 N/mm. In the process of the
test the steel stress remained below the yield plateau and the concrete failed due to splitting.
This may be caused by a zipper-effect.
With a concrete cover ratio of 1.5 ds, the steel stresses for lb 6 ds remained below the yield
stress. By increasing lb until lb = 6 ds the maximum steel stresses increased (see Fig. 6). The
537
descending branch of the curves is almost identical for slip values between 4 mm and 15 mm
(see Fig. 7). After reaching a slip value of 15 mm, a residual steel stress level of between 80 or
100 N/mm could be observed and the test was aborted then. For lb = 8 ds, a maximum steel
stress (in the hardening stage) of 640 N/mm was reached. Subsequently, the stress diminished
with increasing slip. For lb = 10 ds, the maximum steel stress was 670 N/mm. Here, the
concrete failure switched from v-type splitting to splitting. For larger concrete covers, the
concrete cone failure mode was observed more frequently. Nevertheless, predominantly mixed
failure modes combining concrete cone and V-type splitting were observed (see Fig. 5).
Figure 6: Steel stress-slip relationships for s 2,0 mm.
For c = 2 ds and lb 5 ds, the steel stresses generally remained below the yield point. The yield
point was exactly reached for lb = 6 ds whereas a steel stress in the hardening regime of
680 N/mm2 was reached for lb = 8 ds. The maximum steel stresses for c = 2.5 ds and lb 4 ds
correspond approximately to those of c = 2 ds and lb 5 ds. Here, the effect of the stiffer tensile
ring from the larger concrete cover becomes obvious. This allows for an anchorage length of
one diameter less and causes concrete cone failure.
538
For c = 2.5 ds, lb 3 ds, pure concrete cone failure was observed. This type of failure resulted
in a rapid decrease of the steel stress after reaching the peak load. At a slip value of 8 mm, the
steel stress was almost zero.
For the concrete cover c = 2.5 ds and the anchorage length lb = 5 ds, it was possible to apply
a steel stress of 620 N/mm. Due to a malfunction of the instrumentation, no slip values could
be measured for the anchorage length lb = 7 ds. However, a steel stress of 620 N/mm was
reached also for this specimen and the V-type splitting failure mode with yielding was observed
(see Fig. 5).
Figure 7: Steel stress-slip relationships for s 15,0 mm.

In the case of concrete cone failure, the post failure behavior is rather brittle. Based on the
assumption that the slip arises only from the opening of the cone shaped crack, it becomes
evident that no or only very small forces can be transferred at a slip of lf /2 7 mm. This is the
reason why the steel stress diminishes so rapidly in this case. This type of failure, which is
frequently seen with dowel connections, should be avoided. In the case of splitting and V-type
539
splitting, a more ductile post failure behavior can be obtained, which results from the crack
direction and the formation of multiple cracks. Due to the activation of the fibers in the splitting
crack, a certain confinement effect is preserved. Therefore, this post failure behavior is
significantly influenced by the stress-crack opening behavior of the fiber-reinforced concrete.
Further questions require more detailed examination:
How are the obtained relations between geometrical parameters and failure modes
influenced by the diameter and the relative rib area of the rebar?
How much transverse reinforcement is required in order to achieve a shortening of bond
length at constant fiber contents?
To what extent do fibers and transverse reinforcement ratio compliment each other?
To answer these questions further investigations should be made by varying the transverse
reinforcement ratio, the diameter and the relative rib area of the bar.
References
[1] Fehling, E.: Zur Energiedissipation und Steifigkeit von Stahlbetonbauteilen unter besonderer
Bercksichtigung von Ribildung und verschieblichem Verbund. Dissertation, Darmstadt, 1990 .
Ultrahochfesten Beton (UHPC). Dissertation, Schriftenreihe Baustoffe und Massivbau, Heft 9, kassel
university press GmbH, Kassel, 2008.
[3] Jungwirth, J.: Zum Tragverhalten von zugbeanspruchten Bauteilen aus ultra-hochleistungsFaserbeton. Thse N 3429, Facult Environment Naturel, Architectural et Construit, cole
Polytechnique Fdrale de Lausanne, 2006.
[4] Aarup, B.; Karlsen, J.; Lindstrm, G.: Fiber reinforced high performance concrete for in-situ cast
joints. Proceedings of International Symposium on High Performance Concrete, Orlando, Florida,
USA, September 2000.
[5] Reineck, K.-H., Greiner, S.: Tests on ultra-high performance fibre reinforced concrete designing hotwater tanks and UHPFRC-shells. Ultra High Performance Concrete (UHPC), Proceedings of the
Inernational Symposium on Ultra-High Performance Concrete, Schriftenreihe Baustoffe und
Massivbau, Heft 3, kassel university press GmbH, Kassel, 2004.
[6] Holschemacher, K.; Weie, D.; Klotz, S.: Bond of Reinforcement in Ultra High Strength Concrete.
Proceedings of the International Symposium on Ultra High Performance Concrete, Kassel, 2004.
[7] Tepfers, R.: A Theory of bond applied to overlapped tensile reinforcement splices of deformed bars.
Report 73-2, Chalmers University of Technology, Gteborg, 1973.
[8] Eligehausen, R.; Malle R.; Silva, J.F.: Anchorage in Concrete Construction. Ernst&Sohn, Berlin,
2006.
[9] EOTA: ETAG 001. Guideline for european technical approval of metal anchors for use in concrete.
2007 -2011.
[10] Rehm, G.: ber die Grundlagen des Verbundes zwischen Stahl und Beton. DAfStb, Heft 138, 1961.
[11] Tue, N.: zur Spanungsumlagerung im Spannbeton bei der Ribildung unter statischer und
wiederholter Belastung. DAfStb, Heft 435, 1993.
[12] Martin, H.: Zusammenhang zwischen Oberflchenbeschaffenheit, Verbund und Sprengwirkung von
Bewehrungssthlen unter Kurzzeitbelastung. DAfStb, Heft 228, 1973.
[13] fib Bulletin 55: Model Code 2010. First complete draft-Volume 1.
[14] Kurz, W.: Ein mechanisches Modell zur Beschreibung des Verbundes zwischen Stahl und Beton.
Dissertation, Darmstadt, 1997.
[15] DFG SPP 1182: DFG Schwerpunktprogramm, Nachhaltiges Bauen mit ultra-hochfestem Beton.
540
Effect of adding micro fibers on the pullout behavior of high

strength steel fibers in UHPC matrix
Seung Hun Park1, Dong Joo Kim1, Gum Sung Ryu2, Kyung Taek Koh2
1: Dept. of Civil Engineering, Sejong University, Korea
2: Korea Institute of Construction Technology, Korea
The effect of adding micro fibers on the interfacial bond properties of four high strength steel macro fibers
embedded in Ultra High Performance Concrete has been investigated. The four macro fibers (df0.3mm
& Lf30mm) are longer smooth fiber, two types of hooked fiber, and twisted fiber while shorter smooth
(df=0.2mm & Lf=12mm) fibers were added as micro fibers. The volume content of micro fiber added in the
UHPC matrix varied between 0.0% and 1.5%. The addition of micro fibers in the UHPC matrix produces
various effects, according to the types of macro fiber, on the pullout load versus slip curves macro fiber.
Twisted steel macro fibers produced the highest interfacial bond strength in the UHPC matrix albeit
twisted fibers showed slip softening behavior unlike the slip hardening pullout behavior usually available
in mortar matrices.
Keywords: macro fiber, micro fiber, maximum bond strength, equivalent bond strength, pullout
mechanism.
1 Introduction
Much research has been carried out to remedy the brittle behavior of Ultra High Performance
Concrete (UHPC) and moreover to produce tensile strain hardening behavior by blending
macro and micro fibers. The blending micro and macro fibers in UHPC produced favorable
effects on the strain hardening behavior Ultra High Performance Hybrid Fiber Reinforced
Concrete (UHP-HFRC) [Kim et al. (2011), Park et al. (2011)]. They have different roles in
UHPC: macro fibers are effective in increasing ductility while micro fibers contribute more in
enhancing tensile strength. However, little information is available for the pullout load versus
slip response of high strength steel deformed macro fibers especially in UHPC matrices
reinforced with micro fibers albeit the bond strength at the interface between fiber and the
matrix is the most important information in the development of Ultra High Performance Fiber
Reinforced Concrete [UHPFRC] with tensile strain hardening and multiple cracking behavior.
Only a few references reported the pullout resistance of high strength steel fibers in UHPC
matrices as follows: Orange et al. (1999) carried out single fiber pullout tests of high strength
smooth steel fibers in DUCTAL and pointed out that the fiber-matrix adhesion is mainly due to
the compressive hydrostatic pressure developed around the fiber by the shrinkage of the matrix.
Chan and Chu (2004) performed fiber pullout experiments by using pullout specimens with nine
high strength (2600MPa) smooth steel fibers in Reactive Powder Concrete [RPC], one type of
UHPC, and reported that the incorporation of silica fume in a matrix considerably enhanced
interfacial bond properties especially in fiber pullout energy. They concluded that the optimum
silica fume content is between 20% and 30%.
Shannag et al. (1997) inspected the effect of adding micro steel fibers (df=0.15mm &
Lf=6mm) by 3.0% to 6.0% fiber as volume content on the pullout behavior of hardened stainless
steel piano wire in a Densified Small Particle [DSP] matrix. They reported that the addition of
6.0% micro fibers in DSP generated a 20% increase in peak pullout load and pullout energy.
Markovich and van Mier (2001) also reported that the addition of 4.0% micro steel fibers in
matrices enhanced the pullout resistance of high strength hooked steel fiber in high strength
mortar matrices having 70-120MPa compressive strength.
541
Based on the few references mentioned ahead, it has been found that the densification, by
applying silica fume, of the interfacial transition zone of UHPC matrices enhances the interfacial
bond properties. Besides, the addition of micro fibers in a UHPC matrix also improves the
interfacial bond properties of macro steel fibers in a UHPC pullout medium. However, most
previous studies reported have focused on the pullout behavior of smooth steel fibers in a
UHPC matrix and the amounts of micro fiber added in a UHPC are quite small, although more
than 1.5%, ranging between 3% and 6% as volume content. Thus, there is still not enough
information about the pullout behavior of high strength deformed steel fibers particularly in a
UHPC matrix reinforced with small amounts of micro fibers lower than 1.5%.
The main purpose of this study is to determine the interfacial bond strength of high strength
steel macro fibers in a UHPC matrix reinforced with small amounts of micro fiber lower than
1.5%. The detailed objectives are 1) to investigate the pullout load versus slip response of high
strength deformed steel fibers in UHPC, 2) to estimate the effect of adding micro fibers on the
interfacial bond properties of macro fiber, and 3) to discover whether the slip hardening
behavior of deformed steel fibers is still available in UHPC with compressive strength about
200MPa.
2 Pullout behavior and bond strength of high strength steel fibers
Pullout load, P
Typical pullout load versus slip behavior of smooth, hooked and twisted steel fibers embedded
in mortar matrices with normal strength lower than 84MPa are illustrated in Fig. 1. Smooth
fibers usually show the slip softening pullout behavior, i.e. the pullout load resistance rapidly
decreases subsequent to the interfacial debonding while hooked and twisted fibers produce slip
hardening behavior as shown in Fig. 1. To obtain the slip hardening behavior during fiber
pullout, the pullout load resistance following debonding should be higher than the debonding
pullout load. Kim et al. (2010) reported the typical slip hardening behavior of deformed steel
fibers, hooked and twisted, in a mortar matrix with 84MPa compressive strength as shown in
Fig. 1.
Slip hardening behavior

for deformed steel fiber
Pdebond
Hooked fiber
Twisted fiber
Smooth fiber
debond
Slip softening behavior
for smooth steel fiber
Slip,
Figure. 1: Typical slip hardening and softening pullout behavior of high strength steel fibers. [Kim et al. (2010)].
542
Effect of adding micro fibers on the pullout behavior of high strength steel fibers in UHPC matrix
However, it is not clear yet whether the slip hardening behavior of the deformed steel fibers is
available in UHPC due to the very high adhesional bond [Orange et al. (1999)]. The very high
adhesional bond in a UHPC matrix significantly increases the fiber pullout load at debonding
and makes it more difficult to generate the slip hardening behavior during fiber pullout.
Moreover, it is in question whether the high slip capacity of twisted fiber shown in Fig. 1 is still
available in UHPC because the amount of pullout energy is influenced a lot by the slip capacity
as well as the magnitude of the pullout load.
Thus, the pullout resistance of high strength deformed steel fibers in UHPC was investigated,
in this study, by performing single fiber pullout tests. Based on the test results, two different
interfacial bond strengths were estimated: 1) maximum bond strength max based on the
maximum pullout load; and, 2) equivalent bond strength equiv. based on the pullout energy.
The maximum bond strength max was calculated by using Eq. [1] while the equivalent bond
strength equiv. was estimated by using Eq. [2].
max
Pmax
d f Lembed .
equiv.
2 E pullout
d f Lembed .2
[1]
[2]
where Pmax is the maximum pullout load, E pullout is the complete pullout energy, d f is the
diameter of the fiber, and Lembed . is the embedment length.
The matrix composition of the UHPC matrix used and its average compressive strength are
provided in Table 1. The detailed information regarding the matrix composition and mixing
procedure can be found in Park et al. (2008) and Ryu et al. (2010).
Table 1: Composition of matrix mixtures by weight ratio and compressive strength [Park et al. (2008), and Ryu
et al. (2010)].
Cement
(Type I)
Silica fume
Silica sand
Glass
powder
Super
plasticizer
Water
Compressive
strength(MPa)
1.00
0.25
1.10
0.30
0.067
0.20
200
Four types of macro fibers were embedded in UHPC matrices mixed with short smooth steel
micro fibers and their pullout resistance were investigated by performing single fiber pullout
tests. The four macro fibers include longer smooth (LS-), hooked type A (HA-), hooked type B
(HB-), and twisted (T-) steel fibers. The volume contents of the shorter smooth steel fibers (SS-)
mixed in the UHPC matrix varied between 0.0% and 1.5%. The properties of the fibers used in
this study are provided in Table 2. T- fibers, investigated in this study, have a triangular section
and six ribs within 30mm fiber length.
An electro-mechanical universal testing machine, with a capacity of 500kgf, running in
displacement control was used to conduct the single fiber pullout tests. The pullout speed was
1.0mm/min. The combination of the four macro fibers and four volume content of micro fibers
leads to sixteen series of pullout tests. Three to five specimens per series were investigated for
all test series.
543
Table 2: Properties of fibers.
Fiber
type
Macro
Micro
Tensile
strength
Elastic
modulus
(MPa)
(GPa)
7.9
2580
200
30
7.9
2311
200
0.775
62
7.9
1891
200
Twisted (T-)
0.3
30
7.9
2428
200
Short smooth (SS-)
0.2
13
7.9
2788
200
Name
Diameter
Length
Density
(notation)
(mm)
(mm)
(g/cc)
Long smooth (LS-)
0.3
30
Hooked A (HA-)
0.375
Hooked B (HB-)
Materials and specimen preparation

Before mixing a mortar matrix, the fibers were pre-installed in the device to firmly hold the predetermined embedment length of fibers within the pullout medium during casting. Then, the
devices were placed in the pullout molds. A Hobart type laboratory mixer with a twenty liter
capacity was used to prepare the mix. The UHPC mixture mixed with micro fibers was poured
into the molds by using a beaker. The specimens were covered with plastic sheets and stored
at room temperature for 48 hours prior to demolding. Water curing at high temperature (90
2C) for 3 days after demolding was carried out. All specimens were tested in a dry condition at
the age of 14 days.
Test setup and procedure
The single fiber pullout test set-up is shown in Fig. 2. The section of pullout test specimens
used was 2525mm (11in.), and the embedment length of fiber was 15mm for LS-, HA- and
HB- fibers while the embedment length of T- fiber was 5.5mm. Because all previous pullout test
results of T- fiber with 15mm embedment length in UHPC matrix showed fiber breakage during
pullout, the embedment length of T- fiber was adjusted to estimate the bond properties of the
fiber in a UHPC matrix by avoiding fiber breakage. The slip of embedded fiber during the test
was measured from a LVDT attached to the specimen as shown in Fig. 2 while the load signal
was measured from a load cell directly attached to the bottom of the cross head. The capacity
of the load cell used in measuring pullout resistance was 500kgf.
Figure. 2: Test set-up for single fiber pullout test.
Test results
The influence of adding micro fibers on the pullout behavior of the macro fibers (LS-, HA-, HBand T-) in the UHPC matrix is provided in Fig. 3. The pullout load (stress) versus slip curves in
Fig. 3 were averaged at least from three specimens. The embedment length of LS-, HA- and
544
HB- fibers was 15mm while that of T- fiber was 5.5mm in pullout specimens as mentioned
before.
(a) LS- fiber
(b) HA- fiber
(c) HB- fiber

(d) T- fiber
Figure. 3: Pullout load versus slip response of macro fibers.
As demonstrated in Fig. 3a to 3d, the effect of adding micro fibers on the pullout behavior of the
macro fibers is various according to the types of macro fiber. Fig. 3a describes the different
pullout behavior of LS- fiber in a UHPC matrix according to the addition of micro fibers: the
maximum pullout load and the pullout energy were reduced by adding 1.5% micro fibers to a
UHPC matrix. LS- fiber maintained its typical slip softening behavior in UHPC as well.
However, there is no clear difference in the pullout behavior of HA- fiber regardless of the
addition of the micro fibers in the UHPC matrix as provided in Fig. 3b. Unlike HA- fiber, although
HB- fiber has similar geometry but different size, HB- fiber showed a clear enhancement in both
maximum pullout load and pullout energy when 1.5% micro fibers were mixed in a UHPC matrix
as shown in Fig. 3c: the maximum pullout stress of HB- fiber in a UHPC matrix with no micro
fibers is 992.0MPa while that in a UHPC matrix with 1.5% micro fibers is 1273.4MPa. The
pullout test results of LS- and HB- fibers are provided as well in Fig. 4 and Fig. 5 respectively to
show the consistency of the test results.
545
(a) No micro fibers

(b) 1.5% micro fibers
Figure. 4: Pullout load versus slip response of LS- fiber.
(a) No micro fibers

(b) 1.5% micro fibers
Figure. 5: Pullout load versus slip response of HB- fiber.
The pullout resistance of T- fiber, similar to LS- fiber, in a UHPC matrix was reduced by adding
micro fibers, i.e., T- fiber in a UHPC matrix with no micro fibers showed fiber breakage while Tfibers in a UHPC matrix mixed with micro fibers maintained fiber pullout with no fiber breakage.
Thus, the addition of micro fibers in a UHPC matrix reduced the adhesional bond strength of Tfiber. Regarding the pullout behavior of the macro fibers, T- fiber in a UHPC matrix showed slip
softening behavior unlike the typical slip hardening behavior reported. This slip softening
behavior of T- fiber in UHPC matrix is due to the highly densified matrix structure of UHPC. The
densified interfacial zone of UHPC, by incorporating very fine fillers and silicafume, significantly
enhanced the debonding pullout load. Thus, it is more difficult to produce higher pullout load
resistance after debonding, which is mainly based on a mechanical bond from the interaction
between the fiber and matrix. Since the pullout load based on the mechanical bond is
dependent upon the size and shape of T- fiber, further investigation is needed to obtain the slip
hardening behavior in a UHPC matrix by adjusting the interfacial properties and changing the
geometry of T- fibers. However, the slope of the softening part in the T- fiber pullout versus slip
curve, shown in Fig. 3d, is more gradual in comparison with other macro fibers.
546
Discussion on the test results

The influence of adding micro fibers to a UHPC matrix on the interfacial bond strength of macro
fibers is estimated by quantifying maximum bond strength and equivalent bond strength as
shown in Fig. 6a and 6b.
30
25
35
No micro fibers
0.5% micro fibers
1.0% micro fibers
1.5% micro fibers
Equivalent bond strength (MPa)
Maximum bond strength (MPa)
35
20
15
10
5
0
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
LS- fiber HA- fiber HB- fiber T- fiber

Type of macro fiber
No micro fibers
0.5% micro fibers
1.0% micro fibers
1.5% micro fibers
LS- fiber HA- fiber HB- fiber T- fiber

Type of macro fiber
(a) Maximum bond strength

(b) Equivalent bond strength
Figure. 6: Influence of adding micro fibers on interfacial bond strength.
First of all, it is clear that the bond strength of T-fiber in UHPC is significantly higher than other
macro fibers: e.g., the equivalent bond strength of T- fiber is 24-34MPa while those of other
macro fibers is 5-12MPa as shown in Figure 6.
However, the influence of adding micro fibers on the interfacial bond strength of macro steel
fibers in a UHPC matrix is quite different, as shown in Fig. 6, according to the types of macro
steel fiber. As the amount of micro fiber increased, the bond strength of HB- fiber improved
while those of LS- fiber showed a clear reduction. However, there is no clear tendency in the
pullout behavior of HA- fiber according to the addition of micro fibers. And, it is also difficult to
find any trend for T- fiber since T- fiber in a UHPC matrix with no micro fibers showed fiber
breakage at the initial stage of fiber pullout during the test.
This different tendency originated from the different pullout mechanisms and relative size
ratio between macro and micro fibers. The bond components of LS- fiber are mainly composed
of adhesional (before debonding) and frictional (after debonding) bond strength. Both
adhesional and frictional bonds are strongly influenced by the amount of matrix shrinkage and
the stiffness of interfacial transition zone between fiber and matrix [Shannag et al. (1997)].
Although the high shrinkage of a UHPC matrix is favorable for the bond strength of LS- fiber,
the effect of matrix shrinkage on LS- macro fiber is diluted by adding the micro fibers. Unlike
LS- fiber, the main bond component of deformed steel macro fibers is the mechanical bond
which is a function of geometry and material properties of macro fibers. Those deformed steel
macro fibers are though to be a little sensitive to the matrix shrinkage although the mechanical
bond strength also can be influenced by the interfacial pressure generated from the matrix
shrinkage besides the mechanical interaction between fiber and matrix.
Among the deformed steel macro fibers, HB- fiber, of which the diameter is 0.775mm,
showed clear enhancements in bond strength unlike other macro fibers with 0.3mm to 0.375mm
diameter in this study. Thus, the relative diameter of macro fiber in comparison with that of
micro fiber is also an important parameter on the influence of adding micro fibers.
547
4 Conclusions
This research investigated the influence of adding micro fibers to a UHPC matrix on the pullout
behavior of macro steel fibers: long smooth (LS-), two types of hooked (HA- and HB-) and
twisted (T-) fiber. The amount of micro fiber varied between 0.0% and 1.5%. The following
conclusions can be drawn from this experimental study.
The effect of adding micro fibers on the pullout behavior of macro fibers in a UHPC matrix is
quite different according to the type of macro fiber: LS- fiber showed a clear reduction in pullout
resistance while HB- fiber produced a noticeable enhancement by adding micro fibers in the
UHPC matrix. And, HA- fiber produced no difference according to the addition of micro fibers
while it is hard to find any trend for T- fiber.
T- fiber in the UHPC matrix produced slip softening pullout behavior unlike the typical slip
hardening pullout behavior of the fiber in mortar matrices. Nevertheless, T- fiber, among the
macro fibers investigated in this study, produced the highest values in both maximum and
equivalent bond strength.
5 Acknowledgements
The research described herein was supported by Super Bridge 200 in the Korea Institute of
Construction Technology and by the Human Resourses Development of the Korea Institute of
Energy Technology Evaluation and Planning (KETEP) grant funded by the Korea governments
Ministry of Knowledge Economy (No. 20104010100520). The opinions expressed in this paper
are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of the sponsors.
References
[1] Chan Y.-W.; Chu S.-H.: Effect of silica fume on steel fiber bond characteristics in reactive powder
concrete. Cement and Concrete Research 34, 2004, PP. 1167-1172.
[2] Kim D.J..; El-Tawil S.; Naaman A.E.: Effect of matrix strength on pullout behavior of high strength
deformed steel fibers. In ACI special publication 2010; SP 72, Antoine E. Naaman Symposium
Four Decades of Progress in Prestressed Concrete, Fiber Reinforced Concete, and Thin Laminate
Composites, Edited by G.J. Parra-Montesinos and P. Balaguru, pp. 135-150.
[3] Kim D.J.; Park S.H.; Ryu G.S.; Koh G.T.: Comparative flexural behavior of Hybrid Ultra High
Performance Fiber Reinforced Concrete with different macro fibers. Construction and Building
Materials 25. 2011; pp. 4144-4155.
[4] Markovich I.; Van Mier J.G.M.; Waliraven J.C.: Single fiber pullout form hybrid fiber reinforced
concrete, Heron, Vol. 46, No. 3, 2001, pp. 191-200.
[5] Orange G.; Acker P.; Vernet C.: A new generation of UHP Concrete: DUCTAL damage resistance
and micromechanical analysis, HPFRCC3, Mainz, Germany, 1999, pp. 101-111.
[6] Park J.J.; Kang S.T.; Koh K.T.; Kim S.W.: Influence of the ingredients on the compressive strength
of UHPC as a fundamental study to optimize the mixing proportion. In: Proceeding of Second
International Symposium on Ultra High Performance Concrete, Germany, E. Fehling, M. Schmidt
and S. Strwald, Co-Editor, Kassel University, Germany, 2008, pp. 105-112.
[7] Park S.H.; Kim D.J.; Ryu G.S.; Koh G.T.: Tensile behavior of Ultra High Performance Hybrid Fiber
Reinforced Concrete. Cement and Concrete Composites 34. 2012; pp. 172-184.
[8] Ryu G.S.; Kang S.T.; Park J.J.; Koh G.T.: Evaluation of flexural performance in UHPC (Ultra High
Performance Concrete) according to placement methods. Key Engineering Materials 2010; 417 -418:
581-584.
[9] Shannag M.J.; Brincker R.; Hansen W.: Pullout behavior of steel fibers from cement-based
composites. Cement and Concrete Research, Vol. 27, No. 6, pp. 925-936, 1997.
548
Literature Review on the Behaviour of UHPFRC at High

Temperature
Pierre Pimienta1, Jean-Christophe Mindeguia 2, Alain Simon3, Mouloud Behloul4, Roberto
Felicetti5, Patrick Bamonte5, Pietro G. Gambarova5
1:
2:
3:
4:
5:
University of Paris-Est, Centre Scientifique et Technique du Btiment, Marne La Valle, France

University of Bordeaux, 12M Laboratory (Mechanics Institute of Bordeaux), Bordeaux, France
Eiffage TP, Bridge Engineering Service (STOA), Neuilly sur Marne, France
Lafarge Ciment, Paris, France
Politecnico di Milano, Dept. of Structural Engineering, Milan, Italy
The results of several experimental campaigns concerning eight Ultra High-Performance FibreReinforced Concretes (UHPFRCs) carried out in different European industrial and university laboratories
are presented and compared in this paper. In the temperature range from 20C to 850C the results
concerning the compressive strength, the elastic modulus and the thermal strain are presented and
analysed. The influence of the testing procedures is discussed as well (for instance, with/without pre loading during the heating phase). Comparisons are made with the decay curves provided by EC 2, for
both ordinary and high-performance concrete. The presentation of the mechanical properties is
accompanied by suitable observations made during several fire-resistance tests on small structural
members (slabs, columns and beams). The temperature-time curves adopted in the tests were the wellknown curves ISO 834 and the Increased Hydrocarbon Temperature Curve (HCinc). Once more, the
effectiveness of polypropylene fibres against the risk of spalling is confirmed by the rather extended
family of UHPFRCs and by the various geometries of the specimens considered in this paper.
Keywords: Ultra High-Performance Concrete, high temperature, compressive strength, elastic modulus,
thermal strain, fire resistance, ISO fire curve, Increased Hydrocarbon Temperature Curve, concrete
spalling, polypropylene fibers.
1 Introduction
Structures made of UHPFRC (Ultra High-Performance Fibre-Reinforced Concrete) are at a risk
of fire even more than ordinary-concrete structures, since UHPFRC is generally used in rather
severe environments, where its higher durability and strength can be fully exploited. Fireinduced heating affects the structural behaviour because of the following factors:
- mechanical decay of the material;
- changes in the thermal properties; and
- thermal expansion (that is generally constrained and brings in thermal stresses).
The complex behaviour of concrete at high temperature depends on its rather high heat
sensitivity and can in principle cause a sizable damage to the structure, followed - in the worst
circumstances - by the collapse of the most exposed members and even by the collapse of the
whole structure [1]. Among the various forms of damage, concrete spalling is the most
evident, since it involves the partial destruction of the concrete member, or even its total
destruction. This phenomenon occurs both in ordinary concrete and in high-performance/ultra
high-performance concrete [2]. The spalling risk, however, is generally considered to be more
severe in compact concretes, such as high-performance and self-compacting concretes. In
most cases, concrete spalling brings in severe sectional reductions, that can be repaired at a
considerable cost [3,4,5].
For its excellent mechanical and physical properties, UHPFRC has been increasingly used in
the last ten years. UHPFRC, however, is still a rather new material, which most structural
designers are little familiar with. For this reason, some countries have recently decided to
prepare and publish guidelines on how to use UHPFRC. For instance, the French Association
549
of Civil Engineering (AFGC) has recently published (2011) an updated version of its
recommendations on the use of UHPFRC [21], where a chapter on UHPFRCs behaviour at
high temperature and in fire is included.
In this paper, a literature review is presented about several experimental campaigns carried
on eight different UHPFRCs tested in a number of European industrial and university
laboratories located in France, Italy, Germany and Denmark [6-14]. Such parameters as
compressive strength, elastic modulus and thermal strain were investigated as a function of the
temperature between 20C and 850C. Quasi-steady tests were carried out during or after the
exposure to high temperature (hot and residual tests). Though the results are somewhat
dispersed because of the differences among the mixes there are clear trends, that yield
useful information for the pre-design phase of the structures to be made of UHPFRC. The
results obtained by the different teams are systematically compared with the decay curves
provided by EC 2 [15] for high-performance concrete.
Some observations on HPFRCs behaviour under highly-unsteady heating (as in fire) are
presented as well, since physical testing is still the only reliable support for a correct design or
verification of any fire-exposed structure. In such situations, the spalling risk is high, but
calculations aimed to predict this risk are still hardly possible.
Two fire curves (ISO 834 standard curve and Increased Hydrocarbon Temperature Curve HCinc) and three geometries (slabs, columns and beams) have been studied. Polypropylene
(pp) fibres are shown to be once more - very effective in reducing or even zeroing the risk of
spalling.
2 Mix designs and main properties

University and industrial laboratories are often very reluctant to provide information about the
mix design of their UHPFRCs, since these materials are still considered as innovative
products. In Table 1 the mix designs of the 8 UHPFRCs investigated in this study are given,
even if some data were not available. In Table 2 the main mechanical properties are presented,
with their literature references.
3 Experimental setting
The main features of the experimental procedures are presented in the following. For more
details reference should be made to the literature.
Tests in quasi-steady thermal conditions
Most of the tests reported in this study were carried out in accordance with RILEMs
recommendations [16], whose use is strongly suggested whenever testing be required to
provide suitable input data in the design of a HPFRC structure. These recommendations specify
different procedures, depending on the purpose of each test. For example, the compressive
strength can be evaluated by testing at high temperature or after cooling to room temperature
(hot or residual tests), with/without any pre-loading in compression applied to the specimen
during the heating phase (stressed/unstressed specimens). Having the specimen pre -loaded in
compression during the heating phase (stressed specimens) improves the mechanical
properties at any temperature and gives a realistic picture of the static situation of R/C columns,
that are mainly subjected to permanent loads. For lightly-loaded members, however, reference
should be made to the tests without pre-loading (unstressed specimens).
The main test parameters of the studies examined in this paper are summarized in Table 3.
550
Table 1: mix design of the UHPFRCs considered in this study.
Aggregates
(kg/m3)
Water
(kg/m3)
W/
binder
ratio
Steel fibres
(kg/m3)
(length /
diameter in
mm)
Polypropylene
fibres (kg/m3)
(length /
diameter in
mm)
UHPFRC
Binder
(kg/m3)
BSI- fire *
2355 (Commercial
premix)
216
0.19
195 (20 / 0.3)
3 (12 / 0.018)
DUCTAL- AF **
2192 (Commercial
premix)
168
0.14
146 (13 / 0.2)
4.2
PolitecnicoItalcementi
635
1480
200
0.31
5.2 (20 / 0.2)

& 1.1 (6 / 0.04)
CERIB UHPC_I
Basalt & sand /
79 (13 / 0.16)
3 (12 / 0.018)
CERIB UHPC_II
Sand
133 (13 /
0.16)
3 (12 / 0.018)
BCV
2086 (Commercial
premix)
216
158 (12.7 /
0.175)
Rostock_1
Quartz,
Diabase &
sand
0.219
Rostock_3
Quartz &
sand
0.2
* Eiffage (French construction firm)
** Lafarge-Bouygues-Rhodia
/ Unavailable data
Table 2: mechanical properties and references of the UHPFRCs considered in this study.
UHPFRC
BSI- fire
(MPa)
Modulus of
elasticity (GPa)
Literature
reference
148 165
50 55
[6], [7]
160 (200 with thermal

treatment)
45 (50 with thermal

treatment)
[8]
Politecnico-Italcementi
121
42
[9] to [10]
CERIB UHPC_I
170
[11], [12]
CERIB UHPC_II
200
[11], [12]
BCV
155
45
[13]
Rostock_1
160 - 180
[14]
Rostock_3
160 - 180
[14]
DUCTAL- AF
Table 3: Main parameters of the compression tests (quasi-steady heating).
UHPFRC
Sample geometry
Heating rate
Mechanical
pre loading
(regarding to Type of
20 C
measure
compressive
strength)
BSI- fire
104 x h 300 mm cyl.
1 C/min
0%
Hot
DUCTAL- AF
70 x h 140 mm cyl.
2 C/min
0 % & 20 %
Hot & residual*
Politecnico
36 x h 110 mm cyl.
0.5 C/min
0%
Hot & residual*
CERIB UHPC_I
& CERIB UHPC_II
100 x h 300 mm cyl.
1 C/min
20 %
BCV
40 x h 60 mm cyl.
3.3 C/min
0%
Rostock_1 &
Rostock_3
70 x h 200 mm cyl.
3 C/min
0%
* In this paper, only the results obtained via hot tests are presented
551
Hot
Hot
Hot
Tests in fire
The main observations coming from the tests carried out at high temperature in unsteady
thermal conditions (i.e. in fire) on BSI- fire, Ductal- AF and CERIB-UHPFRC are presented
in the following. In parallel the same mixes were tested without polypropylene fibres in order to
verify the effectiveness of the fibrous reinforcement against the risk of spalling.
Various geometries were adopted for the specimens to be tested (slabs, columns and
beams, as well as prismatic research specimens with various sections). Some specimens
were tested in compression; other specimens were tested in 4-point bending.
As previously mentioned, in the tests characterised by unsteady thermal conditions the
standard ISO 834 Curve and the Increased Hydrocarbon Temperature Curve were adopted, the
former representing current fires, and the latter violent fires typical of tunnels.
The ISO 834 temperature-time curve is defined by Eq.1; temperatures as high as 600, 800
and 1000C are reached in 6, 24 and 90 minutes, respectively. The HC inc curve (Eq.2) is much
more severe, since 1000C are reached in only 2 minutes and 1250-1300C in 15 minutes.
T = 345 log (8 t + 1) + 20
(1)
T = 1280 (1 0.325 e(-0.167 t) 0.67 e(-2.5 t)) + 20
(2)
where T is in C and t in minutes.
4 Tests in quasi-steady thermal conditions (low heating rate)

The normalised compressive strength of the eight concretes is plotted in Figure 1 as a function
of the temperature. (The normalising factor is the strength of the unheated material, at room
temperature, i.e. in virgin conditions, see Table2).
At first glance, the test data exhibit a considerable scattering, that can be explained in two
different ways. The first reason lies in the different mix designs and initial prope rties. A second
reason is the effect of the test procedure. For instance, in the tests on stressed specimens (i.e.
pre-loaded in compression during the heating phase) the compressive strength at any
temperature tends to be larger than in unstressed specimens. The design implications are
immediate: in the case of R/C columns mostly subjected to permanent loads reference should
be made to the strength measured on stressed specimens, while the strength measured on
unstressed specimens should be adopted in the case of lightly-loaded members. However,
when only one protocol can be applied, the most conservative choice is recommended (i.e., the
strength obtained by testing unstressed specimens).
In general the relationship between the compressive strength and the temperature is
nonlinear and in some cases even highly nonlinear. A general decrease with the temperature
can be observed. In some cases, however, there is an increase up to 350-400C or in
preloaded specimens - a sort of stabilisation up to 600C, around values close to the original
strength. Values higher than the original strength have been observed also in ordinary and high performance concretes [17,18, 19].
Some comments are required by the heat sensitivity of the three weakest concretes
(between 300 and 600C), namely BSI, Politecnico and Rostock 1: the rather small difference
between BSI and Politecnico may be explained with the lack of steel fibres in the latter case,
while the greater heat sensitivity of Rostock has another probable explanation in the highlysiliceous aggregate (quartz and diabase), rather unstable at high temperature, contrary for
instance to basalt aggregate [19].
Finally, it is worth noting that Rostock 1 (no pre-loading and no steel fibres) exhibits a
mechanical decay similar to that given by EC 2 for Class 3 concrete (C90/105 MPa).
552

140
Relative compressive strength (%)
BSI_hot (0 %)
DUCTAL_hot (0 %)
120
DUCTAL_hot (20 %)
Politecnico_hot (0 %)
100
CERIB_UHPC I_hot (20 %)
CERIB_UHPC II_hot (20 %)
80
Rostock_1_hot (0 %)
BCV_hot (0 %)
EC2_Class 1
60
EC2_Class 2
EC2_Class 3
40
Caption
20
no preloading
20 % loading
0
0
200
400
600
800
Temperature (C)
Figure 1: plots of the normalised compressive strength as a function of the temperature, and comparison with
EC 2 provisions.
Modulus of elasticity
The normalised elastic modulus of six of the eight concretes is plotted in Figure 2 as a function
of the temperature. (The normalising factor is the elastic modulus of the unheated material, at
room temperature, see Table 2). As in the case of compressive strength, the scattering is huge
indeed, and the causes are the same as those mentioned earlier, i.e. different mix designs and
different initial properties on the one hand, and different test procedures on the other hand. A
third cause, however, should be added, i.e. the different ways to define the modulus (at the
origin of the stress-strain curve, secant, stabilised, static, dynamic, including inelastic strains,
). Anyway, pre-loading the specimen during the heating phase brings in a 20% increase in the
elastic modulus with respect to unstressed specimens.
In general, the relationship between the modulus and the temperature is more regular than in
the case of compressive strength, and in some cases there is a sort of linearity, at least
between 200 and 600C.
The normalised values of the elastic modulus are definitely higher than those suggested by
EC 2. EC 2, however, takes care implicitly of the so-called transient thermal strain TTS, which
is rather similar to creep, even if there is no time dependence. TTS occurs in compression
during the first load cycle and causes a relaxation of the self-stresses due to the kinematic
incompatibility between the aggregate and the cement paste.
BSI_hot (0 %)
Relative modulus of elasticity (%)
120
DUCTAL_hot (20 %)
CERIB_UHPC I_hot (20 %)
100
CERIB_UHPC II_hot (20 %)

Rostock_1_hot (0 %)
80
BCV_hot (0 %)
EC2_Siliceous aggregates
EC2_Calcareous aggregates
60
40
Caption
20
Without loading
20 % loading
0
0
200
400
600
800
Temperature (C)
Figure 2: plots of the normalised elastic modulus as a function of the temperature and comparison with EC 2
provisions.
553
Thermal strain
The thermal strain of three UHPFRC is plotted as a function of the temperature in Figure 3,
where the curves provided by EC 2 are reported as a reference. The thermal strain is highly
variable, depending on the mix design. The two extremes are represented by Ductal (whose
thermal strain continuously increases up to 600C following closely the values given by EC 2 for
siliceous aggregates, and then flattens off) and BSI (whose thermal strain increases up to
200C, then flattens off up to 300-400C and starts decreasing to zero between 600 and
700C). The behaviour of Rostock 3 is intermediate and closer to the second one. Above 700C
Rostock 3 starts decreasing and exhibits negative values (shrinkage). Summing up, it is fair to
say that the differences among the various behaviours are still not well understood.
BSI
16000
Ductal
Thermal strain(m/m)
14000
Rostock_3
Ductal
EC2_calcareous aggregates
12000
EC2_siliceous aggregates
10000
8000
6000
Rostock_3
4000
2000
0
0
-2000
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
800
BSI
-4000
Temperature (C)
Figure 3: plots of the thermal strain for three mixes and comparison with EC 2 provisions.
5 Tests in fire (highly unsteady thermal conditions)

The main features of the tests performed in highly unsteady conditions are reported in Table 4,
in terms of specimen geometry, thermal treatment, fire curve and applied load.
As an example of the tests performed on small structures, several Ductal columns exposed
to ISO 834 fire is reported. Two mixes were tested: Ductal-fire and the same mix but without
polypropylene fibres. Another example is reported in Figure 4, where two small slabs are shown
after being subjected to the ISO 834 fire. Also in this case, two mixes were tested: CERIB
UHPC II (Table 1) and the same mix but without polypropylene fibres.
These tests results (Table 4 and Figure 4) confirm the good effectiveness of the
polypropylene fibres against concrete spalling.
Figure 4: Slabs made of CERIB UHPC - II (right, with pp fibres) and reference mix (left, no pp fibres);
extensive spalling can be observed in the slab without pp fibres (left).
554
Table 4: details of the tests in fire performed on Ductal [20], BSI [6] and CERIB-UHPC [11].
Specimen
geometry
UHPFRC
Slabs
400 x 400 x 25
mm3
Ductal-AF
Columns
900 x 200 x 200
mm3
700 x 300 x 300
mm3
I shape beam
Span = 6,15 m
Thermal
treatment
Ductal-FO **
Yes
Ductal-AF
No spalling
No
Yes
Ductal-FO **
Applied load Observation
Yes ***
Ductal-FM *
Ductal-AF
Fire curve
ISO 834
Unloaded
Spalling
Yes
No spalling
No
Unloaded
ISO 834
Loaded
(4 points
bending)
Minor spalling
HCinc
Unloaded
No spalling
Yes
Yes
No
Minor spalling
ISO 834
Severe
spalling
No spalling
Cubes 100 x 100

x 100 mm3
Cylinders 110
mm x h 220 mm
BSI-fire
U shape sample
1 500 mm [11
CERIB UHPC
I et II without
pp fibres
No
ISO 834
Unloaded
Severe
spalling
U shape sample
1 500 mm [11]
CERIB UHPC
I et II with pp
fibre
No
ISO 834
Unloaded
No spalling
Yes ****
No
(*) No pp fibres; (**) no pp fibres, with organic fibres; (***) 48 hours at 90C; (****) 48 hours at 80C, in sat. vapour.
6 Conclusions
The aim of this paper is to provide useful information for structural designers on the evolution
that the mechanical properties of UHPFRC undergo at high temperature. This evolution is
documented through a concise examination of the results of a number of experimental
campaigns on eight UHPFRCs.
Though the UHPFRCs examined in this study belong to a rather small group within the very
extended family of cementitious composites, their thermal and mechanical properties at high
temperature are very dispersed in terms of compressive strength, elastic modulus and thermal
strain, just to cite the parameters considered in this study. This dispersion is mainly due to the
mix design and to the test procedures.
As commonly found in normal-strength and high-performance concrete, the compressive
strength is a nonlinear or even highly nonlinear decreasing function of the temperature. The
compressive strength appears to be dependent on the aggregate type and on the state of stress
during the heating phase. Also the elastic modulus is a decreasing function of the temperature,
but its evolution is more regular than that of the compressive strength. As for the thermal strain,
there are huge differences among the different materials examined in this study.
Polypropylene fibres appear to be very effective in limiting or preventing concrete spalling.
Because of the complexity of UHPFRCs behaviour at high temperature, the updated version
of the French AFG-SETRA guidelines (by the French Association of Civil Engineering, 2012)
considers the information gathered so far and the order of magnitude of the various
parameters - as a useful tool in the pre-design phase of UHPFRC structures. In the final phase
of the design, however, it is strongly recommended to assess experimentally the properties of
the UHPFRC to be used, especially if the structure is expected to be exposed to fire.
555
References
[1] Schrefler B.A., Khoury G.A., Gawin D., Majorana C.E.: Thermo-hydro-mechanical modelling of high
performance concrete at high temperatures. Engineering Computations 19(7-8): 787-819, 2002.
[2] Kodur V.K.R.: Spalling in High Strength Concrete Exposed to Fire Concerns, Causes, Critical
Parameters and Cures, Proceedings of Structures Congress, Advanced Technology in Structural
Engineering, Philadelphia, USA, May 8-10, 2000.
[3] Khoury G.A., Anderberg Y., Concrete spalling - Review, Fire Safety Design, 2000.
[4] Franssen J.M., Hanus F., Dotreppe J.C.: Numerical evaluation of the fire behaviour of a concrete
tunnel integrating the effects of spalling. fib task group 4.3 workshop "Fire design o concrete
structures - from materials modelling to structural performance". Coimbra, Portugal, 2007.
[5] Haack, A.: Catastrophic Tunnel Fires - What have we learnt? International symposium on
catastrophic tunnel fires (CTF). Boras, Sweden, Haukur Ingason, 2003.
[6] Mindeguia J.C., Pimienta P., Simon A., Atif N.: Experimental and numerical study of an UHPFRC at
very high temperature. Concrete under severe conditions: environment and loading. Consec'07, vol
2, p. 1659-1674, Tours, June 4-6 2007.
[7] Brekelmans J.W.P.M., Breunese A.: CERACEM split-tensile and compressive strength at high
temperatures in comparison with B105 concrete. TNO Report 2006-D-R0223, Mars 2006.
[8] Behloul M., Chanvillard G., Casanova P., Orange G.: Fire resistance of Ductal ultra high
performance concrete. Proceedings of the 1st fib congress - Concrete Structures in the 21st
Century, Osaka, 2002, pp. 105 -122.
[9] Bamonte P., Cangiano S.: High-Temperature Performance of a HPFRC for Heavy-Duty Road
Pavements, Proc. Int. Workshop Fire Design of Concrete Structures: What now? What next?, fib
TG 4.3 Fire Design of Concrete Structures, Milan, Italy, December 2004, pp.63-67.
[10] Bamonte P., Gambarova P.G.: Thermal and Mechanical Properties at High Temperature of a Very
High-Strength Durable Concrete, ASCE-J. of Materials in Civil Eng., V.22, No.6, 2010,pp. 545-555.
[11] De Chefdebien A., Robert F., Collignon C.: Performance of Ultra High Strength Concrete subjected
to fire. CONSEC'07, 5th international conference CONSEC., Vol 2, Tours June 4-6, 2007, FRA,
2007.
[12] De Chefdebien A., Robert F.: Mechanical properties of Ultra High-Performance Fibre-Reinforced
Concrete at high temperature, 7th Int. Conf. Concrete: Constructions Sustainable Option, V. 5,
Dundee, U.K., July 2008, pp.139-148.
[13] Missemer L.: Etude du comportement sous trs hautes tempratures des Btons Fibrs Ultra
Performances : application au BCV. PhD Grenoble University. May, 23rd 2011.
[14] U. Diedrichs, O. Mertzsch, Behaviour of Ultra High Strength Concrete at High Temperatures. 2nd
International Symposium on Ultra High Performance Concrete, Kassel, Mars 2008.
[15] EN 1992-1-2, Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures, Part 1.2 Structural fire design, December
2004.
[16] RILEM, "Compressive strength for service and accident conditions", Materials and structures. 28,
p.410-414, 1995.
[17] Phan L.T., High-Strength Concrete at High Temperature: An Overview. Utilization of High
Strength/High Performance Concrete, 6th International Symposium. Leipzig, Germany, 2002.
[18] Pimienta P., Proprits des BHP hautes tempratures. Etude bibliographique (HPC properties at
high temperatures. A state of the art). Cahiers du CSTB. July-August 2001.
[19] Bamonte P., Gambarova P.G., Cangiano S.: Mechanical and thermal properties of NSCs and HPCs
exposed to high temperature: cement and aggregate roles, 7th Int. Conf. Concrete: Constructions
Sustainable Option, V. 5, Dundee, U.K., July 2008, pp.103-114.
[20] Cesmat E., Pardon D. Pestana J., CSTB Tests report about the fire resistance of concrete samples,
Centre Scientifique et Technique du Btiment, Marne la Valle, France, n RS00-023, 2000.
[21] SETRA AFGC Ultra High Performance Fiber-Reinforced Concretes. Interim Recommendations,
UHPFRC task group of the French Association of Civil Engineering, January 2002.
556
Thermal properties of Mortar with Ceramic Microspheres

Sung-Gul Hong1, Sung-Hoon Kang1, Eo-Jin Lee1, Soo-Min Jeong2
1: Dept of Architecture, Seoul National University, Korea
2: Samsung Construction Co., Seoul, Korea
For the development of a new fire resistant mortar mixed with microspheres on the surface of concrete
structures, this study investigates the thermal properties of the mortars for the insulation performance.
Microspheres known as insulation material are used to delay heat transfer to the concret e. Heat transfer
in the microspheres themselves consists of three important heat exchange mechanisms: (1) heat
conduction by the solid state, (2) heat conduction by the residual gas, and (3) heat transfer by radiation.
The experimental program in this study investigates how microspheres affect the thermal conductivity of
the cement mortar. The main parameters of the program are types of microspheres, the volume ratio of
the microspheres and the relative humidity of the curing conditions. The residual flexural and
compressive strengths of mortar with microshperes after heating and the delays in temperature-rise of
the mortar specimens are discussed by analyzing the experimental result. When heat passes through a
cement paste, the vacuum properties of microspheres are generally supposed to block the heat and
lower the thermal conductivity. However, the experimental results show that the thermal conductivity of
the specimens slightly increases. The temperature-rise of the specimens, on the other hands, is delayed
due to the mixed microspheres.
Keywords: mortar with microspheres, explosive spalling, thermal property of concrete, heat resistance
mortar, microstructure of concrete
1 Introduction
Use of high performance concrete has been increasing due to the demand of new construction
materials and durability to save construction resources. High Performance Concrete (HPC) has
shown high performances and excellent durabilty in the structures.
In general, the fire resistance of reinforced concrete structures has been known to be
excellent to fire compared to steel structures. However, HPC whose compressive strength is
high, has the disadvantage related to safety due to the explosive spalling phenomenon. This
phenomenon is related to the lost of surface concrete because it cannot exhaust the water
vapor generated during a fire.
The prevalence of the fire resistance method is urgent for the direct block against heat of the
concrete with prevention explosive spalling and easy maintenance in case of fire. As a way to
compensate for former shortcomings of HPC, the most popular methods of using organic fibers
mixed in the concrete by reducing the internal vapor pressure has a point of difficult installation
and problems in terms of maintenance after the fire. Also common methods of the anti-falling
effect of concrete or mortar by wire-mesh or metal lath need the physical mock-up test. Thus,
the methods reducing or delaying temperature elevation are simple, economical, and adequate
to take the various thermal performances.However, it is difficult to conduct such a large-scale
test.
To determine the role of the microspheres in cement-based composites, various phenomena
in macro and micro-sized units have been investigated. Although, some studies on the mortar
mixed with microspheres investigated thermal properties and strength, researches on the microsized thermal properties are still necessary.
The purpose of this paper is first to review the theoretical backround of thermal insulation of
microsphere for the development of the fire resistant mortar to protect and maintain HPC by
mixing microspheres. The mortar is expected to improve the durability and fire resistance of
557
structural members. Forming the hybrid layer of the mortar on the surface of concrete
structures, the explosion protection and the excellent insulation performance secure the
structure from the flames. As the core material for insulation, microspheres are used to delay
heat transfer to the concrete. To develop the thermal microstructure for cement mortar, the
micro structural properties of concrete and mortar are analyzed as the basic material. To this
end, the effects of microspheres in the mortar are investigated to examine various perspectives.
2 Thermal properties of Microspheres

What is Microsphere?
About thirty years ago, the insulation phenomena of microspheres was attracted by many
researchers with considerable interest as a new type of cryogenic thermal insulation. It has
been qualified as a type of well-known vacuum-powder insulation. Owing to some advantages,
it can replace the classical multilayer super insulation (the latter having better thermal
properties). The basic advantages of microsphere insulation are: the large resistivity to
microsphere destruction caused by compressive forces of order 106 107 Nm-2 ; the lack of
thermal conductivity anisotropy ; the simplicity of application ; and the good reproducibility of the
thermal parameters. The apparent coefficient of thermal conductivity involved lies in the limits
2 810-4 Wm-1K-1.
The research groups in US have shown the greatest interest in microsphere insulation. Also
Poland and German have tried to apply this insulation method to practical cases. In particular,
microsphere insulation in Poland is widely used in the building and heating industry.
The microsphere insulation can be considered as a special case of the porous media. Hollow
glass spheres, typically 20 to 150 m wall thickness, provide the thermal resistance to radiation
and conduction transport. Thin coatings of a highly reflective nature can be applied to the
exterior surface of each sphere to reduce radiative heat transfer even further, or a mixture of
coated and uncoated spheres can be used in a fashion similar to the opacification of powders
by the addition of metallic particles. Compared to solid spheres, hollow spheres substantially
increase the conduction thermal resistances and reduce heat capacity and weight.
Effective Coefficient of Thermal Conductivity
The heat transfer in the microsphere insulation is due principally to the three fundamental heat
exchange mechanisms: (1) heat conduction by the solid state material, (2) heat conduction by a
residual gas, (3) heat transfer by radiation. The effective thermal conductivity coefficient k(T)
may be expressed as the sum of the corresponding components:
keff (T , p) kc (T , p) kr (T ) kss (T ) kgc (T , p) kr (T )
(1)
where, kc is the component of the heat transfer by conduction, kr is the component of the heat
transfer by radiation, kss is the component of the heat conduction by the solid state, and kgc is
the component of the heat conduction by gas.
Chan and Tien have considered a situation in which a pressure p acts on a layered medium
of regularly packed solid or thick-walled spheres. In this case, the relations for thermal
conductivity through a solid body such as this medium have the following equations:
1/ 3
1 2
kss (T ) Sp
P
E
ks (T )
for P 0
and
558
(2)

1/ 3
(1 2 )QsVs L
kss (T ) SN
P
Er03
ks (T )
for
P 0
(3)
where : Poissons ratio, Sp and SN : parameters depending on the mode of sphere packing,
L : thickness of layer of spheres, E : Youngs modulus for sphere material, P : externally
applied pressure, Qs: heat flux flowing through one sphere, ro: sphere radius, T : temperature,
V : volume of sphere.
s
Based on the equations (2) and (3), two important results are evident. First, in both cases of
loading, the thermal conductivity of microsphere layers does not depend on the microsphere
diameter d, but depends on the ratio of the wall thickness (t) to the microsphere radius ro.
Second, microsphere insulation is directly proportional to the thermal conductivity of the
microsphere materials (T).
Assuming that the thermal conductivity coefficient of the material is a linear function of
temperature and that the radiation component kr(T) is proportional to T3 then using StefanBoltzmanns law, one may write:
K (T ) AT BT 3
(4)
where, A and B are constants.

The dependence expressed by the equation was proved by experiment performed on a
sample of microspheres characterized in next part of this paper.
Applying the model of two heat fluxes transferred by radiation, Klein considered the radiation
scattering on uniform diameter spheres and obtained an expression for the dependence of the
radiation component of heat transfer:
kr (T )
4 d
s 2 p
3
T
(5)
where, : Stefan-Boltzmann constant, d : diameter of microspheres, : solid fraction, p :

emissivity coefficient of microspheres.
Based on equation (5), the diameter of microspheres is proportional to kr value. Actual
diameter of microspheres used in the experiments is small, thus small thermal conductivities
can be expected.
The component of heat transfer by gas, kgc(T,p), in microsphere insulation is a function of the
gas thermal conductivity kg, the thermal conductivity of the spheres kgr, the average local
distance between the surfaces of contacting microspheres a and the mean free path of the
gas particles L. The equation for the thermal conductivity of a gas in a porous granular material
is as follows :
5.8
s
kgc (T , p ) kg
K
1 kgr
K
1 1
ln
2
K kg
where
K 1
kgr
kg
; kg
kg 0
19 2
1
Kn
6 2
559
(6)
where kg: modified gas thermal conductivity under atmospheric pressure, kgc : component of
the heat conduction by gas, kg0 : gas thermal conductivity under atmospheric pressure, kgr:
sphere effective conductivity, K K : 1-(kg/kgr), Kn : Knudsen number, s : solid fraction, :
accommodation coefficient. The conduction of component is proportional to the internal gas
pressure.
In order to investigate the thermal properties of mortar with microsphere, specimens were
prepared in which the water-cement ratio and sand proportion were fixed at 0.50 and 0.33
respectively. The microsphere of 5, 10 and 20% to the total mortar volume were mixed to
compare the heat performance under the same conditions.
Experimental parameters are types of microspheres, volume ratio of the microspheres and
the relative humidity during curing periods. The properties of microspheres are listed in Table 1.
Table 1: Propertities of Microsphere.
Type
Diameter
(m)
Internal
gas
Density
(g/cm3)
Thermal
conductivity
M100
100
Vacuum
0.7
0.1~0.2
M80
80
Vacuum
0.38
0.127
M35
35
Vacuum
0.2
0.05
M70
70
Vacuum
0.1~0.13
M50
50~70
Vacuum
0.1~0.14
M12
12
Atmosphere
2.5
Table 2: Mixing Plan.
Mixing
Curing condition
Spec.
Temp
()
Humidity
(%)
W/C
C/S
(wt.%)
(wt.%)
(g)
Microspheres
content, Vm
(vol.%)
(g)
5M0B
225
450
1350
0.0
5M70S
201
402
1350
2.7
5M70M
177
354
1350
10
5.4
225
450
1350
3.0
5M50M
225
450
1350
10
6.1
5M12S
225
450
1350
48.0
225
450
1350
10
96.0
225
450
1350
0.0
9M100M
200
400
1201
10
49.6
9M100L
179
358
1074
20
92.0
211
423
1268
10
27.4
9M80L
199
398
1195
20
51.7
9M35M
225
450
1350
10
15.4
9M35L
211
421
1264
20
28.8
5M50S
20
50
5M12M
50
9M0B
9M80M
20
33
90
* AMBC ( A: relative humidity of the curing condition- 5 and 9 for 50% and 90%, respectively, B: diameter of
microspheres, C: amount of microspheres .
560
Before heating, the flexural and tensile strengths, microstructures and thermal conductivities
of the cement mortars are investigated and compared to the result of microstructure after
heating. This helps the effect of microspheres to the cement before and after heating to be
seen. In addition, heating temperature change of each cement mortar is investigated. The size
of specimens is different to each experiment as noted the standard developed by KS. The
mixing and curing plan for the specimens are listed in Table 2.
Strength
The fire resistance mortar made in this study is supposed to be used for exterior finishing rather
than structural components to transfer stresses. However, some minimum strength is required
for practical use. The tensile and compressive strengths are measured by flexural test and
uniaxial compressive strength by cube specimens. Figure 1 shows the results of the tests. The
yellow ones indicate the stength of the mortar without microsphere. As the amount of
microsphere increases, the tensile and compressive strength decrease due to the void spaces
in the mortar. The curing temperature also influenced the degree of strength reduction.
Figure 1: Flexural tensile strength and compressive strength of mortar with microspheres.
Thermal Conductivity Test

The thermal conductivity test was performed according to the direct plate method of KS L 9016
(Korean Industrial Standard) at the condition of the temperature, 20. The direct plate method
estimates the thermal conductivity by measuring the differences of the specimen temperature
directly and electrically when heat passes the specimens. A main heating plate is equipped with
supplementary heating plate to make heat from the main heating plate pass the test specimens
in one direction (Figure 2).
Figure 3 shows the result of thermal conductivity test. The thermal conductivity of the
specimens rises by adding microspheres, especially, small sized microspheres are added.
However, the thermal conductivity of the specimens mixed 10 % of microspheres is low
compared to that of the specimens mixed 5% of microspheres. The summary of detailed result
is listed in Table 3.
c
thermoregulator
d
thermoregulator
C F A E D
wattmeter
a
b
high
temperature
generator
low
temperature
generator
thermometer
A : Main heating plate

C : low heating plate
D : supplementary heating plate
E : warm plate
F : specimen
a : thermocouple for high temperature
b : thermocouple for low temperature
c : thermocouple for difference of warm plates
d : thermocouple for difference of supplementary plates
Figure 2: Test set-up for thermal conductivity.
561
Figure 3: Thermal conductivity results.
To compare the theory of microsphere on thermal conductivity with the exerimental results, the
state of mixture with mortar should be considered.
Table 3: Test Results
Curing Humidity
50%
Spalling
90%
Heating Rate
No spalling
M12 < M70 = M50
Thermal Conductivity
M12 < M70 < M50
All specimens except M100

M100 < M35 < M 80
-
Fire Resistance
Generally, real heating temperature is slightly below the standard temperature in the
condition of an electric furnace because electric furnace cannot raise the temperature rapidly in
a short time. Figure 4 shows the electric furnace and the test set-up for fire resistance test.
Electric heating furnace
Heating(1150)
K type thermocouple
Data out
Figure 4: Fire resistance test set-up.
The temperature of the mortar is lower than heating temperature because of its own general
physical characteristics. The rate of temperature increase of the 5M series specimens, cured on
50% humidity conditions, was lower than that of 9M series specimens because 5M series
specimens, have relatively small amount of water compared to 9M series specimens.
Figure 5 shows a typical fre resitance test results by the time of explosion due to spalling.
562

12min.
8min.
8min.
1000
900
900
800
600
800
400
300
200
600
500
400
300
100
200
100
10
20
6min.
30
40
50
700
temperature( )
temperature( )
700
500
600
500
400
300
200
time(min.)
100
60
9min.
1000
900
700
temperature( )
9min.
1000
800
10
20
30
40
50
60
10
20
30
time(min.)
(a) 9M100
5M0B
5%
1000
900
900
800
800
800
700
700
700
500
400
temperature( )
1000
900
600
600
500
400
600
500
400
300
300
300
200
200
200
100
100
100
0
0
10
20
30
time(min.)
(a) 5M70
40
50
60
60
10%
1000
temperature( )
temperature( )
Experiment
50
(b) 9M80
(b) 9M80
Standard
40
time(min.)
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
10
20
time(min.)
(b) 5M50
30
40
50
60
time(min.)
(c) 5M12
Figure 5: Fire resistance test results for explosion failure.
SEM
The term macrostructure is generally used for the gross microstructure visible to human eyes;
the limit of resolution of the unaided human eye is approximately one-fifth of a millimeter (200
m). The term microstructure is used for the microscopically magnified portion of a
macrostructure. The magnification capability of modern electron microscopes is of the order of
105 times. Therefore, application of transmission and scanning electron microscopy techniques
has made it possible to resolve the microstructure of materials to a fraction of one micrometer.
To investigate microstructure of the cement mortar, Field Emission Scanning Electron
Microscope (FE-SEM) is used (S-4800, HITACHI Ltd., Japan).
Because SEM images show only the surface of the target material, we cannot get a lot of
information of the material. Nevertheless, it is possible to confirm how the microspheres exist in
cement paste. Figure 6 and 7 show the SEM images of 9M 100-20% mortar before and after
heating, respectively. In Figue 6, the microspheres are located between cement pastes. An
important result is observed in Figure 7. Unlike other fire resistant material, e.g. PP fiber, the
microspheres are not melted at temperatures of more than 1000 degrees Celsius. This result
contributes to the insulation performance of a new fire resistant mortar.
Figure 6: SEM images of 9M100-20% mortar before heating (*200) and (*350).
563
Figure 7: SEM images of 9M100-20% mortar after heating (*200).
4 Conclusion
This paper based on the theory of thermal insulation materials has investigated the mortar with
high-performance microspheres for the developlmnet of the mortar on the surface of concrete
structures.
From the experimental program in this study, the following results can be drawn.
1. The size of microspheres effects on thermal properties slightly.
2. Temperature increases differently depending on density of microspheres, the volume of
microspheres, and the mixing condition - humidity.
3. The mortar with low thermal conductivity has low heating rate.
According to the experiments, the smaller diameter of microspheres, the lower mortar
internal vapor pressure. The smaller amount of microspheres temperature showed a lower
temperature-rise rate. The equation in the section 2.2 to obtain the thermal conductivity of the
substance is influenced by the variables - Kss: density of the wall of microspheres material, kr:
the diameter of microspheres. In the heating experiment, the variables included the volume ratio
of microspheres (0, 5, 10, 20% volume percent) and the diameter of microspheres. To predict
the thermal conductivity of mortar by the equation, it is required more investigation of the
thermal properties of fire resistance mortar.
5 Acknowledgement
This study was supported by Brain Korea Program 2.
References
[1] Sarvaranta, L. & P.Raivio. (1994). Microstructure of fibre mortar composites under fire impact effect
of polypropylene and polyacrylonitrile fibres. Cement and Concrete Research, 24(5), 896-906.
[2] Rafalowicz, R. w. (1988). Heat transfer in microsphere insulation. Journal of Thermal Ana lysis, 34,
249-527.
[3] Tien, C. L., & Cunnington, G. R. (1976, October). Glass microsphere cryogenic insulation.
CRYOGENICS, 583-586.
[4] Toshifumi Sugama, E. w. (1994). Microsphere-filled lightweight calcium phosphate cements. Journal
of Materials science, 29, 5165-5176.
[5] Wawryk, R., Rafalowicz, J., & Balcerek, K. (1983, August). The influence of microsphere diameter
on the coefficient of thermal conductivity of microsphere insulation. CRYOGENICS, 441-443
[6] Chan, C. K., & Tien, C. L. (1973). Conductance of packed spheres in vacuum. Journal of Heat
Transfer, 95, 3, 302-308.
564
Material Characterization of an Ultra High-Performance-Fibre

Reinforced Concrete under Elevated Temperatures
Richard Way, Kay Wille
Dept. of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Connecticut, United States
Concretes resistance to fire is a widely investigated topic. In this research, a new approach for
investigating the residual compressive strength and elastic modulus of a commercially available ultrahigh performance concrete is used to determine the effects of chemical and material degradation. The
material known as Ductal was provided by LaFarge North America. This mix was cast into cylindrical
specimens of 76.3 x 152.4 mm, dried at 135C for four weeks, and then heated from 135 to 900C. A
heating rate of less than 0.2C/min was used in order to minimize the risk of spalling and harmful thermal
gradients. Prior to heating the specimens, a DSC/TGA analysis was carried out on powdered concrete
material to obtain the areas of interest in the heating range.Residual compressive strength and elastic
modulus were then tested.
Keywords: UHPC, Ductal, Thermal Testing, Fire, DSC, DTG, Compressive Strength, Elastic Modulus
1 Introduction
Fire or sources of high temperature continue to be serious threats to structures constructed of
concrete. This area of research has been investigated in many different capacities over the
years from investigations into the effect of fire on the mechanical properties of normal strength
concretes [1] to the investigations of fibre-reinforced composites exposed to high temperatures
[2], to the recent investigations in High and Ultra High Performance Concretes (HPC, UHPC)
under thermal loading [3-5]. Research has shown that increasing the temperature rapidly can
lead to the risk of explosive spalling. This is especially true in concretes with low porosity such
as HPC and UHPC [5-6], in which the vapour pressure cannot be released easily. However, the
use of steel and polypropylene fibres has been shown to mitigate this problem [5-6]. The
damaging effects resulting from vapour pressure and thermal gradient are defined as physical
degradation.
Additional strength loss in concrete at elevated temperatures is found to come from a wide
range of chemical decompositions [7-8]. These include the dehydration of cement gel at
temperatures greater than 100C and the chemical dehydration of Portlandite, Ca(OH) 2, at
temperatures greater than 450C [9-10]. Beyond 570C quartz aggregate undergoes an alphabeta phase change resulting in an expansion of the quartz molecules [8-9]. These are only two
of many chemical and molecular changes that occur due to heating. The damaging effects
resulting from dehydration and decomposition of the composite materials are defined as
chemical degradation.
There have been extensive efforts to develop empirical relationships between the
mechanical properties and temperature of the concrete [8] considering the combination of
physical and chemical degradation. In laboratory tests, concrete was reported to lose only a
small fraction of its compressive strength below 400C. However, after this point the concrete
loses around 40% of its strength [11]. By the time concrete reaches 1000C, it has typically lost
most of its compressive strength. Similarly, as the temperature of exposure climbs the elastic
modulus decreases dramatically [2, 7]. This results in a decreased stiffness and a decreased
resistance to bending, shear, torsion and axial loading.
While there have been a large number of tests conducted on the effects of heat on concrete
residual strength, there have been very few tests performed that stray away from standardized
565
heating curves such as ASTM E-119-11a [12]. These heating curves are used to mimic the
heating rate and intensity of a model fire for the purposes of testing. This rate of heating as
discussed above can result in a build-up of vapour pressure, caused by evaporating free and
physically or chemically bound water. This is widely thought to be the cause of spalling. [6] The
effect of chemistry alone has not been extensively researched for UHPC.
Research presented here is performed under very slow heating conditions to investigate the
relationship between chemical degradation of UHPFRC and residual mechanical properties.
2 Procedure
Mixing
In this research the commercially available ultra-high performance fibre-reinforced concrete
Ductal has been used. LaFarge North America provided the constituent materials, mix design
and mixing regiment. Further information about the material can be found in [13-14]. The water
to cement ratio was found to be 0.183. [14] A concrete mixer from Eirich has been used with
variable speed control for pan and rotor. During the mix, the mixer was stopped for a few
moments to allow air to escape, which decreases the air void content in final concrete samples
[15]. Additionally the bowl walls and mixing tools were scraped to prevent introduction of dry
materials at the end of mixing. Specimens were cast into 76.3 x 152.4mm (3 x 6 in) metal
cylindrical moulds using vibratory compaction and a circular pouring pattern in an attempt to
disperse the fibres randomly throughout the mix. After cylinders were cast, they were allowed to
sit on the vibration table for one minute and then were removed. After casting was complete
specimens were covered in plastic sheet to prevent water loss.
In order to ensure an acceptable thermal gradient, several specimens were cast with two
type K thermally shielded thermocouples embedded. The first thermocouple was embedded at
the centre of the specimen and the other was placed immediately below the surface of the
sample (see Fig. 1).
Figure 1: Thermocouple Placement.
Specimen Preparation
Specimens were allowed to sit for 24 hours in the moulds and then steam cured at 95%
humidity and 90C for roughly 44 hours. After the curing was complete, specimens were cooled
to room temperature and ground to within 0.2 of end planeness. This was tested with a
dilatometer to locate the high and low point of the specimens ends then a distance was
measured between the two to ensure the criteria were not exceeded.
566
Material Characterization of an Ultra High-Performance-Fibre Reinforced Concrete under Elevated Temperatures
Once the specimens were ground, they were placed into a convection oven and slowly
heated to 135C and were held there for a period of four weeks. This was used to drive off as
much free water as possible before the specimens underwent the heating.
3 Testing
DSC/TGA
Prior to heating the specimens, a Differential Scanning Calorimetry/ Differential
Thermogravimetry analysis (DSC/DTG) was conducted using a Netzsch STA 449 F3 Jupiter
Simultaneous TGA/DSC. Samples of the concrete without fibres were ground to a powder using
a ceramic mortar and pestle. This powder was then loaded into an aluminium oxide holder for
testing. The DSC/DTG tests were completed in order to determine critical points in the heating
process. They were carried out in an argon atmosphere with temperatures ranging from 20C to
1000C. Argon was chosen because of its inert characteristics.
Temperature Testing
Ten temperature steps were chosen to investigate the effect of change in chemistry on the
residual compressive strength and elastic modulus. For each temperature step, three
specimens were tested in compression. In order to ensure the thermal gradient in the concrete
did not lead to an uneven thermal expansion, specimens were tested at a ramp rate of less than
0.2C per minute or approximately 12C per hour. This slow heating rate was also used to allow
slow elimination of any remaining free water or water liberated by chemical dehydration. It also
allowed time for equilibration of temperature between the surface and core of sample, which
was constantly monitored by the thermocouples in a dummy specimen. Once the specimens
reached their target temperature they remained there for at least two hours. Some specimens
remained at the target temperature longer as research has suggested that beyond one hour at
a temperature, the change in compressive strength was not statistically significant [4]. After
heating, specimens were cooled to room temperature at the same rate. For this research,
specimens heated to 90C are considered to be the control specimens.
Compressive strength tests were carried out using a Satec 1800kN load frame with a MTS
controller. While ASTM C39-10 prescribes a loading rate of approximately 0.25 MPa/s, the
ultra-high compressive strength of UHPFRC necessitates a quicker load rate [14]. The
compressive tests were performed machine displacement controlled with a loading rate of
0.5mm/min. Specimens were loaded, carefully centred, and pre-stressed with approximately 4.5
kN of force before beginning the test.
Elastic Modulus
The elastic modulus was measured as the slope of the linear stress versus strain curve. The
strain was measured by three LVDTs held in place using a three armed LVDT holder pictured in
Figure 2. The cross piece is mounted with thumb screws at approximately 2.5 cm from each
end of the specimen. The distance between the thumb screws has been measured prior to each
test for strain calculation.
567
Figure 2: Test setup for compression tests.

In order to better understand the temperature ranges that powdered UHPC is undergoing
specific phase changes or chemical decompositions, a DSC/DTG test was carried out. The
results for this test can be seen in Figures 3 and 4. The TGA was used to determine the
percentage mass loss of the concrete with an increase in temperature. As the overall output is
very smooth, the derivative of the graph was taken in order accentuate the changes in slope
that would correspond to rapid change in mass loss.
Figure 3: % Mass Loss and Derivative % Mass Loss plot vs. Temperature.
The first spike in the DTG plot occurs at roughly 114C. This point most certainly corresponds to
the evaporation of free water from the concrete powder. Between 420C and 500C, another dip
occurs. In this temperature range, typically the Ca(OH) 2 dehydrates into Lime (CaO) and water
[16]. Around 770C, the graph takes a final dip where tobermorite and xonotlite dehydrate in
wollastonite. [17]
568
Figure 4: DSC and DDSC plot vs. Temperature.
Similar to the DTG plots, the DDSC shows a peak around 100C which most likely
corresponded to evaporating free water from the system. The peaks in the DDSC around 250C
most likely align with the reorientation and dehydration of tobermorite which takes place
between 250C and 300C. [18] At around 570C, phase transition from alpha to beta phase
quartz can be seen which leads to an increase in volume of the quartz molecule. [2, 8-9, 16]
Between 700C and 800C there is another dip which most likely coincides with the dehydration
of xonotlite and tobermorite to low T-wollastonite. [17]
Figure 5 shows the residual compressive strength of Ductal exposed to ten different
maximum temperatures (90C, 135C, 200C - 900C). Results are presented as individual test
values with an average trend overlaid. All specimens exposed to 135 up to 900C were ovendried for about 4 weeks prior to exposing them to higher temperatures. An increase in
compressive strength of 32% and 43% over the control specimens at 90C have been obtained
for the specimens heated up to 135C and 200C, respectively. This increase might be
attributed to the dehydration and reorientation of tobermorite in the cement paste as well as the
lack of free water in the specimen. [17-18] The continual decrease in compressive strength after
500C is most likely linked to the dehydration of the calcium silicate hydrate products and
thermal expansion damage of the cement paste. The second sudden drop after 700C is likely
attributed to the dehydration of xonotlite and tobermorite into T-wollastonite. [17]
Figure 5: Compressive Strength vs. Temperature.

569
The residual elastic modulus versus temperature (Fig. 6) follows a similar trend to the residual
compressive strength plot. However, the elastic modulus only increased by about 5% for the
specimens which were oven dried in comparison to the control values. For samples heated to
200C, the compressive strength increased but the modulus of elasticity actually decreased
reaching a value of only 1% higher than the control specimens.
Figure 6: Modulus of Elasticity vs. Temperature.
The results of the residual compressive strength and elastic modulus suggests that oven dried
specimens have a better mechanical behaviour than the control specimens, steam cured at
90C. The increase in compressive strength and modulus up to 200C is followed by a
progressive decrease of mechanical properties with the increase in temperature. This indicates
changes to and deterioration of the chemical structure of the concrete.
Through the course of testing, specimens failed suddenly with low ductility. This could be
attributed to excessive drying and fibre settling observed along the height of the specimens.
More investigations are needed to characterize the ductility of dried specimens. Specimens
heated to 300C and 400C after drying showed a marked increase in ductility over those from
other thermal ranges. However, despite having comparable residual compressive strength,
specimens heated to 500C failed to show this same ductility. It is worth noting the specimens
heated to 500C still had a compressive strength of 93% of the control value. Beyond 500C,
the mechanical properties significantly degraded. For specimens heated to 900C, the
compressive strength and the elastic modulus dropped to just 5% and 3%, respectively. Table 1
shows the residual compressive strength and elastic modulus in terms of a percentage of the
control.
570
Table 1: Residual Compressive Strength and Elastic Modulus.
Temperature (C)
f'c(T)/f'c(90)
E(T)/E(90)
90
1.00
1.00
135
1.32
1.05
200
1.43
1.02
300
1.00
0.86
400
0.99
0.74
500
0.93
0.57
600
0.69
0.41
700
0.37
0.20
800
0.11
0.04
900
0.05
0.03
Figure 7 illustrates failed specimens at different temperatures. The specimen on the left only
underwent the drying treatment. During failure it maintained its physical shape and showed no
signs of thermal decay. On the right is a specimen heated to 900C. The specimen broke in half
while testing revealing a deteriorated matrix more closely resembling dried sand than concrete.
The fibres had degraded to the point where they were no longer distinguishable from the
concrete beyond small black dots on the failed surface. Here, it becomes visible how the
chemical deterioration of concrete and fibres can affect the mechanical properties of UHPFRC.
Figure 7: Failed specimens under different temperatures (left 135C, right 900C).
5 Conclusions
The research focused on the investigation of the residual mechanical properties of Ductal
UHPFRC under elevated temperatures. Special emphasis was placed on specimen preparation
and curing conditions in order to not damage the specimen due to vapour pressure or unequal
thermal gradient.
1. Oven dried specimens performed better than those un-dried. This is most likely due to
accelerated hydration and the reduction of incompressible water in the pore structure.
Compressive strength and elastic modulus increased up to 200C and significantly
decreased over 500C. The rapid downward trend after 500C is in agreement with most
current research on the topic.
2. As the temperature of the concrete approaches 900C, the concrete deteriorated beyond
usability. At 900C the compressive strength and modulus of elasticity of the concrete
had dropped to less than 5% of their original values. This can be attributed to the
chemical degradation and excessive cracking due to thermal stresses despite slow
heating rate.
571
3. Beyond 700C, the steel fibres had degraded to the point where they were no longer
distinguishable from the concrete itself. This loss of strength is most likely attributed to
the slow cooling process which did not allow the steel to quench and regain its strength.
4. Ductility was shown to increase for specimens heated to 300C and 400C. The exact
reasons for the increase in ductility were not readily discernible and require addition
investigation. It was also seen that specimens heated below 400C did not show
cracking due to thermal gradients.
References
[1] M. S. Abrams: Compressive Strength of Concrete at Temperatures up to 1600F. PCA Research
and Developement Bulletin, RD016. 1973.
[2] Lau, A.; Anson, M.: Effect of high temperatures on high performance steel fibre reinforced concrete.
[3] Khalig, W.; Kodur, V.K.R.: Effect of High Temperature on Tensile Strength of Different Types of High
Strength Concrete. ACI Materials Journal V 108, pp. 394-402. July-August 2011.
[4] Burke, B.T: Residual Strength of Ultra-High Performance Concrete After Exposure to Elevated
Temperatures. Master's Theses Paper 44, 2011.
[5] Heinz, D.; Dehn, F.; Urbonas, L.: Fire Resistance of Ultra High Performance Concrete (UHPC)
Testing of Laboratory Samples and Columns under Load. International Symposium on Ultra High Performance Concrete, pp. 703-715, Kessel 2004.
[6] Wille, K.; Dehn, F.: Micro analytical investigations on the effect of polypropylene fibres in fire
exposed high-performance concrete (HPC). 6th International RILEM Symposium on Fibre
Reinforced Concretes, pp. 659-668 2004.
[7] Odelson, J.B.; Kerr, E.A.; Vichit-Vadakan, W.: Youngs Modulus of Cement Paste At Elevated
Temperature. Cement and Concrete Research 37, pp. 258-263 2007.
[8] Alarcon-Ruiz, L.; Platret, B.; Massieu, E.; Ehrlacher, A.: The Use of Thermal Analysis in Assessing
the Effect of Temperature on a Cement Paste. Cement and Concrete Research 35, pp. 609-613
2005.
[9] William, K,; Rhee, I.: Thermal Degradation of Heterogeneous Concrete Materials. Journal of
Materials in Civil Engineering 17 (3), pp.276-285 2005.
[10] Jonaitis, B.; Papingis, V.: Effect of Long-Term Loading and Fire Temperatures on Mechanical
Properties of Concrete. Journal of Civil Engineering and Management 11 (4), pp. 283-288 2005.
[11] Joongwon, L.; Choi, K.; Hong, K.: The Effect of High Temperature on Color and Residual
Compressive Strength of Concrete. Fracture Mechanics of Concrete and Concrete Structures 7, pp.
1772-1775, 2010.
[12] ASTM E-119-11a: Standard Test Methods for Fire Tests of Building Construction and Materials.
American Society of Testing and Materials. 2011.
[13] Ahlborn, T.M.; Peuse, E.J.; Misson, D.L.: Ultra-High-Performance-Concrete for Michigan Bridges
Material Performance Phase I. Michigan Technical University, Michigan Department of
Transportation. 2008.
[14] Graybeal, B. A.: Material Property Characterization of Ultra-High Performance Concrete. PSI, Inc.
Federal Highway Administration. 2006.
[15] Schachinger, I.; Schubert, J.; Mazanec, O.: Effect of Mixing and Placement Methods on Fresh and
Hardened Ultra High Performance Concrete (UHPC). International Symposium on Ultra High
Performance Concrete pp.575-586, Kassel, 2004.
[16] Mendes, A.; Sanjayan, J.; Collins, F.: Phase transformations and mechanical strength of OPC/
Slag pastes submitted to high temperatures. Materials and Structures 41, pp. 345350, 2008.
[17] Shaw, S.; Henderson, C.M.B.; Komanschek, B.U.: Dehydration/Recrystallization mechanisms,
energetics, and kinetics of hydrated calcium silicate minerals: an in situ TGA/DSC and synchrotron
radiation SAXS/WAXS study. Chemical Geology 167, pp.141-159, 2000.
[18] Taylor, H.F.W.: The Dehydration of Tobermorite. Clays and Clay Materials 6, pp.101-109, 1957.
572
Behavior of Ultra High Performance Concrete (UHPC) in Case

of Fire
Dietmar Hosser, Bjrn Kampmeier, Dirk Hollmann
Institute of Building Materials, Concrete Construction and Fire Protection (iBMB), Technische Universitt
Braunschweig, Germany
The use of UHPC for building constructions requires design models for fire resistance according to
Eurocode 2 part 1-2. For these design models the thermal properties and the mechanical properties of
UHPC have to be determined as functions of temperature. In addition, it is important to predict the
distinctive explosive spalling behavior of UHPC which can lead to an early collapse of building members.
Thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity have been analyzed using the TPS method (Transient Plane
Source). In addition, the specific heat has been determined by DSC (Differential Scanning Calorimeter)
and the mass loss by TGA (Thermo Gravimetric Analysis). The test data show that the thermal
conductivity of UHPC is somewhat higher than for normal strength concrete. Steady state tests and
unsteady-state tests have been performed to derive temperature-dependent stress-strain relationships
which also contain high temperature creep.
Keywords: UHPC, fire, thermal properties, thermo-mechanical properties, explosive spalling
1 Introduction
The current priority program 1182 Nachhaltiges Bauen mit ultrahochfestem Beton (UHPC)
(`Sustainable building with ultra-high performance concrete`) of the German Research
Foundation (DFG) pursues the goal of creating a reliable scientific data base for building with
UHPC from source material up to the finished building component.
The priority program consists of 34 research projects, some of which are already completed
and others are still running until 2012. In the research project Theoretische und experimentelle
Untersuchungen zur Ermittlung und Optimierung des Brandverhaltens von ultra-hochfestem
Beton (`Theoretical and experimental investigation for determination and optimization of ultrahigh performance concretes fire behavior`) iBMB is investigating the necessary fundamentals
for structural fire design of structural members and systems with fire protection requirements.
Currently, there are significant knowledge gaps regarding the thermal as well as the mechanical
material properties of UHPC under fire exposure. Furthermore explosive spalling of UHPC in
case of fire seems to be very critical and suitable solutions need to be found to avoid failure of
structural members.
In this report interim results of the research project are presented. Particular attention is paid
to i) the thermal material properties which are used to calculate the temperature rise in cross
sections due to fire exposure and ii) the thermo-mechanical material properties which are
needed for calculating the load-bearing capacity using simplified or general calculation methods
according to Eurocode 2 part 1-2 (in the following: EC 2-1-2) [1]. Based on the experimental
results, numericals models for calculating the behavior of UHPC structures regarding to
temperature rise, load bearing and deformation behavior will be developed. The models will be
validated with the help of large scale fire tests of loaded columns under standard fire exposure.
Two representative mixtures of UHPC which were developed in another project of the priority
program have been examined: a mortar with indication M3Q and a concrete with indication B5Q
(see table 1).
573
Table 1
Typical mixtures for 1 m volume of UHPC M3Q (mortar) and B5Q (concrete).
M3Q
Mass [kg]
B5Q
Mass [kg]
Water
175
155
CEM I 52,5 R HS/NA
825
650
Microsilica
175
170
Liquifier
27,5
34,5
Quartz powder
200
456
Quartz sand 0,125/0,5
975
354
Basalt 2/5
298,5
Basalt 5/8
298,5
80 (1 Vol.-%)
201 (up to 2,5 Vol.-%)
up to 2,5 kg/m
up to 2,5 kg/m
(0,27 Vol.-%) *
(0,27 Vol.-%) *
Base material
Steel fibers 0,19/9 mm

PP-fibers
* optimal fiber addition is still object of research
2 Influencing Factors
When using UHCP in building constructions, requirements concering load capacity and
durability and on the other side on fire protection have to be fulfilled. The latter refer to reaction
to fire and fire resistance time. According to the German standard DIN 4102-4 [2] UHPC can be
classified as building material class A (non-combustible) without any further proofing. Since the
structural fire design rules for normal strength concrete are not valid for UHCP, the behavior
under fire exposure is still an open question, especially the temperature-dependent strength
and deformation. In addition, the temperature of the reinforcing steel bars is important for the
fire resistance of reinforced concrete members. Therefore it is necessary to calculate the
temperature profile inside the cross-section in case of fire. For this purpose the thermal material
properties , and cp are needed which are temperature-dependent, too. Knowing the thermal
and the thermo-mechanical properties, the fire resistance time can be calculated. It has to be
ensured that the concrete cover which protects the reinforcing steel is not seriously damaged
due to fire exposure, i. e. explosive concrete spalling has to be avoided or at least limited.
Otherwise one cannot rule out that reinforcing steel bars or tendons become directly exposed to
the fire, leading to a rapid loss of load capacity.
3 Spalling and heating behavior

To examine the spalling and heating behavior, 20 specimens with a cross section of 20 x 20
cm and a length of 60 cm were made of M3Q and B5Q. They were examined unloaded under
fire exposure according to the standard fire curve (SFC). The endings of the specimens were
protected by vermiculite panels, therefore a two-dimensional heating input can be assumed
(see Fig. 1).
The objective of these experiments was to show which combination of fire protecting lining
and PP fibers content (polypropylene) is able to minimize concrete spalling under SFC
exposure. Therefore varying amounts of PP fibers were added to the concrete mixtures and
different linings and coatings were applied to protect the specimens against heating. Table 2
shows the different combinations of PP fibers content and protective coating.
574
Behavior of Ultra High Performance Concrete (UHPC) in Case of Fire
Figure 1: Test set-up for investigating the spalling and heating behavior of UHCP specimens exposed to SFC.
Table 2: List of examined combinations of PP fibers content and lining.
Formula
PP fibers content
[kg/m] ([Vol.-%])
Protective coating / lining
0 (0)
------------------High performance fire protection coating
B5Q
Mineral wool 10 mm
0,75 (0,08)
Mineral wool 20 mm
Ablation coating
Intumescent paint
1,50 (0,16)
----------
2,25 (0,25)
----------
0 (0)
------------------High performance fire protection coating
M3Q
Mineral wool 10 mm
0,75 (0,08)
Mineral wool 20 mm
Ablation coating
Intumescent paint
1,50 (0,16)
----------
2,25 (0,25)
----------
Each combination is examined with both concrete mixtures B5Q and M3Q. Hereby PP fibers
content varies in the range of 0 to 2,25 kg/m (0 to 0,25 Vol.-%). Mineral wool panels (thickness
10 mm and 20 mm), a high performance fire protection coating (originally developed for wooden
building components), an ablation coating and a costumary intumescent paint are used as
protection systems. To examine the influence of PP fibers on concrete spalling separately as
575
well as for comparison reasons, specimens without protection are examined, too.
Thermocouples are attached halfway level of the specimens concrete surface as well as in a
depth of 10 mm, 20 mm, 30 mm, 40 mm and 50 mm to measure the temperature inside the
cross-section. The behavior of the test specimens under fire exposure (especially temporal
alterations of the protection system and spalling process) is documented and analyzed by video
recording. Additionally, the specimens are weighed before and after the experiments to get an
objective valuation.
Figure 2 shows for the specimens without lining decisive dependencies between the spalled
concrete mass, the concrete mix and the PP fibers content. If the concrete does not contain any
PP fibers the test specimens of the M3Q mixture are completely destroyed. The concrete with
the B5Q mixture shows considerably less tendency of spalling: without addition of PP fibers this
kind of concrete has only limited surface spallings. Increasing the fibers content of both
concrete mixtures up to 1,5 kg/m (0,16 Vol.-%) and more, there is practically no destructive
spalling, as far as unloaded situation is concerned.
0,75 kg/m PP
1,50 kg/m PP
2,25 kg/m PP
(0 Vol.-%)
(0,08 Vol.-%)
(0,16 Vol.-%)
(0,25 Vol.-%)
B5Q
M3Q
0 kg/m PP
Figure 2: Spalling tests under SFC exposure on prisms 20/20/60 [cm] with different PP fibers contents and
UHPC mixtures M3Q (above) and B5Q (below).
To study the heating behavior of reinforcing bars of the specimens with lining or coating,,
temperature development at the lateral surface in 3 cm depth of B5Q specimens is measured.
Figure 3 shows the temperatures as a function of fire duration. For comparison temperature
development without coating systems is pictured, too.
576
800
B5Q 0,75 PP
B5Q 0,75 PP, ablation coating
B5Q 0,75 PP, HPC
B5Q 0,75 PP, 10 mm mineral wool
B5Q 0,75 PP, 20 mm mineral wool
700
temperature [C]
600
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
15
30
45
time [min]
60
75
90
Figure 3: Temperature development at 3 cm depth of B5Q with fibers content 0,75 kg/m (0,08 Vol.-%)
specimens with different lining or coating during 90 minutes of SFC exposure
Remarkably, the temperature of the unprotected specimen at the position in question exceeds
700 C after 90 minutes fire exposure. A thermal analysis according to EC 2-1-2 [1] with thermal
material properties for normal strength concrete results in temperatures of only 615 C.
Reasons for the rapid temperature rise can be found in the high thermal conductivity of UHPC
which is explained in the next chapter.
With the help of the examined ablation coating temperatures are reduced by about 120 C
compared to the unprotected specimen. The high performance fire protection coating even
yields a reduction by about 350 C. The available coating systems are therefore suitable to
prevent heating of inserted reinforcement, even with very architecturally-complex crosssections. Mineral wool lining, which was examined for comparison, only provides final
temperatures of about 200 C, which is even another advantage for this protection option.
4 Thermal material properties

In the following, the laboratory tests to determine the thermal material properties thermal
conductivity and specific heat cp of UHPC and the related results for the concrete mixes B5Q
and M3Q are presented. All experimental studies include test specimens at an age of 100 days
at least which were stored at indoor temperature after 28 days. The expected moisture content
varies in a range of 2,5 to 3,2 M.-%.
Transient Test Procedure
The temperature-dependent volumetric specific heat capacity cp and the heat conductivity
can be analyzed simultaneously with the aid of the so-called TPS method (Transient Plane
Source) according to DIN EN ISO 22007-2 [3]. The TPS method is a transient process in which
a sensor is clamped between two halves of one specimen. The sensor serves as heating
element and temperature sensor at the same time. The measured data provide a basis for the
determination of the heat conductivity and the thermal diffusity D = /(cp). The quotient of
both provides the volumetric specific heat capacity cp. With the help of a bulk density model
the needed mass-related specific heat capacity cp is derived. For more detailed theory see [7].
The TPS method is hardly used in Germany, whereas the applicability to building materials has
been proven by SP Fire Technology [4].
577
Thermal conductivity
Temperature-dependent thermal conductivity of UHPC mixtures B5Q and M3Q with 0,75 kg/
(0,08 Vol.-%) fibers content is shown in figure 4. The design model of the upper limit according
to EC 2-1-2 [1], which is shown for comparison, gives lower values. At SP Fire Technology [4]
high strength concrete was examined with the TPS device and the results were even higher as
for B5Q and M3Q. The great density of UHPCs structure is supposed to be the reason for the
higher thermal conductivity.
3,00
upper limit EC2-1-2

B5Q 0,75 kg/m PP
M3Q 0,75 kg/m PP
SP Fire Technology
thermal conductivity [W/mK]
2,500
2,00
1,500
1,00
,500
,00
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
700
temperature [C]
Figure 4: TPS measurements: temperature-dependent thermal conductivity of B5Q and M3Q with fibers
content 0,75 kg/m (0,08 Vol.-%); for comparison upper limit for normal strength concrete according to EC 21-2 [1] and measurements at SP Fire Technology [4] for high strength concrete.
Specific heat capacity

When using the TPS method, it is necessary to stabilize the temperature exactly within the
specimen and the sensor. Due to the resulting dwell time the energetic effects of the chemical
reaction or evaporation of free and bonded water are not detected. In addition to the TPS
method, DSC measurements (dynamical difference calorimetry) are carried out according to
DIN 51007 [5]. In this context the so-called Saphir method is used which enables the
determination of the specific heat capacity up to temperatures of 600 C. In t he following the
results of the DSC measurement concerning B5Q and M3Q with PP fibers content 0,75 kg/m
(Vol.-%) are depicted and discussed (see figure 5).
Reaching a temperature of 100 C, a distinctive heat capacity peak becomes evident
resulting from the free and physically bound water. The peak at 450 C is based on the
decomposition of portlandit and the smaller one at 570 C on the quartz lattice changes [6].
The data dimensions in EC 2-1-2 [1] are comparable, although they contain the peaks of the
physical and chemical processes in a simplified way in form of calculation values.
The temperature-dependent mass loss of UHPC can be measured by thermogravimetric
analysis (TGA) according to DIN 51006 [7]. By neglecting the change of volume under
temperature exposure, the TGA values can directly be transferred into a model for the mass per
unit volume. Figure 6 shows the related mass per unit volume of B5Q und M3Q with 1,50 kg/m
(0,16 Vol.-%) fibers content in comparison with normal concrete of EC 2-1-2 [1]. At the age of
around 100 days B5Q has an absolute mass per unit volume of 2500 up to 2600 kg/m and
M3Q of 2300 up to 2400 kg/m. In EC 2-1-2 [1] a somewhat lower mass per unit volume of 2300
kg/m is used for concrete with silicious aggregate.
578
specific heat capacity [MJ/(kgK)]
003
EC 2-1-2
B5Q 0,75 kg/m PP
M3Q 0,75 kg/m PP
002
002
001
001
000
0
100
200
300
400
500
temperature [C]
600
700
800
900
Figure 5: DSC measurements: specific heat capacity of UHPC; B5Q and M3Q mixtures with 0,75 kg/m (0,08
Vol.-%) fibers content.
related mass per unit volume [%]
100
M3Q 1,50 kg/m PP

B5Q 1,50 kg/m PP
EC2-1-2
98
96
94
92
90
88
86
0
100
200
300
400
500 600 700

temperature [C]
800
900
1000 1100 1200
Figure 6: TGA measurements: related mass per unit volume of UHPC; B5Q and M3Q mixtures with 0,75 kg/m
(0,08 Vol.-%) fibers content.
5 Mechanical material properties

In order to determine the temperature-dependent mechanical material properties, three different
test types in accordance with [8] are used. At test type I, the steady-state test, specimens are
analyzed at constant temperature and increasing load until failure occurs. This is followed by
strain measurement. In regard to test type II, specimens are under constraint concerning their
strain. The constraint forces are measured during heating up. The so-called unsteady-state high
temperature creep tests form test type III. Here specimens are heated up at a constant load
until failure occurs, again followed by deformation measurement. This test type has a major
importance for fire behavior of structural elements because it reflects the real load situation
best. The steady-state tests must not be used directly for calculating the components
579
deformation in case of fire, because they do not consider the high temperature creep. For this
purpose, the unsteady-state tests according to test type III are stringently required.
Test execution
At first, steady-state tests were run (test type I) to obtain information about strength reduction
with increasing temperature. Concrete specimens were heated up with a constant heating rate
of 4 K/min up to test temperatures of 50, 100, 150, 200, 300, 400, 500, 600, 700 and 800 C.
After reaching the test temperature, the concrete specimens were loaded three times forcecontrolled with a loading rate of about 0,5 N/mms-1 up to a maximum of about 30 % of the
expected temperature-dependent strength. After this, loading was increased deformationcontrolled until failiure. By the use of the deformation-controlled loading it was possible to
examine the beginning of post-cracking behavior, too.
The illustration in figure 7 shows that strength decreases until 100 C, then increases again
until 300 C before decreasing continuously at temperatures higher than 400 C. This figure
shows UHPCs maximum strength in comparison with measured data on high strength concrete
and the calculation values according to EC 2-1-2 [1] for normal strength concrete and for high
strength concrete C90/105. It is recognizable that strength decrease until 100 C of UHPC
happens faster, whilst the calculation values for the strength of normal strength concrete,
remain constant at this level. The strength loss between 20 C and 200 C is similar for high
strength concrete, both in standardized calculation values according to EC 2-1-2 [1] and in
experimental results according to [9]. Whereas strength of both normal strength concrete and
high strength concrete decreases continuously, UHPCs strength remains on baseline value up
to a temperature of 400 C and decreases just at higher temperatures.
In this context it is important that the strength model according to EC 2-1-2 [1] gives
calculation values, which do not have to coincide absolutely with the actually measured values.
Especially at temperatures above 400C the measured strength reduction of UHPC is
considerably less than strength reduction of normal strength concrete and high strength
concrete. For example, the strength of UHPC at 600 C is still 90 % of the strength at normal
temperature whereas the strength of normal strength concrete has already decreased to less
than 50 %.
With regard to the strength determined by steady-state tests at 20 C, the unsteady-state
tests are implemented with load levels of 0 %, 10 %, 20 %, 30 %, 40 %, 50 %, 60 % und 70 %.
The test specimens are installed in the testing device. Then, the load is increased deformation controlled to the requested load level. Holding this level constant, the temperature in the
furnace is increased with a heating rate of 4 K/min until specimens failure. During the test strain
and compression are measured and documented continuously. The test results for the UHCP
mixture B5Q are depicted in figure 8. The temperature-elongation curve with load level 0 %
displays the temperature-dependent thermal elongation. The other curves in figure 8 show that
the thermal elongation is compressed to some extent at higher load levels. As already
mentioned, these data are the main base for the formulation of stress-strain relationships
including thermal creep.
The comparison with the calculation values for normal strength concrete in figure 9 makes
clear that thermal strain of UHPC is considerably smaller. As a consequence, the internal stress
of UHPC resulting from different thermal elongations is less in areas near the cross-section
edges and the inner cross-section as comparable to normal strength concrete.
580
1,2
1
strength
0,8
0,6
UHPC
high-strength concrete
normal concrete (EC 2-1-2)
C90/105 (EC 2-1-2)
0,4
0,2
0
0
100
200
300
400
500
temperature [C]
600
700
800
900
deformation []
Figure 7: Strength development of UHPC compared with high strength concrete and the calculation values
according to EC 2-1-2 [1].
8
6
4
2
0
-2
-4
-6
-8
-10
-12
-14
-16
-18
-20
0%
10 %
30 %
20 %
70 %
50 %
60 %
100
200
300
400
500
temperature [C]
600
40 %
700
800
900
Figure 8: Related total deformation of the test specimens in unsteady-state tests using B5Q.
16
normal concrete (quartz)
thermal elongation []
14
12
normal concrete
(calcium)
10
8
6
UHPC
4
2
0
0
100
200
300
400
500
600
temperature [C]
700
800
900
1000
Figure 9: Comparison of measured thermal elongation of B5Q with calculation values according to EC 2-1-2
[1].
581
6 Outlook
The experimental studies concerning thermal and mechanical material properties of UHPC will
be finished in the first half of 2012. Based on the experimental results calculation models for the
temperature-dependent thermal and mechanical material properties will be derived. The
thermo-mechanical material behavior of UHPC will be described by temperature-dependent
stress-stain curves analogously to Eurocode 2 part 1-2, which can be implemented easily in socalled general caluculation methods, i. e. common finite element computer programs for the
simulation of the load and deformation behavior of structural members and systems exposed to
fire. With such a computer program enhanced by the developed models for thermal and thermomechanical material behavior of UHPC a column will be designed for a fire resistance rating of
R 90. Afterwards real scale standard fire tests will be performed with such columns in order to
check and validate the calculation models as well as the computer program.
7 Special Thanks
The authors would like to acknowledge the German Research Foundation (DFG) for the support
of the research project Theoretische und experimentelle Untersuchungen zur Ermittlung und
Optimierung des Brandverhaltens von ultra-hochfestem Beton(`Theoretical and experimental
studies for determining and optimizing the fire behavior of ultra high performance concrete`) in
the priority program 1182.
References
[1] DIN EN 1992-1-2:2010-12 Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures Part 1-2: General rules
Structural fire design; German version EN 1992-1-2:2004 + AC:2008.
[2] DIN 4102-4:1994-03 Brandverhalten von Baustoffen und Bauteilen (engl.: fire behavior of building
materials and structural members) Teil 4: Zusammenstellung und Anwendung klassifizierter
Baustoffe, Bauteile und Sonderbauteile.
[3] DIN EN ISO 22007-2: Plastics Determination of thermal conductivity and thermal diffusivity
Part 2: Transient plane heat source (hot disc) method.
[4] Jannsson, R.: Measurement of thermal properties at elevated temperatures Brandforsk project
328-031. SP Fire Technology, SP Report 2004:46.
[5] DIN 51007:1994-06 Thermische Analyse (engl.: thermal analysis) (TA); Differenzthermoanalyse
(engl.: differential thermal analysis) (DTA); Grundlagen.
[6] Diederichs, U.; Jumppanen, U.-M.; Penttala, V.: Behaviour of high strength concrete at high
temperatures. Helsinki University of Technology, Department of Structural Engineering, Report 92.
[7] DIN 51006:2005-07 Produktabbildung Thermische Analyse (TA) (engl.: picture of the product
thermal analysis) Thermogravimetrie (TG) (engl.: thermogravimetric analysis) Grundlagen.
[8] Kordina, K.; Meyer-Ottens, C: Beton Brandschutz-Handbuch (engl.: handbook of fire protection for
concrete structure); 1. Auflage; Beton-Verlag GmbH; 1981.
[9] Huismann, S.: Materialverhalten von hochfestem Beton unter thermomechanischer Beanspruchung
(engl.: material properties of high strength concrete under thermo mechanical exposure);
Dissertation Technische Universitt Wien; 2010.
582
Failure Mechanisms of UHPC Components under Explosive

Loading
Oliver Millon, Werner Riedel, Christoph Mayrhofer, Klaus Thoma
Fraunhofer-Institute for High-Speed Dynamics, Ernst-Mach-Institut, EMI, Freiburg, Germany
The paper reports about the material behavior of ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) at extreme
loads. Dynamic properties are analyzed and compared to standardized concretes. Moreover, the failure
behavior of a UHPC with low fiber content is investigated under different strain rates analyzing the
macroscopic and microscopic damage. Hopkinson-Bar experiments enable to determine dynamic
properties at strain rates up to 180 1/s. High values for the tensile strength and the fracture energy can
be observed with a strong strain rate effect for the tensile strength. The dynamic fracture energy
increases with 10000 N/m around 26 times compared to conventional concrete and shows a
considerable higher resistance under detonative loads with extended micro-cracking and reduced global
damage. The paper provides both a short characterization of UHPC tensile properties and failure
analysis of UHPC and conventional concrete slabs and columns under blast loads and contact
detonations.
Keywords: ultra-high performance concrete, Hopkinson-Bar, dynamic tension, failure mechanisms
1 Introduction
Future buildings tend to be higher and more filigree constructions. Especially buildings of
economic, political and societal importance buildings have to be designed against extraordinary
load-cases, coming from explosions or impacts from terrorist attacks or accidents. In this focus
not only building materials with high static loading capacity, but also with high dynamic
resistance are needed to allow sufficient resilience.
Ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) is one of the youngest materials within concrete
research and hence still under investigation concerning static, dynamic and long-time behavior.
First results are reported in [1], [2]. The dynamic behavior is rarely described in the literature [3],
[4], [8], [9] until today. Its investigation not only offers new applications in the construction of,
e.g., high-rise buildings, long-span bridges and constructions in aggressive media but also an
application as a protective material. This paper focuses on the behavior at high strain rates of
shock induced load-cases.
1.1. Mixture and static reference properties of UHPC
Ultra-high performance concrete is a cement-based material, which uses high strength cement,
high strength aggregates and a large portion of fine aggregates (
Table 1).
The low water-cement ratio (0.2) leads to a very compact matrix. The well aligned grain-sizes
of the aggregates down to the nanoscale result in a high packing density with a low porosity and
a low permeability. The addition of high strength and ductile fibers to the otherwise brittle plain
material increases its ductility significantly.
Table 2 shows the essential static properties for three UHPC mixtures with different fiber
content (0.0 Vol.-%, 1.0-Vol.-% and 2.5 Vol.-%). These mixtures of the applied coarseaggregate UHPC have been established and statically tested by the University of Kassel,
Department of Civil Engineering [1]
All investigated mixtures show a static compressive strength far above 100 MPa. The growing
fiber content leads to an increase of all resistance parameters with the most significant effect on
583
the fracture energy. A low fiber-content of 1.0 Vol.-% is sufficient to bring a strong
enhancement. As for any concrete, the tensile strength is low compared to the compressive
strength, however reaches higher values for UHPC compared to standardized mixtures.
Table 1: Concrete Mixture of UHPC B4Q with 1.0 Vol.-% steel fibers.
Components
UHPC 1.0 Vol.-%

Mass [kg*m-3]
Cement CEM I 52.5 R
660
Water
162
Basalt-split
612
Quartz-sand
363
Fine quartz
463
Silica fume
180
Superplasticizer
30
Steel-fibers
78
Table 2: Static material properties of UHPC with various steel-fiber content.
Youngs
modulus
Compression
strength
Tensile
strength
Fracture
energy
[MPa]
[MPa]
[MPa]
[N*m-1]
UHPC 0.0 Vol.-%
52700
153
5.9
100
UHPC 1.0 Vol.-%
53000
166
6.6
10300
UHPC 2.5 Vol.-%
59600
208
10.3
13900
2 Dynamic investigation of low fiber reinforced UHPC

Concretes are highly strain rate-dependent. Many researchers reported about different failuremechanisms and increasing strength values in case of dynamic loads on conventional and high performance concrete [5], [6] and [7]. An investigation of the stain rate dependency of UHPC is
required as well, to understand the material behavior under extreme loads. For that, a complete
analysis of the material is required. The following passages describe laboratory experiments
and scaled experiments on structural elements to determine the essential dynamic tensile
properties, carried out by Nldgen and Millon [3], [4], [8] and to investigate the material behavior
depending on different extreme load-cases.
2.1. Dynamic properties of UHPC
One possibility to determine dynamic material properties at high strain rates is the application of
Hopkinson-Bar tests. In different testing configurations the most essential properties can be
determined with high accuracy. The tensile properties are of highest interest, because the
tensile strength is the weakest of the material which include the highest failure-potential. Spall
experiments, are a well-based and accepted method investigating tensile behavior of brittle
materials [5], [6], [7] at high strain rates.
Test-configuration
To investigate the cracking process of concrete under dynamic loads the spallation
configuration, published in [5] and further established by Schuler [6], [7], makes it possible to
observe the cracking process and to determine dynamic tensile parameters like Youngs
584
modulus, tensile strength and fracture energy (Figure 1). Nldgen and Millon [3], [4]
investigated the dynamic tensile properties of the UHPC in a former study. For detailed
information is referred to them.
Testing procedure and evaluation
The specimen is fixed on the end of the bar. A striker is shot on the other end, generating a
loading pulse which propagates towards the sample. The loading pulse is transmitted into the
specimen, propagates through it and reflected as release wave running back. Tensile stresses
are generated in the specimen due to superimposition of the release wave from the free ends of
the sample and the striker, leading to tensile states up to fragmentation (spallation). The
determination of the dynamic Youngs modulus (Equation 2) is based on the theory of wavepropagation in elastic materials.
Figure 1 Schematic setup of the Hopkinson-Bar, spallation configuration.
CL
Edyn CL2 *
E (1)
(2)
CL is the longitudinal wave-propagation velocity. describes the material density.

Using the momentum conservation and the free surface approximation for the particle velocity,
the tensile strength of a brittle material can be calculated as Equation 3.
ft ,dyn
1
* * CL * upb
2
(3)
Additional to the parameters of the Youngs modulus, the pull-back velocity upb, the velocity of
the free surface, is required for its calculation.The dynamic fracture energy is required to lead
the material to failure. It is calculated from the energy dissipation during spallation.
Gf Fd
Gf v * m * (5)
dI
* dt (4)
dt
..
The determination of the fracture energy bases on the momentum transfer from one fragment to
the other. The fragment velocities at the time of crack initiation are determined analytically by
using the elastic wave theory. The velocities of the fragments during crack-opening are
measured optically. Equation 5 calculates the fracture energy using the crack-opening velocity.
and the velocity reduction v of fragment 2 between crack initiation and total opening of the
crack. The results of the dynamic experiments on the Hopkinson-Bar are shown in Table 3.
Table 3 shows that all dynamic material properties increase with growing fiber-content. A
moderate increase from 50.6 to 56.6 GPa was found for the Youngs modulus. No difference
585
was observed between static and dynamic values. The tensile strength shows a relevant
increase for higher fiber-contents (1.0 Vol.-%: 42.7 MPa, 2.5 Vol.-%: 55.3 MPa). The fracture
energy reveals a very strong rise by the addition of a low amount of steel-fibers (0.0 Vol.-%: 360
N/m, 1.0 Vol.-%: 10070 N/m) and a slower increase with further growing fiber-content. For
unreinforced UHPC the fracture energy is, similarly to all concretes, very low. A very brittle
behavior after reaching the ultimate load is the result, excluding an application of this material.
Table 3: Dynamic material properties for all analyzed ultra-high performance concretes.
Density
-3
[kg*dm ]
Youngs
modulus
Tensile
strength
[MPa]
[MPa]
Strain
rate [s-1]
Fracture
energy
[N*m-1]
UHPC 0.0 Vol.-%
2374
50600
40.7
100 110
360
UHPC 1.0 Vol.-%
2456
53100
42.7
120 150
10070
UHPC 2.5 Vol.-%
2592
56600
55.3
130 150
11290
Figure 2: Development of the tensile strength and the fracture energy for different concrete qualities.
Figure 2 displays the development of the dynamic tensile strength (left) and the dynamic
fracture energy (right) of UHPC compared to conventional and high performance concretes.
The Hopkinson-Bar experiments showed that all investigated properties of UHPC reach
higher values than those of conventional concrete and high-performance concrete (
Table 4). The dynamic tensile strength is of special interest. UHPC shows a high dynamic
tensile strength already for the plain material. A strong increase of the low fiber-reinforced
UHPC compared to the HPC with the same degree and type of fiber reinforcement was
observed.
The tensile strength of UHPC rises by more than the factor 2 up to 43 MPa. An increase in
the fiber-portion up to 2.5 Vol.-% leads to a further and stronger rise. Compared to the
conventional concrete the tensile strength of UHPC increases up to 3.5 times. The fracture
energy of UHPC shows high values for any fiber-reinforced mixture. In comparison to HPC the
mixture with low fiber-content shows similar behavior. A significant increase by the addition of
steel fibers was found, although with 10070 N/m the value of UHPC is about 2 times higher.
The experiments pointed out that fiber-reinforced UHPC shows a higher resistance against
dynamic loads (strain rates up to 1.8*10 2 1/s) than standardized concretes. The addition of high
586
strength and ductile fibers does not only lead to an increase of the ductility, but also to an
increase of the strength and the fracture energy under static and dynamic loading.
Table 4: Dynamic material properties of UHPC, HPC and conventional concrete (strain rate range: 2.0*101 1.8*102 1/s [3], [4]).
Concrete
Youngs modulus Tensile strength

[MPa]
[MPa]
Convent. concrete C 30/37 39600
Fracture energy
[N*m-1]
15.5
380
43000
20.3
2600
HPC C 100/1150.0 Vol.% 51400
19.8
480
HPC C 80/951.0 Vol.-%

UHPC 0.0 Vol.-%
50600
40.7
360
UHPC 1.0 Vol.-%
53100
42.7
10070
UHPC 2.5 Vol.-%
56600
55.3
11290
2.2. Dynamic experiments on scaled structural elements

To understand the behavior of the material under different loading conditions, it is important to
know essential material properties, as shown in the previous section. However it is of the same
importance to know the failure and to understand its mechanisms for the overall material
description. Experiments on structural elements with the focus on comparative investigation of
structural damage complete the extensive analysis begun in [3] and [4]. This chapter reports
about scaled experiments on structural elements in three relevant dynamic loading
configurations. First statements about failure mechanisms at high strain rates were given by the
evaluation of the Hopkinson-Bar experiments [3], [4]. A multiple failure with the damage of the
matrix, the aggregates and the bond between matrix and aggregates as well as between matrix
and fibers can be observed. Figure 3 shows the corresponding computer-tomographic image of
a UHPC fragment with its fracture surface.
Fracture surface
Bond-failure fibermatrix
Fraunhofer EMI
Bond-failure
aggregate-matrix
Aggregate failure
5 mm
Figure 3: Computer-tomographic image of a UHPC fragment visualizing the failure mechanisms.
Contact detonation on concrete columns

Contact detonations lead to strong local damage. Components with a diameter of 150 mm and
a length of 1500 mm were tested in the first series. Not only the macroscopic and microscopic
damage of the compressive and the tensile failure zone, but also the residual strength after the
dynamic load was analyzed.
Figure 4 shows the typical strong local damage of the element due to the contact detonation for
UHPC and conventional concrete. On the loading side (
Figure 4, left), compressive failure through fragmentation and cratering occurs. Vertically
oriented fractures with a large crack-width are visible. On the elements rear surface (
587
Figure 4, middle), tensile damage is shown. It is caused by the reflection of loading pulse on the
elements free surface leading to tensile stresses. Fragmentation does not occur, however a
large cracking-zone with some vertical macro-cracks and many arbitrarily oriented micro-cracks
can be seen. A comparison to conventional concrete in Figure 4, right shows the advantage of
UHPC. The element is strongly damaged no remaining load-carrying cross-section is visible.
The reduced damage of the UHPC column leads to a remaining cross section of 45 percent.
A quantitative analysis shows a significant higher residual strength of UHPC element compared
to the elements in standardized concretes. In a static compression tests, the ultimate loads of
the damaged and not damaged element are correlated, leading to the residual strength for
UHPC of 26%, for HPC of 10% and for conventional concrete of 5% of the material specific
undamaged compressive strength.
The computer-tomographic analysis in Figure 5 of fragments visualizes the failure
mechanisms, which occur in this loading situation.
Compressive
damage zone
Tensile
damage zone
a)
b)
c)
Figure 4: Damage of column in UHPC after contact detonation: a) loading side, b) rear side, c) damage of the
column in conventional concrete.
Fraunhofer EMI
Fraunhofer EMI
Bond failure
aggregate-matrix
Bond failure fiber
-matrix
Matrix failure
Aggregate failure
1 mm
2 mm
Figure 5: Computer-tomography image of UHPC fragments visualizing material failure.
Similar to the Hopkinson-Bar experiments multiple failure of the material is found under contact
detonation as well. The detonative load leads to cracks in the matrix and in the aggregates. The
bond between aggregate and matrix as well as between fiber and matrix is damaged. This
588
failure process consumes a large portion of loading energy, leading to higher resistance and
lower global damages. The fibers transmit the forces across the cracks between the fragments.
The extended micro-cracking is evidence for the positive influence of the fibers.
Close-in detonation on faade elements and blast loading on walls
The close-in detonation (1000 g PETN at 30 cm clear distance) causes a combined damage of
local destruction (contact detonation) and bending (blast loading). Tensile stresses occur at the
rear side of the element, as shown in Figure 6 for conventional concrete without fiber
reinforcement (right) and UHPC (left and middle).
In conventional concrete the load leads to complete failure of the element. A much better
resistance under the same loading shows the element in UHPC. Only cracks with a maximal
crack-width of 0.5 millimeters (highlighted) are observed. An extended micro-cracking over the
whole element appears, however fragmentation is avoided, concluding that the protective
function of the element remains.
Loading side
Load
Rear side
Figure 6: Damage of facade-elements after close-in detonation; left, middle: UHPC, right: conventional
concrete. (constructive reinforcement (steel mat) with low degree of reinforcement for both elements)
Blast loads lead (pmax= 230 kPa, t+=40 ms) to bending failure (bending crack in places of
maximal deflection) of the structural elements. The behavior of UHPC walls against blast loads
was investigated with shock tube tests. Figure 7 shows the damage of wall elements in UHPC
(left) and conventional concrete (right) at the ultimate loading of the conventional concrete.
Microcracking
Macro-crack
Microcracking
Figure 7: Damage of concrete elements after blast loading; left: UHPC, right: conventional concrete without
fiber-reinforcement. (equal steel-bar reinforcement for both elements).
589
The primary crack opens in the element in conventional concrete on the place of the largest
deflection. This leads to full destruction of the concrete and the reinforcing bars. The UHPC
element shows a significantly lower damage. A primary crack and a large zone of horizontally
oriented micro-cracks occur. The fibers show also in this load case a positive effect on the
material behavior. Figure 8 shows a computer tomographic image of the primary crack and the
corresponding fracture-surfaces for the determination of failure-modes in the micro-structure.
Under blast loading multiple failure modes are observed again. Cracking of matrix and
aggregates occurs. Bond failure between fibers and matrix and between aggregate and matrix
is identified. Pulled out fibers and corresponding fiber channels were visualized in Figure 8. In a
microscopic analysis the fibers appear to be intact, no non-reversible deformation or break
occurs. Bond failure occurs confirming static analyses and the assumptions from the
Hopkinson-Bar-Tests [3,4].
Fraunhofer EMI
Aggregate failure
Bond failure aggregate
matrix
Bond failure fiber-matrix
2 mm
Figure 8: Computer-tomography: detail of macro-crack (due to bending in blast load).
Results of the experiments on structural elements

The experiments on structural elements in UHPC and their comparison to lower-strength
concretes show a remarkable increase in resistance of UHPC against relevant shock induced
loads. A low fiber-content is sufficient to reach the positive effects stated above. Lower materialdamages (crack-width and crack-depth) and higher residual strength are the main results in all
analyzed dynamic load-cases. The extent of local compressive and tensile damages in case of
contact detonation is reduced. Instead of macro-cracking, a large zone of micro-cracks was
observed. In close-in detonation and under blast loading a large micro-cracking occurs as well,
leading to reduced global damage of the elements. This positive behavior is due to the addition
of high strength fibers, increasing the energy-absorption and improving ductility and coherence
of the material.
UHPC shows multiple failure mechanisms, a significant difference to conventional concrete.
The most important and high energy consuming failure mode is the bond failure between fibers
and matrix. As well failure of the matrix, of the bond between aggregate and matrix and the
failure of aggregates are found. A good bond between aggregates and fibers with the matrix,
the reason for the good behavior, results from the use of fine and high strength aggregates and
a reduced water-cement ratio, leading to a dense and high strength matrix.
3 Discussion and Summary

The article reports about dynamic investigations on fiber reinforced UHPC. Results of the
essential dynamic tensile properties, former investigated in Hopkinson-Bar tests, were stated.
With growing fiber-content, the investigated material parameters Youngs modulus, tensile
strength and fracture energy increase moderate for the Youngs modulus (50.6 to 56.6 GPa)
and significant for the fracture energy (360 to 11290 N/m). The tensile strength of the non -
590
reinforced mixture is up to 2.7 times higher than that for conventional concrete under dynamic
load and reaches for UHPC 41 MPa. In comparison to high-performance concrete, the tensile
strength raises by the factor 2.1 times up to 43 MPa for low fiber reinforced mixtures and up to
55 MPa for highly reinforced UHPC. The fracture energy rises significantly by an addition of a
low fiber portion for both HPC and UHPC. However UHPC reaches up to 2 times higher values
compared to HPC.
The qualitative analysis showed that the addition of steel-fibers leads to a higher ductility.
Furthermore, the structural damage is reduced, which increases the resistance of UHPC in all
analyzed load-cases. The addition of steel-fibers is responsible for the improved resistance.
Extended micro-cracking and a reduction of macro-cracks is the consequence leading to larger
zones of lower damage. Low fiber-reinforced UHPC shows reduced damage with no
fragmentation under contact detonation. Multiple failure mechanisms of UHPC are found in all
shock induced load-cases. Fiber pull-out was proven and identified as an important failuremode, consuming large amounts of deformation energy.
Resulting from these investigations UHPC is a material with an improved resistance which
shows a strong potential for protecting buildings against extreme loads.
References
[1] Fehling E. et al.: Entwicklung, Dauerhaftigkeit und Berechnung Ultra-Hochfester Betone (UHPC).
Schriftreihe Baustoffe und Massivbau, Heft 1, Kassel: Universitt Kassel, 2005, ISBN 3-89958-108-3
[2] Schmidt M. et al.: Sachstandsbericht Ultrahochfester Beton. Berlin: DAfStb Heft 561 (2008), ISBN 3410-65045-4
[3] Nldgen, M.: Modeling of Ultra High Performance Concrete (UHPC) under Impact Loading Design
of a High Rise Building Core against Aircraft Impact, Forschungsergebnisse aus der
Kurzzeitdynamik, Fraunhofer Verlag, Heft 19, ISBN 978-3-8396-0286-7, 2011
[4] Millon O., Riedel W., Thoma K., Nldgen M., Fehling E.: Fiber-reinforced ultra-high performance
concrete under tensile loads. 9 th International Conference on the Mechanical and Physical Behavior
of Materials under Dynamic Loading DYMAT, conference proceedings, Brussels, 2009
[5] Klepaczko J.R., Brara A.: An experimental method for dynamic tensile testing of concrete by
spalling. IJIE 25 (2001): 387 409
[6] Schuler H.: Experimentelle und numerische Untersuchungen zur Schdigung von
stobeanspruchtem Beton. epsilon Forschungsergebnisse aus der Kurzzeitdynamik, Heft 6,
Freiburg i. Br.: Fraunhofer-Institut fr Kurzzeitdynamik, EMI, 2004, ISBN 3-8167-6463-0
[7] Schuler H., Mayrhofer C., Thoma K.: Spall experiments for the measurement of the tensile strength
and fracture energy at high strain rates. IJIE 32 (2006) 10: 1635 1650
[8] Nldgen, M., Millon, O. Thoma, K., Fehling, E.: Hochdynamische Eigenschaften von
Ultrahochleistungsbeton (UHPC), Beton und Stahlbetonbau 104 (2009) 11
[9] Rebentrost M., Gavin W.: Behaviour and Resistance of Ultra High Performance Concrete to Blast
Effects, Structural Materials and Engineering Series, Vol. 10, Proceedings Second International
Symposium on UHPC, March, 05-07, 2008, University of Kassel, 2008
591
592
Ultra High Performance Concrete Structures under Aircraft

Engine Missile Impact
Markus Nldgen1, Ekkehard Fehling 2 ,Werner Riedel3, Klaus Thoma3
1: Schler-Plan Engineering, Dsseldorf / Cologne University of Applied Sciences (CUAS), Germany
3: Fraunhofer Institute for High-Speed Dynamics, Ernst-Mach-Institute, Freiburg, Germany
The impact of an aircraft engine missile causes high stresses, deformations and a severe local damage
to conventional reinforced concrete. As a consequence the design of R/C protective structural elements
results in components with rather large dimensions.
Fiber reinforced Ultra High Performance Concrete (UHPC) combines an ultra high strength and an
improved ductility with a significantly increased energy dissipation capacity due to the addition of fiber
reinforcement. With those attributes the material is potentially suitable for improved protective structural
elements with reduced dimensions and reduced need for material resources.
The submitted paper presents the results of a series of scaled aircraft engine impact experiments with
reinforced UHPC panels. The investigations are focused on the material behavior and the damage
intensity in comparison to conventional concrete. The fundamental work of Sugano et al. [12] with R/C
elements is taken as reference for the evaluation of the results. The impactor model of a Phantom F4
GE-J79 engine developed and validated by Sugano et al. is used as defined in the original work. In order
to achieve best comparability, the experimental configuration and method are adapted for the UHPC
experiments. With penetration, scabbing and perforation all relevant damage modes are investigated
so that a full set of results is provided for representative UHPC structural configurations applicable for
example in secure high-rise buildings or nuclear facilities.
Keywords: UHPC, Aircraft Impact, Ballistic Limit, Dynamic Behavior, Steel Fibres
1 Introduction
In the early 1990s an extensive experimental series of reinforced concrete panels subjected to
aircraft engine impact was conducted and published by Sugano et al [12]. Motivated by a full
scale aircraft impact test the authors systematically investigated the engine impact separately
as it had caused the deepest local penetration of all aircraft components in the massive
concrete target. In order to be able to investigate a large variety of parameters of protective
reinforced concrete structures it was necessary to find an appropriate model for the aircraft
engine. Against this background the development of a deformable lumped mass-spring model
in full scale engine impact tests was an important achievement as it provided the possibility to
properly account for the energy dissipation capacity of the missile. The experiments with the
new model led to appropriate results with respect to the energy balance and local damage of
the structural panels. In addition to full scale tests an extensive series of engine impact tests
was conducted in scales 1:2,5 and 1:7,5. It was shown that scaled impact tests lead to
satisfying quantitative results as long as physical scaling laws are considered properly. This
important finding enabled the authors to extend their investigations on smaller testing faciliti es
in laboratories to vary more parameters of protective structural elements.
The variations in [12] included bending and shear reinforcement ratio, panel thickness,
additional steel liners and the concretes compressive strength. The latter parameter was varied
from 23.5 MPa to 35.3 MPa. In the past 20 years concrete technology has improved
significantly in various directions such as self-compacting concrete, ductile concrete and highstrength concrete. Fiber reinforced Ultra High Performance Concrete (UHPC) potentially
provides decisive improvements as a material for protective structural elements as it combines
an ultra high strength, an improved durability and a high energy dissipation capacity
593
increased by two orders of magnitude - with the well known advantages of R/C-materials in prefabricated and on-site construction applications (see table 1).
Table 1: UHPC material properties [1,3].
_____________________________________________________________________________________________
Material Parameter
Concrete
UHPC
___________________________________________________________________
35
[MPa]
180 -200
[MPa]
Tensile Strength
3,5
[MPa]
9-13
[MPa]
Fracture Energy
100
[N/m]
10000-12000
[N/m]
Dyn. Tensile Strength*
18-21 [MPa]
41-55
[MPa]
Dyn. Fracture Energy*

300
[N/m]
10000-12000 [N/m]
___________________________________________________________________
Note: * Dynamical material properties at a strain rate ~10 2 1/s [4,10]
Based on these promising material parameters of UHPC a series of experiments was

conducted to substantiate recent developments in structural safety concepts for high -rise
buildings and nuclear power plants.
2 UHPC under Aircraft Engine impact - Experimental Series

A gas gun with 90mm caliber, shown in figure 1 right, is used to accelerate the missile. A laser
sensor barrier is located immediately behind the barrel to measure the impact velocity (see
figure 1 left). The impact process of the missile on the front side of the panel is recorded by a
high-speed camera so that the deformation of the missile is documented by several high
resolution pictures (see figure 2).
Figure 1: Impact test facility; left: UHPC Structure and Laser Sensor Barrier, Right: Compressive Air Launcher,
Barrel Caliber 90mm [5,6].
A second high-speed camera records the rear side deformation and local damage of the panel.
In case of a missile perforation the second camera is used to determine the residual velocity of
missile parts as well as the velocity of concrete debris ejected from the rear surface. A split
view allows for the examination of the panel rear side in a parallel and orthogonal view
respectively.
594
UHPC
Panel
Support
Aircraft Engine Model
Mirror
Laser - Interferometer
Deflection Measurement
600 mm
Laser Barrier
for vimp
High - Speed Camera
High - Speed Camera

Split View :
1- parallel to panel
2 - orthogonal to panel
Figure 2: Experimental configuration: Scaled aircraft engine impact experiments on scaled reinforced UHPC
panels (thickness 100mm) - measurement configuration.
Experimental Results
The experimental results are summarized in table 2 according to the terminology defined by
Sugano et al. [12]. The Penetration Mode (C) is characterized by a front side penetration of
the projectile and rear side hairline cracks in radial direction from the impact axes towards the
outer edges of the panel. The Scabbing Mode (S) describes a front side missile penetration
with concrete debris ejected from the rear side. The Just Scabbing Mode (JS) is a transition
stage between Penetration and Scabbing. The Just Perforation Mode (JP) describes the
state when the panel just prevents the missile from perforation while the Perforation Mode (P)
finally defines the shear failure of the panel and the persistent missile motion with a measurable
residual velocity. The last two damage modes define states immediately above and below the
perforation of the panel characterized by a significant change in energy state.
Table 2: Summary of test results [8].
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
_____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Exp.
Impact Residual
VelocityVelocity
Mode
Front
Depth
Damage
Rear Side
Width Height Remark
Mode
Deformation
Length
____________________________________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
No.
[m/s]
[-]
[mm]
[mm]
[mm]
[-]
[-]
[mm]
____________________________________________________________________________________________
1
194.7 -8.6 (Rebound) C
<0.2
220
220
Hairline Cracks Buckled
83
2
258.7
-7.3 (Rebound)
JS
7-12
260
260
56
320.0
0.0
JP
55
310
270
Concrete Debris Crushed
28
332.0
11.1
250
310
Perforation
Crushed
28
248.9
-9.42 (Rebound) JS
0.7
240
240
58
368.6
16.1
280
290
Perforation
28
Crushed
_______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________
Note: * C: Penetration Mode, JS: Just Scabbing Mode, S: Scabbing Mode, JP: Just Perforation Mode, P: Perforation mode
595
The fiber reinforced Ultra High Performance Concrete panels show a reduced damage and
penetration depth on the panel front side in comparison to normal strength concrete. Especially
in Mode C and JS the missile leaves only but a footprint on the UHPC surface with local
concrete surface damages ranging from 0.2 10mm depth. Beyond the footprint, there is no
damage or cracking observed on the front side.
The local damage on the rear side of the UHPC panels is significantly different to normal
strength concrete for all damage modes. In the Experiments 1, 2 and 5 a formation of radial
hairline cracks with a maximum crack width of <0.2mm is observed. A limited area around the
impact axes undergoes inelastic deformation normal to the panel surface of 2mm up to 12mm
with increasing crack opening. However, the cracks are connected by intact steel fibers
suppressing noticeable concrete debris and scabbing. In comparable damage modes for normal
strength concrete scabbing occurs at a far lower stage of impact velocity.
With increasing impact velocity the inelastic shear deformation on the rear side of the panel
increases until finally the fibers are completely pulled out at velocity 320m/s. The rear side
bending reinforcement is subsequently activated as a membrane preventing the missile from
perforating the panel as shown in figure 3 left. This mechanical effect was observed in the
reference experiments as well but it occurred for conventional concrete at a far lower impact
velocity of 219 m/s. Apart from the more than doubled energy dissipation capacity of the UHPC
panel the damaged area is significantly smaller with UHPC (25%) as shown in figure 3 (middle
and right).
380m
m
227mm
Figure 3: Just Perforation Mode: Left: Damage Modes of UHPC Panel vimpact=320 m/s [8], Middle: Missile
stuck in UHPC Panel with highly deformed rear reinforcement (Scaled 1/10) [8], Right: Comparison to normal
strength concrete panels (Scaled 1/7.5) in JP Mode vimpact=219 m/s [12].
The progress of missile deformation and residual velocity after perforation are studied in highspeed recordings of experiments No. 4 and No. 6. Figure 4 shows four sequences of the
deformation process and the motion of a missile slice.
596
Figure 4: Sequences from the high-speed cameras on the panel front (1-3) and rear side (4) in experiment No.
4, Perforation Mode [8].
The analysis of the rear side rebars after the perforation in experiments No. 4 and No. 6 shows
distinctive cross-section constriction of the rebars caused by yielding. Perforation finally occurs
when the rear reinforcement fails with the exceedance of the maximum strain deformation of the
rebars. Hence the observations in the reference experiments and theoretical failure analysis
conducted by Schlter [9] can be confirmed also for UHPC. The total shear resistance behavior
of a reinforced concrete panel can be separated into a serial connection consisting of the
materials shear strength at low deformation stages and the reinforcements tensile strength
thereafter up to ultimate perforation.
Ballistic Limit
In experiment No. 3 the ballistic limit of the UHPC panel against missile perforation is obviously
just reached at an impact velocity of 320 m/s. A further increase of this velocity leads to a
perforation of the panel in experiment No. 4. Figure 5 shows that there is a discrete jump in
energy state around the area limited by the two stages JP and P. Small variations and
deviations in material and panel properties usually lead to significantly different results as
investigations with other materials and specimens show [11]. Hence this area is often called the
Zone of Mixed Results (ZMR). In this zone the v50-velocity is usually derived if a significant
number of limit experiments is available. It denotes the velocity for which 50% of the
experiments perforate and 50% of the projectiles are stopped. Another method to determine the
state at which the panel just prevents a projectile from perforation is the ballistic limit formulated
by Lambert and Jonas [2]. This method takes into account for at least two experiments with a
perforation and according measured residual velocity of the missile. Through minimization of
in the parabolic equation (1) across the experimental results the ballistic limit v BL can be
determined. Even if the accuracy of the result increases with an increasing number of
experiments K satisfying approximations have already been achieved with a number of two
experimental values [11].
vr e s
0 vimp vBL
K
K 1/ K
v
; vimp vBL
imp
BL
(1)
597
Hence the presented experimental series provides two experiments with a missile perforation
and the according measured residual velocity (see table 2). Despite the limited experimental
basis, the limiting impact velocity v BL in equation 5 results to 320,5 m/s which can be confirmed
by the experimentally observed value in experiment No. 3. Figure 5 illustrates the function for
the UHPC panels including the six individual results in the experiments.
Figure 5: Engine impact model based on Sugano [12]; increased ballistic limit from 219 m/s for conventional
concrete to 320 m/s 10 m/s in own UHPC tests and FE validation [5,6].
The reference experiments with normal strength concrete derived a limit velocity of max.
219m/s for perforation. The residual velocities are not given in these experiments so that the
ballistic limit function cannot be used in the same way. However, the difference to UHPC is
remarkable. The UHPC panels absorbe at the limit state 110% more kinetic energy than the
same configuration made of conventional concrete.
3 Application of UHPC in new building safety concepts

Aircraft impact and subsequent kerosene fire has to be considered as realistic threat against
critical infrastructure. Typical examples are high-rise buildings in the range of several hundred
meters altitude, potentially as part of a large scale urban development, housing several ten
thousands of occupants in office and/or residential space. The largest of these buildings
worldwide carry symbolic value making them susceptible to attacks. Furthermore, major nuclear
facilities have to be considered, especially those designed about 2-3 decades ago without or
with low protection requirements against accidental aircraft impact. Especially early designs of
boiling water reactor housings with a large control area are principally more vulnerable than
pressurized reactors with very localized and often strongly covered reactors. The authors were
involved in two recently developed comprehensive and innovative concepts of these building
types, based on high and ultra high performance concretes (HPC, UHPC). The Security
Scraper, designed in [5,6] and illustrated in Figure 6, is a concept for a high-rise building with
500m altitude and more consisting of:
a UHPC safety and security core shown in blue, providing resistance against the
complete aircraft and the most localized penetration loading by the engines
escape and rescue routes (green) and key installations for fire protection placed inside
the security core to remain functional during an impact and the associated fire
598
alternate load paths compensating larger scale local failure of columns by outrigger
constructions redirecting the static loading forces around the damaged area
Figure 6: Security Scraper concept with protective ultra high performance concrete core (blue) housing escape
and rescue routes (green); design impression by Dissing + Weitling Architects.
The second concept describes a superstructure for existing boiling reactor type nuclear power
(Figure 7) plants with:
a box girder construction spanning contact free across the plant structure to leave the
existing operation license virtually untouched
a structural design, such that the superstructure can absorb momentum and energy of
the global impact forces
an outer UHPC hull as local penetration protection (red in Figure 7) to keep all burning
kerosene out of the superstructure and the security zone
sufficiently low transmission of impact induced vibrations from the superstructure,
through the foundations into the existing plant building, to achieve acceptable floor
response spectra for critical components
Figure 7: Power plant superstructure concept: Free-spanning protection of a boiling water reactor type against
civilian and military aircraft; right: partly opened 3D view of the HPC security hull (red) onto the bracing
structures [7].
The design of these structures involves the analysis of global integrity, such that the building
can absorb the overall momentum and kinetic energy of all impacting aircraft components. In
order to protect the security cores from failure caused by kerosene fire, the local penetration
resistance must be dimensioned appropriately. The design methods on these two scales have
been analysed and detailed in recent studies to quantify the benefit of ultra high performance
concretes in innovative concepts [6,7,8].
599
4 Conclusions
An experimental series on UHPC panels subjected to aircraft engine impact has been
conducted with reference to a test series on normal strength concrete. The experimental
investigation was focused on the specific material behavior of the ultra high strength and fiber
reinforced ductile material UHPC. The results of the six scaled impact tests were sufficient to
cover experimentally all major damage modes at different stages of impact velocity.
In all damage modes significant improvements of UHPC panels to conventional concrete
panels could be observed. The materials high compressive strength reduced the effect of the
front side missile penetration to a footprint without significant spalling. On the panel rear side
the fibers connected the opening cracks up to a crack width of half their length and thus widely
prevented the matrix from scabbing. While the fibers were gradually pulled out of the UHPC
matrix with increasing impact intensity the material was still able to carry loads at a high level of
inelastic deformation. These mechanical effects reduce damage to the panel rear side and
increase the ballistic limit by more than 100m/s up to 320m/s approximately. The higher ballistic
limit velocity corresponds to an increase of 110% of absorbed kinetic energy.
Based on these experimental results recent concepts for structures to resist aircraft impact
are substantiated.
References
[1] Fehling, E.; Schmidt, M., Teichmann, T.; Bunje, K.; Bornemann, R.; Middendorf, B., 2005.
Entwicklung, Dauerhaftigkeit und Berechnung Ultra-Hochfester Betone (UHPC), Forschungsbericht
DFG FE 497/1-1, Schriftenreihe Baustoffe und Massivbau der Universitt Kassel, kassel university
press, Heft 1.
[2] Lambert, J.P. and Jonas, G.H., 1976. Ballistic Res. Lab., Rep. BRL-R-1852, Aberdyn, USA.
[3] Leutbecher, T. and Fehling, E., 2009. Rissbildung und Zugtragverhalten von mit Stahlfasern
verstrktem Stahlbeton am Beispiel des Ultrahochfesten Betons, Teil 1: Rissmechanische
Zusammenhnge, Beton- und Stahlbetonbau 104, Heft 6, Ernst&Sohn, 357-367.
[4] Nldgen, M.; Millon, O.; Thoma, K.; Fehling, E., 2009. Hochdynamische Eigenschaften von
Ultrahochfestem Beton (UHPC), Beton- und Stahlbetonbau 104, Heft 11, Ernst & Sohn.
[5] Nldgen, M., 2010. Modellierung von Ultrahochfestem Beton (UHPC) unter Impaktbelastung,
Auslegung eines Hochhauskerns gegen Flugzeuganprall, Schriftenreihe Baustoffe und Massivbau
der Universitt Kassel, kassel university press, Heft 12.
[6] Nldgen, M., 2011 Modeling of Ultra High Performance Concrete (UHPC) under Impact Loading
Design of a High Rise Building Core against Aircraft Impact, Forschungsergebnisse aus der
Kurzzeitdynamik, Fraunhofer Verlag, Heft 19.
[7] Nldgen, M., Laubach, A.; Lukaschek, F.; Riedel, W.; Stolz, A.; Roller, C.; and Pattberg, G., 2011
Impact Resistant Superstructure for Power Plants Part II: Structural Concept and Global Response ,
Int. Conf. Structural Mechanics in Reactor Technology - SMIRT, New Dheli, India.
[8] Riedel, W.; Nldgen, M.; Thoma, K. & Fehling, E. (2010), Local Damage to Ultra High Performance
Concrete Structures caused by an Impact of Aircraft Engine Missiles, Nuclear Engineering and
Design 240, pp. 2633-2642, DOI 10.1016/j.nucengdes.2010.07.036.
[9] Schlter, F.H., 1987 Dicke Stahlbetonplatten unter stoartiger Belastung Flugzeugabsturz,
Dissertation, TH Karlsruhe, Heft 3.
[10] Schuler, H.; Hanson, H., 2006. Fracture behavior of High Performance Concrete (HPC) investigated
with a Hopkinson Bar, Journal de Physique IV, France (134), 1145-1151.
[11] Straburger, E., 2004. Beitrag zum Seminar WB 2.05 Kleinkalibrige Rohrwaffen und Splitter Wirkung und Schutz der CCG, Efringen-Kirchen, Germany.
[12] Sugano et al., 1993a. Local damage to reinforced concrete structures caused by impact of aircraft
engine missiles, Part 1. Test program, method, results, Nucl. Eng. Des. 140, 387-405.
600
Part Five
DESIGN
AND
601
CONSTRUCTION
602
A Triaxial Fatigue Failure Model for Ultra-High-Performance

Concrete (UHPC)
Jrgen Grnberg1, Christian Ertel2
1: G+S Planungsgesellschaft mbH, Hamburg, Germany
2: Institute for Concrete Construction, Leibniz University of Hannover, Germany
The three phases model developed at the Leibniz University Hannover describes the anisotropic triaxial
fatigue failure of concrete. This failure model is based on characteristic failure curves along the principal
stress meridians of the fracture surface, in particular along the compressive meridian. Triaxial static as
well as dynamic experiments are performed both in a especially made dynamic tri-axial cell and in a
real triaxial experimental setup in order to calibrate the three phases model with respect to the failure
characteristics of ultra-high-performance concrete. This extension of the three phases model with respect
to fatigue failure is derived from experimental results of dynamic loading along the compressive
meridians using different loading amplitudes and determining the associated numbers of load cycles.
Finally, uni-axial as well as multi-axial S-N-curves related to arbitrary triaxial stress proportions are
derived from the different damage surfaces intersected them by proportional load paths.
Keywords: Triaxial Fatigue, Fatigue Failure Model, UHPC, Dynamic Tiaxial Cell
1 Introduction
The outstanding characteristics of Ultra-High-Performance Concrete (UHPC) require the
development of a triaxial mechanical model for numerical investigations. The three phases
model allows for describing the behaviour of concrete in the range from extremely brittle to
more ductile by using the characteristic developments of the principal meridians of the fracture
surface in particular the compressive meridian. Furthermore, the anisotropic damage due to
fatigue is considered in the principal-stress space deriving different grades of damage in
relation to the tensile and the compressive meridian.
The necessary parameters are determined in experimental investigations in order to c alibrate
the three phases model for UHPC by specifying the failure curve of static and dynamic loading
on the compressive meridian.
2 Three phases model for Ultra-High-Performance Concrete

The general shape of a failure surface in the three-dimensional stress space can be described
by its failure curves in the principal meridians sections and its cross-sectional shapes in the
deviator sections (figure 1). The surface in the 60 degree sectors between the principal
meridians are generated by means of elliptic interpolation. There are numerous multiaxial
failure models (e.g. Drucker-Prager or Willam-Warnke) in literature to be used for normalstrength concrete. But these traditional failure criteria are not applicable for UHPC.
The failure of UHPC under uniaxial loading is brittle, in both, tension and compression.
Therefore, the three phases model [1] has been modified to take into account these
characteristic material properties of UHPC.
The compressive meridians of the three phases model (figure 1) are described by two
straight lines with different slope which are connected by a parabolic curve. The change -over
range of UHPC is short and near to the uniaxial strength. The cross section on the deviator
plane changes from nearly triangular (brittle fracture) to more and more circular with increasing
hydrostatic pressure (sliding fracture).
603
biaxial tension
strength
Tension
meridian
fc,1
uniaxial tension
strength
tension
meridian
sliding
fracture
Deviatoric
plane
11
change- brittle
fracture
over
compressive
meridian
fc,1
biaxial tension
strength
22
Deviatoric
axis
Compressive meridian
33
33 - axis
Figure 1: Definitions in the three-dimensional stress space (left)

and Principal meridians section of the failure surface due to three phases model (right).
Extended three-phase model to describe dynamic loads

Based on the fracture curves on the principal meridians for static stress, the three-phases
model can be applied to dynamic fatigue stress by appropriately modifying these curves. This
involves triaxial dynamic testing of various stress states along the compressive meridian
(different radial stress levels).
Test results are taken to establish S-N curves, i.e. one curve for each radial stress level,
which are selectively transferred to the principal meridian section in order to obtain curves of
equivalent stress reversal cycles before failure. The resulting set of curves characterises the
fatigue strength along the compressive meridian.
In order to verify the basic parameters of the three-phases model both static and dynamic
triaxial experimental investigations are performed.
3 EXPERIMENTAL INVESTIGATIONS
Information about the fibre reinforced ultra high performance concrete mixtures M2Q
examined in the Priority Programme 1182 Building Suitable with Ultra-High Performance
Concrete can be found in [2] and [3]. This paper focuses on static and dynamic triaxial
investigations. For a discussion of uniaxial dynamic investigations carried out in cooperation
with the Institute of Building Materials Science (Leibniz University Hannover) see [3], [4] and
another paper in this conference proceedings [5].
3.1 Triaxial static Loading
3.1.1 Compressive Meridian
The characteristics of the failure curve on the compressive meridian depend on specific loading
conditions (figure 2). These are states of stress composed of predominantly axial compression
and rotation-symmetric transverse stress, either tension or compression.
One point on the compressive meridian the uniaxial compressive strength is already
known and can be found on 33-axis (11 = 22 = 0). The uniaxial compressive strength divides
the failure curve into two parts, axial compression below compressive strength combined with
transverse tension and axial compression above compressive strength combined with
transverse compression.
604
A Triaxial Fatigue Failure Model for Ultra-High-Performance Concrete (UHPC)
tension
meridian
sliding
fracture
change- brittle
fracture
over
compressive
meridian
fc,1
fc,1
transversal
tension
33
transversal
pressure
22
33 - axis
33 < (11 = 22)
11 = 22
11
33
Used for dynamic Used for static

Loading
Loading
Used for static and dynamic

Loading
Figure 2: Loading conditions of compressive meridian section on the failure surface due to three phases model
for ultra high performance concrete.
3.1.2 Transverse tensile stress

A special test array for a prismatic test body (40*40*160mm) was developed for "realistic"
transverse tensile strength testing, see figure 2. In this array, a hydraulic cylinder directly
applies the axial load. Aluminium brushes glued on transversely are intended to prevent the
required transverse tensile forces from constraining axial elongation. An appropriate deflection
allows both transverse directions to be separately controlled by two hydraulic cylinders. The
prisms were cut from a cube in order to prevent marginal disturbance. In this experimental set up, the results of two sets of three tests were averaged to determine axial stability under two
transverse tensile stresses (4 MPa, 6 MPa). Experiments showed (see table 1) that these high
transverse stress levels hardly reduced axial stability. Uniaxial tensile strength (fct,1 = 9.37 MPa)
had been previously determined using a "Bochum test rig" [6].
Table 1: Results uniaxial compression combined with transverse tension.
33 [MPa]
11 = 22 [MPa]
33 / fc,1
c,r / fc,1
Specimen M045_01
-190.7
4.0
1.014
-0.021
Specimen M045_02
-184.5
4.0
0.981
-0.021
Specimen M045_03
-173.1
4.0
0.920
-0.021
fc,1,M045 = - 188.0 MPa
-182.8
4.0
0.972
-0.021
33 [MPa]
11 = 22 [MPa]
33 / fc,1
c,r / fc,1
Specimen M045_05
-162.0
6.0
0.862
-0.032
Specimen M045_21
-170.0
6.0
0.904
-0.032
Specimen M045_23
-162.4
6.0
0.864
-0.032
Specimen M045_24
-167.1
6.0
0.889
-0.032
fc,1,M045 = - 188.0 MPa
-165.4
6.0
0.879
-0.032
Transverse tension = 4 MPa
Transverse tension = 6 MPa
605
The design with the glued brushes proved to be unsuitable for dynamic loads. Therefore, a
different test array was designed for later dynamic compressive meridian testing. This
alternative design uses flat top face and a flat bottom cylinders, specifically to accommodate
high frequency load reversals under later dynamic loads. Diverting the axial pressure
trajectories generates radial and tangential tensile stresses combined with axial loading, see
internal force vectors in figure 2. Because of the conical shape, longitudinal compression occur
in combination with transverse tension already under linearelastic condition, i.e. before fracture .
Although a rotation-symmetric state of stress ensues, this set-up fails to produce a state of
meridian stress across the entire cross-section. This is due to radial stresses diminishing along
the cross-section and turning zero at the edge. Since the state of meridian stress is not retained
across the entire cross-section, the failure states obtained are located a little outside the
expected failure area.
1.2
1,2
1.1
1,1
1.00
1.0
1,0
0.972
0.879
Relative strength [ ]
0.9
0,9
0.8
0,8
kc50/60,M045= 0.814
0.7
0,7
0.6
0,6
kc40/60,M045= 0.619
0.5
0,5
fquer50/60,M045= 7.4 MPa
0.4
0,4
fquer40/60,M045=
fct,1= 9.4 MPa
0.3
0,3
M045: uniaxial strength
0.2
0,2
M045: transversale tensile 4 MPa
0.1
0,1
M045: transversale tensile 6 MPa
0.0
0,0
uniaxial
tensile strength
fct,1= 9.4 MPa
10
11
12
Transversale tension [MPa]
Figure 3: realistic transverse tensile strength testing and alternative design.
Calibration tests carried out under static load after the flat face cylinder tests and before the
"realistic" radial tensile strength tests were taken to determine the radial tensile stress
equivalent to both flat face geometries. The equivalent radial tension for the first flat face
specimen is fct,50/60 = 7.4 MPa. The radial tension of the less slope one is limited to the uniaxial
tensile strength fct,40/60 = fct,1 = 9.37 MPa.
3.1.3 Triaxial testing cell for uniaxial compression combined with transverse pressure
Different test arrangements (e.g. rings, coil) have been tested, but all these experiments did not
produce suitable results [3]. Finally, a special designed triaxial testing cell was bought, see
figure 2. This experimental setup allows controlling different rotation-symmetric transverse
compression states in combination with axial compression. The pressure tank is used for
carrying out triaxial stress-deformation tests on cylindrical specimens with a confining pressure
of up to 100 MPa [7]. The specimen geometry (cylinder d/h = 60/180 [mm]) is the same as used
for uniaxial fatigue investigations.
606
3.2. Triaxial dynamic loading

Dynamic investigations of the compressive meridian are a consistent continuation of previous
static tests. Again the different test arrays distinguish between axial pressure combined with
rotation-symmetric transverse stress, either pressure or tension.
3.2.1 Radial tension
Dynamic investigations into this type of stress are carried out using flat top face cylinders of a
total height of 180 mm. The cylindrical section is 160 mm high at a 60 mm diameter which
tapers from 60 mm to 40 mm along the remaining 20 mm of height. The resulting tilt is 1:2
(40). Due to the geometry of the chosen test body, the radial tensile stress immediately
results from the axial stress.
Testing so far involved 4 test bodies at each of three load levels. Further tests will follow.
The table below itemises the number of stress reversal cycles before failure. Compared to the
radial pressure tests, there is an obvious greater spread in the number of cycles before failure
this time.
Table 2: Results uniaxial compression combined with radial tensile (see also [8]).
Specimen
upper-stress
level (*)
lower-stress
level
load cycle
[N]
M044_16
M044_08
M044_18
M044_07
0.85 (0.553)
0.85 (0.553)
0.85 (0.553)
0.85 (0.553)
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
4990
4310
317
1720
M044_17
M044_09
M044_12
M044_06
0.75 (0.486)
0.75 (0.486)
0.75 (0.486)
0.75 (0.486)
0.05
0.05
0.05
0.05
11595
26511
61905
25111
M044_05
M044_15
M044_19
M044_04
0.05
0.70 (0.455)
33145
0.70 (0.455)
0.05
127806
0.70 (0.455)
0.05
394081
0.70 (0.455)
0.05
2942
(*) in relation to triaxial strength f c,40/60 (as well as to
load cycle
[log N]
average value
[log N]
3.70
3.63
2.50
3.24
4.06
4.42
4.79
4.40
4.52
5.11
5.60
3.47
uniaxial strength f c,1m)
3.27
4.42
5.07
3.2.2 Radial compression

The triaxial cell especially was designed for dynamic investigations. The oil filled chamber
volume of triaxial testing cell can be minimized by packing from about 8.0 litre down to 1.5 litre.
Therefore, a dynamic loading frequency up to 5 Hertz is possible. In combination with the digital
multi-channel control system axial force and oil pressure can be controlled in phase.
For this project, dynamic test series are performed for two steps of lateral pressure
( 20 MPa, 40 MPa). At the beginning of each dynamic triaxial test series three uniaxial
specimens and two specimens with a constant transverse pressure were tested statically. The
uniaxial strength fcm is needed to compare the triaxial and uniaxial S-N-curves. The triaxial static
failure stress (e.g. fc,20MPa) is the reference to specify the upper-stress levels. The lower-stress
level always is 5 %. Table 3 shows the results of triaxial fatigue investigations for two levels of a
lateral pressure 20 MPa (series M043) and 40 MPa (series M042). For comparison, upper
stress levels are normalized with respect to uniaxial compression strength (f cm) additionally.
Figure 4 shows the results of all executed triaxial dynamic investigations. The upper stress
levels are normalized to the triaxial static compression strength (f c3,xxMPa) of each series. That is
why an intersection point for all lines can be found at low load cycles. In comparison to the
uniaxial S-N-curves, the slope of the regression line signifying the triaxial dynamic
607
investigations obviously is steeper. There is also a difference in steepness of the S-N curves for
different levels of transverse compression (series E and series F). That means the static
increase as a result of transverse pressure (e.g. fc,20MPa/fc,1= 1.60) will decrease for higher
number load cycles, but it is always higer than 1. The dynamic investigations for the conical
specimens still are running. All S-N-curves have to cut off at a upper stress level S o = 1.0.
Table 3: Results of triaxial fatigue investigations.
Series M043:
Series M042:
uniaxial strength:
triaxial strength:
stress
level (*)
ratio [ ]
0.80 ; 0.05
(1.28 ; 0.08)
0.70 ; 0.05
(1.12 ; 0.08)
0.60 ; 0.05
(0.96 ; 0.08)
0.50 ; 0.05
(0.80 ; 0.08)
load
cycle
[N]
fc,1 =
-194.6 MPa
fc11,-20MPa =
-311.6 MPa
c22 = c33 =
-20.0 MPa
fc,20MPa/fc,1=
1.60
c11/c22=c11/c33= 0.064
load
cycle
[ log N ]
average
value
[log N]
uniaxial strength:
triaxial strength:
stress
level (**)
ratio [ ]
fc,1 =
-202.0 MPa
fc11,-40MPa =
-371.3 MPa
c22 = c33 =
-40.0 MPa
fc,40MPa/fc,1=
1.84
c11/c22=c11/c33= 0.108
load
cycle
[N]
load
cycle
[ log N ]
average
value
[log N]
112
2.05
Stress level not available
2352
3.37
0.80 ; 0.05
3.00
in dynamic triaxial cell
(1.47 ; 0.09)
713
2.85
in Hannover
5291
3.72
8685
3.94
4910
3.69
11357
4.06
3380
3.53
18176
4.26
5158
3.71
0.70 ; 0.05
4.04
3.63
(1.29 ; 0.09)
12732
4.10
2727
3.44
14966
4.18
5083
3.71
5393
3.73
5314
3.73
29103
4.46
15509
4.19
47383
4.68
14330
4.16
157565
5.20
24079
4.38
0.60 ; 0.05
4.58
4.24
(1.10 ; 0.09)
42741
4.63
12858
4.11
11501
4.06
26519
4.42
28019
4.45
15132
4.18
270916
5.43
134499
5.13
310767
5.49
183879
5.26
719815
5.86
102092
5.01
0.50 ; 0.05
5.55
5.09
(0.92 ; 0.09)
469009
5.67
106721
5.03
216426
5.34
127457
5.11
326960
5.51
103136
5.01
(*) in relation to triaxial strength f c.20MPa (as well as to uniaxial strength f c.1)
(**) in relation to triaxial strength f c.40MPa (as well as to uniaxial strength f c.1)
4 Extension of three phases model with respect to fatigue

Now the fatigue strength, associated to each load cycle number, is taken from the experimental
S-N-curves to be transformed into the principal meridians section.
The ultimate numbers of stress cycles until failure according to the uniaxial S-N-curve are
attached to the 33-axis (see triangular symbols in figure 5). In a similar manner the triaxial S-Ncurves for different ratios of deviator versus hydrostatic stress (/ = 0.064 and accordingly
/ = 0.108) are transferred in each case to the straight load path defined by this ratio.
Fatigue failure curves connecting equal cycle numbers can be derived. You can see these
lines for numbers of cycles to failure log N = 3, 4 and 5 in figure 5.
608
1.2
1,2
Upper stress level S0

in relation to triaxial static strength fc3
1.1
1,1
1.0
1,0
0.9
0,9
11
0 22
33
33
0.8
0,8
0.7
0,7
0.6
0,6
r=0
0.5
0,5
r = 0.064
r = 0.108
0.4
0,4
0.3
0,3
11
0.064 22
33
33
11
0.108 22
33
33
0.2
0,2
Number of cycles to failure [log N]
Figure 4: Triaxial- and uniaxial S-N-curves for UHPC.

-1.8
-1.6
-1.4
-1.2
-1.0
-0.6
-0.4
-0.2
0.0
0.2
Thereby, the three phases failure
model
is extended
to -0.8
a three
phases
fatigue
failure
model.
0.2
1.0
1,0
-0.8
-0.6
fc,1
-0.4
-0.2
0.8
0,8
0.0
-0.2
11
0 22
33
33
0.7
0,7
-0.4
0.6
0,6
11
0.108 22
33
33
0.5
0,5
-0.6
-0.2
log N = 3
0.4
0,4
-0.8
log N = 4
0.3
0,3
11
0.064 22
33
33
0.2
0,2
0
-0.4
log N = 5
-1.0
Number of cycles to failure [log N]
log N = 5
compressive meridians
for different numbers of
cycles until failure
/fc,1
Upper stress level S0

in relation to triaxial static strength fc3
0.9
0,9
-0.6
-1.2
-1.4
-0.8
log N = 4
-1.6
-1.0
-1.8
log N = 3
33-axis
r=0.064
r=0.108
Figure 5: Extension of Three phases model for fatigue loading.
609
-1.2
5 Conclusions
The test setups designed and built by the Institute of Concrete Construction at the Leibniz
University of Hannover can be used for the experimental investigation of the failure curves on
the compressive meridian with respect to both, static as well as dynamic stresses. The triaxial
test cell allows a dynamic in-phase investigation of triaxial compression conditions above
uniaxial strength limits. Flat point cylinders can be basically used for dynamic strength tests
under axial compression combined with transverse tension, but require appropriate calibration
tests to be performed first.
The findings of triaxial meridian tests show that the advanced three-phase model is a good
means of describing the compressive meridian of the stress to failure. A radial pressure load
causes UHPC to be more ductile than the brittle response obtained from uniaxial stress.
The steeper S-N curves attached to triaxial compression in comparison to the uniaxial S-Ncurves suggest that the increase of fatigue strength due to lateral compression is consumed
with rising load cycles.
6 Acknowledgement
This project is part of the priority programme Sustainable Building with Ultra High Performance
Concrete currently under way in Germany. The authors thank the Deutsche
Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) for the financial support of this research work.
References
[1] Ertel C.; Grnberg J.: Triaxial Fatigue Behaviour of Ultra High Performance Concrete; 3 rd fib
International Congress; May 29 June 2, 2010, Washington, D.C.
[2] Schmidt, M.; Fehling, E.: Entwicklung, Dauerhaftigkeit und Berechnung Ultrahochfester Betone
(UHPC), Kassel, 2005
[3] Grnberg, J.; Lohaus, L.; Ertel, C.; Wefer, M.: Mehraxiales mechanisches Ermdungsmodell von
Ultra-Hochfestem Beton Experimentelle und analytische Untersuchungen, Beton- und
Stahlbetonbau, V. 102, No. 6, Jun. 2007, pp. 388-398.
[4] Wefer, M.: Materialverhalten und Bemessungswerte von ultrahochfestem Beton unter einaxialer
Ermdungsbeanspruchung. Dissertation, Leibniz Universitt Hannover, Institut fr Baustoffe, 2010
[5] Ludger, L.; Oneschkow, N: New fatigue design model for all concrete strengths; HiPerMat 2012,
Kassel
[6] Lohaus, L; Wefer, M.; Gerlach, J.: Zentrisches Zugtragverhalten von Ultrahochfestem Beton
(UHPC), Internationale Baustofftagung 17th ibausil, 23.-26.09.2009, Weimar
[7] GL Test-Systems: Dynamic triaxial testing cell, Operating manual, Heiligenstadt, 2009
[8] Lohaus, L.; Elsmeier, K: Fatigue Behaviour of plain and fibre reinforced Ultra-High Performance
Concrete; HiPerMat 2012, Kassel
610

Ludger Lohaus, Nadja Oneschkow
Institute of Building Materials Science, Leibniz Universitt Hannover, Germany
At the Institute of Building Materials Science, Leibniz Universitt Hannover, a new design model for
compressive fatigue loading was developed. This design model is mainly based on investigations
conducted on two ultra-high strength concretes. It is also applicable to normal strength and high strength
concretes. This model was further integrated into the design concept of CEB-FIP Model Code 90 [1] to
ensure an easy practical application. In this paper, the new design model is presented and its capabilities
shall be demonstrated. The effects of the changes compared to the current standard design mode l are
also shown. Thereby, the ensured safety level is particularly analysed. This analysis shows that the
required safety level is maintained. Furthermore, the new model enables an economic fatigue design.
Keywords: Fatigue design, Model Code, safety level, ultra-high strength concrete
1 Introduction
In recent years concretes with high compressive strengths of 100 MPa up to 200 MPa have
been developed and used in different building constructions. On the one hand, these high
compressive strengths lead to light and slender structures which are increasingly susceptible to
non-static loading. As a consequence the influence of cyclic stresses increases. On the other
hand, there are building structures which are typically exposed to high fatigue relevant stresses,
e.g. wind turbines. In both cases fatigue loading is relevant for design. However, the concrete
grades considered in CEB-FIP Model Code 1990 [1] are limited to C 80. Furthermore, the
definition of the fatigue reference compressive strength as stated in [1] is not applicable to
concrete grades above C120. Considering the current developments, design rules for fatigue
should also be applicable to concretes with higher compressive strengths.
At the Institute of Building Materials Science, Leibniz Universitt Hannover, experimental
investigations on the fatigue behaviour of normal strength, high strength and ultra-high strength
concretes have been carried out, applying ultimate numbers of cycles to failure up to log N = 7.
Based on these investigations, a material model was developed for concretes with enhanced
compressive strength under uniaxial compressive fatigue loading [2] and further developed
subsequently [3], [4]. The material model was integrated into the design concept of CEB -FIP
Model Code 90 [1]. Therefore, a new approach for the determination of the fatigue reference
compressive strength was developed. The new design model with its capabilities is presented in
this paper. Relevant aspects with regard to safety are also analysed and presented.
2 New fatigue design model

Experimental tests
The following results were attained based on experimental investigations on two ultra -high
strength concretes (UHPC) [2], [5]. The ultra-high strength fine-grained concrete (M2Q) and
coarse-grained concrete (B4Q) had 28-day compressive strengths of f c,cube,100 = 160 MPa and
fc,cube,100 = 180 MPa respectively, both after storage under water. Both mixtures contained 2.5
Vol.-% of high strength smooth steel fibres with a length of 9.0 mm and l/d-ratio of 60.
Cylindrical heat-treated test specimens with dimension d/h = 60 mm/180 mm were used. Before
testing, the loaded surfaces of the specimens were plane-parallel grinded and finally polished.
No significant differences in the regression lines were deduced from the test resul ts for UHPCs
with different grain compositions. Therefore the two UHPC-mixtures were analysed together [2].
611
In Figure 1 the experimental test results and the resulting regression lines, purely based on
these test results, for UHPC are shown.
Sc,max = c,max / fcm,i [-]
1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
Sc,min = 0.05
Sc,min = 0.20
Sc,min = 0.40
0.6
0.5
0.0
1.0
2.0
3.0
4.0
5.0
6.0
7.0
8.0
number of cycles to failure log N [-]
Figure 1: Experimental test results and regression lines [2].
Woehler curves
Combining Woehler- and Goodman-diagrams, a parameterized failure surface for uniaxial
compressive fatigue is defined in a three-dimensional coordinate system with axes S c,max, Sc,min
and log N [2], [3]. The derivation is based on the experimental test results (Figure 1) taking the
following requirements into consideration:
Intersection with the ordinate at S c,max = 1.0 [6],
Linear approximation, at least for the range up to log N = 7 [7],
Deviation from test results that are on the safe side,
Connection to high numbers of load cycles (N > 107) and thus continuous description for
all maximum stress levels Sc,max,i,
For high numbers of load cycles, asymptotic approach for the respective minimum stress
levels [1].
Four input parameters, P 1,fat, P2,fat, P3,fat and P4,fat, were used to generate this failure surface [2],
[3]. These parameters represent four fatigue strengths determined for a number of cycles to
failure of log N2 = 8. P1,fat, P2,fat and P3,fat are deduced by extrapolation of the regression lines,
which intersect the ordinate at S c,max = 1.0, up to a number of cycles to failure of log N2 = 8. P4,fat
corresponds to the sustained static load S c,min = Sc,max = 0.85. Up to log N = 8, the Woehler
curves are straight lines as expressed by equation (1). For log N > 8, a monotonic decreasing
exponential function is defined, which approaches the respective minimum stress level Sc,min,i
asymptotically (cf. equation (2)).
For log N 8
logN
8
(S
1)
Y 1 c,max
(1)
For log N > 8
logN 8
where:
S
Sc,min
8 ln(10)
(Y Sc,min ) log c,max
YS
Y 1
c,min
0.45 1.8 Sc,min

2
1 1.8 Sc,min 0.3 Sc,min
612
(2)
The new Woehler curves are displayed as the failure surface in Figure 2.
Figure 2: New Woehler curves displayed as the failure surface [3].
Comparison with own test results and test results and models documented in literatures has
demonstrated the applicability of these Woehler curves to normal strength, high strength and
ultra-high strength concretes [3].
Fatigue reference strength
According to CEB-FIP Model Code 90 [1], the design fatigue reference strength f cd,fat is
determined based on the static compressive strengths design value f cd which is reduced by a
term, here referred to as fat:
fcd,fat 0.85 cc (t 0 )
fck
c
f
1 ck
25fck0
fcd
[1], section 6.7.3
(3)
fat
where: fck0 = 10 MPa (reference strength)

The term fat depends on the characteristic static compressive strength and it decreases with
increasing concrete strength. Equation (3) is usable for concrete grades of up to C120. Applying
equation (3) to concretes with strengths above f ck = 125 MPa would lead to decreasing values
of fcd,fat. Thus, the function has to be modified for higher concrete grades. Accordingly, the
design fatigue reference strength (equation (3)) was modified taking into account an extreme
loading condition [2]. For this purpose, the regression line for a minimum stress level of
Sc,min = 0.05 (cf. Figure 1) was considered. The linear extrapolation of this regression line up to
a number of cycles to failure of N = 108 leads to a corresponding compressive stress level of
Sc,max 0.5, which accounts for a loss in bearing capacity by 50 %. Hence, the term fat was
modified in such a way that for concretes with fck = 200 MPa, the design fatigue reference
strength fcd,fat amounts to 50 % of the static strengths design value f cd. The new design fatigue
reference strength is calculated according to equation (4):
613
fcd,fat,Hannover 0.85 cc (t0 )
fck
f
1 ck
c
40fck0
(4)
fat
fcd
where: fck0 = 10 MPa (reference strength)

In [2] a partial safety factor of c = 1.5 is derived for UHPC. Similarly, the same partial safety
factor is applicable for all normal strength, high strength and ultra-high strength concretes.
Integration into the design concept of Model Code
In order to ensure an easy practical application, the new design model was integrated into the
design concept of CEB-FIP Model Code 90 [3], [4]. The design concept according to Model
Code includes three levels of approximation. The new Woehler curves and the modified fatigue
reference strength can easily be integrated by substituting the currently standard equations for
pure compressive fatigue loading:
Level 1 Approximation:
Detailed fatigue design is not necessary if the following requirement for concretes under
compressive fatigue loading is met.
Sd c,max c 0.45 fcd,fat,Hannover

where:
fcd,fat,Hannover 0.85 cc (t0 )
(5)
fck
f
1 ck
c
40fck0
fat
fcd
fck0 = 10 MPa (reference strength)

In such cases, a number of cycles to failure of N 108 is reached for a minimum stress level of
Scd,min = 0.
Level 2 Approximation:
If the requirement of level 1 is not met, then the verification refers to a single load level
including the dominant fatigue loading. The requirements are considered to be met if the
number of acting load cycles n is less than the number of resisting cycles N:
nN
(6)
For Scd,max < 0.90, 0 Scd,min 0.80 and frequencies f > 0.1 Hz the number of resisting load
cycles N is calculated using the following equations (7) and (8). In cases where Scd,min > 0.80,
the minimum compressive stress levels design value can be taken as Scd,min = 0.80.
For log N 8:
logN
8
(S
1)
Y 1 cd,max
(7)
For log N > 8:
logN 8
where:
S
Scd,min
8 ln(10)
(Y Scd,min ) log cd,max
YS
Y 1
cd,min
Scd,min Sd c,min c / fcd,fat,Hannover

Sd
c
= 1.1 or rather 1.0
Scd,max Sd c,max c / fcd,fat,Hannover
in accordance with [1], section 1.6.6.4

in accordance with [1], equation (6.7-2)
614
(8)
0.45 1.8 Scd,min
f
f
; fcd,fat,Hannover 0.85 cc (t0 ) ck 1 ck
2
1 1.8 Scd,min 0.3 Scd,min
c
40fck0
Level 3:
If the requirement of level 2 is not met, then the whole spectrum of load levels has to be known.
As explained in CEB-FIP Model Code 90 [1], it is recommended to verify the fatigue
requirements in accordance with the Palmgren-Miner summation. The limiting fatigue damage
has to be met.
nSi
Dlim
i1 NRi
j
in accordance with [1], section 6.7.5
(9)
The numbers of resisting load cycles NRi are to be calculated using equations (7) and (8). In [1],
it is stated that failure occurs if D = 1.0.
The new design model, comprising the new Woehler curves and the modified value of fatigue
reference strength, is included in the new fib-Model Code 2010.
3 Analysis of safety
Woehler curves
In Figure 3, the new Woehler curves [3], [4] and the current standard ones [1] are compared.
For high maximum stress levels the new Woehler curves lead to higher numbers of cycles to
failure (resistance). However, for low maximum stress levels in the range of log N > 8,
depending on the minimum stress level, the new Woehler curves lead to lower numbers of
cycles to failure. Generally, only a few experimental test results are available in this range. For
this reason, the approximation was done on the safe side.
maximum stress level Sc,max [-]
1.0
0.9
Sc,min = 0.8
0.8
0.7
Sc,min = 0.6
0.6
0.5
Sc,min = 0.4
0.4
Sc,min = 0.2
0.3
0.2
Sc,min = 0.0
CEB-FIP Model Code 90
0.1
New approach Hannover
0.0
0.0
2.0
4.0
6.0
8.0
10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0
Figure 3: Comparison of new and current standard Woehler curves [3].
Fatigue reference strength

As previously mentioned, the fatigue reference strength includes an additional reduction term
fat taking account of fatigue loading. Higher compressive strengths fck lead to higher amounts of
additional reduction. This was generally justified by the increasing brittleness of the material
and also due to the lack of knowledge concerning high strength concretes in the 1990s, when
the CEB-FIP Model Code 90 [1] was published. However, an analysis of this reduction term
shows, that for a concrete grade C80 this reduction is already higher than the reduction due to
615
the partial safety factor c = 1.50. For concretes with a static compressive strength
fck = 120 MPa, the corresponding reduction term is fat = 0.52. That means, the design fatigue
reference strength fcd,fat only amounts to 52 % of the static strengths design value fcd.
In Figure 4, the correlations between the compressive strength and the design fatigue reference
strength, according to the new approach and CEB-FIP Model Code 90 [1] are shown. In
addition, the correlations for constant values of fat = 1.0, which implies no additional reduction
(fcd,fat = fcd), and fat = 0.7 are analysed.
design fatigue reference strength fcd,fat [MPa]
120
CEB-FIP Model Code 90

New approach Hannover
100
fat = 1.0
fat = 0.7
80
Additional safety for fatigue
loading, Model Code
60
Additional safety for fatigue

loading, new approach
40
20
Same safety level for fatigue loading

CEB-FIP Model Code 90: C70/C80
New approach Hannover: C120
0
0
20
40
60
80
100 120 140 160 180 200
characteristic compressive strength fck [MPa]
Figure 4: Comparison of the new approach for f cd,fat with the approach of CEB-FIP Model Code 90 [3].
It is obvious that the application of the design fatigue reference strength f cd,fat according to CEBFIP Model Code 90 [1] to concretes with compressive strengths of fck > 125 MPa would lead to
decreasing values of f cd,fat. On the contrary, the new approach (equation (4)) gives an increasing
function and, therefore, it is applicable up to a compressive strength of f ck = 200 MPa.
Moreover, applying the modified fatigue reference strength leads to fat = 0.70 for a concrete
grade C120. That means the same safety level is ensured for a C120 using the new approach
as it was specified for a concrete in the range between C70 and C80 according to CEB -FIP
Model Code 90 [1] in the early 1990s. Meanwhile existing extensive scientific research works on
high strength concretes justifies this adjustment in the safety level. Thus, the required safety is
ensured for all concrete grades of up to f ck = 200 MPa.
Complete design model
Evaluating fatigue design of concrete structures, both Woehler curves and fatigue reference
strength need to be analysed together. However, the required safety level is ensured by the
definition of the design fatigue reference strength, which is the reference value of S cd,max and
Scd,min, or rather by the amount of reduction in characteristic static compressive strength.
Modifying the design fatigue reference strength, leads to a change in the correlation between
the design stresses cd,max and cd,min and the numbers of cycles to failure N. Because of the
non-linear correlation between S cd,max and Scd,min and N, small changes in f cd,fat lead to
disproportional changes in numbers of cycles to failure. Of course, with increasing concrete
grades, this influence increases. In Figure 5, the effect of different reference values is
exemplarily presented for the concrete grades C30 and C120. For this purpose, the
characteristic static strength fck, the static strengths design value fcd and the design fatigue
616
120
maximum compressive stress ci,max [MPa]
maximum compressive stress ci,max [MPa]
reference strength fcd,fat,Hannover are used as reference values. For this, the new Woehler curve is
used. In addition, the dashed curve is calculated using the Woehler curve and the design
fatigue reference strength fcd,fat of CEB-FIP Model Code 90 [1]. For simplicity the minimum
stress ci,min = 0.05 is kept constant.
fcd,fat,Hannover and Woehler curve Hannover
fcd,fat and Woehler curve Model Code
100
fcd, Woehler curve Hannover

fck, Woehler curve Hannover
80
Concrete grade C30
60
40
20
0
0.0
2.0
4.0
6.0
8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0
120
fcd,fat,Hannover and Woehler curve Hannover

fcd,fat and Woehler curve Model Code
100
fcd, Woehler curve Hannover

fck, Woehler curve Hannover
80
Concrete grade C120
60
40
20
0
0.0
2.0
4.0
6.0
8.0 10.0 12.0 14.0 16.0
Figure 5: Analysis of the effect of reference values f ck, fcd, fcd,fat and fcd,fat,Hannover (C30 and C120).
In Figure 5 it is shown that the new approach permits higher numbers of cycles to failure for the
same maximum compressive stress than [1]. But the differences in load cycles between the
new and the current standard curves are significantly smaller than the total difference when f ck
is used as reference strength. It is obvious that the effect of the new design model is greater for
normal strength concretes than for higher concrete grades (see also Figure 4). For a concrete
C30 both approaches lead to quite similar maximum compressive stresses cd,max (fcd,fat or
fcd,fat,Hannover as reference strength). Comparing the curves for reference values f cd,fat,Hannover and
fck, it is obvious that a huge reduction in numbers of cycles to failure exists, especially for a
C120. This reduction is also observable by comparing the maximum stresses for the same
number of cycles to failure log N. For a concrete class C120, the ratio of
c,max(fcd,fat,Hannover) / c,max(fcd) = 0.7 (see also Figure 4).
For the evaluation of the safety level, further aspects have to be considered. Generally and
different from both design approaches, the determination of the stress levels in experimental
tests refers to mean values of the static strength. This means, even without any safety factors
and additional reduction terms taking account of fatigue loading, there is an additional safety
included in the design concept since fck refers to the 5%-quantile and not to the mean value of
static strength. This additional reduction in the number of cycles to failure is not shown in Figure
5. Another aspect is that the fatigue reference strength refers to 28-days compressive
strengths. However, subsequent concrete hardening, which is not considered in the design
concept, normally leads to a better fatigue bearing capacity, thereby providing additional safety.
Two further positive influences regarding fatigue strength are the redistribution of stresses in
damaged zones and the combined bearing capacity of reinforced concrete. On the contrary,
there are influences like preliminary damage, overloads and the combination of different load
levels, which might reduce the fatigue strength of structures. The effect of redistribution,
preliminary damage and overloads can hardly be quantified in a general valid way for all
concrete structures, yet. All together, the new approach does not lead to significant changes in
the fatigue design results for normal strength concretes. For higher strength concretes, there is
617
still a huge reduction in numbers of cycles to failure representing safety. Taking this into
account, and additionally considering both the previously described hidden safety factors and
the new research results concerning fatigue of higher strength concretes, it can be stated that
the required safety level is ensured.
4 Conclusions
In this paper a new design model for compressive fatigue loading is presented. This design
model was developed based on extensive research on normal strength, high strength and ultra high strength concretes [2], [3]. It comprises new Woehler curves and a modified design fatigue
reference strength. To ensure an easy practical application, the new design model was
integrated into the design concept according to CEB-FIP Model Code. The applicability of the
Woehler curves for normal strength, high strength and ultra-high strength concretes is verified
[3]. The modified fatigue reference strength ensures the same safety level for a C120 as for a
concrete in the range of C70/C80 according to [1]. In addition, the ensured safety of the new
design model is analysed exemplarily for two concretes having normal strength and high
strength grades. It is shown that the new design model leads to higher numbers of resisting
cycles to failure, especially for high strength concretes. These improvements are absolutely
crucial for practical application taking the increasing fatigue relevant loads into consideration.
According to meanwhile existing experimental test results for high-strength concretes, this
modification is justified. Simultaneously and most important, it is demonstrated that the required
safety is still assured. Altogether, the new design model enables a safe and economic fatigue
design of concrete structures. Furthermore, it enables a prospective extension of application for
ultra-high strength concretes up to f ck = 200 MPa. The presented design model is included in
the new fib-Model Code 2010 whereby the concrete grades are limited to C120. Background
information will also be included in [8].
References
[1] CEB Comit Euro-international du Bton: CEB-FIP Model Code 90. Bulletin dInformation, No.
213/214, Thomas Telford Ltd., London, 1993.
Ermdungsbeanspruchung. Dissertation, Leibniz Universitt Hannover, Institut fr Baustoffe, 2010
[3] Lohaus, L.; Wefer, M.; Oneschkow, N.: Ermdungsbemessungsmodell fr normal-, hoch- und ultrahochfeste Betone. In: Beton- und Stahlbetonbau, Jahrgang 106, Heft 12, S. 836 - 846, Ernst &
Sohn, 2011.
[4] Lohaus, L., Wefer, M., Oneschkow, N.: High Performance Concrete How do deal with fatigue? In:
Proceedings of the fib Symposium Prague, June 2011.
[5] Grnberg, J.; Lohaus, L.; Ertel, Ch.; Wefer, M.: Mehraxiales mechanisches Ermdungsmodell von
Ultra-Hochfestem Beton (Experimentelle und analytische Untersuchungen). In: Beton- und
Stahlbetonbau, Jahrgang 102, Heft 6, Ernst & Sohn, 2007.
[6] Petkovi, G.; Stemland, H.; Rosseland, S.: High Strength Concrete SP 3 - Fatigue, Report 3.2
Fatigue of High Strength Concrete. SINTEF Structures and Concrete, Trondheim, August 1992
[7] Klausen, D.: Festigkeit und Schdigung von Beton bei hufig wiederholter Beanspruchung.
Dissertation, TU Darmstadt, 1978.
[8] fib International Federation for Structural Concrete: fib-Bulletin: Constitutive Modelling of Concrete
Behaviour according to Model Code 2010. (in Process).
This research project was part of the priority program 1182 Sustainable Building with UltraHigh Performance Concrete (UHPC) funded by the German Research Foundation (DFG).
618
Mechanical Behaviour of Ultra High-Performance FibrousConcrete Beams Reinforced by Internal FRP Bars
Emmanuel Ferrier1, Laurent Michel1, Philippe Lussou2, Bruno Zuber2
1: LGCIE Site Bohr, Universit Claude Bernard Lyon I, Domaine scientifique de la DOUA, France
2: Lafarge, LCR, Saint Quentin Fallavier, France
The main objective of the research project reported in this paper is to develop a new type of high
performance light beams that will increase the performance of usual beams (timber steel or RC beams)
by combining FRP rebars cast in a ultra-high-performance concrete with short fibre reinforcement
(UHPC-SFR). The beam is obtained to get a light beam with a high compressive and tensile capacity to
sustain high bending moment and to be also shear resistant. The hybrid beam thus obtained possesses
a lower bending stiffness than a glulam beam or steel beam of similar overall dimensions but a higher
ultimate load capacity. One model is developed to validate this concept is presented in this paper. It is an
analytical model based on the usual force equilibrium hypotheses. The load-displacement and momentcurvature relationships are compared to experimental results obtained from 5 large scales specimens.
The results show good correlation between analytical and experimental results, and illustrate the
potential interest of such composite beam configurations for civil engineering structures.
Keywords: CFRP bars, ultra-high-performance concrete, Reinforced concrete, beams
1 Introduction
Construction with ultra high performance short fibers has increased significantly in Europe and
all over the world in recent years. Since the materials strength are very high in compression
and very interesting in tension combined with a capacity to mitigate the effects of
environemental exposure thanks to a low permeability, its increased use is predictable when
sustainable development principles are taken in consideration [1, 2]. Use of this technology
enables the designer to create thinner sections and longer spans that are lighter, more graceful
and innovative in geometry and form, with improved durability and impermeability against
corrosion, abrasion and impact [3]. The material technology permits it to be used without
passive reinforcing (rebar) and reductions in formwork, labor and maintenance further add to
economy [4]. The elimination of shear stirrups framework improves safety, the reduction of
weight speeds construction, and the improved durability reduces maintenance and extends the
usage-life. As a consequence, the consumption of UHPC has increased significantly for
construction all over the world, to such a level that new ways to optimize its use are now
necessary [5, 6]. This paper presents the analytical and experimental results of an investigation
on a new type of hybrid beam. On the one hand, as shown in Figure 1, the hybrid beam is
obtained by casting FRP rebars in the bottom of a beam made of ultra-high-performance
concrete with short fibre (UHPC-SFR). The high performance concrete, with a compressive
strength of 150 MPa and a tensile strength of 15 MPa, are cast in mould to get the lighter beam
as possible. The Young modulus of UHPC- SFR is approximately 50 000 MPa [1, 2]. The
UHPC-SFR beams are reinforced with 1, 2 or 3 FRP bars embedded in
the concrete in order to increase the tensile strength of the bottom portion of the hybrid beam
[7]. On the other hand, the objective of the modelling was to develop a modelling wich consider
concrete cracking and post pic behaviour and then allowing to optimize the configuration of the
section, by selecting the most appropriate thickness of UHPC for shear and flexure, FPR
properties (rebars area, Young modulus), thus increasing the bending stiffness and the ultimate
load capacity. The experimental testing was done on beams with a 2- or 4-meter span. The
performance of this innovative hybrid structural configuration is confirmed in this paper. We
619
consider a type of I section. The objective is to develop different failure modes; the geometry of
the section has been adapted to each case study. The objective was either to reach the tensile
FRP reinforcement failure (beam with a 4 meter span) or to reach the compressive strength
failure (beam with a 4 meters span) or by retaining a smaller span length (2 meters) to get a
shear failure.
Test specimens
A typical hybrid beam such as the one described above is shown in Fig. 1. The beam of length
Lw has a width b w and height hw. The tensile bottom of the beam has a thickness of h w1 which is
reinforced with FRP. At the top of the section, the compressive part of the beam has a thickness
of hw1. For the sake of comparison, the total depth of the specimen is selected to be identical for
all the beams. In order to evaluate the efficiency of this beam, a limited number of parameters
was retained. Obviously, geometrical and material parameters such as beam length, depth and
span, depth-to-width ratio, volume
percentage of concrete versus short
steel fibers, volume ratio of the
tensile rebars and their mechanical
properties including axial stiffness of
rebars, and mechanical properties of
concrete and FRP are all significant.
In this study, the parameters that
were investigated are the beam span,
depth-to-width ratio, and the tensile
strength of the rebars incorporated in
the lower part (Fig. 1).
Figure 1 : Geometrical parameters of beams.
The geometrical properties of the five beams studied are given in Table 1. For the five beams
the volume percentage of short metalic fibers is 2 % and the axial stiffness E rAr of the rebars
was fixed to range from 20 MN to 30 MN for carbon FRP rebars and to range from 9 to 18 MN
for glass FRP rebars. The material properties of the rebars, made of, glass (G) or carbon (C)
fiber-reinforced polymers, are given in table 1 and 2.
Table 1 : Parameters of mechanical behaviour law.
Material
Parameters
fctj [MPa]
e [%]
fct [MPa]
0.3% [%]
1% [%]
lim [%]
bc [%]
fcc [MPa]
Ec [MPa]
fFRP r [MPa]
re [%]
Er [MPa]
Tension
Ultra high
performance
concrete
Compression
Youngs modulus
Tension
FRP Rebars
Youngs Modulus
620
Value
9
0.02
17
0.3
1
10
0.3
150
50000
1900
1.35
140000
Mechanical Behaviour of Ultra High-Performance Fibrous-Concrete Beams Reinforced by Internal FRP Bars
The depth-to-width ratio h/bw was fixed to range from 8 to 9.7 to obtain the wanted failure
modes. The beam span-to-depth ratio Lw/hw was taken as 9 for the four 2-metre beams to get a
shear failure and 20 to 22 for the four 4-metre beams to obtain a flexural failure. The highest
value for this ratio is anticipated to favor the flexural behavior rather than the shear behavior
more likely to control the shorter beams. The Lspan/h value of 20 corresponds to the standard
value proposed by ASTM D3737 [8] test procedure used forglulam beams. The short span
beam 5 has been lighten thanks to 50 mm diagonal void in the flange (Fig. 2).
Beam 1
Beam 2
Beam 3
Beam 4
-5
Figure 2 : Beams section after testing.
Material
As described above, the hybrid beam is made of an ultra high performance concrete. The
UHP concrete is a Ductal F1 premix. In order to evaluate the mechanical properties,
mechanical tests were performed on each concrete batch. The 5 beams were cast in two
different batches.
Table 2: Materials and geometrical parameter definitions.
Lw
FRP
TYPE
Diameter
number
Area
[mm] [mm] [mm] [mm] [mm] [mm] [mm] [m]
CF/GF
[mm]
[u.]
[mm2]
hw1
h'w1
hw2
h'w2
bw
bf
hw
Beam 1
23
40
32
48
90
22
200
Glass
16
201
Beam 2
17
33
10
21
90
22
176
Carbon
9.6
217
Beam 3
17
33
10
21
90
22
192
Carbon
9.6
144
Beam 4
38
55
35
50
90
22
215
Glass
16
402
Beam 5
38
55
35
50
90
22
215
Glass
16
402
Nine cylindrical concrete specimens were tested under compression 90 days after casting,
according to the specifications of UHPC standart [9, 10]. A mean compressive strength fc of 174
7.4 MPa was found. For FRP rebars, we did not perform specific mechanical testing in the
laboratory and we used the properties provided by the suppliers in our calculations (Table 1).
621
Specimen preparation
The FRP-concrete composite beams used in this research were fabricated using casting as
mentioned earlier. FRP rebars were fixed in the mould because of their low density. The beams
were cast vertically.
3 Experimental result
Mechanical testing
The tests done in order to obtain the bending stiffness and the load bearing capacity of the
composite beam and moment-curvature relation are illustrated in Fig. 3. The beams specimens
prepared according to the above detailed procedure were subjected to a four-point loading test
according to ASTM standards D 3737-04 and D 4761-05 [11]. The distance between support
and applied load was higher than twice the depth of the beam, as required by the standard. For
the 2.0-metre beams, this distance is 0.7 m while for the 4.0-metre beams, it is 1.3 m. The
loading was displacement-controlled and, as requested by the standard ASTM D4761-05, the
total test duration was always between 10 s and 10 min. The exact speed rate was 9 mm/min
for the beam with a span/depth ratio of 20 and 1 mm/min for the beams with a span/depth ratio
of 9. The loads and displacements were recorded at 1 s intervals by data logger using load cells
and LVDT transducers. In order to obtain strain distribution in the mid-span section, four strain
gauges were bonded on the lateral face of the beam. Rebar strains were also measured during
the loading with gauges
bonded before the beams
were cast. Before the tests,
the beams were conditioned
to a mean value of about
12 % for the moisture content
and a temperature of 20 C.
Figure 3 : Testing device.
Load-deflection response of composite beams

The analysis of the load-displacement curves indicates that there are two or three stages of
distinct behavior during the test, corresponding to the progressive damages in the constitutive
materials (concrete, rebars). The curves showing the load-displacement relationship for the
three 4.0-metre beams are given in Fig. 4 and, for the two 2-metre beams, in Fig. 5.
For all beams with
UHPC reinforced with
GFRP or CFRP, the first
stage
of
behavior
corresponds to that of the
uncracked section and
the beam exhibits an
important
bending
stiffness. The second
stage of behavior is
attained when the load
reaches about 11 kN for
the
2.0-metre
span
beams and for a load of

5 kN in the case of the 4-
Figure 4 : Load displacement curve Beam 1 to 3.
622
metre span beams. At this point, the bottom UHPC of the beam begins to crack, and a
reduction of the bending stiffness is observed.
Table 3: Experimental results.
Elastic limit
load
Displacement
at elastic load
Load at
failure
Displacement
at failure
[kN]
[mm]
[kN]
[mm]
Beam
B4m-1-PRFG-16 mm
5.20
5.29
37.42
166
Beam
B4m-3-PRFC-9 mm
5.50
5.12
38.62
90
Beam
B4m-2-PRFC-9 mm
4.57
3.21
40.15
112
Beam
B2m-2-PRFG-16 mm
13.62
1.20
85.55
24.13
Beam
B2m-A-2-PRFG-16mm
10.62
1.35
21.62
The behavior of the

composite beam remains
linear but with a reduced
stiffness until the third
stage of behavior may
occurs (beam 1). This
corresponds
to
the
yielding of tensile steel
short fibers that occurs at
loads of about 35 kN for
the beam 1. After the
cracking
load
the
behavior remains elastic
Figure 5 : Load displacement curve, Beam 4 to 5.
with a constant stiffness
until failure. This emphasizes the interest of using FRP rebars to allow an increase of the tensile
capacity of the lower beam part and to increase the ultimate capacity of the beam (Table 3). But
shear failure should be carrefully avoid like for beam 5 where the ultimate load is reduced due
to shear failure.
Behaviour at failure
Using the mid section strain measurements, an evaluation of the mechanical behavior of the
composite beams and of the efficiency of the hybrid solution at failure can be performed. For
the upper UHPC section in compression, the strain rate at failure was higher than 2500 m / m
for beam 3 and nearby 2300 m/m for beam 1. For FRP rebars, ultimate strength was attained
in beam 1 with GFRP bars while 80 % of the CFRP strength was reached at failure for Beam 3.
For 2-meter beams, the range of tensile stress in CFRP or GFRP varied from 20 to 50 % of the
ultimate FRP strength due to the premature shear failure of the beam (Table 3). From this
observation, it was concluded that this new innovative hybrid beams allows to get higher stress
at failure in each material at failure and increase then the performances of the beam. It can be
stated that the hybrid configuration of the beam allows each material to reach a high strain at
failure in the concrete in compression; this confirms the interest of this approach. At the ultimate
load level, various failure modes were observed, depending on the span and characteristics of
the beam.
623
The 2.0-metre beams failed in shear (Fig. 6c and d), while the 4-metre beams exhibited
compressive (Fig. 6b) or tensile failure (Fig. 6a). The failure load of the hybrid beams occurred
between 18 kN (beam 1) and 85 kN (beam 5) (Table 3). It is important to note that there was no
debonding of the FRP rebars from UHPC from any of the beams. The use of Carbon composite
rebars seems to be the most appropriate in relation to reduce span displacement. This can be
explained by the fact that Carbon FRP Young modulus is higher than GFRP Young Modulus
(Table 1). For structure design purpose, the main design criterion will be related to service
condition (deflection criterion) as for glulam or steel beams. The design properties should
consider the axial stiffness of FRP rebars.
(a) Beam 1
(b) Beam 2
(c) Beam 4
(d) Beam 5
Figure 6 : Failure modes.
4 Analytical modelling
In this study, a nonlinear material analytical modelling of the hybrid beams was undertaken. A
sectional analysis was used initially to develop an appropriate momentcurvature relationship
for the composite sections. This modelling was preferred to a FEM analysis because of
concrete cracking wich need a high number of elements necessary to reduce numerical
instabilities caused by the size of the finite element mesh for a full 3-D analysis [12]. The
method developed in this study to predict the strength and the stiffness of the multi-material
hybrid beam is based on an iterative procedure. This analytical model, based on strain
compatibility and equilibrium of internal forces in the section, can simulate the multi -material
beam behaviour and take into account the non-linearity of the constituent materials [413].
Causes of non-linearity in the section include tensile cracking of concrete and post tensioning,
plastic behaviour of concrete in compression, and yielding of the internal short me talic fibers
reinforcement.
Material properties
To model the mechanical behaviour of UHPC-SFR concrete, an elastic, multilinear stressstrain relationship proposed by Habel et al. [14] and AFGC [3] for UHPC-SFR was used. For
concrete, the values of strains corresponding to critical levels on the stress-strain curve are
624
given by the following equations. The tensile stress corresponding to first cracking is f ctj with a
strain value given by 0.3%. The maximal point of the tensile stress/strain relation is given by the
stress corresponding to f ct and the strain to 1%.
w O.3
0.3
1%
lc
f ctj
(1)
Ecj
0.01h f ct j
2
E cj
h
3
(2)
15 f ctj
4h Ecj
(3)
lim
where h is the depth of the section; fctj, the ultimate tensile elastic strength and fct the ultimate
tensile strength of UHPC; E cj, are the elastic Young moduli of the UHPC.
The stress-strain relationship for wood, CFRP or GFRP can be considered elastic. Table 1
gives the parameter values of the mechanical behaviour law of each material.
Calculation procedure
The stress-strain relationships for UHPC, FRP reinforcements are combined with the section
and span information to obtain the load-deflection and moment-curvature relationships of the
beam [13]. Relevant data include the height and width of the beams, depth and amount of FRP
reinforcement, geometries of the UHPC-SFR section, span length and position of the external
loads. To
a position for the depth of the neutral (zg) are assigned arbitrarily. The depth of the beam is
divided into 200 slices. The strain profile along the height of the RC beam is obtained from the
following equations.
c (i)
(d c (i) z g )
d c (i)
(4)
sup
and
r
(d r z g )
dr
sup
(5)
where w(i) is the strain in UHPC layer i; d r is the depth of the rebars, and r is the strain in the
reinforcing bars.
An average strain is calculated for each slice, and the corresponding compressive and
tensile stresses are found using the stress-strain relationship for each material. Multiplying the
stress by the area of the slice gives the compressive and tensile forces. The following equations
are used for this purpose.
n
c Ec c (i)
(6)
i 1
Fc Ac (i) Ec c (i)
(7)
i 1
625
r Er r
(8)
Fr Ar Er r
(9)
where Ar is the area of the rebars, A c is the area of the concrete section. Once all forces are
calculated, equilibrium of the section is verified with the next equation.
n
F 0 A r E r r A c (i)E c c (i)
(10)
i 1
If equilibrium conditions are not satisfied, the position of the neutral axis (zg) is moved to a
different location and the process is repeated until the sum of the compressive forces in the
section balances the sum of the tensile forces. Once the iterative procedure has converged to
equilibrium, the internal moment and the curvature are determined, taking into consideration the
load and location of the material splice ( Equations 11 to 13).
m m
mr mc
(11)
mr Ar Er r (d r z g )
(12)
ext
with
mc Ac (i) Ec c (i)(d c (i) z g )
(13)
In determining the theoretical momentcurvature relationship for the composite section in

flexure, it is assumed that plane sections remain plane and that the longitudinal strain is directly
proportional to the distance from the neutral axis.
A finite difference model is used to calculate the deflection of the beam. Taking advantage of
the symmetry of the loaded beam, the finite difference calculation is performed with one half of
the beam, cut into five sections. A flow chart of the calculation procedure is shown in Figure 10.
The computation is done in a Visual Basic environment. The moment-curvature and loaddisplacement curves are calculated and, at any level of loading, strains and stresses in each
constituent material are obtained.
Failure criteria
The calculation continues by incrementation of the applied load, until the maximum strength
of one of the materials is reached. Possible failure modes in compression that must be taken
into account include crushing of the topmost fibers in the UHPC-SFR. In tension, failure of the
hybrid beam may occur in the FRP, of in the bottommost fiber of the beam; tensile failure of
concrete in the lower UHPC-SFR is also consider thanks to the UHPC equivalent mechanical
law.
In RC beams, shear controls design when flange width is small. It is necessary to check the
shear strength. According to AFGC standart [5], the maximum shear stress of composite beams
can be assessed as follows:
V f Vu
(14)
The horizontal shear stress at the neutral axis is:
Vf
S p
(15)
bf tan( u )
626
where Vu= applied shear force (N)

p = UHPC concrete strength (MPa)
S = concrete shear area (mm2)
bf= safety factor for concrete (equal to 1 here).
u = cracks angle (45)
This method allows us to calculate the maximum shear stress in the beam and then to compare
this value to the UHPC shear strength [14, 15, 16, 17]. Here, S =b0z is the resistance area of
fibers calculated by multiplying the width of web b0 by the lever arm z between the tensile and
compressive resultant forces. It is assumed that z=0.9d for rectangular sections [4], and that
this is a conservative assumption for T-sections. Parameter u represents the angle of the struts
of compressed concrete from the neutral fiber of the beam. Partial safety factor bf was
introduced to account for any manufacturer defects that influence the tensile property of UHPC.
It equals 1.3 for the case of fundamental combinations and 1.05 for the case of accidental
combinations.
The average post-crack residual tensile strength P can be calculated as
1 1
p
K wlim
wlim
(w)dw
(16)
Variable P is determined by the maximum crack width w lim and the stress versus crack width
relation (w). The maximum crack width limit of 0.3 mm is recommended in the French code. If
it is assumed that the stress versus crack width relation is linear up to the maximum crack width
of 0.3 mm, then P can be approximately estimated as the average of the stress level
corresponding to zero crack width and a crack width limit of 0.3 mm. The anisotropy of fiber
orientation distribution is not considered (K=1).
The results are summarized in Table 7, based on the following assumptions. The design
safety factors bf were set to 1.0, and the angle u was assumed to be 45. A linear stress
versus crack width response was assumed for crack widths up to 0.3 mm. Therefore, the
average post-crack strength can be estimated as P=9 MPa, based on the Xia et al. [18].
The shear strength prediction from the French code at a maximum crack width equal to 0.3
mm were significantly lower (-25 %) than the test results for the beam 4 and 5. The reason for
the underestimation is because the predicted shear strength was actually corresponding to the
shear crack width of 0.3 mm and thus it cannot consider the secondary contribution. The shear
resistance contribution from this secondary effect is considerable for a UHPC beam with
passive high strength reinforcement.
Experimental/theoretical comparison
In order to evaluate the validity of the modelling, the experimental program performed on five
hybrid beams is used. Experimental load-displacement and moment-curvature curves obtained
experimentally from the 2-meter spans and 4-meter spans were compared to the analytical
model. The changes in the position of the neutral axis between the analytical procedure and the
experimental results, as the applied load increased, were also compared (Fig. 7).
Bending stiffness and deflection comparison

The modelling of the load-displacement relationship is compared to experimental results in
Figure 8. It can be observed that the typical momentcurvature relation for the hybrid section
can be idealized as a bi_linear relation (Figure 7). In the first portion of the curve, all materials
remain elastic; the concrete starts to crack in tension during the second stage, and steel
yielding occurs during the third stage. For the 4-meter beams, the load-displacement modeling
627
results are compared to the experimental data in Figure 7. The experimental load-deflection
curves exhibit the same three stages of behaviour predicted by the analytical modelling. The
comparison between theoretical and experimental data generally indicates a good correlation.
The stages of behaviour are well represented and the slope of the curve is obtained with an
accuracy of more than 95%.
Load displacement curve
Strain profil
Figure 6 : Examples of results.
Comparison at failure
Table 4 and 5 compares the ultimate load and displacement at failure, as well as predicted and
observed failure modes. It can be readily observed that the prediction of the ultimate load is not
as accurate as the general bending behavior discussed in the preceding section. For the 4 meter span beams, for which the predominant failure mode was in tension or in compression,
the prediction of the ultimate load is satisfactory with a value that differs from the experimental
values by about 7 to 17%. For the beams with small dimensions, predictions are also quite
close with a predicted failure load ranging from 0.96 to 1.18 of the experimental results. The
scattering of experimental results can be explained by the presence of defects in Short metallic
fibers distribution in concrete when beams are casting.
5000
4500
4000
Load (daN)
3500
B4m-2-PRFC-9mm
3000
Model B4m-2-PRFC-9mm
B4m-1-PRFG-16mm
2500
Model B4m-1-PRFG-16mm
B4m-3-PRFC-9mm
2000
Model B4m-3-PRFC-9mm
1500
1000
500
0
0
50
100
150
200
250
Displacement (mm)
Figure 7: Comparison between experimental and numerical result for load and displacement curve.
628
Table 4: Comparison of theoretical and experimental load and displacement.
Load at
failure
Displacement
at failure
theoretical
load at
failure
Theoretical
displacement
at failure
Normalised
load
Failure
mode
[kN]
[mm]
[kN]
[mm]
Beam 1
37.42
166
39.8
176
1.06
FRP in
tension
Beam 2
38.62
90
48.9
113
1.26
UHPC in
Comp.
Beam 3
40.15
112
50.3
140
1.25
UHPC in
Comp.
Table 5: Comparison of theoretical and experimental load for shear.
Failure
mode
bf
hw
Vf (Theo)
Vuexp
[mm]
[mm]
[mm2]
[kN]
[kN]
Beam 1
22
200
3564
32,1
18,7
flexure
Beam 2
22
176
3136
28,2
19,3
flexure
Beam 3
22
192
3421
30,8
20,1
flexure
Beam 4
22
215
3831
34,5
42,8
shear
Beam 5
22
50
891
8,0
10,8
shear
5 Conclusions
This study presents an innovative hybrid beam constructed of ultra-high performance concrete
with short fibres and FRP reinforcing bars. Results from an analytical procedure are compared
to a preliminary experimental study. The bending stiffness and the ultimate load of the hybrid
beam investigated are improved over those of conventional beams of similar dimensions. The
combination of materials allows a control of the ultimate load and ductility. The results of this
study should be confirmed by an extensive experimental program with large-scale beams and
more specimens. Fatigue and also creeping behaviour are extensive research to study.
6 Acknowledgements
This research has been done thanks tot he financial support of LAFARGE, LCR, FRANCE.
Authors thanks Lafarge for supling Ductal and Pulltral for supling FRP rebars.
Reference
[1] In Hwan Yang, Changbin Joh, Byung-Suk Kim, Structural behavior of ultra high perform ance
concrete beams subjected to bending Engineering Structures, Volume 32, Issue 11, November
2010, Pages 3478-3487.
[2] Behloul, M., et al. The Sherbrooke Footbridge: The First Reactive Powder Concrete
Structure,Structural Engineering International February 1998, 140-144.
[3] AFGC (Association Francaise de Genie Civil) Interim Recommendations Ultra-High performance,
Fiber-Reinforced Concretes, AFGC Publication, France, January 2002.
[4] Acker, P., and Behloul, M., Ductal Technology: A Large Spectrum of Properties, A Wide Range of
Applications, FIB Symposium, Avignon, France, April 2004.
[5] Perry, V., Royce, M., Innovative Field-Cast UHPC Joints for Precast Bridge Decks (Side-by-Side
Deck Bulb-Tees), Village of Lyons, NY Design, Protoyping Testing and Construction, 2007
Concrete Bridge Conference, USA, 2007.
629
[6] Amin Kamal Akhnoukh, Haiyan Xie, Welded wire reinforcement versus random steel fibers in
precast/prestressed ultra-high performance concrete I-girders, Construction and Building Materials,
Volume 24, Issue 11, November 2010, Pages 2200-2207.
[7] R. El-Hacha, D.Chen Behaviour of hybrid FRPUHPC beams subjected to static flexural loading
Original Research Article Composites Part B: Engineering, In Press, Corrected Proof, Available
online 13 July 2011.
[8] ASTM D3737 08,. Standard practice for establishing allowable properties for structural glued
laminated timber (glulam). ASTM International, 10.1520/D3737-08, (2008) 1-28.
[9] Japan Society of Civil Engineers, Recommendations for Design and Construction of Ultra-High
Strength Fiber Reinforced Concrete Structures, September 2006.
[10] U.S. Dept. of Transportation - Federal Highways Administration Material Property Characterization
of Ultra-High Performance Concrete Prestressed I-Girders, (Publication No. FHWA-HRT-06-103),
August, 2006.
[11] ASTM D 4761-05, ASTM D4761 - 05 Standard Test Methods for Mechanical Properties of Lumber
and Wood Base Structural Material, ASTM International, 10.1520/D4761-05, (2002), 1-10.
[12] Ranzi G., Bradford M.A. Direct stiffness analysis of a composite beam-column element with partial
interaction Computers & Structures; August 2007; 85(15-16):1206-1214.
[13] Hyo-Gyoung Kwak, Sun-Pil Kim, Nonlinear Analysis of RC Beams Based on MomentCurvature
Relation, Computers and Structures; 2002; 80:615628.
[14] Katrin Habel, Marco Viviani, Emmanuel Denari and Eugen Brhwiler, Development of the
Mechanical Properties of an Ultra-High Performance Fiber Reinforced Concrete (UHPFRC), Cement
and Concrete Research; July 2006; 36(7):1362-1370.
[15] Raafat El-Hacha, Hani Abdelazeem, Ignacio Cariaga, Effect of casting method and shear span-todepth ratio on the behaviour of Ultra-High Performance Concrete cross arms for high voltage
transmission lines Engineering Structures, Volume 32, Issue 8, August 2010, Pages 2210 -2220
[16] Su-Tae Kang, Yun Lee, Yon-Dong Park, Jin-Keun Kim, Tensile fracture properties of an Ultra High
Performance Fiber Reinforced Concrete (UHPFRC) with steel fiber Composite Structures, Volume
92, Issue 1, January 2010, Pages 61-71.
[17] Rammer, Douglas R.; McLean, David I.; Cofer, William F, In-Place Shear Strength of Wood Beams,
Proc 5th World Conference on Timber Engineering; August 17-20, 1998, Montreux, Switzerland,
207-214.
[18] J. Xia, K. R. Mackie, M. A. Saleem , A.Mirmiran, Shear failure analysis on ultra-high performance
beams reinforced with concrete high strength steel, Engineering structures, available online on
march 2011.
630
Fatigue Behaviour of plain and fibre reinforced Ultra-High

Ludger Lohaus, Kerstin Elsmeier
Institute of Building Materials Science, Leibniz Universitt Hannover, Germany
Higher concrete strengths lead to the possibility of building light, filigree bearing structural elements.
However, these structures are more susceptible to dynamic loading and as a consequence the
importance of material fatigue increases. At the Institute of Building Materials Science, Leibniz Universitt
Hannover, extensive experimental investigations on the fatigue behaviour of ultra-high performance
concrete have been carried out [1], [2]. This paper describes the conducted experimental and theoretical
investigations on the fatigue behaviour of plain and fibre reinforced concretes. Results of the
experimental tests and the observed effects of fibre reinforcement on the strain development and the
ultimate number of cycles to failure will also be presented.
Keywords: Ultra-High Performance Concrete, Fatigue, Fibre Reinforcement
1 Introduction
In the course of the priority program Sustainable Building with Ultra-High Performance
Concrete, extensive investigations regarding the fatigue behaviour of ultra-high performance
concretes have been carried out [1], [2]. A partial aspect of these investigations was to
determine the influence of fibre reinforcement on the fatigue behaviour. For this purpose,
cylindrical specimens of plain and fibre reinforced ultra-high performance concrete were
examined under compression fatigue loading with different loading amplitudes. In addition,
special specimen geometries, which cause a passive transverse tension to maximize the
influence of the fibre reinforcement, were investigated. The effect of fibre reinforcement on the
fatigue behaviour is examined on the basis of the ultimate number of load cycles to failure and
the strain development. In the following sections, the test results are presented and the fatigue
behaviour of plain and fibre reinforced ultra-high performance concrete shall be compared in
order to quantify the effect of fibre reinforcement on static and fatigue behaviour.
2 Test program
Tested Concrete and Specimen Geometry
The examined concrete mixture belongs to the standard mixtures in the German Research
Foundation (DFG) priority program 1182 Sustainable Building with Ultra-High Performance
Concrete (UHPC) [1]. The ultra-high strength fine grain concrete M2Q has a maximum grain
size of 0.5 mm and a 28 day compressive strength of f c,cube,100 = 160 MPa, following storage in
water. This mixture contains 2.5 Vol.-% of 9 mm long, smooth, high-strength steel fibres with a
l/d ratio of 60.
The formwork of the specimens was removed after 48 hours. Then all the specimens were
subjected to a two-day heat treatment of 120 C. The mean value of the static compressive
strength of the cylindrical specimens after heat treatment was f c,cyl = 185 MPa. Afterwards, the
specimens were stored at standard climate (20 C / 65% r.H.). Before testing, the top surfaces
of the specimens were plane-parallel grinded and polished. The experimental tests were carried
out primarily on cylindrical specimens with dimensions of d/h = 60/180 [mm/mm], see Figure 1.
Furthermore, a variation in geometry, also shown in Figure 1, has been developed in
cooperation with the Institute for Concrete Constructions, Leibniz Universitt Hannover [3].
631
Figure 1: Specimen geometries and schematically shown force flux of the truncated cone.
Due to the newly developed specimen geometry, it was possible to generate a transverse
tension, which normally is difficult to realize. Hence, the influence of the fibre reinforcement on
the fatigue behaviour can be investigated more exactly. The truncated cone enables testing with
combined loadings of uniaxial pressure and transverse tension. This passive transverse tension
occurs in the transition area between the cylinder and the truncated cone.
Experimental Setup and Testing Program
The experimental investigations have been carried out in collaboration with the Institut for
Concrete Construction, Leibniz Universitt Hannover [4]. These tests have been performed with
a servo-hydraulic universal testing machine with a 1 MN-Actuator. The experimental setup is
shown in Figure 2.
Figure 2: Experimental Setup.
During the investigations, the axial deformation of the test specimens was measured using
three laser distance sensors which are positioned at 120 around the specimen. In addition, the
surface temperature of the specimens was measured using a temperature sensor. Furthermore,
the force applied by the machine and the corresponding displacement were recorded.
The static uniaxial compressive tests were carried out right before the dynamic investigations.
The static compressive strength was determined based on the mean value of three specimens
and serves as the reference strength for the dynamic tests. The static investigations were
carried out displacement-controlled with a rate of v = 0.2 mm/min.
632
The dynamic investigations were carried out under pure compression loading. At first, the
mean load was applied using force-controlled-method. Then, the sinusoidal force-controlled
fatigue load was applied with a transient oscillation of 100 load cycles.
The dynamic investigations using cylindrical specimen geometry were carried out by [1].
Single level tests (Woehler tests) have been conducted using three different load levels. The
maximum and minimum compressive stress level for these investigations was calculated
according to the mean values of static compressive strength. The minimum compressive stress
level was Sc,min = 0.05. The cylindrical specimens with fibre reinforcement were investigated
using a maximum compressive stress level S c,max between 70 % and 90 % of the static
compressive strength. These tests make use of eight to eleven specimens per stress level. On
the other hand, the cylindrical specimens without steel fibres were examined with a maximum
stress level of Sc,max = 0.70 and Sc,max = 0.80 and make use of six to seven specimen per stress
level. The investigations on the truncated cones were as well carried out with a minimum stress
level of Sc,min = 0.05. The maximum stress level was between 70 % and 90 % of the static
compressive strength. For these dynamic investigations on the truncated cones without fibres,
six specimens were used for each stress level. As can be seen in Table 1, the tests with a
maximum stress level of 70 % only make use of three specimens. These investigations were
cancelled after reaching a number of cycles of N = 2*106. The investigated truncated cones with
fibre reinforcement were categorized into two different test series (M035 and M044). These
investigations make use of two to four specimens per stress level. The maximum stress level
varies between Sc,max = 0.70 and Sc,max = 0.85 . The frequency used in all dynamic
investigations had a magnitude of f = 10 Hz. An overview of the performed dynamic
investigations is given in Table 1.
Table 1: Overview of the dynamic investigations.
Sc,max = 0.70 Sc,max = 0.75 Sc,max = 0.80 Sc,max = 0.85 Sc,max = 0.90
cylinder without fibre
reinforcement
cylinder with fibre

reinforcement
11
truncated cone without fibre

reinforcement
truncated cone with fibre

reinforcement (M035)
truncated cone with fibre

reinforcement (M044)
3 Test Results
Static Investigations
The static compressive strengths mean values of the different specimen geometries with and
without fibre reinforcement are summarized in Table 2. Furthermore, the ratio between the
results with and without fibre reinforcement as well as the ratio between the static compressive
strength of the different specimen geometries is presented. It can be clearly seen that the
truncated cones achieve a larger increase of the static compressive strength according to the
fibre reinforcement than cylindrical specimens. Furthermore, the difference in the static
strengths values between the different specimen geometries is higher for the specimens
without steel fibres.
633
Table 2: Comparison of static strength for different specimen geometries with and without fibre reinforcement.
cylinder
[kN]
truncated cone
[kN]
ratio
[-]
with fibre reinforcement
551
388
1.4
without fibre reinforcement
489
246
2.0
ratio
1.1
1.6
Figure 3 shows the stress-strain curves of four selected truncated cones with and without steel
fibres. The compressive strength is calculated based on the larger base area. Here, the static
strengths values of the truncated cones without fibre reinforcement could only reach about
60 % of the static compressive strength of the specimens with steel fibres. Furthermore, it can
be observed that the fibre reinforced test specimens show a certain advance notice of the
failure whereas the failure of the plain UHPC occurs abruptly.
Figure 3: Comparison of the stress-strain relation of the truncated cones with and without fibre reinforcement.
Dynamic investigations
The results of the dynamic investigations are shown in the following illustrations. Figure 4
shows the mean values of the ultimate numbers of cycles to failure N of the cylindrical
specimens with and without fibre reinforcement. The S/N-curve of the CEB-FIP Model Code 90
[5] is also presented. The results show, that the ultimate numbers of cycles to failure of the
specimens without as well as with fibre reinforcement are considerably higher than the
requirements of [5]. As can be seen in Figure 4 the test results of the cylindrical specimens
have more or less the same inclination as that of the S-N curves. Admittedly, the ultra-high
strength concrete without steel fibres reaches slightly higher ultimate numbers of cycles to
failure.
634
Figure 4: Ultimate numbers of cycles to failure of cylindrical specimens.
In Figure 5 the results of the dynamic investigations on the truncated cones with and without
fibre reinforcement as well as the S/N-curve according to CEB-FIP Model Code 90 [5] are
presented. The difference concerning the ultimate numbers of cycles to failure between the
ultra-high strength concrete with and without fibre reinforcement, which was already observed
on the basis of the cylindrical specimens, becomes clearer based on the results of the truncated
cones. Here, the mean values of the ultimate numbers of cycles to failure of both test series
with steel fibres are lower than the values of the specimens without fibre reinforcement.
Furthermore the results of the test series M035 have generally lower numbers of cycles to
failure than the recommended values according to CEB-FIP Model Code 90 [5]. Similar to the
results of the cylindrical specimens, the incline of the truncated cones with and without fibres
have more or less the same inclination.
Figure 5: Ultimate numbers of cycles to failure of the truncated cones.

635
The influence of the fibre reinforcement on the fatigue behaviour is visibly demonstrated for
both specimen geometries. The mean ultimate numbers of cycles to failure of all fibre reinforced
specimens are lower than the corresponding results of the plain UHPC. According to these
results, an assumption can be made that the crack initiating mechanism of the steel fibre
reinforcement is dominant and therefore the failure of the specimen is accompanied by an
accelerated fatigue fracture.
According to the results presented above, an assumption can be made that the crack
initiating mechanism of the steel fibre reinforcement is dominant and therefore the failure of the
specimen is accompanied by an accelerated fatigue fracture.
In addition to the investigations regarding the influence of fibre reinforcements on the
ultimate number of cycles to failure, the effect of the fibres on the strain development during the
dynamic loading has been investigated. In Figure 6, the strain development is exemplarily
presented on the basis of two tests on fibre reinforced concrete (left) and two specimens
without fibre reinforcement (right). The minimum stress level of this investigations was
Sc,min = 0.05, the maximum stress level was S c,max = 0.80. The course of the strain is presented
for the maximum and minimum stress level. Comparison of the strain development of the
specimens with and without fibre reinforcement show obvious differences. The specimens with
fibre reinforcement show a steeper growth in the second phase of the strain development. The
third range of the strain development of the UHPC with steel fibres is more distinctive. The
failure of the specimen does not appear to be abrupt, it rather occurs with a certain advance
notice. The course of the strain development of the specimens without fibre reinforcement
shows a nearly straight-line development in the second phase. The failure of the plain UHPC
occurs abruptly. The strain development does not indicate any pattern with respect to failure.
Figure 6: Comparison of the strain development of specimens with fibres (left) and without fibres (right).
In comparison with the results of the ultimate number of cycles to failure N, the strain
development indicates a positive influence of the fibre reinforcement. The steel fibres lead to a
certain advance notice of the failure.
The investigated truncated cones with and without fibre reinforcement exhibit a similar
fractured surface. In Figure 7, the fracture surface of a truncated cone of high-strength concrete
without fibre reinforcement (right) is presented. These investigations on high-strength concrete
were carried out by [6]. Additionally, the fractured surface of ultra-high performance concrete
with steel fibres (left) is presented. It is visible that a conical fragment breaks out of the
truncated cone, whose base area corresponds to the reduced cross-sectional area at the top.
The angles between the surface line and the axis of the cone generally lie between 15 and
25.
636
Figure 7: Fracture surface of the truncated cones of UHPC with fibres (left) and HPC without fibres (right).
4 Conclusions
In this paper, the results of experimental investigations on the influence of fibre reinforcement
on the static strength and the fatigue behaviour of ultra-high performance concrete carried out
in course of the priority program Sustainable Building with Ultra-High Performance Concrete
are presented. The results of the investigations showed that the static compressive strength of
the fibre reinforced ultra-high performance concretes are considerably higher than that of plain
concretes. It should be noted that this increment in strength occurred as a consequence of
using steel fibres. The dynamic investigations show positive as well as negative influences in
relation to fibre reinforcements. On the one hand, the steel fibres reduce the ultimate numbers
of cycles to failure. That means, the specimens without reinforcement endure a higher number
of load cycles until failure occurs. On the other hand, fibre reinforcements have a positive effect
with regard to strain development and ultimately damage development. Due to the addition of
fibre reinforcement, the failure of the specimens occurs with a certain advance notice. However,
further investigations would be required in order to make a clear assertion regarding the
influence of steel fibres on the fatigue behaviour of ultra-high performance concretes.
References
Ermdungsbeanspruchung. Dissertation, Leibniz Universitt Hannover, Institut fr Baustoffe, 2010 .
[2] Lohaus, L.; Wefer, M.; Oneschkow, N.: Ermdungsbemessungsmodell fr normal-, hoch- und ultrahochfeste Betone. In: Beton- und Stahlbetonbau, Jahrgang 106, Heft 12, Ernst & Sohn, 2011.
[3] Ertel, C.; Grnberg, J.: Triaxial Fatigue Behaviour of Ultra High Performance Concrete (UHPC).
3rd fib International Congress, Washington D.C., May 29 June 2, 2010.
[4] Grnberg, J.; Lohaus, L.; Ertel, Ch.; Wefer, M: Mehraxiales mechanisches Ermdungsmodell von
Ultra-Hochfestem Beton (Experimentelle und analytische Untersuchungen). In: Beton- und
Stahlbetonbau, Jahrgang 102, Heft 6, Ernst & Sohn, 2007.
[5] CEB Comit Euro-international du Bton: CEB-FIP Model Code 90. Bulletin dInformation,
No. 213/214, Thomas Telford Ltd., London, 1993.
[6] Grnberg, J.; Oneschkow, N.: Grndung von Offshore-Windenergieanlagen aus filigranen
Betonkonstruktionen unter besonderer Beachtung des Ermdungsverhaltens von hochfestem Beton.
Abschlussbericht zum BMU-Verbundforschungsprojekt, Leibniz Universitt Hannover, 2011.
This research project was part of the priority program 1182 Sustainable Building with UltraHigh Performance Concrete (UHPC) funded by the German Research Foundation (DFG).
637
638
Moment Redistribution Capacity in Ultra-High Performance

Concrete
Kenneth K. Walsh, Eric P. Steinberg
Department of Civil Engineering, Ohio University, USA
Increasing the utilization of ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) in the US bridge construction
industry will require evaluating its behavior according to current AASHTO bridge design standards. One
important characteristic of continuously supported bridges is moment redistribution capacity, or the
amount of moment that can be transmitted between sections of the bridge at ultimate capacity. The
objective of the current research is to examine moment redistribution capacity of UHPC lab specimens.
Experiments were conducted on small-scale continuously supported two-span UHPC beams. Equal
concentrated loads were simultaneously applied to each span until failure occurred. Load and strain
measurements were used to calculate the moment redistribution capacity based on moment and load
from the yield to ultimate stage. Results suggest that the moment redistribution capacity of UHPC is
comparable to that outlined in the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications.
Keywords: UHPC, moment redistribution, laboratory testing, AASHTO
1 Introduction
The improved mechanical properties of Ultra-High Performance Concrete (UHPC) make it an
attractive alternative to conventional concrete for the construction of highway bridges in the US.
Replacing conventional concrete with UHPC results in smaller members, thereby reducing
transportation, formwork, labor, and maintenance costs. However, current design specifications
based on conventional concrete require members to have certain minimum dimensions. Using
these specifications with UHPC will result in overly designed members, and an unnecessary
increase in cost due to the relatively high cost of UHPC constituents. The lack of design
specifications for UHPC has resulted in only a limited number of applications for highway
bridges in the US. They include bridges in Wapello County, Iowa (2006), Richmond County,
Virginia (2008), and Buchanan County, Iowa (2008). In order to increase the utilization of UHPC
in the US bridge construction industry, design specifications need to be developed that account
for its unique mechanical and material properties. To develop such specifications, additional
knowledge about the behavior of UHPC in highway bridges is required.
Past research in UHPC has centered on its behavior and performance in various structural
applications [1]. Vicenzino et al. [2] detail the first application of UHPC for the roof shell of a
Canadian light rail train station. Bruhwiler and Denarie [3, 4] investigated UHPC for
rehabilitating conventional structural concrete structures by hardening those zones subj ect to
high environmental and mechanical loading. Applications included a road bridge, bridge pier,
crash barrier wall, and an industrial floor. UHPC has also been explored for use in highway
bridge girders. The Federal Highway Administration (FHWA) has investigated UHPC Type II
American Association of Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO) girders [5], and is
studying a unique bulb-double-tee girder [6]. Almansour and Lounis [7] evaluated UHPC for the
case of a simply supported cast-in-place concrete slab on precast/prestressed UHPC girder
bridges. In a later study, the same researchers proposed a simplified design approach of
concrete slab on UHPFRC girders using the Canadian Highway Bridge Design Code [8].
Steinberg and Lubbers [9] investigated bond performance between UHPC and 1.27 cm
diameter prestressing strands. It was concluded that the bond between UHPC and prestressing
strands will develop in 30.5 cm of embedment. The flexural behavior at the ultimate limit state
for an UHPC girder has also been examined analytically [10]. Results show that using typical
639
AASHTO procedures, acceptable levels of reliability can be achieved while allowing the use of
familiar and non-complex equations.
While UHPC has received significant attention over the last two decades, its widespread
utilization in the U.S. bridge construction industry will require evaluating its behavior according
to current AASHTO bridge design specifications. Doing so can lead to the adoption of current
standards, or may lead to the development of new standards tailored to UHPCs superior
mechanical and material properties. In either case, additional research is needed to understand
the behavior of UHPC for application in highway bridges. To date, UHPC research for highway
bridges has focused primarily on the behavior of simply-supported spans. However, many
bridges are continuously supported, and exhibit different behavior under load. One important
characteristic of continuously supported bridges is moment redistribution capacity, or the
amount of moment that can be transmitted between sections of the bridge at ultimate capacity.
Moment redistribution capacity is taken into consideration in the design of continuously
supported bridges in the US. The AASHTO LRFD specification adopts a 20% limit on the
redistribution of negative moment. The objective of the current research is to examine the
moment redistribution capacity of continuously supported UHPC lab specimens, and compare
the results to current AASHTO standards.
2 Background
Linear elastic analysis can be utilized for predicting the bending moment in a beam up to a point
where the elastic limit of any constituent material is exceeded. Beyond the materials elasti c
limit, the bending moment diagram deviates from that determined by linear elastic analysis, and
approaches the diagram obtained using plastic analysis under increasing loads. Thus, the
bending moment determined by means of linear elastic analysis is different than actual bending
moment after the elastic limit of material is exceeded. The difference between the two is
referred to as redistribution of moment.
Maximum moments are usually concentrated over short segments of the beam causing
yielding and plastic hinge formation. Plastic hinges rotate due to increasing load but can
transmit a small amount of increased moment up to failure. After a plastic hinge is formed at a
particular location, increased moment at the section due to increased load is very smal l.
Therefore, increased moment due to increased load redistributes to other sections that are still
in the elastic range. Subsequently, the moment in another section reaches the ultimate moment
of resistance causing the formation of another plastic hinge. The process of plastic hinge
formation continues until a plastic mechanism is formed. At this stage, the member is no longer
able to support additional load and fails.
Redistribution of moment can be full, partial, or none. If both sections reach their ul timate
capacity, full redistribution is attained. On the other hand, when failure occurs with maximum
positive and maximum negative moments equal to those in the elastic case, no redistribution
has taken place. For a two-span continuous beam with a concentrated load in the middle of
each span, cracking will occur first at the middle support section if the negative moment is
larger than the positive moment. When yielding occurs at the middle support section, moment
starts to redistribute into the spans. If the beam fails before moment at the middle support has
reached the ultimate capacity, the redistribution is said to be partial. In this case, plastic hinges
have not formed in the maximum positive moment sections, and the only plastic hinge formed
would be the maximum negative moment section.
AASHTO LRFD Limits
The AASHTO LRFD specification adopts limits on the redistribution of moment from ACI 318 -08
[11, 12]. Article 5.7.3.5 states the following: In lieu of more refined analysis, where bonded
640
reinforcement that satisfies the provision of Article 5.11 is provided at the internal supports of
continuous reinforced concrete beams, negative moments determined by elastic theory at
strength limit states may be increased or decreased by not more than 1000t percent, with a
maximum of 20 percent. Redistribution of negative moments shall be made only when t is
equal to or greater than 0.0075 at the section at which moment is reduced. It also states that
positive moments shall be adjusted to account for the changes in negative moments to maintain
equilibrium of loads and force effects [11].
3 Moment Redistribution
For a two-span continuous beam in which negative moment is larger than positive moment,
yielding will occur first at the interior support, and negative moment is redistributed to the span.
The amount of moment redistribution is limited by the yield capacity of the beam in the span,
which may be assumed to be equal to that at the support. As a result, the yield moment in the
span may be calculated from:
Py a b
2 L
( L a)
(1)
,
where Py is the load acting on the span immediately before yielding occurs at the support, L is
the span length, and a and b are the distances between the exterior support and the load, and
the interior support and the load, respectively. The onset of yielding in the span results in
redistribution of moment back to the interior support. When the beam reaches its ultimate
capacity at this location, moment is again redistributed to the span. Once the span ultimate
capacity is reached, a plastic mechanism is formed, and the beam fails. The ultimate limit state
is important in the design of structures, and the moment distribution of members at the ultimate
stage should be investigated.
Once yielding of the beam at the interior support has occurred, the two-span continuous
beam may be idealized as two side-by-side beams. A schematic of the idealized beam model is
shown in Figure 1. As previously discussed, yielding of the span results in redistribution of the
moment back to the interior support. The ultimate moment at the interior support may now be
calculated from equilibrium using the load acting on the span when span yielding occurs Py+:
M u Py b Rext L ,
(2)
where
Rext
M y
(3)
a ,
Once the ultimate capacity of the beam at the interior support has been reached, moment is
redistributed back to the span. If it is assumed that the moment in the span increases the same
as that at the support before the ultimate moment is reached, then the ultimate moment in the
span may be calculated from:
M u M y M u M y M u .
(4)
Moment redistribution corresponding to the ultimate limit state is then calculated from [13]:
M u M y
100
p
M
y
(5)
641
M
M
M
Rext
Rint
Rint
Rext
Figure 1: Idealized beam model after yielding has occurred at the interior support.
4 Laboratory Testing
In order to study the moment redistribution in ultra-high performance concrete, four beams were
tested. The beam dimensions are presented in Table 1. The UHPC used in the samples was a
premix commercially available in North America. Table 2 provides information about the mix
design. The premix packages included Portland cement, silica fume, quartz powder and sand.
The beams in this test were supported at three points: the middle and two ends. Loads were
applied on each span at a distance of 29.21 cm from the support. This created a negative
moment approximately 20 to 30 percent larger than the positive moment produced in the spans
under the load. This was done in the interest of obtaining full moment redistribution. Application
of the loading was achieved using a small frame and MTS machine. Figure 2 shows the loading
apparatus. Six strain gages per beam were used to record the strains during testing. Strain
gages were installed along the side of the beam about 1.27 cm from the extreme compression
fiber to avoid load effects on the gage grids. Strain gages were installed on both sides of the
beam in case out-of-plane bending occurred. A schematic showing the location of the applied
loads and strain gages is shown in Figure 3. Data on load and strain was recorded using a
MEGADAC data acquisition system.
Table 1: Dimensions of Tested Beams.
Beam
No.
(1)
Beam Length
(cm)
(2)
Span Length
(cm)
(3)
Depth 0.25
(cm)
(4)
Width 0.25
(cm)
(5)
119.63
57.15
9.53
9.14
119.38
57.15
7.62
7.37
121.92
57.15
10.16
8.41
119.38
57.15
9.04
8.89
Table 2: Mix Design for Tested UHPC Specimens (Lubbers 2003).
Mix Component
(1)
Weight (kN/m3)
(2)
Percent by Weight (%)

(3)
Premix
21.49
87.22
Water
1.32
5.36
3000NS
0.30
1.22
Steel Fibers
1.53
6.21
642
Figure 2: Picture of testing apparatus.
27.94
29.21
29.21
27.94
Figure 3: Load and strain gage location.
5 Results
During testing, data was recorded at a rate of 1,000 scans per second as each specimen was
loaded to failure. The total load (2P) was plotted versus strain for each gage. From the load vs.
strain curves, the yield and ultimate loads for each specimen were determined based on major
changes in the slope of the load versus strain curves. Figure 4 shows the total load plotted
against strain on either side of beam 1 at the middle support. The curve was linear up to a total
load of 22.24 kN (5000 lb). At this load, the curve deviated from linearity designating the onset
of cracking. The fibers likely started to yield or slip and the strain value began to decrease when
the total load reached 28.91 kN (6500 lb). As it can be seen from Figure 4, the strain values on
both sides of the beam showed similar behavior. Finally, the ultimate load was determined to be
80.07 kN (18000 lb). This stage of loading has been intentionally omitted from the load versus
strain curves in Figure 4 in order to distinguish concrete cracking and fiber yielding. Figure 5
shows the total load versus strain in a span of beam 1. A very small amount of strain was
recorded up to a total load of about 31.14 kN (7000 lb), at which time cracking occurred in the
concrete. The load increased to 60.50 kN (13600 lb) before the fibers in the span yielded.
Finally, the ultimate load in the span was 80.07 kN (18000 lb). All three stages of loading can
be observed in Figure 5.
643
(a)
(b)
Figure 4: Total load versus strain on each side of beam one at middle support.
(a)
Figure 5: Total load versus strain on each side of beam one in span.
(b)
The results presented in Figures 4 and 5 are for beam 1. The yield and ultimate loads for all 4
beams are provided in Table 3. The values are used with Equations (1)-(4) to calculate the
moments in the span for span yielding and at the ultimate stage (rows 3 and 4, Table 3). The
moments in the span at the yield and ultimate stage are then used with Equation (5) to calculate
the moment redistribution in each beam (row 5, Table 3). The data for only one span of each
beam is included. Comparison of columns 3, 5, 7, and 9 in Table 3 shows that beam 2 had a
smaller ratio of ultimate moment to yield moment in the span than the other three beams
resulting in significantly lower moment redistribution. Inspection of beam 2 revealed premature
failure due to a weak section located 15.24 cm from the exterior support. As a result, the data
for beam 2 is not considered representative of the moment redistribution behavior of UHPC,
and beam 2 is excluded from further discussion. A picture of beam 2 after testing is shown in
Figure 6.
Columns 3, 7, and 9 show that the moment redistribution in the remaining 3 beams was 200
% or greater, with beam 1 achieving a redistribution as much as 270 %. The variation in
moment redistribution between beams is attributed to irregularities in their geometry that may
have caused various degrees of out-of-plane bending during testing. The moment
redistributions determined from the present analysis show that redistribution between the yield
644
and ultimate stage in UHPC far exceeds the AASHTO LRFD limit of 20 %. However, it should
be noted that calculation of the moments in the span at the various stages of loading is based
on the assumption that the yield capacity, and the ultimate capacity, of the beams is the same
in the span and at the interior support. This assumption is necesary due to the difficulty in
directly measuring the moments in the beam. An alternate measure of the beams redistribution
behavior is calculated as the percent increase in the load from the yield to ultimate stage. While
this may not be a direct measure of moment redistribution, it is an indication of the moment
redistribution mechanism in the beam. That is, the amount of load increase from the yield to
ultimate stage is dependent on the redistribution of the bending moment from the span to the
support, and then back to the span. For comparison sake, the percent increase in the load is
also included in Table 3. The results show that the percent increases in the load for the three
beams is consistent with that of the moment redistribution, with beam 1 being the largest,
followed by beams 4 and 3. From the data in Table 3, it can be seen that the percent increases
in load from the yield to ultimate stages are more aligned with the 20 % limit as specified by
AASHTO LRFD.
Table 3: Moment redistribution in laboratory specimens.
Stage
Beam 1
Beam 2
Beam 3
Beam 4
Support
Span
Support
Span
Support
Span
Support
Span
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)
(8)
(9)
Yield Load (kN)
28.91
60.50
21.80
25.93
36.92
67.61
18.68
35.59
Ultimate Load (kN)
80.07
80.07
28.29
28.29
77.84
77.84
43.15
43.15
Span Yields (kN-m)
-5.69
1.53
-1.42
1.15
-5.86
1.97
-3.17
0.99
Span Ultimate (kN-m)
-0.05
5.69
-1.23
1.42
0.62
5.86
0.18
3.17
Moment Redistribution (%)
270
22
199
219
Change in Load (%)
32
15
21
Figure 6: Premature failure of beam 2 due to defect 15.24 cm from exterior support.
6 Conclusions
Laboratory testing was conducted to investigate moment redistribution capacity in UHPC lab
specimens. Preliminary results indicate the redistribution capacity based on moments far
exceeded the 20 % limit specified in AASHTO LRFD, indicating that an increase on moment
645
redistribution for UHPC may be possible. However, the moments were calculated based on
assumptions about the behavior of the beam specimens under load, and additional research is
necessary to validate the results. An alternate measure of moment redistribution capacity was
calculated as the percent increase in load from the yield to ultimate stage. The results yielded
values that were more aligned with the 20 % limit specified by AASHTO LRFD. However, there
was variation in the results and further research should be conducted using a larger number of
beam specimens.
References
[1] Walraven, J. C.: High performance fiber reinforced concrete: progress in knowledge and design
codes. Materials and Structures 42 (9), pp. 12471260, 2009.
[2] Vicenzino, E.; Culham, G.; Perry, V. H.; Zakariasen, D.; Chow, T. S.: First use of UHPFRC in thin
precast concrete roof shell for Canadian LRT station, PCI Journal 50 (5), pp. 50-67, 2005.
[3] Brhwiler, E.; Denari, E.: Rehabilitation of concrete structures using Ultra-High Performance Fibre
Reinforced Concrete. The Second International Symposium on Ultra High Performance Concrete,
Kassel 2008.
[4] Denari, E.; Brhwiler, E.: Tailored composite UHPFRC-concrete structures. Measuring, Monitoring
and Modeling Concrete Properties Part 1, pp. 69-75, 2006.
[5] Graybeal, B. A.: Material property characterization of ultra-high performance concrete. Rep. No.
FHWA-HRT-06-103, Federal Highway Administration, McLean, VA. 2006.
[6] Graybeal, B. A.; Hartmann, J. L.: Ultra-high performance concrete material properties. Transportation
Research Board Conference, Washington 2003.
[7] Almansour, H.; Lounis, Z.: Structural performance of precast prestressed bridge girders built with
ultra high performance concrete. Second International Symposium on Ultra High Performance
Concrete, Kassel 2008.
[8] Almansour, H.; Lounis, Z.: Design of prestressed UHPFRC girder bridges according to Canadian
Highway Bridge Design Code. NRC Institute for Research in Construction; National Research
Council Canada, NRCC-53296, pp. 1-15, 2010.
[9] Steinberg, E.; Lubbers, A.: Bond of Prestressing Strands in UHPC. International Symposium on High
Performance Concrete, Orlando 2003.
[10] Steinberg, P: Structural Reliability of Prestressed UHPC Flexure Models for Bridge Girders. Journal
of Bridge Engineering 15 (1), pp. 65-72, 2010.
[11] AASHTO LRFD (2007). AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications. American Association of
State Highway and Transportation Officials, Washington, DC.
[12] ACI 318 08 (2008). Building code requirements for reinforced concrete. American Concrete
Institute, Detroit, MI.
[13] Rebentrost, M.: Deformation capacity and moment redistribution of partially prestressed
concrete beams. Ph.D. Dissertation, Adelaide University 2003.
646
Design Models for Composite Beams with Puzzle Strip Shear

Connector and UHPC
Institute of Structural Concrete, RWTH Aachen University, Germany
The outstanding mechanical properties of ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) in combination with
high strength steel offer new opportunities to design elegant and slender structures. The challenging task
with high performance materials is their adequate application to utilize the structural benefits. Due to the
ideal interaction of UHPC and high strength steel, composite systems are very appropriate.
To account for the high performance of the respective materials, the local interconnection has to be
guaranteed, which calls for appropriate shear connectors capable of transferring high shear forces
across the composite joint. Therefore, a series of push-out tests were carried out to evaluate the
mechanisms of shear connectors in UHPC. By means of the test results and accompanying numerical
simulations and the evaluation of a database design models for continuous shear connectors were
derived.
The behavior of the composite joint and the global load carrying capacity were investigated in beam tests
under positive bending. Not only conventional composite beams were tested, but also filigree composite
girders with the shear connectors directly cut into the web of the steel girder. A parametric study was
performed to develop a design model which enables a safe and economic plastic design of composite
beams with UHPC.
Keywords: Composite Construction, Design Model, Ultra High Performance Concrete, High Strength
Steel, Puzzle-strip Shear Connector, Composite Beams
Introduction
The present paper summarizes the results of a research program involving the testing of push out specimens with the innovative puzzle-strip shear connectors in ultra-high performance
concrete (UHPC). Based on the push-out tests performed to investigate the load carrying
behavior design models were derived for concrete and steel failure. By means of the beam tests
and a parametrical study a safe plastic design model for high performance materials was
developed.
The outstanding mechanical properties of ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) in
combination with high strength steel offer engineers new opportunities to design elegant and
slender structures. Fig. 1 shows two examples of composite bridge systems with an UHPC
deck.
Figure 1: Composite bridge systems with UHPC.
647
The challenging task using high performance materials is their adequate application t o utilize
the structural benefits. Composite structures are very appropriate due to the efficient interaction
of the two components concrete and steel. Taking into account the material properties, the steel
carries the tensile forces and the concrete is arranged in the compression zone. To account for
the high performance and the interaction of the respective materials, the local interconnection
has to be guaranteed, which calls for appropriate shear connectors capable of transferring high
shear forces across the composite joint like continuous shear connectors [1] e.g. the puzzle
strip (Fig. 2a) or the saw tooth (Fig. 2b). Therefore, a series of push-out tests was carried out to
determine the load carrying capacity and the ductility of the composite joint between high
strength steel and ultra-high performance concrete.
a) puzzle strip
b) saw tooth
c) notation
Figure 2: Shear connectors.
In beam tests the performance of the puzzle strip shear connector was investigated and the
global load carrying capacity of composite beams with high performance materials was
examined.
For all tests a UHPC mixture based on B5Q which was developed for the SPP1182 [6] was
used. Details on the concrete mixes can be found in [2].
Puzzle strip shear connector
Continuous shear connectors general

Continuous shear connectors have been used for about 30 years. The most common one is the
perfobond strip [3], where the shear forces between the steel beam and the concrete slab are
transferred by vertical steel plates with holes. In [1] the so-called puzzle strip, an innovative
shear connector, is introduced. Its main advantage is the symmetrical geometry. This way two
shear connector strips can be manufactured with one cut and no material is wasted, leading to
significant savings in production costs. If the cut is performed in the web of a steel I -beam, two
composite beams can be produced.
Basically, the innovative shear connectors act as a conventional concrete dowel. So far, their
load carrying behavior has been investigated by several researchers [1], [2], [4], [5]. Five failure
modes have to be considered (Fig. 3), splitting, local concrete failure in front of the shear
connector, concrete pry-out failure, shear failure of the concrete and steel failure due to the
moment and shear stresses acting onto the steel strip.
Figure 3: Failure modes of continuous shear connectors.
648
Push-Out tests
The test parameters were designed to achieve both concrete and steel failure. Concrete failure
is mainly governed by the concrete cover between the shear connector and the concrete
surface, the fiber content and the degree of transverse reinforcement. Steel failure can be
controlled by the thickness of the shear connector. All these parameters were varied within an
extensive research program [2], [6], [8]. This paper presents two test series with UHPC and
HSC. The tests were performed as a reference for the beam tests. The test specimen is shown
in Fig. 4, left. It consists of two halves of an IPE600 profile where the puzzle shape is cut into
the web. The concrete slab was poured and later the flanges have been welded together in the
middle. The specimens were reinforced with 212 in each opening and 10/10 at the concrete
surface.
Figure 4: Push-Out Standard Test POST and load slip curve.
Test results
The material properties (concrete strength f c,cube100 and fy) as well as the test results (mean
maximum load Pmax,mean, characteristic load P Rk and relative displacement in the plastic range
uk,pl) are presented in Table 1.

Table 1: Test results.
Series
-
fc,cube
N/mm
fy
N/mm
Pmax,mean
kN
PRk
kN
uk,pl
mm
UHPC
179.1
472
587.0
495.0
8.4
HSC
92.6
472
297.5
267.1
2.7
The load-slip diagram in Fig. 4, right, shows that the load carrying capacity of the puzzle strip in
UHPC is about twice as high as in HSC and the ductility was also increased significantly.
However, the load-deformation behavior was more flexible compared to the push-out test with
HSC and its ultimate load was reached after a fairly large slip of about 10 mm. Steel failure
occurred with a horizontal crack in the puzzle strip. On the outer surface there were signs of
concrete pry-out failure. However, on the inside of the concrete surface no cracks were visible.
Design model puzzle strip shear connector
Based on the results of the total test program, design models have been derived in [2]. Three
different failure modes occurred in the tests: splitting, concrete pry-out and steel failure.
649
Splitting failure
Splitting failure only occurred in specimens without transverse reinforcement. In order to
prevent splitting failure, a minimum transverse reinforcement is to be applied:
Asq 1 / 2
P
f yd
(1)
Where Asq is the required transverse reinforcement to prevent spalling, P is the shear force
and fyd is the design value of the steel yield strength.
Pry-out failure
During pry-out failure a cone develops which peels off when the ultimate load of the shear
connector is reached. The failure load can be calculated as follows:
Ppryout
20,15 htc1,5 f ck1 / 2 (1
E s Asq
E cm Ad ,eff
0,4 0,001 f c
(2)
(3)
Where Ppryout is the design load for pry-out failure, fck is the characteristic value of the
concrete compressive strength, E s and Ecm are the youngs moduli of steel and concrete, A sq is
the transverse reinforcement and A d is the effective concrete area of the shear connector
according to Fig. 2c. The safety factor v equals 1.25.
Steel failure
The steel part of the shear connectors is under combined shear and bending stresses. The
derived model is based on the equivalent stress criterion taking into account the interaction of
moment and shear stresses onto the steel strip:
Py , steel
1
3
t w ba f yd
1,0
1.6 M / M pl
for
(3)
0 M / M pl 0.6
M / M pl 0.6
(4)
Where Py,steel is the design load for steel failure, is the correction factor according to eq. (4)
taking into account the interaction, t w and ba are the dimensions according to Fig. 2c and f yd is
the design value of the steel yield strength. M and M pl are the actual and the theoretical plastic
moment of the cross section of the steel strip.
Composite beams
Plastic design according to EC4

According to EC4 a plastic design may be carried out when:
the steel profile can be classified into a class 1 or class 2 cross section;
The effective area of the structural steel member is stressed to its design yield strength
fyd in tension or compression;
The effective area of concrete in compression resists a stress of 0.85fcd, constant over
the whole depth between the plastic neutral axis and the most compressed fiber of the
concrete.
650
Under positive bending moments it has to be verified that the plastic theory is applicable, i.e.
the steel profile plasticizes before the concrete compression zone fails. Using high performance
materials this becomes even more vital since the high strength steel requires a higher yield
strain to plasticize and for concrete the strain at failure decreases with increasing strength
(Fig. 5).
Figure 5: Stress-strain behavior of steel and concrete.
Beam tests
Within several beam tests the plastic moment carrying capacity of composite beams was
investigated. In the following the results from a test with a conventional composite beam are
compared to the results of a filigree beam.. Both beams were made of UHPC with a steel fiber
content of 0.9 % p.v. and high strength steel S460. Fig. 6 presents the test set-up and the cross
section of the tested beam.
Figure 6: Beam tests under positive bending and moment-rotation behavior.
The tests were performed under positive four-point bending. Principally, the two beams had the
same cross section. One consisted of a compact I-beam (conventional composite beam) and
one of an I-beam where the puzzle strip was directly cut into the steel web (filigree composite
beam). The profiles were chosen in order to achieve a comparable moment carrying capacity.
Taking into account the load-slip behavior achieved in the push-out tests (Fig. 4), the beams
were fully shear connected. Along the shear joint between the steel profile and the concrete
slab, LVDTs were attached to measure the slip. At midspan, strain gauges were fixed across
the cross section to investigate the strain distribution. The characteristics of the tested beams
are presented in Table 2, where the concrete compressive strength f c,cube the medium yield
strength of the steel flange f y,flange, the ultimate moment in the tests Mtest and the calculated
plastic moment Mpl,calc under consideration of the actual material properties (safety factors i set
to unity) and the ultimate concrete strain at failure c,ult are listed.
651
Table 2: Beam characteristics.
Series
-
fc,cube
N/mm
fy,flange
N/mm
Mtest
kNm
Mpl,calc
N/mm
ult
Mtest/Mpl,calc
mm
Filigree beam
191.0
510
179.5
499
-3.9
1.04
Conventional beam
177.9
537
176.1
499
-3.7
0.88
In both tests a failure of the compression zone was observed when the ultimate strain of the
concrete was exceeded. Fig. 5 shows the moment-rotation curves of the tested beams. The
angle represents the rotation of the cross section at midspan and is determined by the
tangent angles of the rotation at the supports. The specific flexural capacity, which is the rat io of
the experimental and the calculated plastic moment, is plotted against the rotation. The EC4
regulation (Mtest/Mpl,calc 1) was reached for the filigree beam. The conventional composite
beam, however, failed at approximately 90 % of the theoretical plastic moment. In this case, the
upper flange of the HEA 300 profile, which is close to the neutral axis, does not yield in the
ultimate limit state. Hence, the plastic design according to EC4 overestimates the resistance
achieved by plastic stress blocks.
For full and rigid shear connection between steel and concrete there is a continuous strain
distribution with no considerable slip between the two components. However, due to the flexible
puzzle strip there is a slight step in the strain distribution in the composite joint. Fig. 7 shows the
strain distribution at the ultimate load level for the cross sections of the two beams at midspan.
The neutral axis is in the concrete slab and the steel profile is almost completely under tension.
Basically, there is hardly any difference in strain distribution between the two cross sections.
However, when the areas where the steel profile does not reach the yield strength are
compared for the filigree and conventional beam. It is evident, that the area is larger for t he
conventional beam since there is an upper flange. The error made in the plastic design
increases and thus, the plastic moment carrying capacity is overestimated for the conventional
composite beam.
a) Filigree beam
b) Conventional beam
Figure 7: Strain distribution.
After testing, the concrete slabs were removed and the shear connectors in the composite joint
were investigated. No cracks were found in the shear connectors or the concrete. Thus, the
plastic moment was limited by the rotation capacity of the cross section rather than by the shear
connection.
652
Plastic design model

A parametrical study was carried out with different geometries as well as steel and concrete
grades where the plastic moment carrying capacity according to EC4 is compared to the elasticplastic moment carrying capacity. The elastic-plastic moment carrying capacity was determined
iteratively since realistic non-linear material laws had to be implemented.
For high strength steel the plastic design according to EC4 overestimates the actual moment
carrying capacity of the composite beams (Fig. 8, Mu/Mpl < 1). The failure increases with
enhancing concrete strength.
Figure 8: Ratio Mu/Mpl without reduction factors.
The results in Fig. 8 illustrate that the application range of EC4 cannot be transferred to high
strength materials without additional notice.
Therefore, the factor stated in EC4 when using high strength steel S460 is expanded for
different relations hc/h, where hc is the thickness of the concrete slab and h is the height of the
whole cross section (Factor 1, Fig. 9, left). For high strength concretes over C60/70 the factor
new is proposed taking into account their characteristic stress-strain behavior of the concrete
(Fig. 9, right).
Figure 9: Reduction factors 1 and new and Ratio Mu/Mpl with reduction factors.
The plastic moment carrying capacity can be calculated as:
M pl,new 1 M pl,EC 4 ( new )
(1)
Applying these factors in the new stress block model leads to values M u/Mpl 1 (Fig. 9), which
means a safe plastic design can be performed.
653
4 Conclusions
In push-out tests the influencing factors for the load carrying capacity of shear connectors were
investigated. Two types of shear connectors made of high strength steel S460 were tested, the
puzzle strip and the saw tooth. The parameters were the geometry and the thickness of the
shear connector as well as the steel fiber amount and orientation and the transverse
reinforcement. The results can be summarized as follows:
Continuous shear connectors are capable of transferring high shear forces in UHPC.
Due to its symmetry, the puzzle strip is a very appropriate shear connector.
Depending on the thickness of the steel strip a rigid shear connection can be
established.
A minimum amount of steel fibers is required to achieve a ductile behavior. The own
tests showed a minimum percentage of 0.9.
Arranging transverse reinforcement leads to an increase in ultimate load of up to 30 %
and an improved ductility.
Design models were developed which are capable of predicting the load carrying
capacity of the puzzle strip shear connector and enable a safe plastic design of
composite beams with high performance materials.
Especially for bridges with traffic loads the cyclic performance of the shear connectors is of
major interest. Experimental investigations concerning the cyclic behavior of the puzzle strip are
presented in [8].
References
[1] Feldmann, M.; Hechler, O.; Hegger, J.; Rauscher, S.: Untersuchungen zum Trag- und
Verformungsverhalten von Verbundmitteln unter ruhender und nicht ruhender Belastung bei
Verwendung hochfester Werkstoffe, FOSTA-Final Report P621, Aachen, 2007 (in german).
[2] Heinemeyer, S.: Zum Trag- und Verformungsverhalten von Verbundtrgern aus ultrahochfestem
Beton mit Verbundleisten, PhD thesis, Institute of Structural Concrete, RWTH Aachen University,
2011 (in german).
[3] Leonhardt, F.; Andr, W.; Harre, W.: Neues, vorteilhaftes Verbundmittel fr Stahlverbund -Tragwerke
mit hoher Dauerhaftigkeit, Beton- und Stahlbetonbau; 82(12): 325-331, 1987 (in german).
[4] Wurzer, O.: Zur Tragfhigkeit von Betondbel, PhD thesis, Institut fr Konstruktiven Ingenieurbau,
Universitt der Bundeswehr, Mnchen, Juni 1997 (in german).
[5] Zapfe, C.: Trag- und Verformungsverhalten von Verbundtrgern mit Betondbeln zur bertragung
der Lngsschubkrfte, PhD thesis, Institut fr Konstruktiven Ingenieurbau, Universitt der
Bundeswehr, Mnchen, Juni 2001 (in german).
[6] Priority program SPP 1182, Subproject "Shear Connectors in UHPC". SPP 1182 - Sustainable
building with ultra high performance concrete (UHPC), German research foundation (DFG), 2008.
[7] EC 4, prEN 1994-1-1. 2004. Design of composite steel and concrete structures Part 1.1 General
rules and rules for buildings. Brussels, Belgium.
[8] Hegger, J.; Rauscher, S.: UHPC in composite construction. In Ultra high performance concrete, 2 nd
Intl Symposium on Ultra High Performance Concrete, March 05-07, 2008, ISBN: 978-3-89958-3762, pp. 545-552.
[9] Gallwoszus, J.; Hegger, J.; Heinemeyer, S.: Cyclic Behaviour of Puzzle-strips in UHPC, HiPerMAt
2012, Kassel, Germany, 2012.
654

Josef Hegger1, Nguyen Viet Tue2, Janna Schoening1, Martina Winkler2
1: Institute of Structural Concrete, RWTH Aachen University, Germany
2: Institute of Structural Concrete, Graz University of Technology, Austria
At the Institutes of Structural Concrete at RWTH Aachen University and Graz University of Technology
the authors investigate connections of precast ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) elements.
Modified established connections will be tested to derive design concepts for UHPC elements based on
the existing design concepts for normal and high-strength concrete. Connections under compressive,
tensile as well as shear loads will be investigated. The new design approach will take advantage of the
high performance properties of the concrete. The research work comprises theoretical and experimental
investigations. Further variation of certain parameters as well as the verification of the test results and
the implementation in design concepts will be accomplished using non-linear FE computation.
Keywords: ultra-high performance concrete, prefabrication, connection, joint, shear-compression loading,
anchorage, lapped splice, column
1 Introduction
The development of economical connections for pre-fabricated concrete elements is of great
importance to the global applicability of UHPC. Feasible design concepts are in demand that
support the core characteristics of UHPC like its high compressive strength, its high durability
and the possibility of creating filigree constructions, but also its high demands on fabrication.
For the development of design models the bearing behaviour of such connections will be
investigated in detail by a cooperation project within the priority programme 1182 of the German
Research Foundation (Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft DFG) at the Institutes of Structural
Concrete of the RWTH Aachen University and the Graz University of Technology.
For plain compression and shear tests, joints with direct contact of the end faces and with
end faces connected by mortar are investigated. Besides, the influence of surface treatment of
the end faces will be examined. The transfer of plain compressive forces will be tested by two
columns linked either by butt joints, joint layers or by variously reinforced wet/glued end faces.
The experimental set-up of the combined shear-compression loading is based on a standard
push-out test, using a horizontal testing cylinder for a variable lateral compressive loading. At
each test, the load bearing and deformation behaviour of two joints will be tested to evaluate
the coefficient of friction.
For concepts dealing with tensile forces, tests on the required lap length of reinforcement
bars will be performed. With lapped splices in coarse-grained UHPC and anchorage in ducts
subsequently grouted with fine-grained UHPC, two different types for the transfer of tensile
forces will be investigated.
2 Shear Compression
Test Programme
Specimens with dry and wet joints under variation of the contact surface, the glue material and
the level of the compression forces have been tested.
The test set up is shown in Figure 1. Three UHPC slabs are laterally compressed by a
constant load and charged vertically displacement-controlled with 0,01 mm/sec. The
displacement is measured using four displacement transducers. The slabs used in the tests had
a dimension of 300 mm x 200 mm x 80 mm and were made of coarse-grained UHPC reinforced
655
by 1 % p.v. steel fibres. The compressive strength of the used UHPC is about 150 N/mm; the
modulus of elasticity is about 47.500 N/mm.
Untreated, grinded ( for consistent load distribution) and profiled surfaces were analysed in
the test series. The untreated surfaces were defined by the used wooden multilayer formwork of
the type Dokaplex. Grinded surfaces were treated by a CNC-machine using two different
speeds of propulsion, 500 and 1000 revolutions per minute. For producing profiled surfaces, the
formwork used was covered by Zemdrain liners.
Figure 1: Test configuration for combined compression-shear testsunder variation of the load levels.
Two different high performance adhesives were used for gluing the UHPC slabs, epoxy resin
Sikadur 30 and reactive powder concrete (RPC). As RPC a fibreless fine-grained UHPC was
used. Different levels of compressive stress on joints were simulated by varying the level of
lateral compression force. A load variation of 500, 450, 300 and 150 kN was applied to the dry
joints. Joints glued by RPC were loaded with 450 and 300 kN for even surfaces and 150 kN for
profiled surfaces. Joints glued by epoxy resin Sikadur 30 were stressed with 10 kN only.
Q1
Q2
Q3
Q4
Q5
Q6
Q7
Q8
Q9
Q10
S
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
0,88
0,9
0,91
0,75
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
12 Tests
656
x
8 Tests
x
x
Failure load [kN]
Coefficient of friction
profiled
Contact
surface
even
Glue
Epoxy
resins
RPC
profiled
polished /
no fibres
polished /
fibres
even
N5 = 10 kN
N4 = 150kN
Contact
Surface
Level of
pre-stress
N3 = 300 kN
N2 = 450 kN
N1 = 500kN
Number of tests
Test type
Table 1: Test programme, coefficient of friction m and ultimate load related to the analysed
parameters.
Pre-tension
Dry joint
Wet joint
950
985
750
-
Results
To evaluate the test results and compare tests with different levels of compressive stresses the
Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion was used. The Mohr-Coulomb criterion describes a linear
relationship between normal and shear forces at failure. This relationship is defined as the
coefficient of friction . The results are stated in Figure 2.
For joints with untreated and profiled surfaces high coefficients of friction between 0,75 and
0,85 were reached within the first 0,2 mm of displacement, whereas joints with grinded surfaces
achieved considerably lower values of about 0,6 to 0,75. For untreated surfaces increased
according to the displacement. For grinded surfaces the shape of the curve depended on the
propulsion of grinding. The curves of the majority of grinded surfaces showed a significant
decrease of at a displacement of approximately 2 mm. Average test results for dry joints are
stated in Figure 2.
14
13
14
12
11
11
12
13
11
12
13
14
11
12
13
14
Selected curves of each surface type
15
Coefficients of friction for even surfaces
13
15
11
13
11
12
14
14
11
12
13
14
15
12
11
12
13
14
15
Coefficients of friction for grinded surfaces

Coefficients of friction for grinded surfaces
Speed of propulsion of grind = 500 U/min.
Speed of propulsion of grind = 1000 U/min.
Figure 2: Average coefficient of friction for tests on dry joints.
The ultimate load of glued joints depends largely on the applied compressive stress. Joints with
untreated surfaces glued by fine-grained UHPC reached a failure load of 950 kN by using a
compression force of 450 kN. Joints with profiled surfaces glued by fine-grained UHPC reached
a failure load of 750 kN at a compression force of 150 kN. Joints glued by epoxy resins with
untreated surfaces had a failure load of 985 kN by using a compression force of only 10 kN
whereas the same joints with profiled surfaces did not fail by achieving a shear load of 1 MN.
657
11
12
12
11
14
13
11
12
13
14
11
12
Relative displacement v = 5 mm
Relative displacement v = 20 mm
Figure 3: Average failure load and coefficient of friction for tests on wet joints.
Joints glued by epoxy resins failed brittle after the bond strength was exceeded whereas for the
tests with joints glued by fine-grained UHPC a friction coefficient of 0,85 to 1 could be reached
due to the applied normal forces after the bond failure of the mortar. For joints with profiled
surfaces the profile had great influence on the coefficient of friction-displacement curve which
results in a sinusoidal curve of decaying amplitude. The test results are shown in Figure 3.
Discussion of the results
Henze [1] already showed that joints with untreated surfaces feature a higher coefficient of
friction than joints with post treated surfaces like sandblasting. Treating causes macroscopic
cones and rills which allow only a punctual contact between the two partners and leads to local
plastic deformation under compressive normal stress.
Also in the peformed test this effect was observed. Apart from the macroscopic rills, the
surfaces where very smooth by the polishing of the grinding head. This polishing effect was
already observed by Turmo at al. [2] in 2006. The increase after the low point at approximately
2 mm can be explained by the formation of new and deeper rills caused by the quartz sand
grains with progression of the test. The rills are caused by abrasion.
Grinded surface
Untreated surface
Figure 4: Planarity in dependence of surface post-treatment.
In the performed test series the joints with grinded surfaces show a smaller coefficient of friction
than the joints with untreated surfaces, while the planarity of the treated surfaces is
considerably better as shown in Figure 4. The planarity of the surfaces was measured in
advance to the tests with the GOM ATOS 3 photogrammetrical system. Thereby, it was
possible to quantify the deviation of the surfaces to a reference plane. For untreated surfaces
the deviation to the plane laid within a range of 0,5 mm whereas for grained surfaces the
deviation laid within 0,1 mm, as shown in Figure 4.
658
3 Compression test programme

Test Programme
The scope of the work programme is to investigate how the joint and the adjacent pre-fabricated
columns have to be designed to appropriately take advantage of the characteristics of UHPC.
The decisive parameters for the bearing capacity of the compressive joint are being determined
to develop a design recommendation. The test programme is summarized in Table 2 (each test
will be conducted twice).
10 mm
5 mm
10 mm
6 mm
20 mm
10 mm
mortar bed wire mesh thickness of Failure

thickness diameter steel plate loads [MN]
ground
blasted
end face
surface
formed
1.0 % p.v.
0.75 % p.v.
2,7-%
longitudinal steel-fiber
reinforceratio
ment ratio
1%
joint type
test
Table 2: Test programme and failure loads for compression tests.
D1
6,98/6,95
7,38/7,09
favorite D1 to D3
6,72/7,16
D2
dry
D0
D3
continuous reference column

x
7,43/7,52
D6
D7
D8
D10
D11
D12
wet
D4
D9
8,14/8,20
x
x
x
7,30/6,78
6,82/6,81
6,55/6,48
7,43/6,78
continuous reference column
7,89/7,57
x
7,70/7,25
7,46/7,50
Two basic categories for the connection of compressive members are being investigated; wet
and dry joints. In combination with dry joints, the longitudinal reinforcement ratio and the
surface treatment of the column end faces are being investigated. Wet joints have been tested
with varying thicknesses of the mortar bed and different transverse reinforcement ratios with
welded wire meshes and steel plates (Figure 5).
Figure 5: wire mesh.
Figure 6: load-strain diagramme.
659
All specimens have been tested displacement-controlled without eccentricity. Before loading the
specimens up to their failure load, 10 load cycles between 40 % and 60 % of the failure load
have been applied. The ultimate load and length has been restricted by the 10 MN testing
machine in use, which allowed a total length of 120 cm. Hence, 22 x 22 cm square UHPC
columns with four reinforcement bars were feasible for the tests, as illustrated in Figure 7. The
length of 80 cm for the bottom compression member allowed the formation of a shear band to
study the bearing capacity of columns without joints, while the top compression member had a
length of 40 cm. The transverse reinforcement ratio in the joint area was conforming to the
design of high-strength concrete columns.
To avoid failure at the loading points, the cross-section in these points was increased by
25 %. During the tests, the longitudinal and transverse deformations of the column and
especially the joint area have been recorded by strain gauges and displacement transducers.
Additionally, the strain in the joint area has been measured and evaluated with A ramis, a digital
image correlation system.
Figure 7: Compression test reinforcement and crack formation.
Results
The continuous reference column had a load bearing capacity of 7,48 MN and a compression
failure in the section size transition. The columns with wire meshes in the wet joint had a
bearing capacity of 92 % of the reference column and the cracks developped beginning from
the joint. The columns with steel plates in the wet joint had a bearing capacity of 97 % of the
reference column and either diagonal shear cracks or a failure in the change of section size
transition developped. All test specimens failed abruptly, but due to the steel fibre
reinforcement, the concrete cover did not spall off.
Since the longitudinal reinforcement only contributes 10 % to the whole bearing capacity,
only a minor excess of the uniaxial concrete compressive strength occurs. Furthermore, a RPC
mortar with the same stiffness as the column material has been used in the joint, so the
transverse strain differences and the splitting tensile forces in the end face have been small.
660
The longitudinal reinforcement ends just outside the joint, and the part of the longitudinal
force in the reinforcement has to be transferred into the concrete either by point pressure or by
bond stress. In all tests, the longitudinal reinforcement strain at the end of the rebar has been
recorded. By comparing the strain in the end of the reinforcement to the strain at defined
distances from the end, it was clearly visible, that up to 75 % of the force in the reinforcement
are transmitted into the concrete by point pressure. Only 25 % of the reinforcement force is
transmitted over the anchorage length of the reinforcement.
Further variations of parameters as well as more detailed interpretations of the test results
will be accomplished by non-linear FE computation using Abaqus/CAE. Based on the
experimental and theoretical investigations, design and construction rules will be derived.
4 Tensile Tests
For the transfer of tensile loads, lapped splices in UHPC joints are investigated. Directly lapped
splices (Figure 8) as well as bars lapped with bars in subsequently grouted ducts (Figure 9) are
tested. For the directly lapped splices, the reinforcement diameter ds, the lap length l0, the steel
fibre percentage per volume in the joint area, and the transverse reinforcement ratio Atr/Al are
being investigated. Joints with grouted lapped splices are tested with different transverse
reinforcement ratios Atr/Al and different concrete covers c. The test programme is summarized
in Table 3 (each test will be conducted twice).
Table 3: Test programme for tensile tests.
Rebar
diameter
Lap length
Steel fibre
ratio
Transverse
reinf. ratio
Concrete
cover
Test
ds [mm]
l0 [mm]
% p.V.
Atr/Al [-]
c [mm]
Z1
20
100
0,63
30
Z2
20
140
0,63
30
Z3
14
110
0,63
21
Z4
20
210
0,63
30
Z5
20
140
0,63
30
Z6
14
110
0,63
21
Z7
20
140
0,96
30
Z8
20
140
0,96
30
Z9
14
140
0,96
21
Z13
20
140
0,63
30
Z14
20
210
0,63
30
Z15
20
140
0,63
45
Z16
20
210
0,63
45
favourite
To select the lap length, the bond strength of the UHPC in use has been determined in 30
previous Pull-Out-Tests. Four lapped splices are tested in each test specimen. Depending on
the diameter, 28 cm or 21 cm square UHPC elements with four reinforcement bars are used for
the tests, as illustrated in Figure 12. The precast elements have a length of 70 cm each, while
the joint length depends on the lap length and varies between 11 to 24 cm (Figure 10 and
Figure 11).
661
Figure 8: directly lapped splice.
Figure 9: lapped splices with grouted steel ducts.
Figure 10: Reinforcement test Z1.
Figure 11: Joint area after failure test Z1.
Figure 12: Cross section joint are test Z1.
Results
It was visible during the first tests, that the joint between the precast UHPC element and the
UHPC joint opens from the beginning of the load application. The lapped splices in the tests Z1
and Z2 failed due to splitting of the concrete cover, while the bond strength was not exceeded.
5 Conclusions
The bearing behaviour of connections of precast UHPC elements has been investigated at the
Institutes of Structural Concrete of the RWTH Aachen University and the Graz University of
Technology. Tests on nodes for the transfer of plain compressive, shear-compressive and
tensile loads have been conducted.
Tests on shear-compression joints showed, that surfaces of precast elements feature high
coefficients of friction within the first 0.2 mm of deformation. A design security is given, since
the coefficient of friction rises during further deformation.
The tested column joints indicate that the load bearing capacity of correctly designed precast
UHPC elements in the joint area equals the load bearing capacity of continuous columns.
Joints of precast UHPC elements for the transfer of tensile loads can be designed with short
lap lengths, when the concrete cover and transverse reinforcement is chosen adequately.
References
[1] Henze S., Entwicklung und Beschreibung des Tragverhaltens einer modularen
Fachwerkkonstruktion aus Hochleistungsbeton, The Universitt Leipzig, dissertation, 2009.
[2] Turmo J., Ramos G., Aparicio A.C., Shear strength of dry joints of concrete panels with and without
steel fibres, Engineering Structures 28 (2006), p.23-33.
662

Benjamin A. Graybeal 1, Matthew Swenty2
1: Federal Highway Administration, United States of America
2: Virginia Military Institute, USA (formerly of PSI, Inc. in Herndon, Virginia, USA)
Construction of highway bridges using precast concrete components normally requires the field
placement of connections with a high quality grout or concrete. Many shortcomings have been
documented with the standard materials used in these connections, therefore as part of the Federal
Highway Administrations ongoing research program, ultra-high performance fiber reinforced concrete
(UHPFRC) has been investigated as an alternative material. This multiphase investigation has focused
on developing appropriate connections details through assessing the global and local structural
performance of the connected component systems. The full-scale cyclic structural testing of UHPFRC
connections between precast deck panels indicated that non-contact lap-splice reinforcing bar
connections were capable of emulating cast-in-place bridge deck performance. The full-scale cyclic
structural testing of UHPFRC composite connections between precast girders and precast decks
indicated that UHPFRC was capable of meeting the fatigue design requirements for the connection while
allowing for a significantly simplified construction process as compared to standard practice. This test
program has demonstrated that UHPFRC is a material capable of ensuring appropriate performance of
simplified structural connections, thus facilitating the use of prefabricated concrete bridge elements.
Keywords: Ultra-High Performance Fiber Reinforced Concrete, UHPFRC, UHPC, Bridge Design,
Prefabricated Elements, Precast Concrete, Connections
1 Introduction
The use of modular prefabricated components has the potential to produce higher quality, more
durable infrastructure systems. However, the required connections have often proved lacking,
resulting in less than desirable overall system performance. Advanced cementitious composite
materials, whose mechanical and durability properties far exceed those of conventional
concretes, present an opportunity to significantly enhance the performance of field-cast
connections, thus facilitating the wider use of modular prefabricated systems. UHPFRC
represents a class of such advanced cementitious composite materials. Of particular interest
here, UHPFRCs can significantly shorten the development length of embedded discrete steel
reinforcement and can exhibit exceptional bond when cast against previously cast concrete.
These properties allow for a redesign of the modular component connection to facilitate
accelerated construction and enhanced long-term system performance.
The two fundamental differences between the field-cast UHPFRC connection concept and
conventional construction concepts are simplicity and performance. The UHPFRC connection
concept allows for small, simple connections without requiring the use of post-tensioning or the
use of large volumes of field-cast concrete. The performance of the connection exceeds that
normally anticipated from a field-cast connection, thus allowing the joined components to
emulate or surpass the behavior of monolithic construction.
A research, development, and deployment effort focused on UHPFRC connections is being
conducted by the U.S. Federal Highway Administration. This program is building on a decade
of experience with UHPFRC applications [1] along with past efforts specifically focused on
UHPFRC connections [2-3] to create practical solutions which address clear needs within the
American highway transportation system. FHWAs efforts have included conducting
fundamental research into UHPFRC structural behaviours, constructing and testing full-scale
component connection systems, developing appropriate mechanical and durability testing
663
methods for UHPFRC, developing advanced computational modelling capabilities, and working
with State-level partners to begin deployment of UHPFRC systems within the public
infrastructure.
2 Component to Component Deck-Level Connections

The concept of using the advanced properties of UHPFRC to significantly modify the design of
connections between prefabricated concrete components is gaining interest in the United States
and Canada. For the most part, the connections on which these efforts have focused have
been deck-level connections. As of late 2011, field-cast UHPFRC connections between
prefabricated bridge components have been implemented in approximately two dozen roadway
bridges in North America. These bridges use a range of details to connect a variety of different
precast concrete modular bridge components, including adjacent box beams, full-depth precast
deck panels, and deck-bulb-tee girders. The connection designs deployed to date have tended
to mimic non-contact lap splice connections with a female-female shear key profile. Figure 1
shows a bridge with UHPFRC longitudinal connections between the top flanges of deck-bulbtee girders. This bridge, constructed by the New York State Department of Transportation
(NYSDOT), opened to traffic in 2009. The embedded illustration provides an overview of the
connection detail.
1.55 m
1.04 m
152 mm
Closure Pour (UHPC)

Deck Bulb Tee
Prestressed
Girder
Figure 1: Deck-bulb-tee girder bridge with non-contact lap splice connection detail, including illustration of
cross section.
In support of the efforts by State Departments of Transportation in the U.S. to begin using
UHPFRC connections in bridges, the Federal Highway Administration has expanded its
UHPFRC research program to include a significant focus on UHPFRC connections. This work,
which began in 2009, included a phase wherein cyclic and static tests were completed on full scale longitudinal and transverse deck-level connection subcomponents. Figure 2 shows the
cyclic flexural testing of a longitudinal connection which simulates the connection between the
top flanges of two deck-bulb-tee girders. Full results of this test program can be found in [4-5].
In summary, this testing program demonstrated that UHPFRC connections can emulate or
exceed the performance expected from monolithic reinforced concrete. The tests of transverse
connections demonstrated favourable cracking behaviours with no interface debonding. The
static loadings to failure resulted in global flexural failure of the simply-supported panels, with
664
behaviors progressing through cracking, rebar yielding, and eventual concrete crushing. The
tests of longitudinal connections focused greater emphasis on the development and bonding
performance of the reinforcement embedded in the connections. In the most severe test, a large
structural overload followed by over 11.5 million cycles of structural loading did not result in any
debonding of the 16M (#5) rebar embedded 150 mm (5.9 inch) in the non-contact lap splice
connection.
These tests demonstrated that UHPFRC presents a viable solution for creating robust
constructible deck-level connections between prefabricated bridge elements. Even under the
one-way bending, simply supported loading scenarios engaged herein, the performance of the
connections emulated the performance of monolithic concrete.
Figure 2: Cyclic structural load test setup for a field-cast UHPFRC bridge deck connection.
3 Deck to Girder Composite Connection

The connection between a bridge deck and the bridge girders, commonly referred to as the
composite connection, is also critically important to the long-term performance of a bridge. In
the U.S., the use of prefabricated bridge deck elements has been hindered by types of details
required for these connections and the constructability thereof. Standard practice requires that
the spacing of the connectors emanating from the girder cannot be greater than 0.6 m (2 feet),
resulting in clusters of connectors at a 0.6 m (2 foot) spacing. These connector clusters pass
into pockets in the deck panels, frequently resulting in significant constructability issues due to
misalignment of the intersecting rebar, studs, and/or stirrups.
Ongoing research by FHWA and the NYSDOT is investigating the possibility of completely
redesiging the composite connection to simplify the detail and eliminate interference between
connected elements. The new connection relies on UHPFRC to facilitate the creation of a
continuous connection running the entire length of each girder. As such, the need for
intermittent pockets is eliminated. Additionally, the UHPFRC is engaged to transfer the
horizontal shear and tension forces between the bottom mat of deck reinforcement and the
composite connectors emanating from the girder. A conceptual illustration is provided in
Figure 3. Views of two actual connections are shown in Figure 4, with a steel girder connection
shown on the left and a concrete girder connection shown on the right. The bottom mat of 13M
(#4) rebar spaced at 200 mm (7.9 inch) can be seen toward the top of each photo, with
approximately 75 mm (3 inch) clear space between this mat of reinforcement and the composite
connectors below.
Full scale physical testing of this concept was recently completed at FHWA. The testing
included constructing a 1.31 m (51.5 inch) deep, 12.2 m (40 foot) long precast beam and
665
precast bridge deck system connected with the novel UHPFRC connection. This test specimen
was subjected to four-point bending loads which generated horizontal shear forces in the
composite connection. These shear forces, applied cyclically for more than 11 million cycles,
were initially commensurate with the infinite fatigue life service load range which would occur in
a two-span steel plate girder bridge with 64 m (209 ft) spans and 2 m (79 inch) deep girders.
During later cycles the magnitude of the load range was increased until the final 5 million cycles
were completed at two times the initial load range. This final cyclic stage amounted to an
average of 0.40 kN/mm (2.28 kips/inch) of shear being repeatedly transferred through the
connection along each shear span. Following the cyclic loading, the test specimen was
statically loaded to failure. The global failure of the specimen occurred when the prestressed
girder failed in shear at a vertical shear load of 2200 kN (495 kips). Thus, the connection was
demonstrated to be capable of carrying at least 2.1 kN/mm (12 kip/inch) of horizontal shear
force after being subjected to over 11 million cycles of severe cyclic shear loading. The
horizontal shear stress in the field-cast UHPC connection along the minimum shear plane
averaged 1.16 MPa (168 psi) during the final cyclic loading stage and 5.44 MPa (789 psi) at the
peak static load. Throughout this loading, no damage was observed within the UHPFRC
connection. The report detailing the full results of this test program will be published in early
2012.
The demonstrated performance of this connection concept opens new avenues toward wider
use of UHPFRC in prefabricated system connections. The NYSDOT is looking to deploy this
concept in the near future on an upcoming project which engages precast deck panels. More
broadly, the concept of using the inherent UHPFRC tensile strength to provide shear resistance
across an unreinforced plane could greatly increase the constructability of a variety of
structural systems.
Precast Bridge Deck
Bridge
Girder
Figure 3: Conceptual illustration of composite connection between bridge girder and precast deck.
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Figure 4: Photographs of UHPFRC connection at bridge girder to precast deck interface. Steel girder
connection is on left; concrete girder connection is on right.
4 Other Applications of UHPFRC Connection Concepts

The topics presented above demonstrate the viability of UHPFRC connections, but also point
toward far broader application of this concept. Within the highway bridge construction field, a
number of other applications are being considered for deployment. These include:
adjacent box beams,
pre-topped steel girders,
substructure column, pier caps, and abutments,
barrier rails to bridge decks,
spliced girder splices,
continuous for live-load interior support connections,
closure pours between cast-in-place staged construction,
approach slab connections,
secondary concrete pours at expansion joints, and
connections for prefabricated systems for seismic regions.
Many of these connection concepts are currently being investigated via research programs in
the U.S. Some of these applications, such as connections between adjacent box beams, are
already being deployed by progressive departments of transportations in local regions of the
U.S. and Canada.
5 Future Direction
FHWA efforts in the field of UHPFRC technology continue to delivery results which open doors
toward new applications. While recognizing the need to develop the technological applications,
there is also a lower profile effort underway to determine the fundamental UHPFRC mechanical
behaviours as appropriate for inclusion within existing structural design frameworks. This
design provision development effort, focused on provisions of greatest applicability to near -term
deployable concepts, will continue for the foreseeable future as UHPFRCs become more
prevalent and demand for their use grows.
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6 Conclusions
The concept of using field-cast UHPFRC to complete connections between prefabricated
structural components is gaining momentum. The inherent mechanical, durability, and
rheological properties of UHPFRC make it an ideal candidate for facilitating the strong
connection concept wherein the connections between concrete components cease to be weak
points within the structure. Combining these facts with the recognition that the connections
themselves can be simplified thus facilitating easier prefabrication and greater constructability,
there is growing recognition that UHPFRC connections are a means to advance the state-ofthe-art in infrastructure construction.
7 Acknowledgements
The research which is the subject of this paper was funded by the U.S. Federal Highway
Administration. The authors gratefully acknowledge this support. The publication of this article
does not necessarily indicate approval or endorsement of the findings, opinions, conclusions, or
recommendations either inferred or specifically expressed herein by the Federal Highway
Administration or the United States Government.
References
[1] Graybeal, B.: Ultra-High Performance Concrete, FHWA Report HRT-11-038, March 2011, 8 pp.
[2] Aarup, B.; Karlsen, J.; and Lindstrm, G.: Fiber Reinforced High Performance Concrete for In-Situ
Cast Joints, Proceedings of the PCI/FHWA/FIB International Symposium on High Performance
Concrete, Orlando, Florida, September 2000, 9 pp.
[3] Hansen, L.; and Jensen, B.: A New Building System Using Joints of Ultra High-Strength Fibre
Reinforced Concrete, Innovation in Concrete Structures: Design and Construction, 1999, pp. 543552, Dundee.
[4] Graybeal, B.: Behavior of Field-Cast Ultra-High Performance Concrete Bridge Deck Connections
Under Cyclic and Static Structural Loading, NTIS Report No. PB2011-101995, Nov. 2010, 106 pp.
[5] Graybeal, B.: Fatigue Response of an Ultra-High Performance Concrete Field-Cast Bridge Deck
Connection, Proceedings of the 2011 Transportation Research Board Conference, Washington D.C.,
January 2011, 12 pp.
668
Field Cast UHPC Connections for Precast Bridge Elements

and Systems
Vic Perry1 and Peter Seibert2
1: Vice-President & General Manager, Ductal , Lafarge North America Inc., Calgary, AB, Canada
2: Technical Director, Ductal , Lafarge North America Inc., Calgary, AB, Canada
Bridge owners are often faced with the need to replace critical bridge components during limited or
overnight road closure periods. Previous papers [4, 5] have presented the development, testing and
installation of high performance precast concrete bridge elements connected with field cast ultra-high
performance concrete (UHPC) Joint Fill, for the replacement of deteriorated bridge decks in the USA and
Canada. This paper presents current and promising applications for field cast UHPC connections
(precast bridge parapet to decks, precast pile cap to piles, thin bonded overlays for repairs and high early
strength UHPC for accelerated bridge construction). By utilizing UHPCs combination of superior
properties in conjunction with precast bridge elements, benefits include: reduced joint size and
complexity, improved durability and continuity, speed of construction, elimination of post-tensioning and
extended usage life. With UHPC Joint Fill, the connections in precast bridge systems can now bec ome
the strongest link.
Keywords: UHPC, connections, joints, connections, abrasion, composite, ductile, durability, fatigue, fiber reinforced, impermeability, field casting
1 Introduction
Every day, engineers face the challenge of increasing traffic volume and loadings on aging
bridge infrastructure with reduced budgets and public demand for less inconvenience during
maintenance or repairs. As well, transportation authorities are faced with replacing or repairing
these critical bridge components during strictly limited or overnight road closures. The result of
not being able to meet these challenges is demonstrated by the USA Federal Highway
Administration (FHWA) data which rates 150,000 + bridges as structurally deficient or obsolete.
[1]
One of the largest challenges facing bridge authorities is the long-term durability and
resiliency of bridge decks which receive continuous impact loading from trucks and changing
environmental conditions. Years of continuous flexural and thermal stresses create long-term
deterioration and maintenance issues for bridge decks. While Cast-In-Place (CIP) concrete
decks with High-Performance Concrete (HPC) and corrosion resistant reinforcing can
significantly extend deck life, it creates high user inconvenience and is problematic for bridge
deck replacement in high traffic areas or in remote areas with limited access of ready-mix
concrete. The use of HPC precast deck panels is a common method to speed construction and
alleviate user inconvenience; however the jointing of the precast system is a source of potential
maintenance.
While it is recognized that precast bridge components can provide high durability,
conventional joints are often the weakest link in the system. The introduction of new
methodologies and innovative material technologies facilitates the implementation of new
solutions. One new technology helping to solve the problem with deteriorating bridges is an
ultra-high performance, fiber reinforced cement composite material (Ductal) by Lafarge North
America [2,3] which offers superior technical characteristics including ductility, strength and
durability while providing highly moldable products with a high quality surface aspect and a
short bond development length. Ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC), used as a jointing
669
material in conjunction with reinforced high performance concrete (HPC) panels provides a
synergistic, new approach for reconstruction of bridge superstructures.
Since 2005, several US state [4] and Canadian provincial highway departments [5] have
implemented the use of UHPC joint fill with full precast bridge decks for the replacement of
deteriorating highway bridges. The solution is to use a precast concrete deck with field cast
UHPC joints to develop the continuity in the deck. Utilizing the superior characteristics of the
material technology enables the simplification of the precast panel fabrication and installation
processes. This simplified design provides the owner with improved tolerances, reduced risk,
increased speed of construction, an overall cost savings in construction and a more
resilient/durable, longer lasting bridge deck solution.
2 Characteristics and Supply of the UHPC Jointing Material Technology

The UHPC technology utilized for the joints is an ultra-high-strength, ductile material formulation
made with constituent ingredients such as: Portland cement, silica fume, quartz flour, fine silica
sand, high-range water reducer, water and steel fibers. The family of products utilized for this
application, is Ductal JSXX00, and is covered by one of many patents in a range of ultra-high
performance concretes, all under trademark (Ductal ). Compressive strengths for bridge
applications can range from 120 to 200 MPa and flexural strengths range from 15 to 40 MPa.
The materials high mechanical properties are a result of proportioning the constituent
ingredients to produce a modified compact grading with a nominal maximum coarse aggregate
size of 400 m, and a fibre geometry of 12 mm x 0.2 mm. The ratio of maximum coarse
aggregate size to fibre is important to facilitate random orientation of fibres and a ductile
behavior. These performance characteristics result in improved micro-structural properties of
the mineral matrix, especially toughness and control of the bond between the matrix an d fibre.
The material has superior durability characteristics due to low porosity from a combination of
fine powders, selected for their relative grain size (maximum 0.5 mm) and chemical reactivity.
The net effect is a maximum compactness and a small, disconnected pore structure. The ultrahigh strength properties (see Table 1) and low permeability also provide excellent protection of
the rebar against corrosion and improved bond.
Table 1: Range of material characteristics for Ductal JS1000.[6]
Strength
Durability
Compressive (28 days)
140 MPa
Freeze/thaw (after 300 cycles)
100%
Compressive (48 hours)
100 MPa
Salt-scaling (loss of residue)
<0.10 g/m2
Flexural
30 MPa
Carbonation depth
0.5 mm
Youngs Modulus (E)
50 GPa
The materials are supplied to the site in a three-component premix (pre-blended powders in 22
kg bags or 1100 kg super-sacs plus superplasticizer and fibres), along with portable mixers (see
Fig. 1) and technical support from the supplier. The mixers are set up in pairs to provide a
continuous supply of material for the joint filling operation. The mixers are normally set up at the
end of the bridge to provide direct access to the bridge deck.
IMER Mortarman 750 mixers are capable of batching 0.23m 3 per 20 minute batch cycle time
for a volume of 1.36 m 3/hour per pair of mixers. The number of mixers delivered to the site is
determined based on the contractors schedule. Larger, Ryan Industries 2500 mixers of 0.5 m 3
batches (20m3/ day capacity) are also available. For even higher volume supply, ready-mix
truck batches of 6 m3 are available. The UHPC joint material is transported to the joints by
670
Field Cast UHPC Connections for Precast Bridge Elements and Systems
power buggy or wheel barrow then placed directly into the joints (see Fig. 2). The UHPC
material was batched with a mini-slump of 200mm to 250mm (self consolidating and selfleveling). The rheology of material permitted the UHPC to be poured directly into the joints
without any vibration.
Figure 1: UHPC Portable Mixers
Figure 2: Filling the Joints with UHPC.
The joints are covered with form grade plywood strips and allowed to cure until reaching 100
MPa before opening to traffic. The time to reach 100 MPa will vary, depending on ambient and
curing temperatures. At ambient temperatures (20 oC) without accelerators, this would be
approximately 3 days or reduced with accelerator and heat or use of a rapid strength product.
3 Full Scale Testing of UHPC Joints

In 2008, the owner (NYSDOT), material supplier (Lafarge), precaster (The Fort Miller Co.) and
the FHWA agreed to undertake a prototyping and testing program to validate the full depth
precast panel and UHPC joint design. The prototypes to be cast and tested were pairs of
precast panels with joint fill (see Fig. 3) and small samples of UHPC with rebars for direct
pullout tests. [7]
Figure 3: Prototype Panel (Pairs) for Testing Joint Fill Performance [7].
The precast panel pairs were manufactured with three rebar joint configurations (straight bars,
hairpins, stud heads) and three types of rebar (epoxy coated, galvanized and black) and for a
total of nine configurations. Note, Figure 3 shows only the hairpin joint configuration. Pullout test
specimens were manufactured with 13mm, 16mm and 19mm bar sizes in epoxy coated and
black steel bars. Embedment lengths were 75mm for the 13mm bar; 100mm for the 16mm
bar; and 125 mm for the 19mm bar. Failure behavior of the pullout tests conducted on all
samples was rebar failure. To validate the joints ability to remain water tight during the life of
the bridge, the precast panel pairs were loaded with a simulated wheel impact loading while
water was ponded on the joint (see Fig. 4). The pairs of panels were simply-supported with the
671
joint arrangement in both a parallel and perpendicular direction in order to simulate both a
transverse joint and a longitudinal joint.
The test panels manufactured at The Fort Miller Co., NY were
shipped to the FHWA Turner-Fairbanks laboratory for fatigue testing
in a field simulated, wet condition. [8] The HPC precast deck panels
(see Fig. 4) with the UHPC Joint fill showed no signs of leakage or
degradation at 9 million cycles of a simulated wheel loading (cycling
from one ton to 8 tons).
Fig. 4 Bridge deck panels with water ponding under
fatigue loading Courtesy of FHWA).
4 Previous Experience with UHPC Field Cast Joints

Full Depth Precast Deck Panels
The Rainy Lake Bridge, Ontario (see Fig. 5) constructed in 2006 was the first UHPC Joint Fill
(JS1000) project; part of an innovative field cast
joint solution for a bridge superstructure/precast
deck panel system developed for the Ministry of
Transportation of Ontario [5]. UHPC was used for
all joints including shear pockets and haunches.
Through design, testing and construction, it
validated a precast bridge deck (slab thickness 235
mm) with a 200 mm wide joint and led the way to
other, repetitive joint fill projects.
Figure 5: Rainy Lake, Ontario Bridge Deck
prior to receiving asphalt wearing surface
The Oneonta Bridge in New York, USA constructed in 2009, has 22 precast slabs jointed on top
of 5 steel girders (slab thickness: 200 mm). The bridge was 38.8 m in length, with a deck
surface area of 504 m2 and the joint cross-section was 152 mm wide by 200 mm thick. The
deck was reinforced with galvanized bars and received a bonded concrete overlay riding
surface.
The Chukuni River Bridge, Ontario, (see Fig. 6) - completed in
2010, has 4 3.7 m deep steel beams and 54 precast concrete
deck panels (slab thickness 225 mm). UHPC joint fill was used to
interconnect the precast concrete panels to each other as well as
provide the shear connection to the steel structure. This bridge is
101 m long with a clear span of 83.5 m (the longest single span
bridge in Canada).
Figure 6: Chukuni River Bridge, Ontario.
Side-by-Side Box Girders

During the period from 2007 to 2010, seven bridge projects (Sunshine Creek, Hawk Lake,
Buller Creek, Log River, Eagle River, LaVallee River and Wabigoon River) have been competed
with UHPC joint fill (see Fig. 7) between side-by-side box girders (varying depths from 600 mm
to 1150 mm). The projects ranged in length from 21 m to 87 m and from single to three span
continuous (see Fig. 8). For all of these bridges, lateral connections was with UHPC only (no
post-tensioning was applied).
672
Figure 7: Typical cross section of side-by-side box girders with UHPC Joint Fill (depth 600 to 1150 mm).
Side-by-Side Deck Bulb-Tees

The Village of Lyons Bridge, NY, USA built in 2009, is a side by side, single bulb-tee girder
project consisting of 8 26 m long, side by side single bulb-tee girders (see Fig. 9) with UHPC
Joint Fill connecting the flanges between the bulb-tees. The deck has an asphalt overlay/ riding
surface.
1550
mm
1040 mm
Figure 8: Eagle River Bridge, Ontario a multiple span side-by-side box girder bridge.
150 mm
mm
mm
Figure 9: Section showing Side-by-side Bulb-Tees

with UHPC Joint Fill connecting the flanges [9].
Field Cast Joint Fill for Live-load Continuity

During 2010, two bridge projects (Eagle River @1100mm deep box-girders [see Fig. 10] and
Wabigoon River, ON @ 900 mm deep box-girders) utilized UHPC field cast joints for live-load
continuity over internal piers in precast bridges. This joint design (see Fig. 11) completely
eliminated the need for post-tensioning and provided fast, simple field connections of precast
bridge elements.
UHPC Field Cast Fill
Figure 10: Wabigoon River Bridge, Ontario, Canada

joint.
673
Figure 11: Section through a live-load continuity.
Field Cast Joint Fill for Precast Approach Slabs

To date, ten precast bridges have utilized UHPC field cast joints for precast approach slabs
(typically 250 mm thick). The use of UHPC field cast joints completely eliminate the need for
post-tensioning, contribute to further reductions in construction time and provide a more durable
solution.
Figure 12: Forming and finished view of UHPC curb joints.
Field Cast Connections for Precast Curbs

UHPC field cast joints for precast curbs (typically 260 mm thick) were used on 8 bridge projects
between 2007-2010, The use of UHPC connections ensures that continuity in the curb-deck
system simplifies the deck precasting operations and contributes to speed of construction (see
Fig. 12).
5 Promising New Applications for UHPC Field Cast Joints

The use of UHPC field cast connections is a relatively new solution, only have been
implemented since 2006 and used in fewer than 20 bridges. However, this early adoption has
provided excellent field experience and validation of the methodology. It has also provided
exposure and confidence in the technology which has led to innovations for the use of UHPC
for other types of field connections for precast bridge systems. The following are examples
where this material has been recently (2011) used on a limited basis.
Field Cast Connections for Precast Waffle Deck Panels and Hidden Shear Pockets
The use of UHPC for Precast Waffle Deck Panels (see Fig. 13) provides a light weight durable
bridge deck system suitable for new or the rehabilitation of bridges. Installing UHPC joint fill
(see Fig. 14) between the 205 mm thick UHPC Waffle Deck panels provides an entire deck
made from UHPC. To further reduce dead load and improve the deck durability the
waterproofing and wearing surface are removed, thereby leaving the entire UHPC deck
exposed in order to provide the highest durability, where it is most needed, at the riding surface.
Figure 13: Waffle Deck Panels for

Wapello County Bridge, Iowa, USA.
Figure 14: Jointing Details between Waffle Deck Panels.
674
Removing the wearing surface and membrane not only exposes the deck panels, but also the
field cast joint fill and shear pocket openings. Obtaining a high quality riding surface on exposed
field cast UHPC requires additional field work. One option is to reduce the quantity of exposed
fields cast joint fill. To further minimize the exposed surface of joint fill, hidden shear pockets
maybe introduced into the precast panel. The UHPC filled hidden or conventional shear pockets
and haunches provide a fully composite action with the supporting beams.
Field Cast Connections for Precast Parapets / Barrier Walls
As an alternative to cast-in-place, precast parapets or barrier walls maybe supplied to the
bridge already integral (Fig 15) with the deck or as separate units to be field attached. In both
cases the precast parapet units need to become fully composite with the bridge deck system in
order to carry the traffic barrier loadings.
Figure 15: Integral Deck and Parapets.
Field cast UHPC connections for precast parapets and barriers provides the integral continuity
and further aids in speeding the construction of the bridge.
Field Cast Connections for Piles to Abutments
As bridge engineers look for more innovative methods to further speed bridge construction,
precast abutments placed on piling and connected with UHPC [10] provides a further reduction
in construction time. The Whiteman Creek project (Fig. 16) was under completed in August,
2011.
UHPC Field Cast Fill
Figure 16: Precast Abutment for Whiteman Creek, ON [10].
Field Cast UHPC for Expansion Joints

UHPC field cast expansion joints (see Fig. 17) provide strong and durable solutions to solve the
durability problems with freeze/thaw, deicing, the constant impact/abuse from trucks and snow
ploughs crossing the expansion joints. The use of UHPC for expansion joints eliminates the
need for embedded steel edges or casting of field concrete between the precast deck and steel
embed. The expansion joint is formed (see Fig. 18) and the UHPC is cast through a chimney in
order to maintain a constant head on the filled portion of the joint. Once the UHPC has gai ned
80 MPa, it is ground (see Fig. 19) to exact grade and profile to match the asphalt wearing
surface. This type of UHPC expansion joint has been used on several bridge projects in the
province of Ontario.
675
UHPC
Figure 17: Section through

expansion joint.
Figure 18: Expansion Joint ready

for UHPC.
Figure 19: Finished Joint.
Field Cast UHPC for Thin bonded Overlays

Another promising use for UHPC field cast rehabilitation is thin bonded overlays (or Hybrid) to
re-strengthen deteriorating bridge decks (see Fig. 20). Several State DOTs, cooperatively with
Universities, are investigating the use of UHPC as a cost effective method to significantly
extend the life of bridge decks approaching their service life. Early research work undertaken by
several universities [11,12] has shown that the inter-facial bond
between post cast UHPC onto hardened HPC has provide
excellent bond. In all testing conducted to date the failure has
always occurred in the base HPC material and not in the
interface between the UHPC and HPC. This ongoing research is
a further validation of the fatigue testing conducted by the FHWA
[8] on the pairs of precast slabs with UHPC joint fill, where the
joints did not fail or leak after 10,000,000 load cycles.
Figure 20: Thin Bonded UHPC Overlay [11].
The use of this system is being investigated as both a field cast topping for in-situ deck repairs
and as a precast system. The precast Hybrid would be cast top surface down where the
UHPC is first cast in a textured form liner and then the HPC as a structural back-up. Then
panels would be cured, flipped and ready for delivery to site. The precast Hybrid panels
would be connected with field cast UHPC. Hidden shear pockets may also be used with this
system.
Field Cast UHPC for Accelerated Bridge Construction
UHPC is a family of products where the mix designs can be formulated to provide a wide range
of slump flows, hardened mechanical properties and rate of strength gain. One UHPC product
formulated specifically for ABC construction is Ductal JS1100RS, which provides a high early
strength of 55MPa in 12 hours at normal ambient temperatures (Figure 21). The product has
similar fluid workability to other UHPCs. This UHPC rapid strength product is designed for ABC
projects executed during weekend closures or other time limited type repairs.
676
Early Compressive Strength of Ductal JS1100RS
Compressive Strength (psi)
9000
8000
7000
Mix Batching Temperature: 60F

Ambient Curing Temperature:
74F
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0
10
12
Time (hours)
(2) Courtesy of Dr Ben Graybeal,

(1) Courtesy of Rutgers
FHWA
University
Figure 21: High Early Strength UHPC for Accelerated Bridge Construction.
6 Conclusions
The UHPC materials combination of superior properties including strength, durability,
resiliency, fluidity and increased bond capacity, in conjunction with reinforced precast panels,
provides engineers with the ability to create new, optimized and innovative solutions for bridge
construction, repair and rehabilitation. Direct benefits may include: improved bridge deck
performance through the reduction of joint size and complexity; improved continuity and speed
of construction and; elimination of field post-tensioning, while indirect benefits include: improved
durability; lower maintenance, reduced user inconvenience and; extended usage life.
Examples were highlighted and testing presented from several DOTs and universities
currently involved in precast bridge decks and UHPC programs. The early testing to date
indicates that rebar in UHPC has a much shorter bond development length and that the
interface bond between UHPC and HPC is stronger than the base HPC. This provides
opportunities for bridge engineers to design narrower joint widths for precast deck systems
without the use of post-tensioning, improved jointing between precast bridge deck systems,
improved horizontal shear transfer systems for fully composite decks, and improved
rehabilitations for bridges near their design service life. The use of UHPC for field connection
between precast bridge elements has shown promising results and opportunities for expanding
its usage. Full scale laboratory testing and early field perusals have indicated that to date the
results of using this technology is providing improved bridge systems; however the authors also
recognize that 5 years of performance it rather short compared to the desired service life of
100s of years. While the feedback from bridge owners using this system has been very positive
with respect to performance, the authors plan to conduct an in depth field study of the joint
performances and publish a future paper detailing the results.
The projects presented indicate that this material can be successfully batched on site in a
range of batch sizes and provide high early strengths during typical field curing conditions. This
experience also shows that local contractors can easily adapt to using UHPC material in bridge
projects. While there are still challenges when implementing new material technologies on a
wide scale basis, the real challenge ahead is to identify the optimized shapes for precast decks,
shear pockets, joints for various deck arrangements and to disseminate on a wide basis the
know-how to the engineering community.
677
References
[1]
[2]
[3]
[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]
[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
Bhide, S.: Material Usage & Condition of Existing Bridges in the USA, PCA, Skokie, Illinois, USA,
2008.
Graybeal, B.A.: Fabrication of an Optimized UHPC Bridge. PCI National Bridge Conference,
Atlanta, GA, USA, 2004.
Bierwagen, D; Moore, B; Perry, V.: Revolutionary Concrete Solutions, Construction Specifier, USA,
2006.
Perry, V.; Royce, M.: Innovative Field Cast UHPC Joints for Precast Decks (Side-by-side single
Bulb Tees),Village of Lyons, NY Design, Prototyping, Testing and Construction. Third Congress of
the International Federation for Structural Concrete (fib), Washington, DC, USA, 2010.
Perry, V.; Scalzo, P.; Weiss, G.: Innovative Field Cast UHPC Joints for Precast Deck Panel Bridge
Superstructures CN Overhead Bridge at Rainy Lake, Ontario. Concrete Bridge Conference, USA,
2007
Lafarge North America, Product Data Sheet: Ductal JS1000, www.lafarge-ductal.com, 2009.
Shop Drawings: Ductal UHPC Joint Test, The Fort Miller Co., Inc., 2008.
Federal Highway Administration, Tech Brief, FHWA Publication No. FHWA-HRT-11-022, 2010.
Drawings: Bridge Rehabilitation Route 31 Over Canadaigua Outlet, SH 8028, Route 31, NYSDOT,
2008.
Young, W.; Boparai, J.: Whiteman Creek Bridge A Synthesis of ABC, UHPC and FRP. PCI/NBC,
Salt Lake, UT, USA, 2011.
Harris, D.; Sarkar; J., Ahlborn, T.: Interface Bond Characterization of UHPC Overlays.
Transportation Research Board Annual Conference, Washington, DC, USA, 2010.
Wift, T.; et al: Iowas UHPC Implementation. Bureau of Research & Technology, Iowa Department of
Transportation News, April 2011, Iowa, USA, 2011.
678
Timber UHPC composite floor structures environmental

study
Petr Hajek, Magdalena Kynclova, Ctislav Fiala
Faculty of Civil Engineering, Czech Technical University in Prague, Czech Republic
The experimental investigation performed at Czech Technical University in Prague verified the
possibilities of using ultra high performance concrete (UHPC) in timber-concrete composites. Timberconcrete composite floor structures benefit from lower weight of UHPC deck while improving acoustic
parameters and fire safety of the structure. One of the key problems is the connection between timber
beam and UHPC deck. Wet process is not suitable due to the effect on wood and slim UHPC deck does
not provide space for mechanical joint. The results of the experiments have showed that this can be
solved by gluing.
A complex life cycle analysis (LCA) of four alternatives of RC floor structures is presented and
environmental impacts are compared and discussed in the article. The results show that the high quality
of mechanical and environmental performance creates the potential for wider application of UHPC in
building construction in the future.
Keywords: timber-UHPC composites, glued connections, environmental study
1 Introduction
Optimization of concrete structures can contribute to the needed reduction of global
environmental impacts. One possible way is utilizing of ultra high performance concrete in
optimized structural shapes. Mechanical properties of these materials such as high
compressive strength, durability, water tightness etc. create conditions for designing subtle
structures that leads to saving up to 70% of material in comparison with ordinary concrete, and
consequently to reduction of embodied CO 2 emissions.
The composite structures based on high performance silicates and wood represent a
advantageous alternative to the timber floor structures. The timber structures have problems to
achieve sufficient stiffness; the lack of mass causes troubles with acoustics, inflammability of
wood limits their use because of issues with fire safety. These disadvantages can be reduced
by employing timber-silicate composites.
Timber-concrete composite floor structures benefit from lower weight of UHPC deck in
comparison to deck from OPC (ordinary Portland cement concrete) while improving acoustic
parameters and fire safety of the structure. The combination of a thin silicate slab and a timber
beam represents an effective cross-section from the perspective of bending stress. One of the
key problems is the means of connection between timber beam and UHPC deck. Wet process
is not suitable due to the effect on wood and slim UHPC deck does not provide space for
mechanical joint. The experimental results have showed that this can be solved by gluing.
A complex life cycle analysis (LCA) of various alternatives of RC floor structures is
presented, and environmental impacts are compared and discussed in the article. Relevant
complex LCA is based on local environmental data collected during the inventory phase of the
LCA procedure. The results show that the high quality of mechanical and environmental
performance creates a potential for wider application of UHPC in building construction in the
future.
2 Experimental verification of timber-concrete glued connections

The primary research focuses on developing UHPC mixture from materials available in the
Czech Republic. A broad spectrum of cements, superplasticizers, microsilicas and sands from
679
various producers were tested. Only Stratec fibres were imported from Germany. The mixture
used in these experiments has a compressive strength of 160 MPa tested on cubes a=100 mm.
The optimalization of UHPC mixture is still in progress.
The first step in the research of the timber-concrete composite floor structures was to verify
the performance of glued connection and for this,the shear test was selected. Both sides of
concrete prism 100/100/400 were glued to two timber prisms 80/160/320. The arrangement of
the test is apparent from figure 1.
Figure 1: Shear test arrangement of timber - concrete composite.
Two types of concrete (OPC ordinary Portland cement concrete and UHPC ultra high
performance concrete) and three various glues (Sikadur 30, Sikadur 330, SikaFloor 156) were
used and tested in the first set of experiments. Timber prisms were from glued laminated wood.
Even though, there were quite high variances in the results, the trend was obvious. The
difference between OPC and UHPC timber composites was in the kind of a failure the rapture
in timber-OPC composites was mainly in concrete while in UHPC-timber composite the rapture
was in the timber (figure 2). The best results were achieved with SikaFloor 156 although it has
the worst workability as this type of glue is too liquid for such a purpose. Therefore, for the
second set of experiments specific filler (3% and 5% by mass) was introduced into the
SikaFloor 156. The glue with 5% of filler performed well both from the point of workability and
shear strength.
Figure 2: Shear failure of timber - OPC composite and timber-UHPC composite.
Large scale experiments are now under preparation. Slender UHPC deck 1200x2400 mm with
thickness of only 30 mm is to be glued to two timber beams. The results of the experiment will
be presented at the conference.
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3 LCA of four various concrete floor structures

Description of floor structures variants
The analysis was performed with four various RC floor structures, that were designed for fourstorey residential building with ground plan 14.2 x 22.3 m. This analysis focuses mainly on floor
structures and does not include concrete beams and supporting structures. The analysis covers
all significant life cycle stages: transport of the raw material to the concrete plant, concrete
production, and transport to the building site, pumping of fresh concrete, formwork and
demolition of structures. All assessed variants V1-V4 were designed for following conditions:
theoretical span 4.4 m (simply supported), dead load (excluding self weight of the floor
structure) gk = 4.0 kN/m2 and live load qk = 2.0 kN/m2. Variants V1, V2 and V4 were designed
as one way slabs, variant V3 as two way slab then. The variants considered in the study are
shown in the Figure 3.
Figure 3: Schematic sections of floor structures alternatives.
V1 full RC slab C30/37 thickness 200 mm, main reinforcement R10 110 mm at the
bottom surface, distributive reinforcement R8 200 mm and reinforcing mesh W8/150/150 at
the upper surface, ring beams reinforced by 4 R12 with stirrups R6 200 mm.
V2 prefab concrete panels HPC105 with fillers from recycled laminated drink cartons thickness 200 mm, high performance fibre concrete with compressive strength of 105MPa,
upper and bottom deck 30 mm without conventional reinforcement, reinforced only by fibres
Fibrex A1 1% by volume, width of ribs 50 mm, ribs spacing 500 mm, main reinforcement 2 R16
500 mm, filigree shear reinforcement R5 250 mm, ring beams from C30/37 on external
walls reinforced by 4 R12 with stirrups R6 200 mm, ring beams on inner walls reinforced by 2
R12 with stirrups R6 200 mm.
V3 waffle floor structure HPC105 thickness 160 mm, upper deck 30 mm, width of ribs in
both directions 50-70 mm, ribs spacing 600 mm, ribs reinforcement at the bottom surface R8
and R14 at upper surface in both directions, filigree shear reinforcement R5 200 mm and R5
180 mm, ring beams from HPC105 on external walls reinforced by 4 R12 with stirrups R6 200
mm, ring beams on inner walls reinforced by 2 R12 with stirrups R6 200 mm.
V4 timber-concrete composite floor structure - thickness 190 mm, upper deck 30 mm
from UHPC160 reinforced by steel microfibers 13 mm long, timber beam 80/160, timberconcrete connection by gluing, ring beams from C30/37 on external walls reinforced by 4 R12
with stirrups R6 200 mm, ring beams on inner walls were reinforced by 2 R12 with stirrups.
The four alternatives were designed from three different concrete mixtures ordinary
concrete C30/37, high performance fibre concrete HPC105 and UHPC160. The HPC105
mixture was fibre concrete with 25 mm long steel fibres Fibrex A1. These fibres have tensil e
strength of only 350 MPa. The UHPC160 mixture was designed as fine-grained with 13 mm
long steel microfibres. The tensile strength of these fibres is 2400 MPa. The amount of steel
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fibres in both mixtures was 1% by volume. As suggested in designation, HPC105 has

compressive strength of 105 MPa, UHPC160 has 160 MPa then.
Table 1: Concrete mixtures.
Concrete mixture
CEM I 42.5R
CEM I 52.5R
sand 0-4
crushed gravel 4-8
crushed gravel 8-16
basalt 4-8
microsilica
sand 01/06
micro milled sand ST9
steel fibres Fibrex A1
steel fibres Stratec 0.15/13
superplasticizer
water
kg/m
kg/m3
kg/m3
kg/m3
kg/m3
kg/m3
kg/m3
kg/m3
kg/m3
kg/m3
kg/m3
kg/m3
kg/m3
C30/37
HPC 105
UHPC 160
350
-
480
-
717
785
350
650
-
925
830
24
-
225
985
179
80
-
80
2.7
183
8.8
150
32.6
176
Input data for the analysis

A set of environmental information data on concrete components and related processes has
been collected and determined during the research performed at the CIDEAS centre of the
Czech Technical University in Prague [1]. These data are based on regionally available
materials and on source data provided by companies producing and/or selling their products
mainly on the Czech market. Energy and emission factors were taken from GEMIS [2].
In the following analysis the expected life span of concrete floor structures was considered
for all alternatives equally 100 years. Two major repairs of 10% of the concrete surface were
considered for reference alternative V1 from ordinary concrete C30/37. The two floor
alternatives from HPC105 (V2, V3) are planned to have a repair of 30% of balcony surfaces,
one in a life span. No repair is considered in the case of the alternative V4 from UHPC160, due
to the significantly better surface quality and density of the concrete matrix.
The location of the analysed building is in the city of Kladno, Czech Republic. The concrete
mix will be transported from a company 4 km away, concrete prefab panels from a precast
concrete plant 23 km away and the demolition waste will be transported 26 km to the recycling
plant. Analysis does not cover the extra energy necessary for demoliton of ultra high
performance concrete due to a lack of data.
Analysis results and discussion
Two alternatives of floor structures from HPC V2, V3 and one from UHPC V4 were analyzed
and compared with reference solid RC slab from standard concrete C30/37 V1. Graphs in
Figures 5, 6 and 7 show aggregated environmental data achieved by detailed LCA analysis of
all four variants of floor structures.
The graph in Figure 4 shows for all four alternatives primary energy flows associated with
particular material components, transport and construction processes. It is evident that the
highest energy consumption is associated with cement production and steel use. The best
results shows alternative V4 composite timber- UHPC floor structure, due to the use of timber
beams with significantly lower primary energy demands. Top slab was made of very thin
UHPC160 slab precast elements. Variants V2 and V3 from HPC105 show lower primary energy
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consumption in comparison with reference solid slab (V1) due to more effective optimized
hollow core and ribbed shape of floor cross section.
Figure 4: Aggregated data primary energy consumption in MJ.
The graph in Figure 5 shows similar results for global warming potential (GWP). Again variant
V4 timber-UHPC shows the lowest GWP environmental impact. Both HPC105 alternatives V2
and V3 are again better than reference solid RC slab. The reason is the same as for primary
energy consumption more structurally efficient cross section shapes in the case V2 hollow
core precast pannel and in the case V3 light ribbed structure.
The graph in Figure 6 shows relative comparison of selected aggregated LCA data GWP
global warming potential, AP acidification potential, POCP photochemical ozone creation
potential, raw material consumption, water use and primary energy consumption. 100%
represents solid RC slab from ordinary concrete (variant V1). All optimized alternatives have
lower environmental impacts in all assessed environmental criteria. The best one is variant V4
timber-UHPC composite ribbed structure.
Figure 5: Aggregated data global warming potential (GWP) in kg CO 2, equiv.
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Figure 6: Aggregated data of assessed variants for whole life cycle (GWP global warming potential, AP
acidification potential, POCP photochemical ozone creation potential), 100% is represented by V1 solid RC
slab.
4 Conclusions
New types of high performance silicate composites enable design of ultra thin decks with
thickness less than 30 mm. Some applications use even 15 20 mm thin UHPC decks [3, 4].
However, at such thickness ordinary mechanical kinds of connection cannot be used. Glued
connection represents a possible and effective option.
Presented experimental results of timber-concrete composite shear test proved the potential
of timber-concrete glued connection. Therefore, there is a possibility to design the timberconcrete composite with HPC or UHPC slender deck with thickness of only 30 mm or less.
Environmental efficiency of such composite structure has been shown in the LCA case study.
The research of timber-concrete composite floor structures is continuing with the large scale
bending tests of composite beams with UHPC slender slab.
This outcome has been achieved with the financial support of the research project granted
by Czech Grant Agency GACR P104/10/2153. All support is gratefully acknowledged.
References
[1] Hjek, P., Fiala, C., Kynlov, M.: Life cycle assessments of concrete structures a step towards
environmental savings, Structural Concrete, Journal of the fib, Vol 12/1, March 2011, ISSN 1464 4177, pp. 13-22, 2011.
[2] GEMIS (Global Emission Model for Integrated Systems) - version 4.6, database CZ, D 2010,
www.oeko.de/service/gemis/, 2010.
[3] Perry, V.H., Zakariasen, D.: First Use of Ultra High Performance Concrete for an Innovative Train
Station Canopy, Concrete Technology Today / August 2004, http://www.cement.org.
[4] Ductal technical library, www.ductal-lafarge.com.
684

Hasan Han1, Steffen Grnewald2, Joost Walraven2, Jeroen Coenders 2,3, Pierre
Hoogenboom2
1: Royal BAM Group n.v., Bunnik, The Netherlands
2: Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences, Delft University of Technology, Delft/The Netherlands
3: Arup BV Amsterdam, The Netherlands
A study was carried out on the technical feasibility of creating Special Nodes using UPHC with fiber
reinforcement and to establish a new practical application for UHPC. A Special Node is a structural
node element that connects incoming members in a frame structure, has a complex 3D geometry and
contains geometrical distortions in the form of holes. In order to create Special Nodes the computational
structural design tool VisionNode was developed, which uses a Genetic Algorithm for computational
optimization. VisionNode starts the structural optimization process by exchanging data between a
geometric-modeler, which creates the geometry, and a Finite-Element-Model, which determines the
structural feasibility during each cycle. Special Nodes created by VisionNode have a unique design, a 3D
geometry and contain holes. This is achieved with a minimum of material used while satisfying all
structural checks. Case studies demonstrate the potential of this innovative design approach.
Keywords: Special Nodes, Ultra High Performance Concrete, Fibers, Computational Optimization,
Structural Optimization, Genetic Algorithm
1 Introduction
The number of unique and innovative structures is rapidly increasing. Advances in design
software, material science and manufacture methods in the last decades seem to have
removed the boundaries between the imaginable and what is actually constructible. Examples
are structures with complex 3D-geometrical properties like double-curved surfaces, varying
angles between members and changing cross-sectional dimensions. The structural challenges
with such designs, can be dealt with more efficiently today due to the advanced resources
available to engineers, such as stronger construction materials, improved manufacture methods
and increased computational power. However, advancements in material science do not
automatically result in new possibilities and applications for design and construction. It is up to
the designers and engineers to acknowledge the advanced and new materials and to come up
with new practical applications and possibilities for the building industry. A lot of research is
being conducted today to develop new materials and structural applications supported b y
computational power.
This study aimed at developing a new and innovative application for Ultra High Performance
Concrete (UHPC) with fiber reinforcement and without passive reinforcement, applied to
structural nodes. Structural nodes are elements that are used in a structure to connect separate
structural elements. UHPC and a new manufacture method were considered for the
development Special Nodes. In context of this research, a Special Node is defined as a
structural element that connects incoming members in a frame structure, has a complex 3Dgeometry and has geometrical distortions in the form of holes. The purpose of the holes in the
node is to intentionally disturb the natural flow of forces thus introducing a structural
inefficiency. This way, the optimization tool demonstrates the ability to combine material
properties and structural efficiency. A complex 3D geometry can be defined as a combination
of double curved surfaces, multiple sub-elements with varying angles between and continuously
varying dimensions. See Figure 1 for an impression of a Special Node; the element placed in
the center is the Special Node and the rectangles represent the incoming structural elements.
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Figure 1: Special Node; 2D- and 3D impression.
UHPC with fiber reinforcement is a material that has a very high compressive strength and a
relatively high tensile strength when compared to conventional concrete. For this reason, it is a
promising material chosen for particular application. As the compressive strength of UHPC is
much higher than the tensile strength, this research has focused on Special Nodes exposed to
mainly compressive forces and limited bending forces.
The objective of this study was to determine whether it is technically feasible to design
Special Nodes in UHPC without passive reinforcement. A computational structural design tool
that uses computational optimization was developed which can create and structurally check
the Special Nodes. The goal of the optimization process was to determine the most efficient
solution for the structural problem.
2 UHPC
Ultra High Performance Concrete (UHPC) with fiber reinforcement is a type of concrete that has
material properties superior to normal strength concrete. The main characteristics of UHPC are
a compressive strength up to 250 MPa, a much higher ductility, tensile strength and a better
durability compared to traditional concrete. In combination with a sufficiently high amount of
steel fibers it is possible to design sustainable lightweight concrete constructions withou t any
additional reinforcement [1]. The superior mechanical properties are obtained because of:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Homogeneity of the mixture that allows for better stress distribution

A high packing density and a lower water-cement-ratio
An improved microstructure obtained through post-set heat-treatment of the concrete
Addition of fiber reinforcement
Several commercial UHPC mixtures are available on the market today. In this research,
material characteristics of the UHPC mixture Ductal C170/200, developed by LaFarge,
Bouygens and Rhodia, are assumed [2]. Design and calculations were executed according to
the French recommendations for UHPC [3].
The most important characteristic of UHPC for the design of Special Nodes is the high
compressive strength. Since Special Nodes are primarily loaded by high compressive forces,
the high compressive strength of the material would be used to full potential. Even though a
Special Node is not directly loaded in tension, the presence of holes and a complex 3Dgeometry will cause tensile stresses to occur within the node.
The relatively high tensile strength is mainly attributed to the presence of fiber reinforcement
in the UHPC mixture; the fibers also increase the ductility of the material. Ductility of a structural
686
node is very important since small deformations and displacements are bound to occur. For this
reason, adequate ductility is required and is provided by UHPC. Next to the material strength
properties of UHPC in Special Nodes, a high workability is required for manufacturing the
Special Nodes. The self-compacting property of UHPC facilitates the casting process.
3 VisionNode in Design Optimization

VisionNode is a Windows-application that enables users to create Special Nodes using UHPC
as a construction material. At the core of the computational optimization in VisionNode is a
mathematical optimization algorithm that is controlled by the tool. The algorithm is called a
Genetic Algorithm (GA) and is essentially a continuous cycle of iterations in which a pre determined objective-function is continuously changed and evaluated after each iteration. The
goal is to minimize the objective function, which minimizes the volume of concrete, while
satisfying other boundary conditions. The algorithm generates a new geometry every iteration
step, performs a structural check and evaluates the volume of the concrete. Every iteration
solution that complies with the structural boundary conditions is considered a feasible solution.
The best feasible solution of the optimization process contains the data for the final design of
the structural node.
The optimization process starts by creating a new 2D-geometry every iteration-step. For the
geometry modeling, VisionNode uses the 3D modeling program Rhinoceros by McNeel [4].
Through the geometric modeler, VisionNode calculates the location of the design-variables and
uploads the information to the optimization algorithm. For every geometry, the stresses in the
node are calculated with a Finite-Element-Analysis (FEA) through Ansys [5]. The results of the
FEA are evaluated by VisionNode and checked according to the structural boundary conditions
that are based on the mechanical properties of the material.
If the optimum of the objective function has been obtained, the Special Node is created.
When this is not the case and the optimum has not been obtained, the previous steps are
performed again with different parameters. This process is displayed in Figure 2. Before the
optimization starts, the user defines the following parameters:
The coordinates and the dimensional properties of the incoming structural members
that are connected to the Special Node
The forces transferred from the incoming members to the Special Node
Concrete characteristics
Specification where material must or must not be used in the geometry, in order to
create the holes
Figure 2: VisionNode optimization process.
Genetic Algorithm
The Genetic Algorithm (GA) is an evolutionary algorithm which mimics the evolutionary process
of natural selection, reproduction, mutation and survival of the fittest. The GA is a mathematical
687
stochastic search method that was first devised by Holland [6] and later extended by Goldberg
[7]. Before the GA starts the iteration process, it is first supplied with an objective function, a set
of design variables and algorithm constraints. The aim of the GA is to find the minimum value of
the objective function in the search space (the space in which all the feasible solutions are
located). During its operation, the algorithm searches for solutions for the objective function that
minimize its value and consequently the volume of the Special Node. The solutions have to be
feasible to be accepted by the algorithm. A solution is considered feasible when it satisfies the
predetermined algorithm constraints. When a solution does not satisfy the constraint, it is
considered infeasible and it is omitted from the search space.
By continuously changing the design variables every iteration step and repeating this
process, the algorithm searches for the best possible feasible solution that is called the
optimum solution. The design variables represent coordinates in the XY-plane and are needed
to create the geometry of the Special Node for every iteration.
The constraints for the optimization process consist of a structural failure-check in the form
of a Mohr-Coulomb-Failure-Check (Equation 1). This is a failure-check that can be used for
brittle materials such as concrete exposed to internal compressive and tensile stresses. The
nonlinear-inequality constraint in VisionNode is 0,6-1,0.
(1)
1 = largest principal tensile stress in structural element
3 = largest principal compressive stress in structural element
t = tensile capacity of material
c =compressive capacity of material
Only a solution that satisfies these boundary conditions is considered feasible. The goal is to
get as close as possible to the upper boundary condition while maintaining a minimum volume
of the Special Node.
Finite Element Analysis
The geometry of the Special Node is the output of the geometric modeler that calculates the
location of the design-variables in the XY-plane. These coordinates are used to create NURBScurves from the design variables. All the NURBS-curves are uploaded to Ansys that in return
creates the Finite-Element-Model needed for the structural calculation. VisionNode instructs
Ansys to create two different geometries of a Special Node, a 2D-geometry and a 3D-geometry.
This step is displayed in Figure 3.
Next to the geometric properties, the material properties and loads on the node are also
input to Ansys. As mentioned before, a mixture with characteristics of Ductal is applied for the
Special Nodes. The mechanical properties of Ductal are entered into the FEM prior to the
calculation. The loads on a Special Node consist of an axial compressive force, a bending
moment and a shear-force. These forces act from the surrounding structure on the Special
Node through a contact surface.
The goal of the optimization with VisionNode is to generate a 3D geometry of a Special Node
with a sculptural quality. Because such a 3D geometry takes a lot of calculation time during the
FEA, optimization times of up to a day can be expected. To shorten the optimization run,
VisionNode switches between a 2D- and a 3D geometry during the FEM calculations.
688
Figure 3: Geometric NURBS model and the corresponding Finite-Element-Model.
In essence, when the solutions of the objective function are far from the optimum, VisionNode
uses a 2D-geometry of the Special Node during the FEM calculations. A 2D-geometry
calculation in the FEM takes between 10-30 seconds. This way, the optimization process can
work fast when the solutions have not converged yet. Whenever a solution becomes feasible,
VisionNode switches to the 3D geometry and requests a 3D Special Node. The FEM calculation
of a 3D-geometry takes about 1-10 minutes depending on the complexity of the shape. When
considering that during the entire optimization process almost 95% of all solutions are likely to
be infeasible, the advantage of 2D- to 3D-switching becomes evident. Because of this feature of
VisionNode, optimizations to create Special Node take several hours instead of an entire day to
be completed. After the FEM calculations are completed, VisionNode checks whether a solution
is feasible.
4 Results
A case study was performed with an existing structure to design Special Nodes and to test the
program. The Yas-Hotel structure in Abu Dhabi was considered suitable for this purpose and is
displayed in Figure 4. In order to obtain realistic geometrical and structural boundary conditions
for the optimization algorithm, the structure itself was modeled in a finite-element-program and
exposed to realistic loads. The resulting force distribution in the structure was transferred to
VisionNode before starting the optimization.
Figure 4: Yas-Hotel in Abu Dhabi [8].
689
The results of the optimization process for a Special Node with a height of 2,9 m and two holes
in the center, are displayed in Figure 5 and Table 1. VisionNode generated a Special Node after
5 hours of optimization. The resulting node has the smallest possible volume based on the
geometrical and structural boundary conditions.
Figure 5: Special Node created by VisionNode; left and center: the resulting 3D geometry; right: the same 3D
geometry after structural analysis by Ansys.
Table 1: Numerical results of optimization process.
Property
Volume of Special Node
Maximum tensile stress
Maximum compressive stress
Mohr-Coulomb-Failure-Check
Optimization time
m3
MPa
MPa
Hours
Value
1,464257380
7,266
-37,67
1,000082
5
Figure 6 shows the history of how the algorithm obtains a Mohr-Coulomb value of 1,000082
after almost 1400 iterations. The algorithm was searching for the most efficient solution while
reducing the volume of the node and keeping the Mohr-Coulomb value close to 1,0.
Figure 6: Mohr-Coulomb-Failure-Check during optimization process.
690
To determine the effect of different tensile strengths on the node structure, tensile strengths of
respectively 11, 15 and 30 MPa were assumed. Figure 7 shows the results of the optimization
process with different tensile strengths. It can be seen that with a higher tensile strength the
concrete volume decreased with more slender Special Nodes as a result.
Figure 7: Geometrical results with different tensile strengths 11; 15; 30 respectively.
Table 2: Numerical results with different tensile strengths.
Tensile Strength
Volume of Special Node
Maximum tensile stress
Maximum compressive stress
Mohr-Coulomb-Failure-Check
MPa
m3
MPa
MPa
11,0
1,464257380
7,266
-37,67
1,000082
15,0
1,368151684
9,976
-33,87
0,966
30,0
1,184695894
16,6
-45,64
0,961
Special Nodes can be manufactured using an advanced manufacture method that creates a
concrete mould with a complex 3D geometry. This manufacture method is a fully automated 3D
milling of polystyrene where computer controlled milling is applied on a block of polystyrene. In
order the produce a Special Node, two moulds have to be milled. The moulds are shown in
Figure 8.
VisionNode stores the resulting geometry of the Special Node in a 3DM-file format and the
3D milling machine supports this file format. This means that based on the output of
VisionNode, the Special Node can actually be produced. A Special Node can be connected by
two methods with the incoming members of the frame structure: a) welding of metal plates or
b) concrete connection reinforced with rebars.
Figure 8: Special Node mould manufacture.

691
5 Conclusions
By developing and applying the structural design tool called VisionNode, it was possible to
create technically feasible Special Nodes with a complex 3D geometry in UHPC without passive
reinforcement. The tool was applied for the case study of the Yas-Hotel structure. Even though
the efficiency of the structural node was intentionally disrupted by the introduction of
geometrical distortions in the form of holes, VisionNode was able to create the desired Special
Nodes. This was mainly possible because of the excellent mechanical properties of UHPC with
fiber reinforcement.
Additionally, the optimization process controlled by the Genetic Algorithm provided the
computational power that was needed to create the most material efficient structural node for a
set of boundary conditions. With computational optimization unique structural nodes, that seem
illogical and inefficient in the beginning, can be created and are technically feasible at the same
time.
New manufacture methods such as fully automated 3D milling of polystyrene can be applied
to produce Special Nodes with a complex 3D geometry.
References
[1] Schmidt, M., Fehling, E.: Ultra-High-Performance Concrete: Research, Development and Application
in Europe. 10 Years of research and development at the University of Kassel, pp. 194-221. 2007.
[2] Acker, P., Behloul, M.: Ductal Technology: A Large Spectrum of Properties, A Wide Range of
Applications. Fib Symposium, Avignon, France. 2004.
[3] AFGC / SETRA: Ultra High Performance Fibre-Reinforced Concretes: Interim Recommendations.
2002.
[4] Robert McNeel & Associates. http://www.mcneel.com; May 2010.
[5] Ansys inc. http://www.ansys.com; May 2010.
[6] Holland, John H: Adaptation in Natural and Artificial Systems, University of Michigan Press, Ann
Arbor. 1975.
[7] Goldberg, David E: Genetic Algorithms in Search, Optimization and Machine Learning, Kluwer
Academic Publishers, Boston, MA. 1989.
[8] Yas Hotel Press Release, Retrieved August 2009: http://www.asymptote-architecture.com. 2009
[9] Beasley, D et al.: An overview of Genetic Algorithms, part 1: Fundamentals, University Computing,
pp. 58-69. 1993.
[10] Veenendaal, D., Preliminary study on Evolutionary Optimization of Fabric Formed Structural
Elements, Delft University of Technology. 2007.
[11] Makhanov, S.S., Anotaipaiboon,W., Advanced Numerical Methods to Optimize Cutting Operations of
Five Axis Milling Machines, Springer, 206p. 2007.
692

Institute of Structural Concrete, RWTH Aachen University, Germany
It is well known that composite structures feature a high load carrying capacity due to the effic ient
interconnection of concrete and steel, where steel carries the tensile forces and concrete is under
compression. High performance materials, e.g. ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC, 150-250 MPa
without thermal treatment), high strength steel, contribute to the load carrying capacity, as well as to a
significantly increased sustainability of the structure. Due to its high compressive strength very slender
and attractive structures are feasible, provided that the deflections under service loads are li mited.
At the Institute of Structural Concrete at RWTH Aachen University the load carrying behaviour of shear
connectors under static loading was investigated within a collaborative research project [1]. Design
models were derived and guidelines for the static design of composite beams under positive bending
moments were developed [2], [3].
For bridge and industrial constructions the cyclic behaviour is of great importance, since a premature
failure of the structure can occur. Hence, the scope of the investigations presented in this paper is the
fatigue behaviour of shear connectors. Therefore, cyclic single tension tests and push-out tests were
carried out to investigate the local behaviour of composite constructions with high and ultra high
performance materials.
Keywords: Composite Construction, Ultra High Performance Concrete, High Strength Steel, Puzzle strip
shear connector, fatigue
1 Introduction
The combination of ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) and high strength steel in
composite constructions allows elegant and slender structures [4]. These constructions are
much more susceptible to dynamic excitation and fatigue loading than conventional concrete
structures. Especially for composite bridge constructions with traffic loads and low dead load,
the cyclic performance of shear connectors in UHPC is of major interest.
The operational stability of steel connectors is mainly controlled by the stress amplitude,
whereas fatigue of concrete depends on the load level [5]. The behaviour of a novel and
innovative shear connector, the so called puzzle strip (Fig. 3), should be investigated by smallscale and beam tests in UHPC under cyclic loads to investigate applicability in composite
constructions.
In composite beams, shear forces occur between the concrete slab and the steel beam. The
behaviour under static loading has been analysed in various research projects. To analyse this
behaviour under cyclic loading, Push-Out Tests (POT) according to Eurocode 4 [6] have been
carried out. Furthermore, tension forces occur due to the exentricity of the struts according to
the strut-and-tie-model of a beam presented in Fig. 1. Therefore, the Single-Tension-Test (STT)
has been developed for static loads [4] and can be extended for cyclic loads. To verify these
results, at the end of the current period of SPP 1182 [1] full-scale beam tests will be conducted
under cyclic loading.
The first experimental investigations of continuous shear connectors under cyclic loading
have been carried out in 1987 [7]. The researchers detected only a little slip evolution during the
load cycles for the perfobond strip with small and mainly closed holes. However, continuous
shear connectors with openings showed a significant higher slip evolution [8].
693
Push-Out Test
(POT)
Single Tension Test

(STT)
Figure 1: Strut-and-tie-model of a composite beam (left) and small-scale tests (right).
2 Ultra High Performance Concrete (UHPC)

Behaviour under static loading
The composition of ultra high performance concrete (UHPC) differs fundamentally from conventional concrete such as normal strength concrete (NSC) or high strength concrete (HSC) and is
presented in [2].
To ensure a sufficient ductility thin micro steel fibres are added. Due to the steel fibres,
UHPC exhibits a high compressive strength as well as a linear-elastic behaviour until about
90 % of its compressive strength which is achieved at a strain rate of about 4.5 (Fig. 2, left).
Conventional concrete (NSC and HSC) shows a distinctive nonlinear behaviour due to microcracks which develop at a stress level of about 40 % of the compressive strength.
Behaviour under cyclic loading
The UHPC used for the tests under cyclic loading is the same as for the static tests [2].
Cyclic tests in the compression-compression regime of UHPC show, that concrete with a
high compression strength generally exhibits a more sensitive behaviour under cyclic loading
compared to normal strength concrete (NSC) [9]. Furthermore, the load level has an influence
on the fatigue behaviour. The fatigue strength of UHPC with rising load ranges is higher than for
high strength concrete [9]. The fibres showed no significant influence on the fatigue behaviour.
Fig. 1 (right) shows the increase of compression strain in a cyclic compression-compression
test with an upper load of 0.8fck and a lower load of 0.2fck of UHPC [10] in comparison to NSC.
Figure 2: Static (left) and cyclic (right) behaviour of Ultra-High-Performance-Concrete.
694
The already known 3-phase-shape of NSC can be confirmed for UHPC; however, the length of
each phase differs. In the first phase, the irreversible strain increases due to a significant
development of microcracks. The second phase is characterized by a continuous crack growth,
whereas in the third phase, an instable crack growth with a significant increase in strain and
decrease in stiffness occurs. The results in [10] suggest a strong reduction of phase I and III for
UHPC. In NSC, the first and the third phase capture about 20% of cycles based on the number
of cycles to failure. Due to the dense packing and the associated embrittlement of UHPC, the
first and the third phase capture only about 3%-5% of the cycles to failure. A brittle failure
occurs, despite of the steel fibres.
3 Test program
The tests under shear loading were tested in the Push-Out Test (POT). The set-up of the POT
(Fig. 3, left) according to [6] is described exactly in [2].
For tests with one puzzle under tension, a new set-up has been developed, the SingleTension-Test (STT) (Fig. 3, right). All specimens for these tests consist of one steel puzzle with
a thickness of 20 mm in a 500x500x100mm UHPC-plate. The measuring program contained the
global deformation of the UHPC-plate, the deformation of the steel puzzle relative to the
concrete and the strain distribution in the middle of the concrete-plate (Fig. 3, right). The tests
were designed for concrete breakout and a bending failure was prevented by short spans
(a=200mm). All specimen were tested with an upper concrete cover of c o=60mm.
Push-Out Test (POT)
Single Tension Test (STT)
Figure 3: Test set-up of POT (left) and STT (right).
In Push-Out Tests the upper load and the load amplitude have been varied. Table 1 shows the
varied loads, which are ratios of the maximum load (Pstat=2500 kN) investigated in a static
reference test.
In this paper, five Single-Tension-Tests are presented. In the tests STT-E3 and E4 the
influence of a cyclic preloading on the residual strength was developed. Furthermore, a cyclic
concrete failure was forced by high upper loads. Because of the scattering, three tests were
carried out with the same load level (STT-E5, E7, E8). All specimen were tested with the same
upper load of 25% of the static capacity.
695
Table 1: Test program.
set-up
POT
STT
Pup/Pstat
Plow/Pstat
P/Pstat
[-]
[-]
PP-I-E1
0.55
PP-I-E2
[-]
f
[Hz]
describtion
0.30
0.25
4.6
low amplitude, low upper load
0.55
0.05
0.50
4.6
high amplitude, low upper load
PP-I-E3
0.75
0.50
0.25
5.1
low amplitude, high upper load
PP-I-E4
0.75
0.25
0.50
5.1
high amplitude, high upper load
E3
0.55
0.25
0.30
4.0
residual strength
E4
0.75
0.25
0.50
4.0
residual strength
E5
0.85
0.25
0.60
4.0
cyclic concrete failure
E7
0.85
0.25
0.60
4.0
E8
0.85
0.25
0.60
4.0
Series
4 Results of cyclic Push-Out Tests

The concrete compression strength for a 100-mm-cube fc,cube, and the test results (initial
stiffness C at 50% of maximal static load Pu,0, the mean maximum slip at the end of the tests
separated for upper and lower load max,mean, load cycles N) of the cyclic push-out-tests are
summarized in table 2.
All steel profiles were made from the same steel charge (material properties of the web:
fy=467 MPa, fu=569 MPa, Ea=200.600 MPa)
I.a. due to the different concrete strengths and material related effects (e.g. fibre orientation,
inhomogeneities of concrete), the initial stiffnesses C of the specimens PP-I-E1, E2 and PP-IE3, E4 diverge. Therefore, the specimens PP-I-E3 and E4 showed a less pronounced crack
pattern during the initial loading.
In the following, the test results are described separately for specimens with the same
amplitude (PP-I-E1, PP-I-E3 and PP-I-E2, PP-I-E4).
Table 2: Test results of cyclic Push-Out Tests.
Set-up
POT
fc,cube,100
max,mean,up
max,mean,low
[MPa]
[kN/mm]
[mm]
[mm]
[-]
PP-I-E1
174.5
3043
4.1
3.9
2,000,000
PP-I-E2
174.5
2823
5.9
5.4
103,500
PP-I-E3
185.4
4076
4.4
2.3
2,000,000
PP-I-E4
185.4
3921
8.4
8.1
128,500
Series
The tests are evaluated in dependence of the slip range , which describes the difference of
slip under upper and lower load. Changes in slip range are a good dedicator to show changes
in stiffness of the specimens, whereas the slip under upper load grows constantly because of
the force controlled tests.
The specimens PP-I-E1 and PP-I-E3 were tested with the same load range (25% of Pu,0), but
with variable load levels. It could be presumed, that with increasing upper load a larger damage
and consequential a higher slip evolution occurs, which was not the case in these two tests
(Fig. 4, left). Due to the lower stiffness of specimen PP-I-E1 more cracks occurred in the
concrete slabs. Additionally, the slip range between the connector and the concrete slab is of
higher level compared to PP-I-E3. On top of this, a crack in the lower puzzle occurred at about
1.6 million load cycles and the slip range increased abruptly. In the lower puzzle of PP-I-E3 only
696
a small crack could be detected and the cracks in the concrete slab were not as pronounced as
in specimen PP-I-E1.
The specimens with a higher load range (50% of Pmax) failed due to the cyclic loading after
103.500 (PP-I-E2) and 128.500 (PP-I-E4) load cycles. Both tests showed a similar behaviour
with only a slight increase of the slip range up to about 25.000 load cycles. From this point on,
the test with the higher upper load (PP-I-E4) showed a significant loss of stiffness indicated by a
higher angle in the slip range-load cycle curve, which was the initiation of the failure.
Figure 4: Slip range-load cycles-diagrams of specimens PP-I-E1, E3 (left) and PP-I-E2, E4 (right).
In specimens E1 and E3, the cracks started at the bottom of the shear connector (Fig. 5). After
crack initiation, the crack proceeded in an angle of about 45. This responds the direction of the
main stresses.
However, both specimens achieved the predefined 2 million load cycles without a complete
failure.
Figure 5: Crack patterns of specimens PP-I-E1 (left) and PP-I-E3 (right).
The failure of PP-I-E2 and E4 was initiated by a concrete pry out cone. After cutting the
specimens next to the puzzle strip, a large crack in the upper puzzle with the same angle like
PP-I-E1 and E3 as well as cracks in the concrete have been detected similar to the failure mode
concrete pry-out in the static tests [3] (Fig. 6).
The failure mode can be described as a combination of steel and concrete failure.
Calculations with the Local Concept [11] showed a crack in the steel in the area when the slip
range during the test changed its direction. Afterwards, cracks in the concrete slab occur and
the total failure can be seen as interaction between the two parts, steel and concrete.
697
Figure 6: Crack patterns of specimens PP-I-E2 (left) and PP-I-E4 (right).
5 Results of cyclic Single Tension Tests

Table 3 shows the evaluation of the cyclic tension tests (concrete strength fc,cube,100 , load cycles
N). If no failure occurred under cyclic loading, the result of the residual strength is given by a
ratio related to the static reference test (Pstat=129.4 kN). The last column shows the failure
mode under cyclic loading.
Table 3: Test results of cyclic Single Tension Tests.
Set-up
STT
Series
fc,cube,100 [MPa]
N [-]
Pmax,rs /Pstat [-]
cyclic failure
E3
187.4
2,500,000
1.23
E4
183.7
4,250,000
1.19
E5
194.4
1,679,000
break-out cone
E7
180.6
229,441
break-out cone
E8
185.6
272,274
break-out cone
Residual strength
The slip development of the specimen STT-E3 and E4 showed only a slight increase during the
load cycles (Fig. 7, left). Because of the higher upper load, STT-E4 started with a higher slip.
However, both specimens showed no indications for cyclic failure and the residual strength was
tested.
Figure 7: Slip development of specimens STT-E3, E4 (left) and test of residual strength (right).
698
Surprisingly, the residual strength of both specimens was about 20% higher than the maximum
force in the static reference tests (Fig. 7, right). A reason might be the multiaxial stress area in
the recess, where the concrete matrix is destroyed. The concrete powder acts as a pillow and
less stress-peaks occur.
Cyclic behaviour
The slip-load cycle-curve of specimen STT-E8 with a load range of 60% is shown in Fig. 8.
STT-E5 and E7 showed a comparative behaviour during their lifetime.
Three phases are clearly visible. In Phase I there is a strong compression of the concrete in
the area of the recess. This fact could be seen after the test, when a highly compressed piece
of concrete with a light color appeared in the rounding of the puzzle recess (Fig. 8, Phase I). In
Phase II, the concrete compression proceeds and a diagonal crack occurs. This crack grows
continuously and there is only a slight slip-growth (Fig. 8. Phase II). In Phase III the crack opens
and the slip rises disproportionately. A concrete break-out cone appeared (Fig. 8, Phase III).
Phase I
Phase II
Phase III
Figure 8: Cyclic behaviour of a break-out cone at the example of STT-E8.
6 Conclusions
Four cyclic Push-Out Tests and five Single-Tension-Tests with the puzzle strip shear connector
are presented in this paper. Two different load amplitudes and upper loads have been
investigated in the POT. In the STT, three different load levels with constant upper load have
been carried out and a three-phase-model could be detected for a cyclic break-out cone.
The results from these tests can be summarized as follows:
Generally, the puzzle strip shear connector is capable of carrying high fatigue loads
under shear and tension forces.
699
The puzzle strip in UHPC under cyclic loading with high load amplitude of 0.5Pmax
shows a combined failure resulting in cracks in steel and cracks in concrete.
The direction of the crack in the puzzle strip under cyclic loading differs from the crack
under static loading.
The initial stiffness is a major factor to evaluate the lifetime of the puzzle strip in UHPC.
In the presented tests, the load amplitude played a more significant role than the upper
load.
The residual strength of the puzzle strip in the tension tests is not reduced. Rather, an
increase of 20% could be determinded.
The cyclic behaviour under pure tension can be idealized in three phases.
Advanced push-out-tests with changing load levels, based on the results presented in this
paper, are planned. Furthermore, cyclic beams tests will be carried out in the near future.
Finally, numerical simulations and the comparison of the test results with theoretical concepts
for steel and concrete failure will be carried out.
This research project is part of the SPP 1182 which is founded by the DFG (German Research
Foundation). The authors acknowledge the funding through the DFG and express their thanks
for the support of Arcelor S.A. and FA. Neuman Anlagentechnik, Eschweiler for the excellent
prefabrication of the puzzle strip.
References
[1] Priority program SPP 1182: Subproject "Shear Connectors in UHPC". SPP 1182 - Sustainable
building with ultra high performance concrete (UHPC), German research foundation (DFG), 2008.
[2] Heinemeyer, S, Zum Trag- und Verformungsverhalten von Verbundtrgern aus ultrahochfestem
Beton mit Verbundleisten, PhD thesis, Institut of Structural Concrete, RWTH Aachen University,
2011.
[3] Gallwoszus, J.; Hegger, J.; J Heinemeyer, S.: Design Models for Composite Beams with Puzzle
Strip Shear Connector and UHPC. Hipermat 2012 - 3rd International Symposium on Ultra-High
Performance Concrete and Nanotechnology for Construction Materials, Kassel, 2012.
[4] Hegger, J.; Rauscher, S.; Gallwoszus, J.: Modern hybrid structures made of UHPC and high
strength steel. Proc. 3 rd fib International Congress, Washington, 2010.
[5] Hohberg, R.: Zum Ermdungsverhalten von Beton, phD thesis, Fakultt Bauingenieurwesen und
Angewandte Geowissenschaften, TU Berlin, 2004.
[6] EC 4, prEN 1994-1-1. 2004. Design of composite steel and concrete structures Part 1.1 General
rules and rules for buildings. Brussels, Belgium.
[7] Leonhardt, F.; Andr, W.; Harre, W.: Neues, vorteilhaftes Verbundmittel fr Stahlverbund-Tragwerke
mit hoher Dauerhaftigkeit, Beton- und Stahlbetonbau 82 (12), pp. 325-331, 1987.
[8] Burger, S.: Untersuchungen zum Ermdungsverhalten von Betondbeln im Verbundbau, PhD
thesis, Institut fr Konstruktiven Ingenieurbau, Universitt der Bundeswehr Mnchen, 2009.
Ermdungsbeanspruchung, PhD thesis, Institut fr Baustoffe, Leibniz Universitt Hannover, 2010.
[10] Grnberg, L. et. al.: Mehraxiales mechanisches Ermdungsmodell von Ultra-Hochfestem Beton,
Beton- und Stahlbetonbau 102 (6), pp. 388-398, 2007.
[11] Song, J.: Untersuchung der Anrilebensdauer von Betondbeln mit Hilfe des rtlichen Konzepts,
phD thesis, Technische Universitt Darmstadt, 2002.
700
Application of Steel Shares as Shear Connectors in Slender

Composite Structures
Wolfgang Kurz1, Jrgen Schnell2, Susanne Wiese1
1: Institute of Steel Structures, University of Kaiserslautern (TU), Germany
2: Institute of Concrete Structures and Structural Design, University of Kaiserslautern (TU), Germany
An application of ultra high performance concrete, which satisfies the material properties and economic
demands, requires hybrid constructions with minimized cross sections. These constructions are
characterised by very thin concrete slabs and slender steel webs. A main challenge of such structures is
the design of the connection between the concrete and steel parts.
A new developed shear connector called steel share is analysed in the scope of a research project. The
strains of a steel share, that occur in the fabrication process, were determined with optical strain
measurements and recalculated by numerical simulations. The push-out-tests with 30 mm thin concrete
slabs showed high load bearing capacities for longitudinal forces in combination with good deformability.
Girder tests verified the applicability of the shares in composite girders. FE-Models of the push-out-tests
are the base for considerations about the load bearing mechanisms.
Keywords: composite structures,shear connector
1 Shear Connectors
The longitudinal shear forces in composite girders have to be transferred by shear connectors
between concrete and steel. Conventional shear connectors are headed studs or concrete
dowels for example. Concrete dowels are formed by cuts in the steel sections, which are filled
with concrete. The forces are transmitted by the concrete into the offcut cross sections of the
steel web. The openings can have different forms and dimensions. In the past two decades
intensive research work was done on the load bearing behaviour of concrete dowels in normal
and high strength concrete [1], [2], [3], [4], [5], [6]. For the application in thin concrete plates
headed studs and concrete dowels are not suitable respectively have limitations by their height.
So a new shear connector was developed by arranging rectangular steel teeth at the upper
edge of the steel plate and distorting them about 90 at their tops (see Fig. 1). The so called
"steel shares" are capable of transferring longitudinal shear forces as well as tension forces
perpendicular to the concrete slab. It was expected, that the load is transferred by the concrete
mainly into the base of the share similar to concrete dowels.
Figure 1: shear connectors steel shares.
701
2 Strains of the Fabrication Process

In order to get realistic information about the strains of the steel share during the fabrication
process, strain measurements by means of the digital image correlation were carried out. The
method of digital image correlation belongs to the non-contact measurement methods. It is
suited for the measurement of three-dimensional deformations and tangential strains of
structural members in the range of 0,05% up to several 100% [7]. For the existing field sizes a
strain resolution of 0,1% was achieved. The following figure (Fig. 2) shows the principal strains,
that were measured after the torsion process.
principal strain
section 1
section 0
section length [mm]
Figure 2: Measured first principal strains.
The maximum strains occur at the corner at the bottom of the share with up to 40%, but
decrease rapidly over the plate thickness. These high local strains indicate the location where
failure begins, as it could be seen in the push-out-tests. They also imply that the steel shares
are not suited for dynamic loads.
The fabrication process was also simulated with the FE-program ANSYS. Therefore an
undistorted share with u-shaped clamps was modelled, where the clamp at the bottom was
fixed and the upper clamp was charged with the distortion (see Fig. 3).
fixed support
share
distortion tool
Figure 3: volume model for simulation of distortion.
The resulting strains showed a satisfying correlation with the optical measurements (see Fig. 4).
The computed strains were used to determine the increased yield strength at the base of the
share for the subsequent FE-models of the shares in concrete.
702
50
section 0, measurement
45
section 0, FE-model
section 1, measurement
first principal strain in %
40
section 1, FE-model
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0
10
11
12
13
14
15
section length in mm
Figure 4: Comparison of simulation and measurement of the fabrication process.
3 Push-out-tests
For the series of push-out-tests a concrete mixture of the DFG research programme SPP 1182
with 1.5 vol% steel fibres and a maximum grain size of 2 mm was used. The concrete had a
compressive strength of about 135 N/mm at the time of testing measured with cubes of 100
mm edge length. Fig. 5 shows a typical test specimen. Geometry and test procedure referred to
Eurocode 4 [8]. The test specimens were concreted in an upright standing position.
Figure 5: drawing of test specimen for push-out-test.
For the reference tests a steel plate of the grade S320 with a thickness of 2mm was used. The
plates were provided with 3 shares per side with a certain dictance. The reference dimensions
of a share were 15mm/20mm (length/height) with a distance of 15mm. The concrete slabs of
the push-out-tests had a thickness of 30mm. In the tests different parameters as the share
geometry, the distances and the steel grade were investigated. The applied load was measured
as well as the vertical slip between steel and concrete in order to analyze the deformation
characteristic. The diagram (Fig. 6) shows the load-slip-behaviour of some selected push-outtests with different parameters.
703
600
reference
distance 10mm
distance 5mm
500
load per m share strip in kN/m
plate thickness 3mm

steel grade S235
400
300
200
100
0
0
0,5
1,5
2,5
3,5
4,5
5,5
slip in mm
Figure 6: load-slip-curves of push-out-tests.
It is obvious, that smaller distances between the shares increase the maximum load of about
350kN/m steel share strip for the reference configuration up to 515kN/m. Tests with a higher
plate thickness also show higher loads of about 540kN/m. Test specimens with a lower steel
grade correspondingly reached a lower load bearing capacity, but with an increased
deformability. This steel had a greater failure strain in tension tests and therefore offers a better
deformation capability in the push-out-tests.
The reason for failure in the presented tests was steel failure by shearing off of the steel
shares at their bases. The incipient crack occurs at the base of the share and develops until
complete break (see Fig. 7).
Figure 7: sheared off steel share.
704
The table lists the achieved average loads for the tested parameters per share as well as per m
steel share strip.
Table 1: parameters and results of push-out-tests.
test description
share geometry
(width/height/
thickness) [mm]
distance
[mm]
steel
grade
reference
configuration
15/20/2
15
S320
352.0
10.56
smaller distance
10mm
15/20/2
10
S320
430.7
10.77
smaller distance
5mm
15/20/2
S320
514.8
10.30
higher width of
share
20/20/2
15
S320
391.0
13.68
higher plate
thickness
15/20/3
15
S320
541.3
16.24
lower steel grade
15/20/2
15
S235
299.4
8.98
maximum load
maximum load
per m strip
per share [kN]
[kN/m]
This array shows, that for the same share geometry the load bearing capacities per share differ
only little. This was expected for steel failure, but the values exceed the pure bearing capacity
of the steel section. This increase is attributed to frictional effects, which are currently being
studied in detail by means of the numerical models (see chapter 5).
Push-out-tests with further parameter variations demonstrated, that also concrete failure is
possible. In tests with a plate thickness of 4mm longitudinal cracks occurred along the steel
web (see Fig. 8). The further opening of these cracks was avoided by the arrangement of a
reinforcement rebar below the shares, so that the loading could be increased. Final failure
happened by shearing off of the shares again.
Figure 8: longitudinal crack.
Tests with concrete slabs made of normal strength concrete also cracked in longitudinal
direction, but in the end concrete pry-outs occurred at the inner and outer sides of the concrete
plates (see Fig. 9).
705
Figure 9: concrete pry-outs at the outer (left side) and inner side (right side).
4 Girder Tests
The applicability of the steel shares in large scaled composite girders was analyzed in 6 girder
tests. The girders had a total length of 2m and were tested in 4-point-bending tests with a span
of 1,85m. The steel sections had a height of about 200mm and had a profiling in order to avoid
buckling. The concrete plate had a thickness of 30mm and a width of 500mm. The test setup
and the cross section of a girder is shown in Fig. 10.
Figure 10: test setup (left side) and cross section (right side) of girder tests.
The girders differed in the grade of shear connection, steel plate thickness and concrete grade.
The achieved bending moments reached respectively exceeded the theoretical possible
bending moments. The middle deflection as well as the slip along the shear length and the
strains over the height of the cross section were measured and provide information about the
load bearing behaviour of the composite girders.
5 Numerical Simulations
By means of the FE-program ANSYS numerical models of the push-out-tests were built up in
order to recalculate the tests and to identify the load bearing mechanisms. Therefore one half of
the push-out-tests, that means 3 shares in a concrete slab, were modelled. For the steel
shares, hexahedral elements and a multilinear material model were used. The pre-strains of the
fabrication process were considered by an increased yield strength at the base of the share
(see chapter 2). The concrete was discretisized with tetrahedral elements and provided with the
implemented Extended-Drucker-Prager model. For the contact zone a coefficient of friction of
0.44 was used, which was determined by friction tests before. The load was applied by a
706
displacement of the steel plate and the concrete slab was supported in the corresponding
direction.
displacement
support
support
Figure 11: volume model of push-out-test.
The model shows, that for small slip load is induced over a large part of the shares height, but
with increasing slip the load introduction is shifted towards the base corner of the share. Due to
the multiaxial stress high local compressive stresses occur in the concrete in front of a share.
Transverse tensile stresses occur between the steel shares and may cause longitudinal
cracking for certain geometries and concrete properties.
The analysis of the load-slip-behaviour of the reference configuration showed a sufficient
correlation with the reference tests (see Fig. 12).
12
reference tests
11
10
load per share in kN
FE-model
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0
0,5
1,5
2,5
slip in mm
Figure 12: load-slip-curves of test and FE-model.
An exact determination of the maximum load is not possible with the numerical model, as no
damage model for the steel is included. Therefore no cracks can occur and the load
continuously increases due to the effects of friction [9]. The share is quasi fixed in the concrete
slab and so mainly stressed by shearing in the ultimate limit state (about 90%). The different
load bearing mechanisms can be identified by comparison with the same model using a
coefficient of friction of 0 . Here it could be seen, that the shares are able to transmit a load
707
of about the shear bearing capacity of the share cross section. On the base of the reference
model a parameter study is being carried out. Considering the results of the tests and the
simulations a design approach for the load bearing capacity of the shares will be developed.
6 Conclusions
The presented novel shear connectors show high load bearing capacities with sufficient
deformability in push-out-tests. Steel failure occurs as well as concrete failure for certain
geometries and concrete properties. The applicability of steel shares in slender composite
girders was demonstrated in large scaled girder tests. The numerical simulations contribute to
the identification of load bearing mechanisms and so to the development of a design concept.
The analyses and tests demonstrate the fitness of the steel shares for slender composite
structures. Such structures can be used as waterproof roof elements, filigree facade panels or
hollow walls with integrated HVAC components.
7 Acknowledgements
The presented results have been achieved thanks to the financial support of the Deutsche
Forschungsgemeinschaft DFG within the scope of the project Schn 771/5-1 in the course of the
research programme SPP 1182.
References
[1] Wurzer, O.: Zur Tragfhigkeit von Betondbeln. Dissertation, Universitt der Bundeswehr Mnchen,
Neubiberg 1997.
[2] Zapfe, C.: Trag- und Verformungsverhalten von Verbundtrgern mit Betondbeln zur bertragung
der Lngsschubkrfte. Dissertation, Universitt der Bundeswehr Mnchen, Neubiberg 2001.
[3] Tue, N. V.; Kchler, M.; Hegger, J.; Rauscher, S.: Arbeitsbericht Zur Wirkungsweise von
Verbundmitteln in Verbundkonstruktionen aus ultrahochfestem Beton. Berichtsnr. IMB 183/2007,
RWTH Aachen 2007.
[4] Tue, N. V.; Kchler, M.; Hegger, J.; Rauscher, S.: Arbeitsbericht Zur Wirkungsweise von
Verbundmitteln in Verbundkonstruktionen aus ultrahochfestem Beton. Berichtsnr. IMB 229/2009,
RWTH Aachen 2009.
[5] Berthellemy, J.; Lorenc, W.; Mensinger, M.; Rauscher, S.; Seidl, G.: Zum Tragverhalten von
Verbunddbeln Teil 1: Tragverhalten unter statischer Belastung. Stahlbau 80 (2011), S. 172-184.
[6] Feldmann, M.; Hegger, J.; Hechler, O.; Rauscher, S.: Abschlussbericht Untersuchungen zum
Trag- und Verformungsverhalten von Verbundmitteln unter ruhender und nichtruhender Belastung
bei Verwendung hochfester Werkstoffe (FOSTA P 621 / AiF-Nr. 13867). RWTH Aachen 2007.
[7] Stelzer, G.; Renz, R.: Berhrungslose optische und thermische Messverfahren und deren
Anwendung bei der Untersuchung von Werkstoffen und Bauteilen aus Kunststoff. DVM-congress,
Berlin, 2008.
[8] DIN EN 1994 (Eurocode 4): Design of composite steel and concrete structures, Part 1-1: General
rules and rules for buildings. Beuth publishing Berlin, 2004.
[9] Wies,S.; Schnell, J.; Kurz, W.: Innovative Verbundmittel in Ultrahochleistungsbeton. Beton- und
Stahlbetonbau 106 (2011), S. 694-699.
708
Structural Behaviour and Load-Bearing Capacity of

Reinforced Glued Joints of UHPC-Elements
Daniel Wingenfeld, Christian Muehlbauer, Konrad Zilch
Dept. of Concrete Structures, Technische Universitaet Muenchen, Germany
The use of structural elements made of ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) in construction projects
requires the development of appropriate techniques for joining them. Gluing UHPC elements produced in
a precast factory on site to a structural element or structure would constitute an ideal j oining method. At
the Department of Concrete Structures of the Technische Universitaet Muenchen a high-strength mineral
mortar an RPC-adhesive was developed. Experiments have proven that the glue is highly performant
and very durable when used in joining UHPC elements. In order to increase resistance of the "pure"
glued joint and to also achieve ductile failure behaviour another innovative joining technique was
developed based on the glued joint: the reinforced glued joint. In this paper the results from fundamental
experimental investigations to the structural behaviour and the load-bearing capacity of reinforced glued
joints will be presented. The influence of the diameter and percentage of the reinforcement, use of highstrength reinforcement steel, reinforcement anchorage and the spacing of the keyways on reinforced
glued joints was investigated on composite specimens.
Keywords: Ultra-High Performance Concrete (UHPC), joining, gluing, Reactive Powder Concrete (RPC)
adhesive, reinforcement
Introduction
Ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) allows the production of extremely slender and highstrength elements. Manufacturing of those structural elements will predominantly take place in
factories. Transport on public roads and on-site erection cause limitations to the dimension of
these precast elements. Therefore it is necessary to create durable and high-strength design
solutions for joining UHPC precast elements under construction site conditions.
At the Department of Concrete Structures of the Technische Universitaet Muenchen two
innovative joining techniques are being developed, the "pure" and the reinforced glued joint.
Figure 1 exemplary shows both connections in a combined use for a T-shaped girder. For the
reinforced glued joint stirrups are cast into the girder of the T-beam. The UHPC slabs have
keyways at these locations where the stirrups can be cast into the slab. On site, girder and
slabs are then joined using RPC-adhesion and the keyways filled in so that a force-transmitting
connection is created. The stirrups form the girder can also be used as shear reinforcement if
necessary.
Figure 1: Joining principle for "pure" and reinforced glued joints.
709
Structural Behaviour of Glued Joints
The inherent structural behaviour of "pure" and reinforced glued joints of UHPC structural
elements corresponds to the structural behaviour of shear joints of subsequently added
concrete elements (refer e.g. to [1]). The load-bearing behaviour of the joint is made up of three
partially independently acting structural mechanisms: adhesion, friction and reinforcement
(Figure 2).
Figure 2: Structural mechanisms of composite joints.
Adhesion has both a chemical and a mechanical component. As long as the applied shear is
lower than the adhesive bond the test specimen act quasi-monolithically (refer to Table 2). If the
shear overcomes the strength of this bond then adhesive failure occurs i.e. it results in the
brittle failure of the joint. If an external normal force acts on the joint then shear forces can still
be transferred through friction even after the bond's adhesion has failed. The amount of shear is
then dependent on the roughness of the joint surface and the applied normal force. If
reinforcement crosses the joint then shear forces can be transmitted by the clamping and dowel
behaviour of the bars after the bond has failed. Through a joint longitudinal displacement, the
joint begins to open and the reinforcement is extended longitudinally. The resulting tensile force
in the bars is in equilibrium with the compressive force acting on the joint. Similarly to when an
external normal force is applied, friction effects occur. Furthermore because of the longitudinal
displacement, the reinforcement embedded inside the concrete acts analogous to a laterally
loaded dowel where the shear load is transferred via bending and corresponding concrete
compression. Clamping effects cause axial forces in the reinforcement while dowel action
causes bending. The superimposed stress distribution of both components at the location of
maximum stress is shown in Figure 3. With increasing displacement the reinforcement
plasticizes and a plastic zone is formed. From this point, the shear stress is transferred via
diagonal pull effect of the reinforcement.
Figure 3: Bearing effect of the reinforcement.
710
Structural Behaviour and Load-Bearing Capacity of Reinforced Glued Joints of UHPC-Elements
Experimental Investigation
Test Specimen
In order to investigate the effects of the governing parameters of the shear loading behaviour of
reinforced glued joints two test specimen were conceived. Test specimen Type I (Figure 4) has
a joint length of 50 cm and Type II (Figure 5) of 100 cm.
Figure 4: Composite specimen Type I, joint length lv = 50 cm.
Test specimen Type I was used to investigate various reinforcement parameters and Type II to
understand the influence of the length of the joint and the reinforcement content as well the
spacing of the keyways. For both test specimens a slab were glued to each of the two sides of a
beam-shaped joining element with RPC adhesive and the openings filled in.
Figure 5: Composite specimen Type II, joint length lv = 100 cm.
For the UHPC joining elements the coarse-grained UHPC mix B5Q without heat treatment and
a 2.5 vol.% of fibres developped in the SPP 1182 research programme of the Deutsche
Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) was used. The exact mixture of the UHPC's B5Q mix can be
found in [2], those of the RPC adhesive as well as further details regarding the test specimen,
test setup and measuring technique are given in [3].
711
Test Programme
Nine test series were done to determine the governing parameters (Table 1). Figure 6 shows
the reinforcement types used in the tests. The first series with "pure" adhesion served as
reference to the tests carried out in the research project "Joining UHPC Structural Elements by
Gluing". The second to fifth series were used to investigate the influence of bar diameters, bar
shape, steel grade and reinforcement content. For Series 6 a Teflon foil was inserted into the
joint in order to assess the dowel effect. The influence of joint length and spacing of the
keyways as well as the reinforcement content was investigated with Series 7 and 8. In Series 9
RPC adhesive without fibres was used to fill in the openings.
Table 1: Test Programme.
series name of type
specimen
no. of
tests
no. keyways
1.1
1.2
2.1
2.2
2.3
3.1
4
5
6
7
8
9
material
filling
[mm]
reinforcement
type
content
[%]
quality
12
B2
1,13
B500B
14
C1
1,15
B500B
20
B1
1,57
B500B
12
A2
1,13
B500B
4.1
15
C1
1,33
St 900/1100
5.1
12
C2
1,70
B500B
6.1
12
B2
1,13
B500B
6.2
20
B1
1,57
B500B
7.1
II
8.1
II
12
C2
0,85
B500B
8.2
II
12
C2
1,27
B500B
8.3
II
12
C2
1,70
B500B
9.1
12
B2
1,13
B500B
B5Q
mF
oWB
RPC, oF
Figure 6: Reinforcement type.
Test Results
The results of the composite specimen tests are summarized in Table 2 which includes the
average values for the UHPC cylinder compressive strength (150 x 300 mm, fc) on the day of
testing of the respective test specimen and keyway in-fills, the average yield strength (ReH),
ultimate tensile strength (Rm) and uniform strain (Agt) of the reinforcement bars, the average
values of test slips between beam and slab (w) and test loads per joint (F). The indices ad, pl
and fa stand for the slip or load at adhesive failure, plasticization of reinforcement and failure of
reinforcement, respectively.
712
Table 2: Test Results.

specimen
1.1
1.2
2.1a,c
2.1d-f 1)
2.2
2.3 1)
3.1 1)
4.1 1)
5.1a-c
5.1d-f 1)
6.1
6.2
7.1
8.1
8.2
8.3
9.1
1)
concrete
fc,specimen
steel
fc,keyways
[N/mm] [N/mm]
164,4
168,0
158,6
178,5
164,4
181,7
158,8
169,2
138,1
170,1
158,8
175,6
163,1
178,1
163,1
176,1
158,6
180,2
158,8
165,3
138,1
170,1
158,8
188,1
187,0
144,4
181,1
142,9
184,9
142,9
174,5
107,8
test results
ReH
Rm
Agt
wad
wpl
wfa
Fad
Fpl
Ffa
[N/mm]
[N/mm]
[%]
[mm]
[mm]
[mm]
[kN]
[kN]
[kN]
598
598
558
514
598
960 (Rp0,2)
598
598
598
514
598
598
598
598
686
686
669
617
686
1170
686
686
686
617
686
686
686
686
10,2
10,2
10,3
11,4
10,2
4,07
10,2
10,2
10,2
11,4
10,2
10,2
10,2
10,2
0,014
0,014
0,028
0,023
0,024
0,023
0,026
0,030
0,032
0,028
0,30
0,41
0,37
0,46
0,39
1,73
0,43
0,51
0,40
0,50
0,45
0,52
0,70
0,41
6,26
6,36
7,26
11,18
7,10
8,46
6,40
6,09
7,37
12,82
5,66
6,06
5,84
8,63
349
351
463
361
419
473 (3)
469 (1)
476 (3)
436 (4)
344
669
461
489
517
499
776
828
655
301
368
895
1257
1600
535
513
471
483
588
483
807
720
685
475
608
767
1201
1540
481
joint surfaces treated with separating agent
2)
2)
2)
2)
2)
( ) no. of evaluated joints, only joint bearing capacities with nearly central
load introduction were evaluated
700
700
600
600
load per joint Fm [kN]
Load-slip Behaviour
Figure 7 shows the load-slip curves of Test Specimen 2.1 (glued joint, continuous line) and 6.1
(Teflon foil inside joint, dashed line). For the qualitative comparison of the test results the
average values from three tests are shown. The joint reinforcement content of both test
specimen was the same.
500
400
300
200
2.1 (812, glued, sandblasted joint surface)

VK 2.1 (verklebt)
6.1 (812, not glued, flat joint surface with
teflon foil)
VK 6.1 (nicht verklebt)
100
500
clamping effect
400
adhesive failure
300
200
2.1 (812, glued, sandblasted surface)

6.1 (812, not glued, flat
joint surface
VK 2.1 (verklebt)
with teflon foil)
VK 6.1 (nicht verklebt)
100
dowel effect
0
0,0
1,0
2,0
3,0
4,0
5,0
6,0
7,0
8,0
9,0
10,0
slip wm [mm]
0,0
0,1
0,2
0,3
0,4
0,5
0,6
0,7
0,8
0,9
1,0
slip wm [mm]
Figure 7: Load-slip diagrams of Test Specimen 2.1 & 6.1.
The test specimen with the glued joint showed a much stiffer structural behaviour and was able
to bear a much higher maximum load Fpl (ca. 120 % higher). The test specimen with the Teflon
foil inside the joint had a slightly greater maximum slip wfa. Its structural behaviour resulted in a
displacement of wpl = 0.3 mm from dowel action alone beyond which a plastic zone formed in
the reinforcing that activated diagonal tension. Adhesive failure of Test Specimen 2.1 occurred
at a displacement of wad = 0.03 mm resulting in even larger displacement and thus activation of
the reinforcement.
With a greater reinforcement content it is also possible as the load-slip diagrams in Figure
8 illustrate to increase of the joint's load-bearing capacity further. The structural behaviour of
the test specimens with = 1.13 % and = 1.70 % is similar.
713
1,0
800
0,9
0,8
700
0,7
600
Fm / (fy A) [ - ]
900
500
400
300
0,6
0,5
0,4
200
2.1 ( 812)
100
5.1 (1212)
0,3
2.1 (812, = 1,13 %, Reh,m = 598 N/mm2)
0,2
2.2 (614, = 1,15 %, Reh,m = 558 N/mm2)
0,1
2.3 (420, = 1,57 %, Reh,m = 514 N/mm2)
0,0
0
0,0
1,0
2,0
3,0
4,0
5,0
6,0
7,0
8,0
9,0
0,0
10,0
1,0
2,0
3,0
4,0
slip wm [mm]
5,0
6,0
7,0
8,0
9,0
10,0 11,0 12,0 13,0
slip wm [mm]
Figure 8: Load-slip diagram of Specimen 2.1 & 5.1.
Figure 9: Load-slip diagram of Specimen 2.1, 2.2, 2.3.
1,0
1,0
0,9
0,9
0,8
0,8
0,7
0,7
Fm / (fy A) [ - ]
Fm / (fy A) [ - ]
In all test specimen adhesive failure was observed at the interface between RPC adhesive and
the UHPC surface [3]. Furthermore, reinforced glued joints showed two typical failure patterns
(Figure 10): a) failure of the joint in a single plane and b) in two planes. The latter resulted in a
stiffer structural behaviour and thus larger bearing capacity of the
joint because of the interlock between the in-fill and adhesive
materials. In order to improve comparability of the results, the
beams of test specimen 2.1d-f, 2.3, 3.1, 4.1 & 5.1d-f were treated
with a separating agent to force failure in a single plane.
Figure 9 shows the load-slip curves of Series 2 with different
reinforcement bar diameters. The maximum test load there is put
into relation to the yield strength and the reinforcement area. With
increasing bar diameters the relative displacement wfa increases
along with ductility. The relative bearing capacity of the test
specimen with 20 is roughly 6 % smaller than with 12. For
Test Specimen 2.2 no separating agent was used but joint failure
still occurred in a single plane (Figure 10 a)).
The results for Series 6 with Teflon foil and smooth joint
Figure 10: Fracture Pattern:
surfaces as well as the test results by Randl [4] with normal- a) joint failure in a single plan
strength concrete and foil between smooth joint surfaces are
b) joint failure in two planes.
shown in Figure 11. For the UHPC tests the relative displacement
is much greater for the larger diameters as has already been remarked for Series 2. The shape
of the curves for 12 and 20 is similar. In comparison to normal-strength concrete the
structural behaviour of reinforcement bars inside UHPC is much stiffer and the dowel effect
significantly larger.
0,6
0,5
0,4
0,3
0,2
0,1
6.1
(12, UHPC,
Reh,m = 598 N/mm2)
6.2
(20, UHPC,
Reh,m = 514 N/mm2)
0,6
0,5
0,4
0,3
NC-Randl (12, fc,m = 21,5 MPa, Reh,m = 600 N/mm2)
0,0
0,2
2.1 (812, = 1,13 %, Reh,m = 598 N/mm2)
0,1
4.1 (615, = 1,33 %, Rp0,2,m = 960 N/mm2)
0,0
10
11
12
13
14
15
0,0
slip wm [mm]
Figure 11: Load-slip diagram of Series 6 & NC.
1,0
2,0
3,0
4,0
5,0
6,0
7,0
8,0
9,0
10,0
slip wm [mm]
Figure 12: Load-slip diagram of Specimen 2.1 & 4.1.
714
How the reinforcement bar strength influences the structural behaviour was investigated with
Series 4. In this series, form ties 15 with a yield strength of 960 N/mm2 were used. When
comparing the load-slip curves (Figure 12) of the test specimens with high and normal strength
reinforcement it becomes clear that the structural behaviour of the normal strength
reinforcement is much stiffer and its load-bearing capacity is roughly 10% greater. This is due to
the fact that the concrete's plastification zone and thus the corresponding bending moment is
higher in high-strength steels when compared to steels of normal strength.
Using test specimen of Type II (Series 7 and 8) the influence of the joint length, the keyway
spacing and the reinforcement conctent on the structural behaviour of the "pure" and reinforced
glued joint was investigated. With increasing joining length the shear stresses (ratio of load Fad
to the joint surface Ajs) at adhesive failure actually decrease. This means that the shear stress is
not constant across the joint length. Maximum shear stresses must have occurred in the area
where the upper load was applied, because joint failure began there. The keyways as well as
their spacing do not have influence on the adhesive structural behaviour in comparison to pure
adherence. The typical load-slip behaviour of the test specimen of Series 8 is shown in Figure
13 (Test 8.1a). Adhesive failure begins as aforementioned from the top and then continues
downward so that the reinforcing is activated successively. A regression anaylsis showed that a
proportional increase of the joint's bearing capacity is possible with an increasing reinforcement
content (Figure 15).
700
0,7
600
load
opening
2.1a,c (without separating agent)
0,6
500
load
opening
2.1d-f (with separating agent)
0,5
test specimen 8.1a, left joint
load left joint F [kN]
1000
800
600
400
displacement transducers
top
middle
bottom
200
0
0,00
400
0,4
300
0,3
vm = 0,17
200
0,2
100
0,1
vm = 0,13
0,05
0,10
0,15
0,20
0,25
0,30
0,35
0,40
0,45
0,50
slip w [mm]
opening vm [mm]
1200
0,0
0,0
0,1
0,2
0,3
0,4
0,5
0,6
0,7
0,8
0,9
1,0
slip wm [mm]
Figure 13: Load-slip diagram of Test Specimen 8.1a.
Figure 14: Joint opening of Test Specimen 2.1.
Joint Opening
For test specimens where the beam surface was treated with a seperating agent a smaller joint
opening v was observed than for those specimens without the agent. Because of the smaller
joint opening the longitudinal expansion of the reinforcement is smaller and so the friction
component of the clamping effect resulting in a 27% lower load-bearing capacity of the test
specimen. Figure 14 shows the relationship of the joint openings using Test Specimen 2.1a-c
(without separating agent) and 2.1d-f (with the agent) as an example. The adhesion without
separating agent resulted in joint openings at maximum load (Fpl) of v = 0.17 mm, those with
agent opened to v = 0.13 mm. The larger joint opening are on one hand the result of the
interlock between infill and adhesive described in Section 4.1 and the rougher surface created
by the adhesive failure.
Very high bond stresses can be transferred between ribbed reinforcement bars and UHPC.
The pull-out tests in [5] on ribbed bars embedded in the coarse-grained UHPC mix B5Q showed
that the maximum bond stress can already be reached for very small displacements of roughly
0.2 mm. Thus the relatively small joint openings observed above are sufficient to activate a
relatively high friction component through clamping effect (see also Figure 7).
715
Friction coefficients
The friction coefficients were determined using
a regression analysis. The maximum shear
12
friction coefficients
shear stress [N/mm2]
10
= 0,85
stress max (Fpl over the joint's surface) is shown
in Figure 15 in relation to the reinforcement
8
content multiplied by the yield strength fy.
= 1,02
When assuming that for a reinforcement
6
content = 0 the shear stress is = 0 then for a
2.1a,c; =1,13%
= 1,24
5.1a-c; =1,70%
joint length of l = 50 cm one obtains for
2.1d-f; =1,13% *)
4
= 1.13 % (Test 2.1a-c) a friction coefficient of
5.1d-f; =1,70% *)
8.1a-c; =0,85%
= 1.24. For a reinforcement content of
2
8.2a-c; =1,27%
= 1.7 % (Test 5.1a-c) the coefficient is
8.3a-c; =1,70%
*) no adhesion
= 1,02, i.e. for increasing of the reinforcement
0
content the friction coefficient decreases. For
0,0
2,0
4,0
6,0
8,0
10,0
12,0
2]
f
[N/mm
y
better comparability of the individual series a
Figure
15:
Friction
coefficients.
separating agent was applied to the joint
surfaces of some of the test specimens as explained in Section 4.1. This decreases the friction
coefficient but the scatter of the coefficients was also decreased and the comparability of the
test results was improved. For = 1.13 % and = 1.7 % the friction coefficient is now = 0.85.
For Series 8 with a joint length of l = 100 cm the adhesive load-bearing capacity was
significantly reduced vis--vis the reinforcement's capacity (see also Table 2). For this test
series the friction coefficient is constant regardless of the reinforcement content at = 1.02 and
corresponds to the friction coefficient of Test Specimen 5.1.
Summary and Outlook
With this series of tests on composite specimens it was possible to investigate the structural
behaviour and load-bearing capacity of reinforced glued joints of elements made of UHPC. The
tests showed that the joining method with reinforced glued joints offers a high load-bearing
capacity and ductility and thus presents an adequate connection between UHPC elements.
Based on the test results presented above a generally applicable design approach for
reinforced glued joint will be deduced for UHPC elements. This approach will then be verified
empirically using structural elements (e.g. T-shaped girder) in order to describe the structural
behaviour accurately. Once accomplished, the initial constructive solutions and design
equations for the practical application of reinforced glued joint will then be available for
structural elements made of UHPC.
References
[1] Zilch, K.; Lenz, P.: Beton-Beton-Verbund Potenziale fr Neubau und Ertchtigung. In: Bauingenieur
84 (2009), Heft 11, S. 466 471.
[2] Muehlbauer, C.; Zilch, K.: Glued Joints of Ultra High Performance Concrete Structures. In:
Proceedings of the Third International fib Congress, May 29 - June 2, 2010, Washington D.C., U.S.
[3] Zilch, K.; Muehlbauer, C.; Wingenfeld, D.: Experimental investigation of reinforced glued joints of
UHPC elements. In: M. Khrapko und S. Chair (Hg.): Proceedings of the 9th International Symposium
on HPC, 9 - 11 August 2011, Rotorua, New Zealand, 2011, ISBN: 978-0-473-19028-6.
[4] Randl, N.: Untersuchungen zur Kraftbertragung zwischen Alt- und Neubeton bei unterschiedlichen
Fugenrauigkeiten, Universitt Innsbruck, Dissertation, 1997.
[5] Gehrlein, S.: Experimentelle Untersuchungen zum Verbundverhalten von Bewehrungsstben in
UHPC unter statischer Zugbeanspruchung, TU Muenchen, Bachelor Thesis, 2011.
716

Joachim Juhart1, Bernhard Freytag 2, Gerhard Santner2, Erwin Baumgartner 3
1: Institute of Technology and Testing of Building Materials, Graz University of Technology, Austria
2: Laboratory for Structural Engineering, Graz University of Technology, Austria
3: School of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Carinthia University of Applied Sciences, Austria
The adhesive bonding capacity of ultra high performance concrete with construction materials is
exceptional. Due to the numerous chemical, physical and geometrical influences and their complex
interaction, the adhesive strength has been hard to predict until now.
The outlined paper presents the results of a multi-disciplinary research project in which the adhesion of
fine-grained HPC and UHPC with steel and glass was explored. An extensive research program
comprised investigations on the theoretical value of specific adhesion, on the technical adhesion under
shear and tensile loading, enforcements in the interface due to restrained shrinkage and even more.
With the parameters found out to be decisive and an introduced failure criterion, the bond strength of a
smooth joint of fine-grained HPC/UHPC and steel or glass can be calculated. Based on the findings also
the effectiveness of rough surfaces for the bond can be explained from a geometrical point of view.
Keywords: fine-grained HPC and UHPC, steel, glass, specific/technical adhesion, tensile bond strength,
shear bond strength, surface energy
1 Introduction
The adhesion of fine grained high performance and ultra high performance concrete in this
paper subsequently referred to as UHPC to smoothly polished steel can principally be strong
to an extent that tensile loading leads to fracture of the concrete and not of the interface (fig. 6).
With slightly roughened steel and glass surfaces UHPC shows also such a high adhesive
bonding capacity so that new flat-spread connections and composite construction technologies
become possible [1], [2]. The adhesion is influenced by numerous chemical, physical and
geometrical factors and their complex interaction and therefore the adhesive strength has not
been predictable until now.
To provide the basis for calculations of the adhesive bond strength a multi-disciplinary
research project was carried out with the aim to identify the decisive factors in the adhesion and
to describe their interaction. To study the phenomenon comparatively two chemical distinct
materials, steel and glass, were chosen as partner materials for UHPC, being non-porous
materials relevant in building practice. Their surfaces were treated to realize smooth and
differently roughened faces. They were brought in contact with two different fine grained
mixtures as adhesive. A comprehensive description of the research can be found in [3].
The outlined paper focuses on a smooth joint of UHPC with steel or glass. It shows how the
bond strength can be calculated with parameters found out to be decisive and a newly
introduced failure criterion.
2 Adhesion of UHPC - Basic Principles

Specific Adhesion Mechanical Adhesion
According to Bischof [4] and Habenicht [5] bond can be distinguished in the form of specific and
mechanical adhesion. Mechanical adhesion describes the bond in the contact surface through
form fitting, mechanical interlock on a microscopic scale respectively. It is not focused on in the
presented paper. Specific adhesion includes strong chemical bond between atoms covalent
and ionic bonds for example as well as intermolecular forces weak chemical bonds based
717
on electrostatic forces like van der Waals forces and hydrogen bonds, which are permanent or
induced electrostatic forces.
Strong chemical bonds need sufficient chemical affinity between the bonding elements,
sufficient mobility of the atoms and activation energy. Between UHPC and the materials glass
and steel no strong chemical bonds are expected under normal conditions, because the above
mentioned preconditions are not fulfilled. The authors conclude that only intermolecular forces
between the investigated materials are responsible for specific adhesion.
Intermolecular Forces Inducing Adhesion and Thermodynamic Approach
Intermolecular forces are closely related to the surface energies of the materials used. Energy
states at all times of the concrete hardening process affect the adhesion phenomena. Thus the
surface tension, surface energies respectively, of fresh until finally hardened UHPC as well as
of steel and glass surfaces are determined as pointed out in detail in [6].
To activate these intermolecular forces, the interacting molecules need to be as close as 0,21,0 nm [5]. Therefore at least one of the components needs flexible molecules, which is
provided in case of liquid or at least flowable substances.
Fig. 1: Geometry of interacting bodies.
Fig.2: Definition of the thermodynamic work of adhesion Wa
The theoretical adhesive force acting between two materials can be calculated by differentiating
the potential energy of interaction W(D) between two bodies with respect to their distance D [8].
The potential energy of interaction W(D) depends on the geometry of the two bodies. In the case
of two infinitely extended surfaces (fig. 1) we get an interacting force F according to equation (1)
as pointed out in detail in [6].
2 W( D )
D
2 Wa
D
(1)
According to the thermodynamic approach the reachable adhesion can be related to the
proportion of surface energies of the participating materials. In the thermodynamic approach the
potential energy of interaction W(D) is called work of adhesion Wa. If two different materials are
interacting, an additional interaction energy 12 exists. When disjoining the two parts, two new
surfaces with surface energies 1 and 2 are created, and neither work of adhesion nor
interaction energy exist any longer (fig. 2). For detailed information the surface energy is usually
divided into dispersive and polar parts, according to the method of Owens, Wendt, Rabl and
Kaelble (OWRK).
Technical Adhesion
Theoretically determined material strength, as well as adhesion strength, is always much higher
than the real measured strength [9], in particular when brittle materials are dealt with. The
UHPC-matrix, which is assumed to be responsible for bond, is very brittle and has a rather
heterogeneous structure. Thus a considerable difference between theoretical and technical
adhesion is expected in the investigated case. It is defined by the ratio g of the theoretical to the
technical adhesion strength.
718
Influence of Hindered Shrinkage

Differential shrinkage between an applied coating and the substrate causes restraints, which
can cause delamination or cracks [10]. Hindered shrinkage is the reason why horizontal tensile
stresses are transferred into the overlay (thickness tc) by shear in the interface over a defined
bond length le (le~4xtc, [10]). In addition to that vertical tensile stresses at the free edge occur in
the interface. Hindered shrinkage reduces the reachable bond strength, because constraint
stresses in the interface have to be added to loading stresses.
3 Material Properties and Methods

Fine Grained HPC and UHPC as Adhesive
Two different mixtures are used, an own mix (OM) and a commercially available premix for
UHPC (PM). The mixtures are produced in a way that they establish very similar fresh concrete
properties, as this influence shall be kept constant. As a consequence the two types of concrete
show almost the same compressive and tensional strengths. To keep the complexity in limits,
the concrete is made without heat treatment and without addition of fibers which is unusual for
UHPC. Strictly speaking OM shall be classified as fine grained HPC, whereas PM is an UHPC.
Probably because of its optimized packing density, the latter develops higher compressive
strength when made with fibers and after heat treatment. See table 1.
Table 1: mix composition and concrete properties.
mix composition
OM
cement
kg/m
1062
microsilica
kg/m
133
quartzsand
kg/m
959
PM
premix
2260,4
water addition
kg/m
160
113,9
superplasticizer
kg/m
38
31,2
[-]
0,15
0,15
w/b-ratio
concrete properties
OM
PM
slump flow, mortar cone

EN 1015-3 without shocks
mm
235
246
flow time to 200 mm
sec
14
26
air content
compressive strength fcm,
cube 100mm, 28d, n4
3,8
5,3
N/mm
127
128
184
remark: fcm, cube 100mm, 28d, with heat treatment and 2% steel fibers N/mm
The significant relevance of shrinkage on the development of the adhesive strength requires the
knowledge of the shrinking behaviour from the very beginning of the hardening process.
Measurements are carried out with a shrinking trough. They start 4 hours after water addition to
the mix before the initial setting of the concrete. To study the influence of extreme limits of the
shrinkage deformation two curing methods of the concrete are introduced: with full dehydration
protection (DP) and without dehydration protection (NDP). In the case of DP the autogenous
shrinkage is measured. In the case of NDP the UHPC is exposed to drying immediately after
the casting and an enormous plastic shrinkage during the first hours occurs. Early age cracks
can be observed in parallel microscopic investigations in the glass-UHPC interface
corresponding to the setting time of the UHPC, showing that significant stresses arise at a
critical time of strength development. Low humidity (NDP) yields a 2,3-fold shrinking
deformation compared to high humidity (DP). Results in detail can be found in [3].
Steel and Glass as Adherent
To determine the specific adhesion, plain glass and polished steel surfaces are used.
Observations of the polished steel and plain glass surfaces with a scanning electron
microscope show that the remaining microscopic roughness is unlikely to provide any
mechanical adhesion [3].
719
Surface Tension and Surface Energies

The surface tension of the viscous suspension of the fresh UHPC cannot be obtained by means
of known methods for liquids. As described in detail in [6] a range of the surface tension of
UHPC could be estimated with a maximum of 50 mJ/m by capillary rise tests and taking into
account other published results.
The surface energies of hardened UHPC, plain glass and steel were determined by contact
angle measurements using the sessile drop method with four liquids [6]. Mean values for
surface energies of UHPC, for glass and for polished steel which was put in an alkaline
substance (pH=12,5) to passivate its surface are shown in table 2.
Table 2: Measured surface energies SE [mJ/m] of hardened UHPC, plain glass and passivated steel.
substrate
dispersive-
polar part
total SE
UHPC
dispersive-
polar part
total SE
Glass
32,9
24,7
57,6
OM
34,9
30,7
65,6
Steel
35,3
11,7
47,0
PM
35,1
29,6
64,7
Tensile and Shear Adhesion Tests

To determine the real, so-called technical adhesive tensile and shear strength, direct tension
and torsional shear tests are performed. Symmetric cylindrical sandwich specimens (diameter
d=100 mm) are fabricated with a horizontal position of a thin concrete layer (thickness
tc=2,5 mm). The arrangement with a high d/tc-ratio of the layer (thin layer) ensures a minimized
area of the interface influenced by stresses due to shrinkage and a nearly constant pressure on
both interfaces of the specimen. The thickness of the concrete is ensured by the use of a
hanging spacer, which is removed when the first setting occurs. Thus shrinking in direction of
thickness can freely take place. See figure 3 and 4.
Tests are performed on various combinations of UHPC OM or PM with steel or glass and
with the above mentioned two different curing methods (DP/NDP) with at least 4 specimens
each. On the rule the concrete age is 28 days.
Fig. 3: Fabrication of composite sandwich specimens.
Fig. 4: schematic test set-ups.

Wetting of Steel and Glass by UHPC
The wetting process provides the necessary close contact between the initially liquid concrete
and the solid substrate so that intermolecular forces can come into being. Combining the
specified value of the surface tension of fresh UHPC (50 mJ/m) and the determined surface
energies of steel and glass it can be concluded that fresh UHPC wets the glass surface totally
and better than the steel surface. Parallel spread flow tests on plain surfaces of the two different
materials show also that UHPC wets glass better than polished steel.
720
Calculation of Theoretical Specific Adhesive Strength

With the knowledge of the surface energies of all materials in the composite system, as well as
their polar and dispersive fractions, the specific work of adhesion Wa and out of it the theoretical
specific adhesive strength fad,spez,0, specific interacting adhesion force F respectively, can be
calculated according to equation (1). For a typical intermolecular distance at equilibrium of
intermolecular forces of 0,5 nm [7] values of about 500 N/mm are obtained [6]; fad,spez,0 is slightly
stronger for glass than for passivated steel, but no significant difference between the UHPC OM
and PM is detected.
Technical Tensile Adhesion and Shear Adhesion
Figure 5 gives an overview of the results gathered from series of the described direct tension
and torsional shear tests of UHPC OM and PM in combination with plain steel or glass surfaces.
The adhesive tensile strength values fad are calculated from the measured testing force F
divided through the real contact area A of the interface. A is smaller than the geometrical area
Ag, because of an annular gap in the interface, that occurs already before the testing date. This
means, that the contact is lost in the interface in a small outer ring area (zone I in fig. 6) due to
initial movements and shear stresses and probably further influences. This area shows a bare
plain fracture surface and does not participate in the bond. In an analogous way the diameter d
is reduced to calculate the effective section modulus of torsion WT. The torsional shear strength
values ad are calculated by dividing the measured torsional moment M through WT with
WT=/16d3 assuming a linear torsional stress distribution.
Fig. 5: results of direct tension and torsional

shear tests, UHPC with plain steel and glass.
Fig. 6: Failure surface of

Fig. 7:Crack pattern, layer of
polished steel/UHPC-PM(DP) UHPC-OM/glass(NDP).
When using dehydration protected specimens (DP), the adhesive tensile strength of 7,8 N/mm
is reached in the combination steel/OM. The value corresponds nearly to the tensile strength
fctm of the concrete, which is about 10 N/mm for both types of UHPC. fctm is obtained by direct
tension tests with roughened surfaces (DP) where the fracture completely goes through the
concrete layer. In the combination glass/OM the adhesive tensile strength is 2,4-fold less than
in steel/OM.
As expected, the tensile strength achieved in the bond system is far less than the
theoretically calculated adhesive strength. However, the technical adhesive strength is higher
for UHPC/steel than for UHPC/glass in contradiction to the theoretical values mentioned above.
Regarding the described thermodynamic approach, a serious difference in the theoretical
adhesive strengths that corresponds to the technical adhesion strength values will e xist only, if
the respective intermolecular distances arise to unequal levels and are higher for glass than for
steel. As the specific intermolecular distances D of the material combinations are not known,
they can only be estimated as shown in [3] and [6]. There values of 0,26 nm for steel/UHPC and
0,74 nm for glass are calculated which correspond to a theoretical adhesive strength of
800 N/mm for steel/UHPC and 330 N/mm for glass/UHPC (factor again 2,4). It is plausible,
721
that the different wetting behavior glass is wetted better than steel causes a larger
intermolecular distance in the material combination UHPC/glass and therefore is responsible for
a smaller theoretical and technical adhesive strength.
The adhesive tensile strength is 2,5-fold less in the combination steel/PM than in the
combination steel/OM (DP). The differences may be related to different characteristics of the
interfacial zones. Comparing the fracture surfaces shows that OM breaks predominantly in the
concrete (50-90%) whereas PM shows the failure in the interfacial zone (concrete failure only 030%). The interfacial zone of UHPC PM seems to be more weakened than the one of UHPC
OM in comparison to the regular concrete. The optimal dense packing of the fine grains in
UHPC is disturbed by a geometrical effect at a plain interface. The effect is similar to the wall
effect of normal concrete [11]. In addition to that a better wetting can lead to water segregation
and a locally higher w/b-ratio. UHPC PM seems to be more affected by this phenomenon than
UHPC OM, which is plausible as its packing density is more optimized in the regular concrete
and it has a lower binder-content, higher amount of inert ultrafines respectively. OM therefore
offers probably a higher capacity of filling voids or consuming water at the interface by CSHgrowth than PM. A different wetting behavior, lower surface tension respectively of PM, has to
be proved in further investigations.
Results of the torsion tests on smooth surfaces point out that shear adhesion works in
another way than tensile adhesion (fig. 5). The ratio between tension and shear is 0,7 for steel
and 1,0 for glass.
Failure Surfaces, Crack Pattern
The failure surface appears in three different forms. I) Totally bare surfaces occur if the loading
of the interface is dominated by shear. That is in the above mentioned outer ring of all
specimens and to a major part in the fracture surfaces of torsion test specimens. II) A thin film
of cementitious matrix (~5 m) adhering to the steel or glass surface represents a tensile
fracture through the interfacial zone. III) Pure concrete fracture. See figure 6.
If no curing is applied on the specimen (NDP), the shrinkage that is hindered by the bond
becomes so strong that cracks occur in a typical pattern (fig. 7) that agrees very well with
calculated stresses in the UHPC layer. As each crack is an origin for stresses in the interface,
the reachable tensile adhesion strength is reduced in correlation with the total crack length.
Enforcements due to Hindered Shrinkage
Finite element calculations show that the stress distribution of constraint stresses in the
interfaces due to hindered shrinkage depends highly on the diameter/thickness-ratio (d/tc-ratio)
of the UHPC-layer within the stiff composite specimen. Assuming rigid bond, the bond length le
over which maximum horizontal tensile constraint stresses are introduced into the UHPC-layer
through shear stresses is le~5xtc. When the horizontal stress reaches the tensile strength of the
concrete, vertical cracks divide the UHPC layer into cracking cells with a new, smaller d/tc-ratio.
If the ratio becomes smaller than 10:1, the bond lengths of opposed edges overlap, shear
stresses extend to the whole interface and lifting-off, vertical tensile stresses increase strongly
at the edges. The stress distributions for two cases, a thin uncracked layer and a compact
crack cell are shown in figure 8.
5 Conclusion and Findings

Adhesion on Smooth Surfaces
The discovered ratio between the shear adhesion and the tensile adhesion allows for
developing the hypotheses that shear adhesion works like friction in a micro scale and a new
failure criterion can be introduced (fig. 9). The intermolecular forces act perpendicular to the
722
surface and are permanently active forces. They represent the contact pressure of classical
friction. The friction coefficient at the micro level for steel/UHPC (micro,steel/UHPC=0,7) is the same
as in the macro scale, determined by own friction tests [not published].
The following parameters were found to provide a comprehensive description of the
adhesive capacity of UHPC:
The theoretical value of specific adhesive strength fad,spec,0, in a thermo-dynamical approach.
The factor g=fad,spec,0/fad,spec, assumed to be material-specific for each UHPC (for OM: g 100).
The technical specific adhesive strength under shear- (ad,spec) and tensile-loading (fad,spec). The
values can be determined approximately by testing of composite specimens (DP) with thin
layers (e.g.: d/tc=40/1) of UHPC between smooth surfaces as constraint stresses in the
interface due to shrinkage are small in such cases.
The ratio of ad,spec / fad,spec, referred to as micro-friction coefficient micro.
The distribution of the constraint shear (e) and tensile (z,e) stresses in the interface due to
restrained shrinkage (time development, creep and relaxation have to be considered).
Therefore the d/tc-ratio or geometry of the UHPC layer or the crack cell crack spacing
respectively and its tensile strength at the critical time of cracking have to be known.
A smooth surface (area Ag) can bear a tensile adhesive strength fad perpendicular to its plane:
Ag
f ad
Ag
F
1
( z )dA ( f ad ,spec e z ,e )dA

Ag Ag
micro
(2)
fad in equation (2) corresponds to the tested values F/A. All relevant parameters and their orders
of magnitude are described in detail in [3].
Fig. 8: stress distributions in the interface.
Fig. 9: failure criterion of adhesion.
Adhesion on Rough Surfaces

Based on the findings the effectiveness of rough surfaces for the bond can be explained from a
physical and geometrical point of view. If the new failure criterion is applied to surfaces inclined
to the loading direction with an angle , the adhesive strength depends on micro and . At
certain angles it decreases! The least effective inclination is (= (45-)2) as shown in [3].
723
6 Outlook
With the presented work only a first step to new scientific ground is made. An open question is
how to determine the different, material specific intermolecular distances D, which account for
the real theoretical value of specific adhesive strengths to the authors opinion.
Further efforts have to be made to determine the surface tension of fresh conc rete. The
described effects at the interface due to the wetting behavior shall be verified subsequently.
In fresh concrete or mortar with a high water/binder ratio (> 0,4), there is always an excess
of water, that is not taken up by the cement hydration. Therefore the expectable total wetting
will cause a local accumulation of water in the interface to construction materials like steel or
glass and lead to a weak interface. It can be concluded and may be proved experimentally, that
with such concretes as adhesives to non-porous materials the technical adhesive tensile
strength will never reach the tensile strength of the concrete in difference to the results shown
for fine grained HPC/UHPC.
Regarding rough surfaces a parameter, which specifies the (mean) flank-inclination angle of
the roughened surface, shall be developed to apply the proposed model. Of course mechanical
adhesion has to run into a comprehensive model additionally.
Even slightly rough surfaces of all material combinations (DP) show such a high tensile
adhesive strength, that the tensile strength of the concrete limits the results. Thus new flatspread connections, for example with sand-blasted glass or steel surfaces and new connectors
can be developed.
Systematic long-term investigations on the durability of the adhesive power are suggested.
7 Acknowledgements
The research was carried out in cooperation of Carinthia University of Applied Sciences and
Graz University of Technology, Austria and funded by the Austrian Science Fund FWF (project
L 412-N14 Adhesive Bond between UHPFRC and other Construction Materials). The thesis [3]
was written during employment at the Carinthia University of Applied Sciences. Thanks to the
Institute of Physics, University of Leoben, for carrying out the contact angle measurements.
References
[1] Freytag, B.; Juhart, J.; Sparowitz, L.; Baumgartner, E.: The Use of UHPC in Composites Ideas and
Realisations. Proc. 1st International Symposium on Ultra High Performance Concrete, Kassel 2004.
[2] Freytag, B.: Glass-Concrete Composite Technology. Structural Engineering International 14 (2),
p.111117, 2004.
[3] Juhart, J.: Adhsion von UHPC an Stahl und Glas. Dissertation, Technische Universitt Graz 2011.
https://online.tugraz.at/tug_online/voe_main2.getVollText?pDocumentNr=222707&pCurrPk=60273
[4] Bischof, C.; Possart, W.: Adhsion. Berlin, Akademie-Verlag, 1983.
[5] Habenicht, G.: Kleben - Grundlagen, Technologie, Anwendungen. 4th ed., Springer, Berlin 2002.
[6] Santner, G.; Freytag, B.; Juhart, J.; Baumgartner, E.: Adhesive Power of UHPC from a
Thermodynamic Point of View. ASCE Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, submitted.
[7] Nardin, M.; Schultz, J.: Relationship between Work of Adhesion and Equilibrium Interatomic
Distance at the Interface. Langmuir, p. 42384242. 1996
[8] Israelachvili, J. N.: Intermolecular and Surface Forces. 2nd ed., Acad. Press., London 1991
[9] Griffith, A.: The phenomenon of rupture and flow in solids. Phil. Transaction of the Royal Society,
series A, Vol. 221, p. 163-198, 1921
[10] Haardt, P.: Zementgebundene und kunststoffvergtete Beschichtungen auf Beton. Heft 13,
Schriftenreihe des Institutes fr Massivbau und Baustofftechnologie. Universitt Karlsruhe 1991.
[11] Maso, J. C.: Interfacial transition zone in concrete: State-of-the-art report. London: E & FN Spon,
(RILEM report, 11), 1996.
724

Martin Heimann, Holger Schmidt, Carl-Alexander Graubner
Technische Universitt Darmstadt, Institut fr Massivbau, Germany
Ultrahigh-performance concrete (UHPC) has been used successfully since the early 1990s. Meanwhile
concrete-technological developments have allowed production of UHPC with a compressive strength of
more than 150 N/mm. Thus, the field of application of reinforced concrete constructions currently in use
can be extended. In particular, the cross-sectional dimensions required for highly stressed compression
members can be reduced. However, in many cases this positive development increased the trend to
even more slender and therefore likelier to buckle structural systems. Hence, it is to be expected that
under certain conditions the safety level of such construction elements decreases. Because of this, the
reliability of slender UHPC structural members is being investigated in a research project, supported by
the Deutsche Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG), at the Technische Universitt Darmstadt. The purpose of
this project is the calibration of safety factors in order to achieve the target reliability for safe and efficient
design. Realistic modelling of the load-bearing behaviour of slender UHPC columns requires material and
geometric nonlinearities to be considered. Material nonlinearity describes stiffness reduction with
increasing load intensity while geometric nonlinearity results from second order effects. Due to the loaddependent material behaviour, a sudden stability failure may occur long before the materials strength is
exceeded. An adequate analysis of this phenomenon calls for realistic material laws. As a first step,
calculation results at cross-sectional level can be used to identify the sensitivity of the parameters.
Therefore, specific moment-axial force-diagrams and moment-curvature-diagrams, which are based on
stochastic simulation methods, are being developed to identify the influence of compressive strength on
the load-carrying behaviour of a structural member with rectangular cross-section. Moreover, the
calculations are verified by experimental test series of slender columns. On the basis of the results of this
research project, innovation potentials and limits of application of UHPC will be discovered.
Keywords: ultrahigh-performance concrete, probabilistic design, slender columns, safety, reliability
1 Modelling of slender UHPC columns

General
Realistic modelling of the load-bearing behaviour of slender reinforced concrete columns
requires material and geometric nonlinearities to be considered. Material nonlinearity describes
stiffness reduction with increasing load intensity while geometric nonlinearity results from
second order effects. Due to the load-dependent material behaviour (moment-curvaturerelationship) a sudden stability failure may occur long before the materials strength is
exceeded. In this case, we talk about stability failure due to load-dependent stiffness reduction.
Correct analysis of this phenomenon calls for realistic material laws both for the stress-strainrelationships of concrete and reinforcing steel as well as for the variation of the modulus of
elasticity. The stochastic finite element program developed by Heimann&Tran takes this
phenomenon accurately into account and has been checked by comparison of numerical and
experimental results.
Concrete
Concerning the probabilistic model of ultrahigh-performance concrete it has to be mentioned
that in the past statistical information about the scatter of compressive strength was rarely
available. A former study by Tue et. al. [1] delivered interesting findings about the standard
deviation of concrete compressive strength. One important finding was that the standard
deviation of concrete compressive strength of UHPC compared to high-strength concrete (HSC)
725
is not as high as expected. Compared to earlier studies (e.g. Rsch [2]) it was possible to see
that the standard deviation of concrete compressive strength of HSC has decreased by about
1.2 MPa because of the use of ready-mixed concrete instead of in-situ concrete. Furthermore
the standard deviation of concrete compressive strength of HSC is only marginally higher than
that of normal strength concrete (NSC) with 5 N/mm. Investigations of several experimental
test series at the research laboratory for concrete structures at the Technische Universitt
Darmstadt confirm these results. Based on the results of the experimental test series, idealized
stress-strain-relationships were formulated for two different mixtures of UHPC (cp. Fig. 1). The
scatter in the area of increasing stress-strain-relationship can be neglected, but in the area of
decreasing stress-strain-relationship the scatter is distinctive. Therefore, mean stress-strainrelationships were formulated with limit points cu/c1=0,125 and cu/c1=2,305 for UHPC with
fine grain aggregate and cu/c1=0,183 and cu/c1=2,136 for UHPC with basalt aggregate.
Figure 1: normed stress-strain-relationship of UHPC with fine grain aggregate and with basalt aggregate.
In addition to this assumption, the following relationship between the secant modulus of
elasticity Ec at approximately ~0.4fc and compressive strength fc has been used
Ec E f c1/ 3
(1)
The mean value of the parameter E was set to 9.350 [-] for both concrete mixtures. A
lognormal distribution with a coefficient of variation of vE = 0.05 [-] for UHPC with fine grain
aggregate and vE = 0.045 [-] for UHPC with basalt aggregate was used to fit the test results.
The basic variable E thus represents the scatter of modulus of elasticity Ec independent of
compressive strength fc.
Reinforcing steel
The yield strength of reinforcing steel fy is described by a lognormal distribution with a
coefficient of variation of vfy = 0.06 [-]. The mean value for steel grade S500 amounts to
fy = 550 [MPa]. The scatter of the steel modulus of elasticity Es is very small and is thus
neglected in subsequent investigations. The scatter of the geometric dimensions of the
reinforcing bars is small as well. Its mean value complies with the nominal value As = nom As
and the coefficient of variation is taken to be vAs = 0.02 [-]. The distribution type is normal
according to the recommendation of the JCSS Probabilistic Model Code P.3 [3].
726
Geometric dimensions
The nominal cross-sectional dimensions hnom/bnom correspond to their mean values h,b. The
standard deviation depends on the size of the cross-sectional dimensions and is assumed to be
h,b = 5 [mm]. The effective depth d depends on the specific cross-sectional height h and the
concrete cover c. A normal distribution with a mean value equal to the nominal value and a
standard deviation of 5 [mm] was used as stochastic model for the concrete cover c. The
column height is assumed to be deterministic, because slenderness is formulated as constant
in the investigations.
Stochastic parameters
Table 1 shows the statistical parameters and adopted probabilistic density functions of the basic
variables. UHPC-specific parameters were determined by experimental testing. All remaining
parameters have been modelled according to the Probabilistic Model Code [3]. In this study
only the influence of material and geometry were investigated. The model uncertainty is one of
the most important influence parameter, but will only effect the overall reliability of the structural
system and not the relation between the scattering of material and geometry parameters.
Table 1: Statistical parameters of the basic variables.
class
concrete
Variable
distribution
Mean value
Std.-deviation
Var.-coefficient
fc
fine
LN
>150 N/mm
0,060
fc
basalt
LN
>150 N/mm
0,113
c1
fine
LN
-3,80
0,100
c1
basalt
LN
-3,92
0,075
c1u
fine
LN
-8,79
0,326
c1u
basalt
LN
-8,40
0,258
LN
0,30
0,300
ct
reinforcement
geometry
load
model uncertainty
fine
LN
9.350
0,049
basalt
LN
9.350
0,045
fy
LN
550 N/mm
0,060
As
As,nom
0,020
hnom
5 mm
bnom
5 mm
anom
5 mm
Gm
0,100
Gumbel
Qk/1,746
0,400
under development, based on experimental test results
2 Identification of important basic variables

Preliminary remark
In order to identify the sensitivity of important variables, a parametric study was carried out at
cross-section level. The study was split into three parts. In part 1 specific moment-axial force
diagrams were constructed to analyze the scatter of m-n-interaction. In part 2 momentcurvature-relationships were calculated to identify important variables for structural members
made of UHPC. At least, the calculation results were compared with results based on material
laws according to EC-2 Part 1-1 [4]. The study was carried out for structural members with
rectangular cross-section. UHPC-specific parameters were determined by experimental testing.
727
Parametric study at cross-section level

As previously described, part 1 of the study focuses on the calculation of moment-axial forcecombinations to analyze the scatter of the m-n-interaction. Therefore, stochastic simulations
were carried out for different types of concrete. An example for a specific moment-axial forcediagram is given in Fig. 2, using normalized moments and forces . The following variables
have been modeled as random: concrete strength, yield and tensile strength of reinforcement,
section height, cross sectional-width, concrete cover, diameter of reinforcing bar, maximum
concrete strain and the modulus of elasticity of concrete.
Figure 2: Specific moment-axial force-diagram.
Figure 3: Input parameters for the study.
The normalized axial force is defined by = N / (hmbmfcm) and the normalized moment by
= M / (hm2bmfcm). The black ellipses represent the 95%-fractile of a specific strain state. The
solid lines represent the m-n-combinations, calculated for two different concrete types on basis
of the mean values of the variables. The diagram illustrates that the m-n-interaction of UHPC is
comparable to normal concrete (NSC). The scattering balance point of UHPC is also
comparable to the balance point of NSC. The range of application of slender columns can be
found between a normalized normal force of -0.2 -1.0. Therefore, the following studies
focus only on this range of application.
The intention of part 2 was to identify important variables on the m--behaviour of structural
UHPC members. For this purpose, a calculation of scattering moment-curvature-diagrams was
carried out with the help of stochastic finite element calculations. Fig. 4 exemplarily illustrates
such a diagram based on the input parameters according to Fig. 3. The diagram has been
drawn for = -0.4. The solid line ellipses around the characteristic points (compressive yield
point, concrete crack point, yield point, bearing capacity limit) define the 95%-fractiles. To start
with, only one basic variable per sample was considered as random and different scattering
diagrams were calculated for each variable.
728
Figure 4: Scattering moment-curvature-diagram ( = -0.4).
In order to compare these results and estimate the influencing variables, two parameters were
calculated. The first parameter (VRmax) is the coefficient of variation of the bearing capacity limit.
The second parameter (VMmax) is the coefficient of variation of the maximum moment. Fig. 5
shows the results for the parameters VRmax and VMmax calculated for a rectangular cross-section
and two different UHPC mixtures.
Figure 5: VRmax (lhs) and VMmax (rhs) for UHPC.
It is obvious, that in the area of the maximum moment (VMmax), the maximum concrete strain is
nearly insignificant compared to VRmax. Furthermore, the variables regarding the reinforcement
are of minor importance, both for VRmax and VMmax. The modulus of elasticity has also a low
influence due to the calculation at cross-section level. The modulus of elasticity is taken into
account only in the stress-strain-relationship of the concrete model; a more significant influence
is to be expected at system level. Figure 6 illustrates the coefficient of variation of the bearing
capacity limit VRmax for NSC, HSC and UHPC. It can be seen, that at cross-sectional level the
variations of concrete strength, concrete cover, cross-sectional width and section height are
much more significant with UHPC compared to NSC and HPC. Considering all variables as
random emphasizes the importance of concrete strength, because VRmax is approximately the
same when all variables or concrete strength alone are taken as random.
729
Figure 6: VRmax for NSC, HSC and UHPC.
3 Reliability analysis
General
As previously described, it has to be expected that the load-dependent material behaviour of
UHPC may cause a sudden stability failure long before the materials strength is exceeded.
Because of this phenomenon, reduced reliability is to be expected as already shown by
Schmidt/Six [5] for HSC. This case of failure is not considered in the current design concept for
concrete columns. In order to identify the reliability level, stochastic analyses at system level will
be carried out considering the characteristics of UHPC. The reliability analysis will concentrate
on short (slenderness ratio = 0) and slender (slenderness ratio 80) UHPC columns with a
nominal compression strength of fck = 150 MPa. The cross-sectional dimensions will be chosen
according to common fields of application, such as rectangular and circular cross-sections, but
innovative concepts such as hollow columns will also be considered. In a first step, the total
reinforcement ratio will be defined as tot = 1%. Further parameters are the eccentricity ratio e/h
of the applied axial load as well as the ratio of characteristic live to dead load Qk/Gk.
First of all, the design value of bearing capacity is calculated for each column type according
to the safety format of Eurocode 2 [4]. Taking an economical design approach, the design value
of bearing capacity is equal to the design value of the applied load combination:
Rd E d G G k Q Qk
(2)
If the ratio of characteristic live load to characteristic dead load Qk/Gk is known, the mean value
of the dead load can be calculated as
G Gk
Rd
G Qk / G k Q
(3)
As a first step, the coefficient of variation is taken to be vG = 0.10 [-]. The mean value of the live
load Q is given by the annual 95%-fractile of the extreme value distribution I (Gumbel)
assuming a coefficient of variation of vQ = 0.40 [-]:
Qk
Qk
Q /G
k k G
1 ( ln( ln 0,95)) 6 vQ / 1, 746 1, 746
730
(4)
The ratio of characteristic live load to dead load Qk/Gk is determined to be either 0.25 or 1.00.
The calculation of failure probabilities pf and safety index for a reference period of 50 years as
well as the sensitivity factors (influence of each basic variable on the probability of failure) is
carried out with the help of a variance-reduction based sampling method (AIS).
Stochastic analysis of UHPC columns
The main focus of stochastic simulations is the implementation of a numerical model for UHPC
columns. Realistic modelling of load bearing behaviour requires consideration of material and
geometric nonlinearities, such as effects of second order theory or tensile strength of concrete
and reinforcement (tension stiffening effect). The previously developed numerical method at
cross-sectional level is based on an optimized Gaussian-Integral cross-section calculation. The
finite element method used at system level is adapted by the procedure of field transfer
matrices (Tran [6]) and is still under development. The calculation results will be verified by
experimental test rersults of slender NSC, HSC and UHPC columns.
4 Experimental tests on slender columns

General
Accompanying the numerical calculations, experimental tests were carried out on slender
columns. In order to test columns with a high ratio of slenderness ( 80) the cross-setional
dimensions have to be relatively small (h/b/l = 12cm/12cm/278cm) due to the capacity of the
laboratorys mechanical equipment. The columns are loaded in a position-controlled component
test by a hydraulic cylinder. During the test, deflections and compressions of reinforcement,
concrete and structural system are measured with strain gauges and displacement sensors at
more than 20 measuring points. In addition to these tests, investigations on compressive
strength, flexural strength and modulus of elasticity of UHPC were carried out.
Test results
In order to adequately estimate the model uncertainties, the number of samples should be
maximized. Because of this, more than 10 columns were tested at TU Darmstadt. Figure 7
illustrates a slender column in different loading states of 300, 518 and 330 kN as well as the
force-deflection-relationship of the experimental test.
Figure 7: Slender UHPC column in different loading states.
731
Figure 8 illustrates the axial force of the hydraulic cylinder dependent on axial compression of
the column for NSC and UHPC. It is obvious that the maximum axial force of the UHPC column
is higher than that of the same column type made of NSC. Much more interesting is that, also in
the case of fiber-reinforced UHPC, system behaviour can be characterized as brittle. Hence, the
nearly linear trend of the axial force-compression-relationship confirms the doubts about an
increasing risk of failure due to less ductile system behaviour.
Figure 8: Behaviour of NSC and UHPC column.

This paper deals with probabilistic modelling and experimental testing of UHPC columns. The
reliability analysis of slender UHPC columns considered new statistical parameters concerning
UHPC compressive strength and concrete strain, as well as the modulus of elasticity.
Stochastic simulations were carried out, taking into account the special characteristics of UHPC
at cross-sectional level. As expected, the results of the parametric studies identified concrete
strength as highly sensitive, while the variables of reinforcement are insignificant. After that, a
concept for extending the results from cross-sectional to system level is presented. The
appropriate stochastic finite element tool is still under development, but first comparisons of
numerical and experimental results on slender NSC, HPC and UHPC columns show very good
coincidences. After completion and verification of the stochastic model at system level, the
relevant influencing factors will be identified and a proposal for the design of slender UHPC
columns will be presented.
References
[1] Tue N.V., Schenk G., Schwarz J.: Eine kritische Betrachtung des zustzlichen Sicherheitsbeiwertes
fr hochfesten Beton. Bauingenieur, Band 82, Januar 2007.
[2] Rsch H.: Statistische Analyse der Betonfestigkeit. Band 206 des Deutschen Ausschusses fr
Stahlbeton DAfStb. Berlin: Ernst & Sohn, 1969.
[3] JCSS Probabilistic Model Code Part 3 Resistance Models, Joint Committee of Structural Safety,
2001.
[4] EN 1992-1-1 EUROCODE 2: Design of concrete structures - Part 1-1: General rules and rules for
buildings, European Committee for Standardization, 2012.
[5] Six M., Schmidt H.: Probabilistic Modelling of HSC Slender Columns in High-Rise Buildings, IABSE
Symposium 2008, Creating and Renewing Urban Structures, Chicago, USA, 2008.
[6] Tran N.L.: Berechnungsmodell zur vereinfachten Abschtzung des Ermdungsverhaltens von
Federplatten bei Fertigtrgerbrcken, Dissertation Heft 20, Technische Universitt Darmstadt
Institut fr Massivbau, Mai 2011.
732
Ultra-High Performance Spun Concrete Columns with HighStrength Reinforcement

Corinna Mller1, Martin Empelmann1, Helmut Lieb2, Florian Hude3
1: Institute for Building Materials, Concrete Construction and Fire Protection (iBMB), Concrete Construction
Department, TU Braunschweig, Germany
2: Europoles GmbH & Co. KG, Neumarkt, Germany
3: Stahlwerk Annahtte, Hammerau, Germany
Slender columns are frequently used construction elements within modern architectural buildings. Beside
of the light and filigree appearance the effective rental area and flexibility of buildings can be increased
by downsizing of the columns cross section. Nowadays such columns are usually made off steel or steel
composite. The competitiveness of reinforced concrete can be increased considerably with the use of
high performance materials such as ultra-high performance concrete and high-strength reinforcement
steel combined in spun concrete columns. The paper will give an overview of the experimental research
work which included short- and long-term material analyses of ultra-high performance concrete and highstrength reinforcment steel, pull-out test to investigate the bond behavior and full-scale column tests
under eccentric normal forces.
Keywords: highly reinforced spun concrete columns, ultra-high performance concrete, high-strength
reinforcement
1 Introduction
Within a ZIM (Zentrales Innovationsprogramm Mittelstand) research project, founded by the
BMWi, the iBMB of the TU Braunschweig and the companies Europoles and Stahlwerk
Annahtte investigated an innovative concrete column construction for very slender columns
(Fig. 1), which is based on the special production process of the spun concrete. In this
connection the advantages of spun concrete should be further increased with the use of costoptimized ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) and high-strength reinforcement SAS 670
resulting in a technically and economically comparable alternative to steel-composite columns.
Figure 1: Examples for slender spun concrete columns made by Europoles (left to right: Haus der rzteschaft,
Dsseldorf ( A. M. van Treeck); IKEA, Dresden; Department for Foreign Affairs, Berlin).
733
2 Production process of spun concrete columns

The production process of spun concrete columns is characterised by the rotation of a pipeshaped steel form with a speed of up to 600 rpm around its longitudinal axis (Fig. 2). The
induced radial acceleration forces press the concrete mass with a centrifugal force of 20 G
against the walls of the form and thus are compacting the concrete. The special production
process results into concrete elements with an absolutely smooth concrete surface, a dense
concrete structure, which is free of visible pores, and a high concrete compressive strength,
even with very small cross-sections.
Figure 2: Production process of spun concrete columns.
3 Material properties
As both used materials, UHPC and SAS 670, are currently not standardized, the material
properties had to be investigated for the theoretical assessment of the experimental full-scale
column tests and for the definition of characteristic material and design values.
Short-term behaviour of ultra-high performance spun concrete
For the determination of the material properties of UHPC a lot of drilling cores (55 mm,
slenderness ratio 2) were removed from vibrated concrete and spun concrete specimens.
Tables 1 and 2 contain an abstract of the experimental results. The compressive strength tests
were performed with a force controlled loading with a speed of 0.6 N/mm/s according to [1].
Table 1: Material properties of vibrated concrete drilling cores (concrete age: 28d 1d) abstract.
Concreting
No.
fcm
[N/mm]
Var(fcm)
[%]
fctm
[N/mm]
Var(fctm)
[%]
Ecm
[N/mm]
Var(Ecm)
[%]
1 (03/08/11)
141.5
2.7
7.9
1.1
57 800
9.6
2 (18/08/11)
141.4
4.7
3 (25/08/11)
140.8
3.1
54 100
1.8
Table 2: Material properties of spun concrete drilling cores (concrete age: 28d 1d) abstract.
No.
fcm [N/mm]
Var(fcm) [%] fctm [N/mm] Var(fctm) [%]
Ecm [N/mm] Var(Ecm) [%]
1 (03/08/11)
143.1
1.5
8.7
4.2
59 600
2.9
2 (18/08/11)
156.3
2.9
68 700
1.6
3 (25/08/11)
151.9
1.8
56 700
1.0
The variation coefficient of the concrete strength within the three casting series amount to 4 %
approximately. For the vibrated ultra high performance concrete (UHPC) the statistical
evaluation of the compressive strength resulted in a short-term characteristic value (5 %
quantile for a normal distribution) of 130 N/mm; for the ultra high performance spun concrete
(UHPSC) in 140 N/mm respectively. Hence, the influence of the producing process on the
concrete strength of UHPSC was determined to 8 % approximately.
Fig. 3 shows the stress-strain relationship of the spun concrete determined on drilling cores
from two different castings under a displacement controlled loading with a speed of 0.001 mm/s.
734
Ultra-High Performance Spun Concrete Columns with High-Strength Reinforcement
The plasticity coefficient k (relation between tangent and secant elasticity modulus) ranges
between 1.1 and 1.35 and characterizes, beside the maximum compression stress fcm and the
failure strain c1 (approximately 3.0 ), the stress-strain relationship under compression. In
conclusion, the tests results allow the application and modification of the mathematical
formulation for non-linear calculations according to [2] (Eq. 1) for the UHPSC.
2
-160
(1)
Casting 1
-140
Compression stress [N/mm]
Compression stress [N/mm]
fcm
k c c
c 1 c1
1 k 2 c
c1
Drilling core 1
Drilling core 2
Drilling core 3
-120
-100
-80
-60
-40
-20
0
0,0
-0,5
-1,0
-1,5
-2,0
-2,5
-3,0
-160
Casting 2
-140
Drilling core 1
Drilling core 2
Drilling core 3
-120
-100
-80
-60
-40
-20
0
-3,5
0,0
-0,5
Compression strain []
-1,0
-1,5
-2,0
-2,5
-3,0
-3,5
Figure 3: Stress-strain relationship of the ultra high performance spun concrete (UHPSC).
Long-term behaviour of ultra-high performance spun concrete

The design value of the concrete strength is obtained from the short-term characteristic
concrete strength with the consideration of the material safety factor of concrete and the long-
-6.0
1.2
-5.0
1.0
Creep coefficient [-]
term coefficient cc. Eurocode 2 [2] recommends a value of cc = 1.0, the German annexe to
Eurocode 2 [3] defines a value of cc = 0.85. In Fig. 4 the development of the compression
strain and the creep coefficient of the spun concrete for a compression level of approximately
90 % of the mean value of the compressive strength are given. A comparable long-term
behavior for UHPC under high compression is presented in [4]. As the developed UHPSC
showed a favourable long-term behaviour compared to those of normal strength concrete, the
value of cc = 0.85 is expected to be on the conservative side [4].
-4.0
-3.0
-2.0
-1.0
0.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0
14
28
42
56
Time [d]
70
84
98
14
28
42
56
Time [d]
70
84
98
Figure 4: Development of the compression strain (left) and the creep coefficient (right) (21C, 50 % RH, fc =
0.9fcm).
High-strength reinforcement
High strength steel can either be microalloyed or water tempered. The advantages of water
tempering are lower costs and a sufficient tensile strength to yield strength ratio. The advantage
of microalloying is a higher tensile strength to yield strength ratio. High strength reinforcement
735
SAS 670 is water tempered and has a not well defined yield point (Fig. 5 (left)). Under
compression stress the high-strength reinforcement SAS 670 has a linear-elastic stress-strain
relationship up to a strain of approximately 2.5 . Beside the higher strength of SAS 670 the
key differentiator to normal strength reinforcement is the shape of the ribs, which allow to
continuously screw the bar (Fig. 5 (middle)). Accessories, like couplers and end bearing
anchorages, help to improve the reinforcement detailing by reducing the anchorage and
overlapping length and increasing the clear spacing between the single bars. The available bar
diameters of the high strength reinforcement SAS 670 are given in Fig. 5 (right).
The other material properties have the same characteristics as known from normal strength
reinforcement. In detail these are: ductility, bend- and weldability, sufficient bond behaviour and
a sufficient resistance against stress corrosion.
Stress [N/mm]
1200
800
400
-5
-2.5
Strain []
0
2.5
-400
-800
7.5
10
SAS 500
SAS 670/800
SAS 950/1050
Nominal
diameter
Mass
Nominal cross
section
ds [mm]
18
22
25
28
30
35
43
575
635
75
M [kg/m]
2,00
2,98
3,85
4,83
5,55
7,55
11,40
20,38
24,86
34,68
As [mm]
254
380
491
616
707
962
1.452
2.597
3.167
4.418
Figure 5: left: Stress-strain relationship for different steel grades; middle: Geometry of bars; right: Nominal
values for grade SAS 670.
4 Bond behaviour
For the specifcation of the bond behaviour of SAS 670 with UHPSC pull-out tests with different
reinforcement diameters, concrete covers, concrete grades and test specimen geomentry (spun
concrete segments (Table 3) and cubes) were carried out according to [5].
Table 3: Variation parameters of pull-out tests (18 mm).
No.
Spun concrete segment
Description
P1
according to [6]
P2
UHPC and SAS 670, cube specimen (side

length 190 mm) incl. spiral reinforcement
P3
C 50/60 and SAS 670, cube specimen (side

length 190 mm) incl. spiral reinforcement
P4-1
UHPC and SAS 670, spun concrete pie

piece, concrete cover 1d s
P4-2
UHPC and SAS 670, spun concrete pie

piece, concrete cover 2d s
Due to the ultra-high strength of the spun concrete and the production process the layout of the
test specimens has to be modified. In [5] a bond length of 5ds is recommended. Previous pullout tests from literature were performed with a bond length between 1d s and 2ds. In this
connection a short bond length induces a wide scatter of the bondstress-slip curve; a long bond
length induces an early splitting failure of the test specimens. Based on the conclusions in the
literature a bond length of 2d s was chosen. The parameter variation of the pull-out tests with a
bar diameter of 18 mm are given in Table 3.
736
P1
P2
P3
P4-1
P4-2
0.0
0.1
0.2
0.3 0.4 0.5

Slip [mm]
0.6
0.7
0.8
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Bond stress at 0.1 mm slip

Relative bond stress at 0.1 mm slip
P1
P2
P3
P4-1
P4-2
1
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
Relative bond stress [-]
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
Bond stress [N/mm]
Bond strength [N/mm]
The results for bars 18 mm are summarised in Fig. 6 (left). The bond strength of UHPSC is
remarkable higher than for normal strength concrete. The relative bond stress (bond stress over
concrete strength) (Fig. 5 (right)) at a slip of 0.1 mm is lower due to the higher splitting effects of
UHPSC.
Figure 6: left: Experimental bond stress-slip curve; right: Bond and relative bond stress at 0.1 mm slip.
5 Full-scale column tests

Experimental program and test set-up
In total, 16 spun concrete column tests were conducted under an eccentric normal force loading
(Fig. 7). In order to investigate the ultimate load level and the post failure modes all columns
were tested under a displacement controlled loading. Beyond a load level of approximately
60 % of the ultimate load a loading speed of 0.001 mm/s was chosen. The concrete strains
were determined by strain gauges in five points over the longitudinal axis in the bending
direction as well as in lateral direction. The bending deflection was measured by displacement
transducer (DT) in three points arranged oppositely in the bending axis.
Figure 7: Test set-up (Arrangement of displacement transducer and strain gauges; built-in test specimen).
The varied parameters in the full-scale column tests were the outer column diameter, the
column length, the initial eccentricity (e0), the concrete strength and steel grade as well as the
longitudinal and spiral reinforcement content (l, q). This paper presents only an abstract of the
experimental investigations (Table 4).
737
Table 4: Variation parameters full-scale column tests abstract.
No.
Diameter /
Length [cm]
Longitudinal reinforcement
SAS 670
[%]
Spiral reinforcement
BSt500S
q
[%]
eo
[mm]
V3-1
25 / 200
625
5/55
0.6
10
V3-2
25 / 200
625
5/3
0.9
10
0.6
25
V4-1
25 / 200
625
5/5
V4-2
25 / 200
625
5/3
0.9
25
V5-2
35 / 300
1218
8/5
1.0
35
V6-2
35 / 300
1235
15
8/5
1.0
35
Experimental results
Table 5 summarizes the results of the 6 column tests in regard to the failure normal force Nu,
the eccentricity at the end of the test etot (= eo + e2), the compression strain at the higher
compressed cross section side in the middle of the column (c1) and at the opposite side (c0) as
well as the description of the main failure mode.
Table 5: Overview of the experimental results full-scale column tests.
No.
Nu [kN]
etot [mm]
c1 []
c0 []
V3-1
4545
16.0
-2.92
-0.77
1) 2) 3)
V3-2
5038
19.0
-3.50
-0.76
1) 2) 3)
V4-1
4030
35.9
-3.37
-0.05
1)
V4-2
4271
37.3
-3.84
0.08
1)
V5-2
6658
49.2
-3.03
0.09
1) 2) 3)
V6-2
9628
concrete cover spalling;
1)
2)
51.6
-3.31
buckling longitudinal reinforcement;
3)
Main failure mode
1)
-0.03
rupture spiral reinforcement
The comparison of the test specimens V3-1 with V3-2 and V4-1 with V4-2 (equal longitudinal
reinforcement content and eccentricity e0, but different spiral reinforcement content) indicates
that an increase of the spiral reinforcement content results into an increase of the ultimate
compressive strain of approximately 0.5 . In consequence, the columns with higher spiral
reinforcement obtained a higher ultimate load level caused by the increased utilization of the
concrete cross-section and of the longitudinal reinforcement.
Fig. 8 (left) shows the comparison of the load-deflection relationship of the test specimens
indicating firstly a linear-elastic increase and then only a slight non-linearity up to maximum load
level. The post-peak behaviour beyond the maximum load level of the columns is presented in
Fig. 8 (right).
1
8000
6000
V3-1
V3-2
V4-1
V4-2
V5-2
V6-2
4000
2000
0
6
8 10 12 14
Middle deflection [mm]
16
Scaled normal force
Normal force [kN]
10000
0.75
0.5
0.25
0
18
V3-1
V3-2
V4-1
V4-2
V5-2
V6-2
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
Scaled longitudinal deformation
3.0
Figure 8: left: Load-middle deflection relationship; right: Scaled load-longitudinal deformation relationship.
738
In order to compare the different column configurations the normal force is scaled to the
maximum load and the longitudinal deformation to the longitudinal deformation at the maximum
load level showing that the post-fracture behavior of the test specimen improves with increased
longitudinal reinforcement ratio. In case the longitudinal reinforcement content is kept constant
a more robust failure mode could be observed with increasing eccentricity and the possibility of
stress rearrangement within the cross section.
In all tests the exceedance of the bearing capacity was characterized by an explosive
spalling of the concrete cover. In consequence and depending on the strain gradient over the
cross section as well as the longitudinal reinforcement content some test specimens showed a
buckling of the longitudinal reinforcement and a rupture of spiral reinforcement (Fig. 9 and
Table 5).
Figure 9: Pictures of the test specimen directly after failure (left: V3-1; middle: V3-2; right: V4-1).
Comparison of experimental and theoretical results

The theoretical investigations were performed on the system level using a non-linear calculation
program [7]. For the theoretical analysis the mean value of the materials properties and the
stress-strain relationship for the UHPSC according to [2] (Eq. 1) were used. Table 6 and Fig. 10
summarize the theoretical results for the test specimens V3-1 and V4-1. The theoretical
investigations of the other test specimen are in process.
Table 6: Comparison of experimental and theoretical results abstract.
k [-]
Nu,cal / Nu,exp
e2,cal / e2,exp
V3-1
1.0
1,03
0.93
V3-1
1.1
1.07
0.96
V4-1
1.1
0.95
1.02
V4-1
1.4
1.0
1.01
5000
5000
4000
4000
Normal force [kN]
Normal force [kN]
No.
3000
2000
V3-1 (exp.)
k = 1.0
k = 1.1
1000
0
4
6
8
10
12
3000
2000
V4-1 (exp.)
1000
0
k = 1.1
k = 1.4
4
6
8
10
12
Figure 10: Comparison of experimental and theoretical load-middle deflection behaviour (left: V3-1; right: V4-1)
739
In case the lower value of the experimentally observed plasticity factor k = 1.1 is used for the
determination of the theoretical stress-strain curve of the UHPSC, the theoretical load-deflection
curve of V3-1 shows a satisfying agreement with the experimental load-deflection curve. For the
test specimen V4-1 a very good agreement can be found using k = 1.4.
6 Conclusions
In order to assure the practical application of innovative ultra-high performance spun concrete
columns with high-strength reinforcement experimental and theoretical investigations were
carried out at the iBMB of the TU Braunschweig (long- and short-term material properties of
UHPSC, full-scale column tests), at Europoles (cost-optimized UHPSC, production process) as
well as at Stahlwerk Annahtte (material properties SAS 670, bond behaviour). The main
results are:
The developed UHPSC reached in the production process - without any additional
measures - a characteristic compressive strength of 140 N/mm with a low statistical
spread of the mean value. The advantages of the spun concrete technology (smooth
surface and dense concrete structure) are maintained using this concrete mixture, also
in combination with high longitudinal and spiral reinforcement contents. The definition of
the long-term coefficient and the material safety factor for the UHPSC in accordance
with the current standards of normal respectively high strength concrete is expected to
be on the conservative side.
The compression stress-strain relationship of the high-strength reinforcement SAS 670
is comparable to those under tension.
The experimental results of the pull-out tests showed for common concrete covers no
negative effects (early splitting), so that the coaction of the UHPSC and the highstrength reinforcement SAS 670 is secured.
Due to a failure strain of the UHPSC of approximately 3.0 the higher compressive
strength of the SAS 670 compared to those of normal strength reinforcement BSt 500S
can be activated in a composite member.
The results of the present theoretical investigations show that the high bearing loads and
the load-deformation behaviour of the experimental column tests can be described in
good accordance with adapted state-of-the-art theoretical constitutive laws.
In summary, with the combination of UHPSC and high-strength reinforcement SAS 670 very
slender and innovative spun concrete columns can be constructed which achieve high load
bearing capacities comparable to those of steel-composite columns with equal cross section.
References
[1] DIN EN 12390-3: Prfung von Festbeton Teil 3: Druckfestigkeit von Probekrpern, 2002.
[2] DIN EN 1992-1-1: Eurocode 2: Bemessung und Konstruktion von Stahlbeton- und Spannbetontragwerken Teil1-1: Allgemeine Bemessungsregeln und Regeln fr den Hochbau, 2011.
[3] DIN EN 1992-1-1/NA: Nationaler Anhang Nationale Parameter - Eurocode 2: Bemessung und
Konstruktion von Stahlbeton- und Spannbetontragwerken Teil1-1: Allgemeine Bemessungsregeln
und Regeln fr den Hochbau, 2011.
[4] Schmidt, M. et al.: Ultahochfester Beton Sachstandsbericht. DAStb Heft 561, Berlin, 2008.
[5] RILEM RC 6: Bond test for reinforcement steel. 2. Pull-out test, 1983.
[6] Hegger J. et al.: Untersuchungen an Pfhlen aus Stahl S670: Versuchsergebnisse der
durchgefhrten Pull-Out Versuche nach der RILEM/CEB/FIP Recommendation RC 6, 1978(1), 2004.
[7] Quast, U.; Pfeifer, U.: INCA2 (Interactive Nonlinear Cross Section Analysis Biaxial) und STAB2DNL.
www.tu-harburg.de/mb.
740
Experimental analysis and numerical simulation of UltraHigh-Performance Concrete tube columns with a steel sheet
wrapping for large sized truss structures
Ludger Lohaus1, Jrgen Grnberg2, Nick Lindschulte1, Sven Kromminga3
1: Institute of Building Materials Science, Leibniz Universitt Hannover, Germany
2: G+S Planungsgesellschaft mbH, Germany
3: Institute of Concrete Construction, Leibniz Universitt Hannover, Germany
The compressive strength of ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) is comparable to structural steel
and can be advantageously used in thin construction elements. Because of its extreme brittle fracture
behavior innovative concepts for design and casting procedure are necessary which are different from
traditional concrete engineering. Slight UHPC-tubes, which are covered by thin steel sheets, should be
designed as compressive struts for large-scale frameworks. Experimental tests with tubular columns
(hollow profiles) were made in addition to numerical simulations and will be presented in this paper. In
opposite to the composite or sandwich engineering the axial load bearing capacity should be generated
prior by the pure concrete cross section. The steel cover is designed to serve as minimum circumferential
reinforcement, therefore its thickness is to be minimized to achieve an economic optimum but still ensure
ductile fracture behavior.
Keywords: Concrete, Ultra-High-Performance Concrete, Tube Columns, Truss, Compression Member,
Ductility, Steel Fibers, Steel Sheet Wrapping, Finite Element Simulation, Experimental Analysis
1 Motivation
The high compressive strength of Ultra-High-Performance Concrete (UHPC) allows new,
innovative fields of application. Considering the extreme brittleness of UHPC, a useful
application of this material requires a sufficient ductility for the applied construction component.
Particularly, the increase in ductility through the addition of steel fibres to the matrix of UHPC is
in the focus of actual research. Experimental investigations in the context of the comprehensive
research program Sustainable Building With Ultra-High-Performance Concrete by the German
Research Foundation (DFG) show that an exclusive addition of steel fibres does not guarantee
any reliable increase in ductility in case of high compressive loads. This is for example caused
by the arbitrary orientation of the steel fibres. Otherwise, a high contingent of steel fibres makes
the casting process difficult. Especially, this applies to components with filigree dimensions.
To take advantage of the high compressive strength of UHPC with simultaneous
consideration of economical and sustainable aspects, an effective utilisation of UHPC is
required for slender compression members. The aim of this research-project (DFG SPP1182) is
to develop a new structural element: a slender and light tube made from UHPC. These UHPCtubes are to be used as compressive members in large-sized truss structures. The necessary
increase in ductility of the UHPC-tube is achieved by a wrapping with a thin steel sheet. This
wrapping is comparable to a minimum reinforcement required, together with the effect of
circumferential tension. Furthermore, the steel sheet is used as a lost formwork. In this research
project UHPC-Rohr the experimental tests has been performed by the Institute of Building
Materials Science while the numerical analysis has been done by the Institute of Concrete
Construction of Leibniz Universitt Hannover.
741
Small as well as large specimens of UHPC-tubes are loaded statically in their longitudinal
direction. This experimental analysis shall show the mechanical mode of action of the steel
sheet wrapping and the mode of failure of the structural element as a whole.
Experimental Setup
The tube specimens were made by using the inner and outer steel-sheet as a formwork, which
have been fixed by a construction during the casting procedure. The fine grained ultra high
performance concrete (UHPC) was filled in by using a funnel (type 1) and a small mortar pump
(type 2). All specimens have been heat treated at 90C for 48 hours [1]. Variations of steel wall
thickness, tube diameter and concrete wall thickness are executed in small scaled series R-001
to R-008. Additionally large-scaled tests G-001 to G-003 have been performed with selected
geometry values (Figure 1). The ratio of (length)/(mean diameter) approx. belongs to 3/1. The
specimens end in stiff cover-plates, fixed by UHPC, to form the load application. These coverplates refer to a possible type of joints in frameworks and compensate geometric conditional
weakness on the pipe heads at the same time.
Db,m
manufacture
ti
load plate
Di,i
tb
ta
Da,i
series
number steel external
concrete
steel internal perc.
specimen
ta
Da,i
tb
Db/tb
ti
Di,i
Aa / Ab
[pcs]
[mm]
[mm]
[mm]
[-]
[mm]
[mm]
[%]
R- 001
0,8
166,4
10,8
14,4
0,7
143,4
8,0
R- 002
0,8
166,4
10,8
14,4
0,7
143,4
8,0
R- 003
1,5
180,0
20,0
8,0
1,0
138,0
8,5
R- 004
1,0
180,0
20,0
8,0
1,0
138,0
5,7
R- 005
0,8
180,0
20,0
8,0
1,0
138,0
4,2
R- 006
1,5
180,0
15,0
11,0
1,0
148,0
11,0
R- 007
1,0
180,0
15,0
11,0
1,0
148,0
7,3
R- 008
0,8
180,0
15,0
11,0
1,0
148,0
5,5
G- 001
2,0
356,0
28,0
11,7
2,0
296,0
7,8
G- 002
2,0
356,0
28,0
11,7
2,0
296,0
7,8
G- 003
2,0
356,0
28,0
11,7
2,0
296,0
7,8
3 Inductive
LVDT (120)
specimen
load plate
Figure 1: Experimental setup and overview of the tube tests.
Test results
By using a small mortar pump the flow ability and the compressive strength were increased due
to the compacting effect of the worm shaft. The UHPC M3Q+ achieved a compressive strength
up to 200 N/mm, while in case of the pump the compressive strength reached 230 N/mm
performed on heat treated cubes with a side length of 100 mm. The conversion factor to the
axial compressive strength for the thin geometry was nearly founded to 0.8 and will be further
analyzed in additional investigations (Table 1). The E-Modul has been performed on cylindrical
specimens which were fabricated similar to the tube filling process.
742
Experimental analysis and numerical simulation of Ultra-High-Performance Concrete tube columns with a steel sheet
Table 1: test results material specimens.

material
M3Q+
M3Q_P+
fc,cube,100
[N/mm]
200
230
UHPC
fc,axial
[N/mm]
160
185
E-Modul
[N/mm]
36000
36000
,u
[%]
0,50
0,58
material
type 1
type 2
Rp0,2%
[N/mm]
252
171
steel sheet
Rm
[N/mm]
418
305
,u
[%]
25
20
E-Modul
[N/mm]
213000
195000
The test results of the tube specimens show a great scatter within the series (Table 1). This is
caused by the filigree cross-section and the quite complex behaviour between steel and
concrete under axial compression.
Table 2: Overview of test results tube specimens.
geometry
series
concrete
steel
A-
ts,o
tc
fc,axial
R p0,2%
[mm]
[mm]
[mm]
[mm]
[N/mm]
[-]
experiment
Fu
Fres
(ultimate load)
(residual load)
theory
Fres/Fu
Fcal
Fcal/Fu
[kN]
[kN]
[%]
[kN]
R- 001 - 1
858,50
330,00
38,4%
1035,4
120,6%
R- 001 - 2
751,80
320,00
42,6%
1036,9
137,9%
R- 001 - 3
797,40
360,00
45,1%
1038,8
130,3%
842,40
244,00
29,0%
1036,9
123,1%
R- 002 - 2
853,50
460,00
53,9%
1036,9
121,5%
R- 002 - 3
979,50
300,00
30,6%
1035,4
105,7%
R- 003 - 1
1604,55
750,00
46,7%
2085,5
130,0%
R- 002 - 1
166,40
0,80
10,80
160,00
252,0
1,50
R- 003 - 2
1586,41
705,00
44,4%
2085,3
131,4%
R- 003 - 3
1555,74
835,00
53,7%
2070,8
133,1%
R- 004 - 1
1794,65
< 20 %
2029,6
113,1%
2199,75
< 20 %
2025,6
92,1%
1954,25
< 20 %
2074,7
106,2%
1465,60
560,00
38,2%
1990,7
135,8%
1757,85
540,00
30,7%
1998,4
113,7%
2118,32
< 20 %
1995,2
94,2%
1556,78
690,00
44,3%
1649,2
105,9%
1,00
R- 004 - 2
20,00
R- 004 - 3
500
R- 005 - 1
0,75
R- 005 - 2
R- 005 - 3
R- 006 - 1
185,00
180,00
171,0
1,50
R- 006 - 2
1601,33
490,00
30,6%
1656,1
103,4%
R- 006 - 3
1699,54
450,00
26,5%
1659,8
97,7%
R- 007 - 1
1707,83
400,00
23,4%
1616,3
94,6%
1152,09
550,00
47,7%
1608,3
139,6%
R- 007 - 3
1301,13
460,00
35,4%
1615,5
124,2%
R- 008 - 1
1588,89
< 20 %
1595,1
100,4%
1384,58
400,00
28,9%
1585,2
114,5%
1,00
R- 007 - 2
15,00
0,75
R- 008 - 2
R- 008 - 3
1379,38
340,00
24,6%
1585,2
114,9%
G- 001 - 1
3769,00
2240,00
59,4%
6042,5
160,3%
4646,00
1440,00
31,0%
6042,5
130,1%
G- 001 - 1
356,00
2,00
28,00
1000
185,00
171,00
in the planning
G- 001 - 1
743
Da,i =166,4mm;tb =10mm
1000
2000
R001-0,8-10-0,7-R1
900
R001-0,8-10-0,7-R2
Fu
800
R002-0,8-10-0,7-R2
1600
700
1400
600
1200
axial force [kN]
axial force [kN]
R003-1,5-20-1,0-R1
R003-1,5-20-1,0-R3
R004-1,0-20-1,0-R1
R005-0,75-20-1,0-R1
R005-0,75-20-1,0-R2
1800
R001-0,8-10-0,7-R3
500
400
Fres
300
1000
800
600
200
400
100
200
0
0,0
0,5
1,0
1,5
2,0
2,5
3,0
3,5
4,0
0,0
u [mm]
0,5
1,0
1,5
2,0
u [mm]
2,5
3,0
3,5
4,0

5000
2000
G002-2,0-28-2,0
R006-1,5-15-1,0-R1
1800
4500
R007-1,0-15-1,0-R3
R007-1,0-15-1,0-R3
R008-0,75-15-1,0-R1
1600
4000
R008-0,75-15-1,0-R2
3500
axial force [kN]
axial force [kN]
1400
1200
1000
800
3000
2500
2000
600
1500
400
1000
200
500
0
0,0
0,5
1,0
1,5
2,0
2,5
3,0
3,5
4,0
0
0,0
0,5
u [mm]
1,0
1,5
2,0
2,5
3,0
u [mm]
3,5
4,0
4,5
5,0
5,5
6,0
Figure 2: force-displacement-behaviour of tube specimens with different cross-section geometries.
The load bearing behaviour of selected specimens is illustrated in the force-displacement

diagrams, shown in Figure 2. At the beginning a linear elastic behaviour is given which nearly
remains until the ultimate load (FU). After reaching a displacement of approx. 0.5 mm for the
small series and 1.0 mm for the big series the stiffness is decreased because of exceeding the
yield strength of the steel sheets. The area of the remaining fracture is firstly characterized by a
step like gradient behaviour with abrupt parts and ends finally in a ductile residual load bearing
capacity (Fres) depending on the steel sheet thickness (Figure 2). An area-ratio of the outer steel
to the concrete core of lower than 7% (series R004, R005 and R008 cf. Figure 1 and Figure 2)
seems not to be reliable for a residual strength level of minimal 20%.
The fracture appearance shows that the concrete core breaks splintered in local areas of the
tube length and gets supported by the steel sheets which buckle in each case to the outside
(Figure 3). Depending on the radial stiffness of the steel sheets the concrete is still able to
transfer loads by its residual shear forces.
744
R001 2
R003 3
R006 1
R008 1
Figure 3: fracture appearance of selected specimens.
3 Numerical Analysis
A finite element model will be developed for an accompanying numerical investigation. Finite
element simulations shall verify the results of the experimental investigations described above.
The FE model used for these simulations has to be calibrated and experimentally verified. A
parameter study of geometrical and structural parameters has to be carried out to identify the
parameters with the largest influence on the mechanical mode of failure and on the load
capacity of the UHPC-tube.
Later this model can be used to simulate the realistic performance of the UHPC-tubes as
compression members in frameworks.
Description of the numerical model
The numerical simulation of the UHPC-Tubes under longitudinal compression is carried out with
the non-linear FE program ABAQUS. The specimens will be modelled as a spatial system
formed of 8-node brick elements with linear isoparametric shape-functions.
The input-files for the calculation with ABAQUS will be generated by a self-implemented tool
which has its own meshing routines and, therefore, allows a complete parameterization of the
geometrical and structural properties of the FE model. The use of an own implementation has
the advantage of the possibility for a flexible extension of the FE model. The direct control over
the FE meshing of the structure allows to model geometrically meaningful imperfections in the
steel sheets as well as their impact on the inner UHPC-core, by reason of the use of the steel
sheets as lost formwork. Also the imperfection of the weld seam can be modelled. Other scopes
for a flexible extension are the statistical dispersion of material properties and the effect of
concrete shrinkage.
745
For the finite element model the steel sheets and the UHPC-core itself are meshed
independently (Figure 4). Then contact is defined between the steel sheets and the UHPC-core.
Therefore ABAQUS offers the possibility to combine elements of a structure to "contact
surfaces". Between a steel sheet and the UHPC-core a coulomb friction will be assumed
tangentially which allows the transmission of shear. In the normal direction a hard contact will
be defined which allows opposite FE nodes to touch each other as well as their separation but
no penetration.
To model the constraints imposed by the stiff cover-plates at the end of the tube specimen all
FE nodes at the ends are tied in all three degrees of freedom. For the simulation of the
longitudinal deformation all FE nodes at the top of the structure are translated about 3.5 mm.
Figure 4: Finite-Element Model of the UHPC-tube.

a) inner UHPC-core, b) steel sheets, c) combined UHPC-tube.
Material Models
For both of the materials, UHPC and steel, nonlinear material models are used. At present the
behaviour of the steel is modelled by a bilinear stress-strain curve.
The most important part of the realistic numerical simulation of the mechanical mode of
action of the UHPC-tube is the material law used for the UHPC.
For the UHPC the uniaxial and triaxial material behaviour is described in [1], [2] and [3]. For the
numerical simulation of this material behaviour the material model "CONCRETE DAMAGED
PLASTICITY" (CDP) in ABAQUS will be used (see [4]). It bases on the plastic material model
proposed in [5] and extended in [6]. The material behaviour under compression as well as
under tension is described by a plasticity formulation and controlled in compression and tension
by total stress vs. inelastic strain curves. Cracks in the concrete manifest themselves as
positive inelastic strains. A modified cone describes the yield surface. The shape of the yield
surface in a deviatoric section (Figure 5) can be modified by a parameter Kc. For normal
concrete Kc = 2/3 is the default value. However own investigations have shown that for UHPC a
value Kc = 0,695 gives more accurate results.
In CDP also the ratio between uniaxial and biaxial compression strength can be calibrated.
The default value for concrete here is fb0/fc0 = 1,16 based on the investigations from [7]. In [3] it
is shown that this ratio is significantly lower for UHPC, and so fb0/fc0 = 1,05 is used to model an
UHPC without fibres.
746
Figure 5: yield surface in the deviatoric plane, corresponding to different values of Kc (from [4]).
At present the numerical investigation focuses on the experiment series R-001 and R-002
(Figure 1). The first numerical results of the numerical investigation are shown as axial force
over deformation compared to the experimental results in Figure 6. The FE calculation of the
specimen results in a lower load bearing capacity (about 80-90%) compared to the
experiments. At first the total stiffness of the FE-model is higher compared to the experiments.
In the experiments the total stiffness decreases after reaching a displacement of approx. 0,5
mm because of exceeding the yield strength of the steel sheets. This effect is also seen in the
FE simulation after reaching a displacement of approx. 0,6 mm. The remaining total stiffness is
significantly lower compared to those in the experiments. The reason for this effect is still under
investigation. In the experiments the specimens reach their load bearing capacity at a
displacement from 1,6 to 1,7 mm, approximately. In the FE simulation this point is reached at
approx. 1,5 mm. Then the curve falls down steeply as in the experiments. The residual load
capacity in the simulation corresponds roughly to those of the experiments.
Figure 6: comparison of the experimental results with the FE simulation.
Figure 7 shows the FE model after the failure of the specimen. The left figure shows the
longitudinal deformation at the whole specimen. The middle figure shows the longitudinal
747
deformation at the inner and outer steel sheet. The buckling of the steel sheets is clearly visible.
The right figure shows the inelastic positive strains at the UHPC-core, which indicates cracks. It
can be seen that the UHPC-core fails by shear fracture.
Figure 7: FE simulation - deformation of the specimen.
4 Conclusions
In the context of the research project experimental investigations were carried out. The results
show that the remaining fracture ends in a ductile residual load bearing capacity depending on
the steel sheet thickness.
Up to now the results of the numerical investigation are not fully satisfying. The FE
simulation of the specimen results in a lower load bearing capacity compared to the
experiments. After the steel-sheets exceed their yield strength the remaining total stiffness in
the FE simulation is too low. Further investigations on this effect have to be performed.
If the results of advanced FE-simulations are closer to those of the experiments in the series
R001 and R002, the remaining experiments (Figure 1) shall be simulated for further calibration
of the FE model. After that a parameter study shall be carried out to identify sensitive
geometrical and structural parameters.
References
[1] Deutscher Ausschuss fr Stahlbeton: Ultrahochfester Beton Sachstandsbericht. DAfStb 561,
Berlin, 2008.
[2] Grnberg, J. ; Lohaus, L. ; Wefer, M. ; Ertel, Chr.: Mehraxiales mechanisches Ermdungsmodell von
Ultra-Hochfestem Beton - Experimentelle und analytische Untersuchungen. In: Beton- und Stahlbetonbau 102 (2007), pp. 388398.
[3] Curbach, M. ; Speck, K.: Versuchstechnische Ermittlung und mathematische Beschreibung der
mehraxialen Festigkeit von Ultra- Hochfestem Beton (UHPC) - Zweiaxiale Druckfestigkeit / Technische Universitt Dresden - Institut fr Massivbau. 2007 (DFG CU 37/6-1). technical report.
[4] Systmes, Dassault: ABAQUS Documentation, Version 6.10. Dassault Systmes, 2010.
[5] Lubliner, J. ; Oliver, J. ; Oller, S. ; Onate, E.: A plastic-damage model for concrete. In: International
Journal of Solids Structures Vol. 25, No. 3 (1989), pp. 299326.
[6] Lee, J. ; Fenves, G.L.: Plastic-Damage Model for Cyclic Loading of Concrete Structures. In: Journal
of Engineering Mechanics (1998), pp. 892900.
[7] Kupfer, H.: Das Verhalten des Betons unter mehrachsiger Kurzzeitbelastung unter besonderer
Bercksichtigung der zweiachsigen Beanspruchung. DAfStb 229, Berlin, 1973.
748
Shear and flexural strength of thin UHPC slabs

Lionel Moreillon, Joanna Nseir, Ren Suter
Institute of Construction & Environement iCEN, University of Applied Sciences Fribourg, Switzerland
This paper presents several results of an experimental campaign carried out at the University of Applied
Sciences (HES-SO), Fribourg, on thin UHPC slabs with and without conventional steel reinforcement.
The experimental studies included load tests on one and two-ways slabs. The principal aim of this
research was to analyze the interaction between the thickness, the reinforcement ratio and the fibre
volume ratio on Serviceability Limit State (SLS) and Ultimate Limit State (ULS). The tests have
highlighted the beneficial contribution of UHPC combined with steel reinforcement on flexural and shear
capacity. They have also shown that increasing the fibre content tends to decrease the strain capacity at
ultimate load by locating the plastic strains of the rebars on a single macro-crack. The casting method
and its repeatability have a great influence on the tensile strength. For thin slabs the SLS is often the
design criterion, particularly in terms of the deflections.
Keywords: thin slabs, reinforced-UHPC, flexural behaviour, punching shear strength, full scale tests,
design methods
1 Introduction
Ultra-High Performance Concrete (UHPC) exhibits significantly higher mechanical properties
and very low permeability compared to plain concrete. Thanks to their exceptional properties,
UHPC has undeniable potential to allow innovative design and to improve durability of
structures [1] [2]. With its high tensile toughness, elements subjected to moderate stress or
having complex shape can be realized without conventional steel reinforcement. Furthermore,
structural elements with less complicated shapes, such as slabs, decks or facade panels, can
be achieved with a combination of UHPC, a lower fibre volume ratio and steel reinforcement.
Since 2007, the UAS Fribourg performs a large research program on UHPC structures. The
principal aim of this project is to analyze the behaviour of UHPC structures with and without
reinforcement and to propose design models. Several experimental studies on structural
elements, beams and slabs, were undertaken for this purpose. The test specimens were made
with Bton Composite Vicat BCV. The BCV is developed by Vicat and belongs to the family of
UHPC as defined in the interim recommendations of the French Civil Engineering Association
(AFGC) [3]. The fibre content is adjusted to the desired tensile properties. The BCV offered
particular potential in innovative achievements such as the Chabotte bridge on the highway A51
in France.
2 Material properties
As part of the various experimental studies, the BCV has been used with different volume ratios
and types of fibers. The four following compositions with their respective names were analyzed:
- BCV-1%A
short steel fibres 13/0.18 mm, Vf = 1% (79 kg/m3)
- BCV-1%B
mix steel fibres 13/0.18 and 20/0.30 mm, Vf = 1% (79 kg/m3)
- BCV-2%
mix steel fibres 13/0.18 and 20/0.30 mm, Vf = 2% (158 kg/m3)
The BCV has an average compressive strength fcm28 of 130 MPa and a fcm90 of 150 MPa on
cylinder, produced without heat treatment. The Youngs modulus is 45 GPa. In order to define
the tensile behaviour, a large number of sawed prisms with a 700 mm length, 200 mm wide and
with a thickness varying between 30 and 80 mm, casted like the one-way loaded and the twoways loaded slabs, were tested in 3-points bending on a 500 mm span (fig. 1).
749
seq [MPa]
35
BCV-1%A
seq [MPa]
35
BCV-2%
30
30
25
25
Typical cracking pattern of BCV-1%A

20
20
15
15
10
10
5
0
0
0
10
10
Deflection d [mm]
Deflection d [mm]
Figure 1: Some results of 3-points bending tests on prisms in relation with the two-ways loaded slabs.
The thin slabs are particularly influenced by the preferential orientation of fibres due to the
casting method and wall effects. Therefore, the characterization tests must demonstrate the
potential anisotropy. The prisms in BCV 1% and 2% exhibited a hardening behaviour in bending
with the formation of multiple cracks. The interim recommendations of the AFGC [3] assumed a
constitutive law in tension expressed in a bilinear relationship s() for a thin element. In these
studies, we assumed an elastic perfectly plastic tensile law.
3 One-way loaded slabs

Description of the experimental study
In order to analyze the flexural behaviour of thin UHPC slabs with and without reinforcement,
the UAS Fribourg has performed a large experimental campaign. The experimental study was
conducted on twenty stripes slabs of 1400 mm length each and 400 mm wide. The varying
parameters among the specimens are: the thickness h, the fibre volume ratio Vf and the
reinforcement ratio (tab. 1). All specimens were casted in a similar manner. The UHPC flow
was oriented in the longitudinal direction.
Table 1: Properties of the specimen.
Thickness
h [mm]
Reinforcement
[%] / [mm]
Fibre volume ratio

Vf [%]
Effective depth
d [mm]
BCV-Vf_30_
30
1A / 1B / 2
BCV-Vf_40_
40
0
1.13 / 4 6
2.01 / 4 8
1A / 1B / 2
0 / 1A / 1B / 2
0 / 1A / 1B
25
BCV-Vf_60_
60
0
1.12 / 4 8
2.13 / 2 10; 212
1A / 1B / 2
0 / 1A / 1B / 2
0 / 1A / 1B
45
80
0
0.98 / 4 9
2.05 / 4 14
1A / 1B / 2
0 / 1A / 1B / 2
0 / 1A / 1B
65
Series
BCV-Vf_80_
The load tests were performed in the Structural laboratory of UAS Fribourg. The slabs were
tested on 4-points bending on 1200 mm span. The load was applied at extremities in order to
obtain inverse bending. The displacement of the actuators was monitored by a servo-electronic
750
system. Recorded data included: applied forces, deflections, top strains, cracking pattern and
the corresponding openings (fig. 2).
Figure 2: Test set-up and the instrumental configuration.
Tests results and analysis

Load [kN]
Load [kN]
h = 40 mm
h = 60 mm
70
28
BCV-0_60_1.12
BCV-0_40_1.13
65
26
BCV-1%A_60_0
BCV-1%A_40_0
24
60
BCV-1%A_40_1.13
BCV-1%A_60_1.12
55
BCV-2%_60_0a
50
BCV-2%_60_0b
18
45
BCV-2%_60_1.12
16
40
14
35
12
30
10
25
20
15
10
22
BCV_2%_40_0
20
BCV-2%_40_1.13
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
Deflection d [mm]
10
20
30
40
50
60
Deflection d [mm]
Figure 3: Some load V deflection at centre d curves of one-way loaded slabs according to the corresponding
thicknesses.
The stiffness and the strength of UHPC slabs with and without conventional stee l reinforcement
were higher compared to the reinforced slabs without fibres BCV-0. However, the deformation
capacity of UHPC slabs diminished largely with the increasing fibre volume ratio; For a fibre
volume ratio of 2%, the deflection at ultimate load was similar between slabs with and without
reinforcement. The reinforced slabs BCV-1% exhibited larger deflection at ultimate load than
the slabs without reinforcement. Once the steel reinforcement reached the yielding limit, the
deformations were localized on a single macrocrack for UHPC reinforced slabs.
The flexural strength was calculated using a simplified model. The model assumed an elastic
perfectly plastic tensile law up to an ultimate strain u. The parameters (fctf and u) were defined
on the prisms. This simplified model showed a good agreement with tests results of slabs with
and without conventional steel reinforcement.
For thin slabs, the deformation criteria at SLS could become the design criteria compared to
the strength. In this study, a deformation criteria of L/300 was considered and the service load
was assumed as following: Pserv = Pu / global with global = 2.14. The test results analysis
highlighted that the deformation criteria at SLS was determinant for the UHPC-reinforced slabs.
Whereas the flexural strength was the design criteria for the UHPC slabs without reinforcement.
751
4 Two-ways loaded slabs [4]

Description of the experimental study
In order to analyze the flexural behaviour and the punching shear strength of thin UHPC slabs
with and without reinforcement, the UAS Fribourg have performed a large experimental
campaign. The experimental study was conducted on twenty square slabs with a 960 mm side.
The varying parameters among the specimens were: the thickness h, the fibre volume ratio Vf
and the reinforcement ratio (tab. 2). One serie, called BCV-2%_h_0, was composed of UHPC
with a fibre volume ratio of 2% and without reinforcement. All slabs were casted in a similar
manner. The UHPC was poured at the centre of the slabs.
Table 2: Properties of the specimen with reinforcement.
Series
Thickness
h [mm]
BCV-Vf_30_
30
BCV-Vf_40_
40
BCV-Vf_60_
60
BCV-Vf_80_
80
Reinforcement
[%] / [mm]
Fibre volume ratio

Vf [%]
Effective depth
d [mm]
1.31 / 5 #100
1A
1/2
15
1A
1A / 2
20
1A
1A / 2
40
1A
1A / 2
60
2.57 / 7 #100
0.98 / 5 #100
1.92 / 7 #100
0.96 / 7 #100
1.96 / 10 #100
1.06 / 9 #100
1.88 / 12 #100
The load tests have been carried out in the Structural laboratory of UAS Fribourg, on a
punching test set-up which was specially designed for this study. The load was applied with an
actuator located at the centre point of the slab through a 80 mm diameter punch. The
displacement of the actuator was monitored by a servo-electronic system. The slab was
supported by eight steel rods, anchored to a steel frame. The support system described a circle
with a diameter of 878 mm and spherical plain thrust bearings allowed free rotations. Recorded
data included: applied forces, deflections, top strains, cracking pattern and the corresponding
openings (fig. 4).
Figure 4: Punching test set-up and the instrumental configuration.

752
Tests results and analysis

Load V [kN]
Load V [kN]
h = 30 mm
55
BCV_1%A_30_0
50
BCV_1%A_30_1.31
45
BCV_1%_30_2.37
BCV_2%_30_0
40
h = 40 mm
55
BCV_2%_30_2.37
BCV_1%A_40_1.92
45
BCV_2%_40_0
40
BCV_2%_40_1.92
35
35
30
30
25
25
20
20
15
15
10
10
BCV_1%A_40_0.98
50
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
55
60
65
70
Deflection at centre d [mm]
Load V [kN]
120
100
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
260
BCV_1%A_60_1.96
240
BCV_2%_60_0
220
BCV_2%_60_1.96a
200
60
65
70
h = 80 mm
280
BCV_1%A_60_0.96
55
Load V [kN]
h = 60 mm
140
BCV_1%A_80_1.06
BCV_1%A_80_1.31
BCV_1%A_80_1.88
BCV_2%_80_0
BCV_2%_80_1.88
180
160
80
140
120
60
100
80
40
60
40
20
20
0
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
10
15
20
25
30
35
Figure 5: Load V deflection at centre d curves of the slabs according to the corresponding thicknesses.
For conventional reinforced-concrete slabs without transversal reinforcement, several

experimental studies highlighted that the punching shear strength was inversely proportional to
the deflection capacity. In other words, for similar RC slabs in terms of concrete compressive
strength, thickness and statical system, as the reinforcement ratio increases, the punching
shear strength increases as well, but the deformation capacity diminishes. Based on the
experimental observations and results, this established fact was similar for the UHPC slabs [5].
V [kN]
200
ft = 8,5 MPa
Ec = 45 GPa
u = 2.5
Vpl = 6.623 mR
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
20
40
60
80
100
Depth h [mm]
Figure 6: Plastic strength Vpl according to the assumed mechanism and experimental results of the slabs
without reinforcement.
753
The slabs without reinforcement exhibited a flexural failure with the development of yield lines.
However, the distribution of the yield lines was random compared to the considered yield
mechanism (fig. 6). The slabs were sawed in half. After the internal cracking analysis, no
punching shear cones were developed for the elements without reinforcement. The flexural
strength of these slabs was moderate, therefore the punching shear strength was not
determining in this studied case.
All slabs with reinforcement reached the yielding limit of the steel reinforcement followed by
a short plastic plateau. The drop of strength was relatively high or not, according to the
thickness and the reinforcement ratio. For the given reinforcement arrangement, we
distinguished two types of failure mechanisms; The first type was when the critical shear crack
intercepts the rebars, resulting in the development of a punching cone and thus the load
capacity was high. As for the second type of failure, the critical shear crack didn't intercept the
rebars,resulting in a development of yield lines, with a concentrated punching cone and thus a
lower load capacity.
The slabs called BCV-2%_40_1.92 and BCV-2%_60_1.96 showed a smaller failure load
compared to the slabs with a fibre volume ratio of 1%. The cracking pattern analysis highlighted
a more accentuated stress localization with the BCV-2% reinforced slabs. Therefore, the centre
rebars were more stressed and reached their yielding limit in a quicker way resulting in a
punching shear failure. The internal cracking analysis is still in process in order to confirm this
assumption.
a)
b)
Figure 7: Cracking pattern, a) slabs without reinforcement, b) slabs with reinforcement.
754
On the basis of the Critical Shear Crack Theory (CSCT) and a proposal for fibre reinforced
concrete developped by Muttoni and Fernandez [5] [7], the punching shear strength model have
been adapted to the UHPC. The developed punching shear model involves the contributions of
the matrix VR,c and the fibres VR,f. For the matrix contribution, it is assumed that the punching
shear strength is carried by the shear friction and is a function of the critical crack opening. The
critical crack opening is assumed to be proportional to the product of the effective depth d with
the slab rotation . Based on these assumptions, the failure criterion is defined as the following:
VR ,c
b0 d f c
34
1 15
(1)
16 d g
Where b0 is the control perimeter, located at d/2 of the edges of the loading support, dg is the
diameter of the biggest aggregate, for UHPC dg = 0.
The fibres contribution correspond to the vertical component of the integration of the tensile
stresses across the punching shear plan Ap (fig. 8). The distribution of the crack opening is
assumed to be linear along the failure plan. With the tensile stress opening law s(w), the
distribution of the tensile stresses is defined along the failure plan. In order to not consider two
times the tensile strength of the matrix, the softening tensile law of the matrix is substracted
from the tensile relationship. The factor K takes account of the fibres orientation.
VR , f
1
s f w dAp
K Ap
(2)
Figure 8: Mechanical model of the fibres contribution.
V
MPa
b0 d f c
VR,c + VR,f 2%
0.9
0.8
VR,c + VR,f 1%
BCV-1%A
0.9
BCV-2%
0.8
0.7
VR,c +VR,f
VR,c +VR,f
VR,f 1%
BCV-1%A
BCV-2%
1%
0.5
0.4
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.2
VR,f
0.2
VR,c
0.1
2%
VR,c 2%
0.6
0.5
h = 80 mm
0.7
VR,f 2%
0.6
V
MPa
b0 d f c
h = 60 mm
1%
VR,c
0.1
0
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
d
[ ]
dg0 dg
Figure 10: Punching shear failure criterion and tests results.

755
0.1
0.2
0.3
d
[ ]
dg0 dg
For determining the punching strength, the load rotation curve must be prealabely calculated.
The relationship V() can be modelized by finite difference or finite element methods [7]. The
intersection between this curve and the failure criteria corresponds to the punching shear
strength. If the curve does not cut the criteria, the flexural strength is determining. In the
graphics of figure 10, the dotted curves represent the fibres contribution along the thickness h
and the plain curves represent the sum of the matrix and fibres contribution on the effective
depth d. The different criterion show a good correlation with the tests results and the observed
mechanisms. However, the punching shear is a local phenomenon and thus the variability due
to fibres orientation can affect the strength in a non-negligible manner.
5 Conclusions
Since 2007, the University of Applied Sciences Fribourg has conducted a large research
program on UHPC structures. The principal aim of this project was to analyze the behaviour of
UHPC structures with and without reinforcement and to propose design models. Several
experimental studies on structural elements, beams and slabs, were undertaken for this
purpose. The experimental studies performed in the structural laboratory of UAS Fribourg have
highlighted the following points:
- UHPC slabs showed a high punching shear strength. Their high tensile strength allowed
an effective control of the punching critical shear crack.
- The tensile strength of UHPC depended on the casting method. The determination of the
materials tensile law must take into account an eventual anisotropy.
- The flexural strength of UHPC slabs without reinforcement was moderate, therefore the
punching shear strength was not determining.
- The cracking pattern analysis highlighted a stress localization which was more important
for the reinforced BCV-2% slabs. Therefore, their punching shear loads were smaller
than those with a 1% fibre volume ratio (BCV 1%)
- On the basis of the Critical Shear Crack Theory the authors propose an harmonized
model for the punching shear strength of UHPC slabs. Therefore, this model must be
validated and simplified to be operational for practitioners [8].
References
[1] Toutlemonde F., Resplendino J. Designing and Building with UHPFRC: State of the Art and
Development, Proceedings of UHPFRC symposium in Marseille (France), November 17-18, 2009,
London, 2011, 814 pp.
[2] Brhwiler E., Moreillon L., Suter R. Btons fibrs ultra-performants, Proceedings of UHPC
symposium in Fribourg (Switerland), October 26, 2011, Fribourg, 2011, 207 pp.
[3] AFGC-SETRA. Interim recommandations, Ultra High Performance Fibre-Reinforced Concretes.
Paris, 2002.
[4] Nseir J., Moreillon L., Suter R. Flexural and punching shear strength of thin UHPFRC slabs, Tests
report, Ecole dingnieurs et darchitectes de Fribourg, 2011.
[5] Fdration Internationale du Bton (fib). Shear and punching shear in RC and FRC elements
Workshop October 15-16, 2010, Sal. Bulletin 57, Lausanne, 2010.
[6] Fdration Internationale du Bton (fib). Model Code 2010 First complete draft. Bulletin 56,
Lausanne, 2010.
[7] Muttoni, Aurelio. "Punching Shear Strength of Reinforced Concrete Slabs without transverse
Reinforcement", ACI Structural Journal, 2008, V.105, No 4, pp. 440 450.
[8] Moreillon, Lionel. Shear and punching shear strength of high performance fibre reinforced concrete
structures. Thesis Universit Paris-Est SIE, Champs-sur-Marne, 2012. (in redaction)
756

Pierre Marchand, Florent Baby, Wal Al Khayer, Mohammed Attrach, Franois
Toutlemonde
Department for Bridges and Structures, IFSTTAR, Paris-Est University, Paris, France
The paper presents the results of analytical and numerical simulation of flexural tests under concentrated
load carried out on waffle UHPFRC slabs developed in the frame of the French Mikti national R & D
project and thin-walled UHPFRC box-cells representative of these slabs. While the failure on UHPFRC
slabs was a punching failure, the box cells showed a ductile failure mode in flexion. Typical yield lines
pattern has been observed, which typically illustrates the ductile bending failure mode of clamped
UHPFRC thin plates.
The experimental results have been compared with the results of non linear finite element models and
with a simpler approach based on the yields line theory. These two methods have enabled to better
understand the failure mechanisms and the behaviour of the 5 cm-thick UHPFRC plate during the tests.
Keywords: UHPFRC, thin element, thin plate, yields line theory, finite element method
1 Experimental program and test results

Between 2004 and 2007, the French R & D National Project MIKTI studied different innovative
solutions concerning steel-concrete composite bridges. In this framework, a prototype of
composite bridge with a UHPFRC waffle deck, was designed by the Bridges Division of CETE
de Lyon (cf. figure 1) and some elements were tested at LCPC (now IFSTTAR) Structures
Laboratory [1] [2] [3] and [4]. Elements were made with two different UHPFRCs, that we will call
UHPFRC A (with heat treatment) and UPFRC B (with no heat treatment), corresponding to
similar main design properties. The mean compressive strength is about 190 MPa for both
materials, mean tensile strength is 9.8 MPa for UHPFRC A and 9.3 MPa for UHPFRC B, and
Youngs modulus is 55 GPa for UHPFRC A and 65 GPa for UHPFRC B.
The waffle deck was prestressed in the transversal direction by pre-tensioning and
prestressed in longitudinal direction by external post-tensioning. Transversal pre-tensioning is
ensured by 2 T15.7 strands by rib with initial tensioning at 0.8 fpk (characteristic tensile strength
of tensile elements: 1860 MPa) leading to a permanent compressive stress of 2.98 MPa in top
side, and 18.59 MPa in bottom side (3.86 MPa for mean stress in top deck). External tendons
made of T12.5 strands (fpk = 1860 MPa) ensure longitudinal post-tensioning. The tendons are
approximately at the neutral axis, resulting in a quasi-homogeneous compressive stress of 4.35
MPa in the section.
Experiments concerned the fatigue resistance under intense traffic loadings, anchoring of the
safety barrier, connection between steel beams and waffle UHPFRC deck, and resistance of
waffle deck under localized traffic load [5].
Figure 1: Transverse profile of composite bridge deck (left); longitudinal segments cross-section, waffle slab
dimensions (right) - dimensions in mm.
757
Punching shear tests on the whole waffle deck

To assess resistance of UHPFRC deck under concentrated wheel load generated by traffic, a
localized rectangular loading has been applied on the UHPFRC waffle deck to check the safety
with respect to punching shear failure mechanism (cf. figure 2).
Figure 2: Punching test on the UHPFRC waffle deck.
Figure 3: Supporting stays under corners of the loaded box cell (left), punching failure (right).
The load was applied directly at the center of the box while 4 supporting stays were placed on
the 4 corners of the loaded cell box, to limit transverse deflection. These supporting stays were
adjusted in such a way that they took 90% of the dead weight effect before applying the load by
the actuator.
The load was applied following four successive configurations, to represent the effect of a
wheel load and the bituminous concrete layer. Indeed, the bituminous concrete layer enables to
enlarge the loaded zone through a distribution phenomenon in its depth. Here, Ertalon
material was used because of its stiffness very close to bituminous concrete (Youngs Modulus
about 2.5 to 3 GPa).
1 : steel plate dimensions 400x400x40 mm, on a 90 mm thick Ertalon plate
2 : steel plate dimensions 400x400x40 mm, on a 3 mm sand layer
3 : steel plate dimensions 260x190x40 mm (with corners cut at 20 mm), on a 90 mm thick
Ertalon plate
4 : steel plate dimensions 260x190x40 mm (with corners cut at 20 mm), on a on a 3 mm
sand layer.
Only the fourth configuration enabled the punching failure before reaching the capacity of the
stays (around 700 kN). The first three configurations only create cracks less than 0.2 mm wide.
Failure loads were between 352 and 417 kN corresponding to punching shear (cf. figure 3).
758
Local bending tests on isolated box cells

Loading configurations 1, 2 and 4 have also been applied directly on two isolated box cells, (cf.
figure 4), fabricated with the same UHPFRC batches as the waffle decks. The ribs height and
deck depth were the same, but the rib thickness was increased. One box cell was made of
UHPFRC A and the other one is made with UHPFRC B. The box cells were supported by four
roll bearings located at the corners under the ribs.
Figure 4: Local bending test on isolated box cell (loading configuration number 1), cell box geometry
(dimensions in mm).
Under configurations 1 and 2, cracks developed in the ribs without reaching failure (even under
about 800 kN). Under configuration 4, failure was reached, but the failure mechanism was not
punching failure but local bending failure, with the development of yield lines in the deck as
shown on figure 5. The failure load was 382 kN for UHPFRC A and 390 kN for UHPFRC B.
Figure 5: Yield lines after failure at bottom side (left) and top side (right).
2 Analysis using yield lines theory

Theory and application on single cell boxes
The yield lines method consists in using the mechanism which leads to the failure of the
structure to predict the failure load. We consider that the structure turns progressively into a
multi-hinges mechanism. These hinges are created by the material yielding along lines between
plates supposed perfectly rigid. Equalling internal forces work and external forces leads to the
759
maximum force determination. Here the yield lines are directly known from the experimental
results. We will hence apply this method with the observed yield lines and no minimum energy
solution is to be computed.
To apply this method, we need to determine the law between bending moment M and
concentrated rotation angle . We use the law provided by French AFGC-BFUP
recommendations for UHPFRC [6] with parameters consistent with mechanical characteristics
determined during the study (cf. figure 6) [2]. We consider here the constitutive law for thick
elements -w, rather than the law for thin elements -. This latter assumes that multi-cracking
occurs due to the good fibre orientation because of the thin depth. We are obviously beyond
this step here. The values of elastic tensile strength and post-cracking peak stress have been
slightly increased to take into account the fibres favourable orientation in thin elements.
We have here considered the following behaviour law for both materials:
Figure 6 : constitutive law for both UHPFRC materials
Figure 7 : kinematic hypothesis for UHPFRC.
The M- law is determined using the kinematic assumption proposed by [7] (cf. figure 7) which
stipulates that the deformed shape has a parabolic variation of curvature between m and E:
E m E .1
(1)
Which leads to
w0
2
m 2 E h
h
3
(2)
Using this latter equation as well as the axial force and bending moment equation, we can
deduce the M- law (cf. figure 8). We assume here that the axial force is equal to zero which is
the case for the isolated box cells.
Bending moment - concentrated rotation angle
14
M (kN.m/m)
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
(10-3 rad)
Figure 8 : M- law.
The mechanism is shown in figure 9 for load configuration n4. We assume that the load is
applied only on the perimeter of the steel rectangular plate (we neglect the 2 cm cut corners).
Indeed, we consider that the load is equally distributed under the rectangular steel plate when
the test starts, but the contact pressure becomes non uniform when the load increases and the
760
deflection of the specimen increases. When the deflection is rather high, the contact pressure
only applies at the periphery of the rectangular steel plate. We suppose that the 3 cm sand
layer is not sufficient to distribute load when the deflection increases.
Figure 9 : mechanism with yield lines.
We can write the virtual power of internal forces only in function of the angles between the
undeformable plates and their derivatives. For example, considering a yield line, with a length L
between two plates having an angle and a virtual speed angle , the virtual power of internal
forces for this yield line is :
Pint L. .M
(3)
As all these angles depend on the deflection , the virtual power of internal forces can be
written as :
Pint . f
(4)
The virtual power of external forces is (cf. figure 9):

Pext
500 190
120
.F
.F
500
195
(5)
Where F is the force exerted by the actuator.

Equalling virtual power of internal forces and virtual power of external forces enables to
obtain the force in function of the deflection .
Results on single box cells in configuration 4
For a single box cell, the force function of deflection is shown in figure 10 and table 1.
F function of - experimental results
450
400
400
350
350
300
300
250
250
Force (kN)
Force (kN)
F function of model results

450
200
150
UHPFRC A
200
UHPFRC B
150
100
100
50
50
0
0
10
-50
10
(mm)
(mm)
Figure 10 : comparison between analytical model and experimental results.
While the computed vs experimental maximum force is comparable, the predicted deflectio n is
rather far from experimental results. First the deflection is not only caused by the breaking
angle between plates supposed undeformable but also by continuous deformation of these
plates, where cracks have appeared during the first two configurations of load. Moreover,
several cracks have occurred in some yield lines, leading to a bigger rotation angle for a same
bending moment.
761
Table 1: comparison between analytical model and experimental results.
Maximal force
Deflection at max force
Yield lines model
378 kN
2.2 mm
UHPFRC A
382 kN
6.8 mm
UHPFRC B
391 kN
5.3 mm
Results on UHPFRC waffle slab

The main difference with the single box comes from the effect of prestressing on the upper
deck. The resulting compressive stress is about 3.86 MPa in transversal direction and 4.35 MPa
in longitudinal direction (cf. part 1) (on figure 8, AA axis is in transverse direction). This
compressive stress has an influence on the M- curve as can be seen in figure 11. The two
curves in figure 11 are obtained using the same method than the one described in part 2 but
with an axial force not equal to zero but corresponding to the mean stress obtained in both
transversal and longitudinal direction.
Bending moment - breaking angle - transversal direction
Mmaxi = 17.8 kN.m/m

M (kN.m/m)
M (kN.m/m)
Bending moment - breaking angle - longitudinal direction

20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0
0,02
0,04
0,06
0,08
0,1
Mmaxi = 17.1 kN.m/m
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
0
0,12
20
40
60
80
100
120
(mrad)
(mrad)
Figure 11: M- law for longitudinal (left) and transversal direction (right).
This leads to a maximum force equal to 523 kN. Figure 12 shows the force-deflection curve
obtained with this method. The force obtained is much higher than the experimental failure load
(maximum force between 352 and 417 kN with punching failure). This is perfectly consistent
with the fact that shear failure occurred before local bending failure.
F function of - model results
600
Force (kN)
500
400
300
200
100
0
0
10
12
(mm)
Figure 12 : Force versus deflection for local bending failure mode on prestressed waffle slab.
3 Finite element method

In order to better understand the behaviour of the single box cell including the formation of
cracks, we have modelled it using CESAR-LCPC F.E. software.
The model contains 3D hexaedric elements with quadratic interpolation. Figure 13 shows the
geometry of the model.
762
Figure 13 : Model geometry.
To take into account the non linear behaviour of UHPFRC in tension, we used the William
Warnke plasticity criteria [8] with a compressive strength of 190 MPa and a tensile strength of
9 MPa.
Results
The maximum force computed is about 420 kN, that is slightly higher than the experimental
results, despite the relatively low tensile strength taken into account.
Figure 14 : Visualisation of plastic strain at bottom side of plate when increasing the load up to 382 kN.
Figure 14 shows the plastic strain at bottom side under increasing load. We can notice that the
yield lines shapes appear under heavy load. Figure 15 shows the force-deflection curve for a
FEM elastic model, a FEM non linear model (as described above), and experimental results
with UHPFRC A and B. As observed with the yield lines analytical method, the maximum
deflection is significantly underestimated in the model. Moreover, the predicted initial stiffness is
much higher. A possible explanation is the pre-cracked state when applying the load in
configuration n4 (due to previous loading in configurations n1 and 2). This hypothesis has
been confirmed by comparing the experimental results of the first loading with configuration n1
and FEM model results (cf. figure 16).
Force-deflection, comparison FEM model and experimental results
450
400
Force (kN)
350
300
250
UHPFRC A
UHPFRC B
200
FEM-Linear Elastic
150
FEM non-linear
100
50
0
0
10
Deflection at midspan (mm)
Figure 15: Force-deflection curve, comparison between FEM model and experimental results for load
configuration n4.
763
Force-deflection, comparison FEM model and experimental results

1200
1000
Force (kN)
800
600
UHPFRC A
FEM-Linear Elastic
FEM non-linear
400
200
0
-0,2
0,2
0,4
0,6
0,8
1,2
1,4
-200
Deflection at midspan (mm)
Figure 16: Force-deflection curve, comparison between FEM model and experimental results for load
configuration n1.
4 Conclusions
This paper highlights the possibility of using the yield lines method for assessing the resistance
of thin UHPFRC plates under local loads.
FEM methods can be used to determine the directions of the yield lines in the mechanism
and estimate roughly the resistance. It still needs to be improved for deflection prediction of
complex UHPFRC structures.
References
[1] Chabrolin B., Kretz T., Laravoire J., Ponts mixtes acier-bton, un guide pour des ouvrages innovants
Projet national Mikti, Presses de lcole nationale des ponts et chausses (2010).
[2] Toutlemonde F., Resplendino J., Sorelli L., Bouteille S., Brisard S. (2005) Innovative design of Ultrahigh Performance Fiberreinforced Concrete ribbed slab : experimental validation and preliminary
detailed analyses, 7th International Symposium on Utilization of High Strength / High Performance
Concrete, Washington D.C. (USA), june 20-22, 2005, ACI SP-228, H. Russel ed., SP 228--76, pp.
1187-1206.
[3] Toutlemonde, F. : Synthse des tudes et rsultats de validation dun prototype de dalle gaufre en
BFUP, rapport dessais experimentaux raliss de 2004 2007 dans le cadre du projet national
Mikti. Imprimerie du laboratoire national des ponts et chausses, 2009.
[4] Toutlemonde, F., Renaud J.C., Lauvin L., Simon A., Behloul M., Bouteille S., Resplendino J. :
Experimental validation of ribbed UHPFRC bridge deck. Proc. 2nd International Symposium on
UHPC 2008, p771.
[5] Toutlemonde, F. et al : Local bending tests and punching failure of a ribbed UHPFRC deck. In proc
FRAMCOS-6, Catania (Italy), 2007.
[6] AFGC-Stra : Ultra-high performance Fiber-Reinforced Concretes, Interim Recommendations.
Bagneux, France. 2002.
[7] Casanova, P., Rossi, P.: Analysis of metallic fibre-reinforced concrete beams submitted to bending.
Materials and Structures, vol29, July 1996, pp354-361.
[8] Ulm, F.J. : Un modle dendommagement plastique : applications aux btons de structure. Thse de
doctorat de lENPC,1994, Presses du laboratoire des Ponts et Chausses, ERLPC, OA19.
764

Bernhard Freytag1, Martha Escobar1, Werner Guggenberger 2, Linder Josef1,
Lutz Sparowitz3
2: Institute of Steel Structures, Graz University of Technology, Austria
14 Laboratory tests on 25 mm thick UHPFRC-panels demonstrate that the buckling behaviour is strongly
influenced by early lateral cracking. Nevertheless a typical bifurcation behaviour appears. This paper
briefly summarises the experimental investigation but mainly explain the results by means of theoretical
exploration. It is shown that an orthotropic linear buckling theory describes simply and appropriately the
bifurcation load in the cracked state obtained in the experiments. In order to investigate the field of plastic
buckling, three uniaxial compressive material laws for UHPFRC are developed and applied to the
Engesser-Karman-Shanley theory. The solutions obtained represent the plastic buckling of cracked but
geometrically perfect plates and is hence the upper limit of plastic buckling capacity. In terms of an
exploration of the entire buckling problem in the n-m plot (axial force - bending moment) it is clearly
shown how the imperfections of real plates affect the respective buckling load and how the theories
presented have to be extended.
Keywords: plate buckling, UHPFRC, buckling experiments, orthotropic buckling theory
1 Introduction
Plate buckling is a failure mode of plates that are mainly loaded in plane through compression
or shear or both. The more slender a structure, the more likely is a buckling failure. Using the II.
order theory the critical load can be calculated according to the theory of Euler. The buckling
criterion is a point of bifurcation. It is valid for perfect plates with linear elastic materials. If
theories of higher order are used, large deformations are taken into account, what leads to
carrying capacities higher than the bifurcation load. Due to lateral tensile membrane stress the
loading compression relocates from freely buckling regions to stabilised regions at the
supported edges. This is a well known phenomenon in the field of steel structures and is called
hypercritical capacity. In order to get a comprehensive theory covering the entire variety of
slenderness the non linear material behaviour must finally be considered.
Conventionally reinforced concrete structures are rather thick and do not often show a
buckling risk. Thanks to the high compressive strength of UHPFRC modern structures are
designed light and slender and therefore require careful structural analyses including a buckling
verification. In order to deepen the understanding in this field, an experimental program has
been performed in the scope of the translational research project UHPC-Panels (L280-N07),
funded by the Austrian Science Fund. This paper focuses on the analytical exploration of the
experimental and numerical results which are briefly summarised in the following chapter. More
detailed information about the experimental program is given in [1].
2 Experimental and Numerical Investigation

Specimens
The program consists of 14 specimens and covers 5 levels of slenderness. The buckle
specimens under investigation have an I-cross section in the plan view. The flanges at the
vertical edges of the plate ensure sufficient fixation of the edges during the tests. Rotations of
the edges are possible to an extent which depends on the torsional stiffness of the flanges. The
concave edges are rounded out in order to avoid notch stress as well as local disturbances in
765
fibre orientation. The specimens are cast with ductal, a product of Lafarge. It is a fine
aggregate UHPC reinforced with 2 vol.-% steel fibres. The high specimens have significant
tolerances in thickness caused by the high casting pressure due to the highly flowable mix.
Thus, the real distribution of thickness is measured for the subsequent consideration in
numerical as well as analytical analyses. The most important properties of the material and the
specimens are given in table 1.
Table 1: Specimens, material.
average at the
area of the
buckling region corss section
tested on
tested on
slenderness prisms 4/4/16 poisson cubes 10/10/10
fc,cube0,87
d/t
fc, cube
fc, shell
[cm ]
[cm ]
[cm ]
[cm ]
[cm 2]
[cm ]
[-]
Ec
[N/m m 2]
[-]
bifurcation
load
[N/m m 2]
[N/m m 2]
[kN]
[kN]
[-]
[-]
50-01
50
10
80
2,5
172,3
37,3
14,9
57.300
0,15
198,1
172,3
2540
0,86
50-02
50
10
80
2,55
175,7
37,3
14,6
58.100
0,15
198,1
172,3
2817
0,93
75-01
75
15
120
2,6
263,5
56,0
21,5
57.300
0,15
198,1
172,3
3950
0,87
75-02
75
15
120
2,6
263,5
56,0
21,5
58.100
0,15
198,1
172,3
2856
0,63
75-04
75
15
120
2,55
259,9
56,0
21,9
56.700
0,15
180,9
157,4
2021
0,49
100-01 108
22
172
2,7
399,6
80,2
29,7
56.400
0,15
207,6
180,6
3982
3982
0,55
0,55
100-02 108
21
172
2,6
385,4
80,2
30,9
56.400
0,15
196,9
171,3
3957
3957
0,60
0,60
100-03 108
22
172
2,5
374,3
80,2
32,1
52.800
0,15
178,4
155,2
3395
3395
0,58
0,58
150-01 153
30
240
2,8
571,3
113,8
40,6
55.000
0,15
182,2
158,5
3500
3501
0,39
0,39
150-02 153
30
240
2,7
557,0
113,8
42,2
55.800
0,15
180,4
156,9
3500
3652
0,42
0,40
200-01 198
40
305
818,1
147,4
49,1
60.100
0,15
190,6
165,8
3600
3645
0,27
0,27
200-02 198
40
308
2,9
731,4
147,4
50,8
56.400
0,15
182,2
158,5
3300
3617
0,31
0,28
lable
1 , 34
related
related
ultimate ultimate bifurcation
load
load
load
Experimental Set-up
The upper and lower edges are totally fixed in terms of well fitting compression contact between
the specimen and the testing machine. A layer of ultra high strength mortar and a 1m deep steel
element ensure uniform load distribution. The geometric dependencies between width and
height as well as the flange depth are chosen in a way that the load-buckling behaviour of the
specimen is nearly the same as that from an all-around simply supported quadratic plate (d/d in
Fig. 1). This geometric coordination offers the possibility of comparisons to simple analytical
solutions. 32 sensors record the deformations and strains as well as the load during the test.
Detailed information about the measuring setup is also given in [1].
Fy
uy
uz
Fz
Figure 1: Specimen, experimental set-up.
766
Experimental procedure
Buckling is generally a spontaneous failure where lateral displacements suddenly increase
without further load increase. In order to avoid that kind of collapse, the experiments presented
here are controlled by the use of a new hybrid type of control. The sum of the vertical machine
way uy and the lateral displacement uz (buckle) is increased steadily with a rate of 5m/s. This
method allows for remaining the measuring instruments on the specimen until the very end of
the experiment. The decreasing part of the load-buckling curves can be observed and the crack
pattern can be evaluated. A trouble free test procedure can only be assured if the direction of
the buckle is known. FE simulations show, that a 1mm imperfection in the middle of the plate is
small enough for getting load-buckle curves with a typical course to find the bifurcation load.
Since the 1 mm imperfection cannot be manufactured, the initial buckle is imposed by means of
a lateral single load Fz. This load causes an elastically deformed buckle which must be kept up
throughout the experiment. Thus, also the load must be constant throughout the test, which is
realised by means of a deviated weight of ballast. Numerical investigation verified that the
buckling behaviour of a non perfect specimen and that of the laterally preloaded specimen are
similar.
The final test procedure consists of three steps. Firstly, the specimen is vertically loaded up
to 300 kN. This assures that a certain lateral load can be transferred over the contact joint by
means of friction. Secondly, the lateral load is applied and increased until the initial buckle
amounts to 1 mm. Thirdly, the intrinsic load is applied.
Results and Findings
The key evaluation of the experiments is performed in the n-m diagram (Fig. 2). The specific
development of axial force and bending moment is plotted for the three critical points A, B and
C (marked in Fig. 1) and can comfortably be compared with the cross-sectional failure criterion
and the crack criterion. Since section forces can not be measured directly, the curves are taken
from carefully modelled numerical simulations. These consider non perfect, real wall thickness
as well as actual strength and Youngs modulus.
-48
-40
-36
-32
-28
5000
4500
4000
load Fy [kN]
-44
axial force n [kN/cm]
5500
A-ny, myx
A-elastic solution
B-ny, myx
B-elastic solution
C-ny, myx
C-elastic solution
cross-sectional failure criterion
crack criterion
7
-24
6
-20
3
-12
-8
-1
-4
-16
4
4
10
11
12
0
4
13
2
Labor-150-01
experiment
150-01
Labor-150-02
experiment
150-02
nichtlineare
FE- Berechnung
nonlinear
FE-calculation
150-02
linear-elastische
Lsung
linear
FE-calculation
150-02
1000
2500
1500
3000
2000
3500
500
buckling deflection in B [mm]

0
bending moment m [kNcm/cm]
12
18
24
30
36
42
48
Figure 2: Experimental results of series 150.
The experiment 150-02 represents the classical case of bifurcation (Fig. 2 right). This is
because the laterally imposed deflection obviously only compensates for a real lateral
imperfection. It results in a loading with almost no bending until buckling occurs. Thanks to the
special loading control the plateau of bifurcation is also nicely realised. At the end of the
experiment some further load increase takes place. This is made possible by the formation of
767
horizontal cracks as can be seen in Fig. 2 (left) where the development of axial force and
bending moment crosses the crack criterion at point 4. Axial forces relocate from the buckle to
the fixed edges (see line A-ny, myx point 7). As explained in the introduction this is a matter of
hypercritical behaviour. At the more slender series 200 it is more distinct.
The above mentioned typical bifurcation load can be seen in several experiments of the
series 100, 150 and 200. It is indicated through a peak in the ny-myx development in the middle
of the plates (point B). These lines are summarised in Fig. 3 and compared to their physically
linear equivalent, one of each slenderness. The experimental bifurcation loads are always lower
than the ideal critical Euler solution. This is due to the loss of lateral bending stiffness caused
by vertical cracking or even by exceeding the lateral bending capacity. Finally it must be
noticed, that the results of the more compact types (especially series 75) scatter significantly.
The reason for that could not be reliably detected. It is most likely that an unintended weakness
in the load introducing joint accounts for that. Since the real compressive stress is very high in
these cases, it is very likely that the mortar layer plastifies and thus permits rotation.
3 Analytical approach
The following treatise is limited to the all around simply supported quadratic plate. This
fundamental case leads to simple equations which can easily be extended for other edge
relations or other supporting conditions later on. Experiments are compared with theory by
means of the adequate quadratic plate ((d/d) in Fig. 1).
The buckling behaviour is highly affected by the crack formation in UHPFRC. It is important
to distinguish between cracks in the lateral carrying system (vertical cracks) and in the
longitudinal one (horizontal cracks). So it is advisable to specify different terms. In the following
text, state II refers to cracks parallel to the loading direction, which always occur before
transversal cracking. Cracks in both directions are referred to as state III. Nothing has been
changed in the use of the term state I (uncracked) (see Fig. 4).
The hyper-critical behaviour, especially observed at the specimens 200, is not subject of the
following treatise.
Figure 3: Overview of experimental results.
Figure 4: Theoretical principles in the n-m plot.
768
Elastic buckling under cracked conditions (state II)

State II represents reduced flexural stiffness orthogonal to the loading direction. The buckling
load shall be calculated in form of the elastic bifurcation load of an orthotropic plate and
subsequently be compared to the experimental results. The universally valid solution for short
rectangular plates (one wave) is given in equation (1).
E 2 t 1
2
4
k y 2 k yx k x
12 (1 n 2 ) d 4
N buck, I
(1)
c
.................................................. width-to-height ratio
d
ky
Ky ,
K
k x x .................................. related flexural stiffnesses, y=longitudinal, x=lateral
Ky
Ky
k xy
Kn 2 K yx
Ky
t
K y n 2 G 12
3
Ky
1 ............. related twisting stiffness
In the case of the quadratic plate becomes 1 and as a consequence a simple partitioning of
the buckling resistance arises: longitudinal bending 25%, lateral bending 25%, twisting 50%.
The experiments have shown, that the transversal bending resistance has either already been
exceeded before the buckling takes place or it is reached at the same time. So it makes sense
to calculate the lateral bending stiffness at the ultimate limit state (beginning of the pulling out of
fibres). Doing this according to [2], the loss of lateral bending stiffness amounts to more than
90%. To simplify matters, a total loss of lateral bending stiffness is assumed for further
calculations. Since the experiments do not show diagonal cracks, the twisting stiffness is
considered to be still existent. Consequently, the elastic bifurcation load of cracked plates (state
II) can be described by the following equation.
N buck, II
E 2
t 3

2
12 (1 n ) d 4
(2)
In the field of metal structures a non-dimensional notation has been established. Its key
advantage is that the relationship between slenderness and buckling load can be separated
from material effects such as the real strength and stiffness of the plate. Doing so, the
comparison between experimental results and analytical models is free from unintended errors.
In order to benefit from that method, the slenderness (d/t), which is commonly used in structural
concrete, must be multiplied by a material based constant. The so obtained related slenderness
will be denoted as :
d
t
f c 12 1 n 2
E
(3)
f c .................................................. compression strength

The buckling capacity is related to the cross-sectional ultimate capacity N u f c A . Thus, the
equation of the hyperbola of Euler (equations (1) and (2)) simplifies to equation (4) wherein the
right part (partitions of buckling resistance) is substituted by the constant , which indicates the
state of cracking ( I 1 for state I, II 34 for state II)
N buck
1
i 2 e
Nu
(4)
769
These theoretical results as well as the experimental results are illustrated in Fig. 5 (right).
The agreement between the observations from experiments and the theoretical results is very
satisfactory. In particular the test results of series 150, which has been identified as the
classical bifurcation case, verify the theoretical approach impressively. The bifurcation loads
obtained in the experiments of series 200 are also in good accordance to the orthotropic
hyperbola. The existence of hyper-critical capacity in series 200 is also confirmed in theory.
The less slender experiments (series 100), which also buckled far from cross-sectional material
failure (see Fig. 3), do not fully agree with the linear orthotropic theory. They indicate a small
deviating trend. The reason for this will be disclosed in the following chapter.
Figure 5: Elastic and plastic theory of bifurcation for state II in comparison to exp erimental results.
Plastic Buckling under Cracked Conditions (state II)

The linear elastic theory presented above loses its validity once the occurring stress exceeds
the proportionality limit. In the cracked state (II) the Hooks law is given up any way, but this fact
has already been considered in terms of the orthotropic behaviour. Thus, the following
discussion about stress and plastic material behaviour relates only to the longitudinal direction
and concerns only compression.
Generally, a bifurcation theory is based on the indifferent equilibrium of a structure in an
infinitesimal laterally deflected state. The resetting effects come from the three parts of buckling
resistance shown in equation (1). Assuming that the twisting stiffness is not affected if the
longitudinal stress exceeds the proportionality limit, the theory of Engesser, Karman and
Shanley (EKS) should be well applicable for plastic buckling of UHPFRC plates. The theory has
initially been developed for buckling of columns but it became also part of the DIN 4114A
concerning buckling of rectangular steel plates [3].
In particular the theory contains a mechanically consistent reduction of the flexural stiffness if
the compressive stress is beyond the proportionality limit. The stiffness is proportional to the
actual slope of the material law; the tangent modulus Tc at the stress level of bifurcation.
EKS
Tc ( EKS )
e
Ec
(4)
E c .................................................. Elastic modulus of UHPFRC
Tc ( EKS ) ........................................ Tangent modulus of UHPFRC dependent on EKS
770
How to find the solution of EKS for a given material law is illustrated in Fig. 5 by means of one
example point Tc Ec / 2 . Three types of uniaxial material laws are developed (Fig. 5 left).
Simple and practicable, explicit solutions can be found with a quadratic parabola and a cosine
approach. The constitutive laws are given in table 2, line 1. Line 2 shows the fracture strain for
a given proportionality limit pl . It is a matter of course, that it is also possible to specify the
fracture strain and calculate the proportionality limit. The final explicit solution of plastic
bifurcation is written in non-dimensional notation in line 3 of table 2 without further derivation.
The third approach is a cubic parabola, which offers one more free parameter and hence allows
for specification of both material parameters, u and pl . Its complicated solution is not
provided in terms of a formula but it is illustrated graphically together with the others in Fig. 5.
Table 2: Explicit solutions for plastic bifurcation.
Quadratic parabola
Cosine approach
E2
4 f c pl
material
law
f c ( u ) 2
strain at
ultimate
stress
plastic
buckling
load
2 f c pl
EKS
with
1 2 p
pl
1 1 c
E 2 pl
EKS
p4
p
E 1

f c pl 2
pl ( pl f c ) cos
32
9
with
pl
pl pl2 1 p 4 2 pl 1
1 p 4
p 169 pl 1
The knowledge about the real uniaxial material law of the specimens is unfortunately bad. Only
the compressive strength and the E-modulus are determined from tests on cubes and prisms
respectively. As already mentioned in chapter 2 there is a strong scatter of the results in series
75. These two facts preclude a reputable comparison between experiments and plastic theory.
In any case the theoretical treatment is very helpful to gain a fundamental understanding and
experience about the key effects on buckling behaviour. The illustration of the theoretic values
in fig. 5 is based on a proportionality limit of 60% of the strength, taken from former
compression tests on samples of the same material. The fracture strain u varies with the
choice of the function from 3,6 to 4,1. In the case of the cubic approach u is chosen as
being 5,5 in order to learn about the sensitivity of the plastic bifurcation load to the material
law. Special attention is drawn to the comparison between the series 100 experiments and the
plastic as well as the elastic buckling theory. Since these experiments are fully reliable the
deviation from the theory must be explained. The EKS-theory as well as the Euler-theory deal
only with perfect plates which are loaded absolutely axially until the bifurcation load is reached.
At this point the actual tangent stiffness works against buckling. This circumstance can be
comprehended in the n-m diagram (see Fig. 4). If the slenderness is between 0 and
pl 1,12 (Fig. 5), the stress will reach the plastic part of the material law. Finally, an infinite
imperfection suffices to buckle the plate and the bending moments will grow exorbitantly without
any further increase of axial force. The point of buckling is situated at the ordinate. It is obvious,
that the area of validity of bifurcation theories is limited to the n-axis. In order to get better
understanding of all cases of buckling off the n-axis, the n-m area will be subdivided through
771
two additional criterions: the proportionality limit of the neutral axis and the proportionality limit
of the bending compression zone. In the upper area the cross-section is fully plastifying, in the
lower area only parts of the bending compression zone exceed the proportionality limit.
According to the bifurcation theory, the specimen 100 would buckle elastically (Fig. 5), but the
n-m plot (Fig. 3) clarifies, that in fact the buckling takes place in the area of partial plasticity. At
this n-m point the neutral axis is still elastic but the bending compression zone already behaves
nonlinear which results in a certain reduction of flexural stiffness. This also needs consideration
in the theory. The magnitude of additional reduction of the buckling capacity due to partial
plastification depends on the lateral imperfection or on lateral loads. These induce pre buckling
bending moments which make the n-m path run to the fully plastic or to the partially plastic
area. The final location of the buckling point depends on the magnitude of the imperfection w0
which correlates with the initial slope of the n-m curve (Fig. 4). Improved solutions are expected
if the relationship between axial force and lateral deflection, the decisive flexural stiffness and
the classical buckling criterion are brought together.
4 Conclusions
The proposed orthotropic bifurcation theory captures the crack formation of UHPFRC very well.
If changing conditions also lead to a drop of the twisting stiffness the theory can be easily
extended. At high slenderness where the material remains elastic until buckling the theoretic
bifurcation load represents also the real ultimate capacity, because there is no reduction due to
imperfections [3]. Further increase of slenderness leads to hypercritical bearing behaviour
which is not theoretically treated here. The theory of Engesser et al. represents a strict solution
for plastic bifurcation of less slender plates. It only covers perfect plates and is hence just an
upper limit of the buckling capacity. The exploration of buckling in the interaction plot (axial
force bending moment) points out how the present theories must be advanced in order to
cover imperfections. A large area of partial plastification which is beneath the uniaxial
proportionality limit clearly demonstrates that the border between elastic and plastic buckling
(Fig. 5 right) will shift to the right (higher slenderness) if imperfections are considered. At the
opposite end of the slenderness scale the interaction plot says that imperfections even affect
the ultimate bearing capacity of compact structures. Here further tests are needed to
compensate for the actually unreliable data. Finally, the small area of state I (Fig. 4)
theoretically exists indeed, but a practical exploitation of it is absolutely unadvisable, because
lateral cracking can also be initiated by shrinkage, temperature or other unintended loads.
5 Acknowledgements
This research is part of the translational research project UHPC-Panels (L280-N07) which is
funded by the Austrian Science Fund. The material of the specimens is sponsored by Lafarge
(Paris and Vienna) prepared with a special mixer, sponsored by the Gustav Eirich GmbH and
tested at FH-Krnten. The authors are deeply grateful for this support.
References
[1] Escobar, M.; Freytag, B.; Linder, J.; Sparowitz, L.: Experimentelle und numerische Untersuchungen
zum Beulen von dnnen Scheiben aus UHPFRC unter Druckbeanspruchung. Beton- und
Stahlbetonbau 107 (1), 2012.
[2] Heinzle, G.; Freytag, B.; Linder, J.; Sparowitz, L.: Rissbildung von biegebeanspruchten Bauteilen aus
ultrahochfestem Faserbeton. Beton- und Stahlbetonbau 104 (3), p.134-144, 2009.
[3] Petersen, C.: Statik und Stabilitt der Baukonstruktionen: elasto- u. plasto-stat.
Berechnungsverfahren druckbeanspruchter Tragwerke; Nachweisformen gegen Knicken, Kippen,
Beulen; Vieweg, Braunschweig, Wiesbaden 1980.
772
Analytical and experimental investigations on the

introduction of compressive loads in thin walled elements
made of UHPFRC by the use of implants
Jan Mittelstdt1, Werner Sobek1,2
1: Institute for Lightweight Structures and Conceptual Design (ILEK), University of Stuttgart, Germany
2: IIT College of Architecture, Illinois Institute of Technology (IIT) Chicago, USA
Ultra-High-Performance Fiber Reinforced Concrete (UHPFRC) has advantageous structural and

aesthetical properties that enable a wide range of practical applications [1]. Its given high compressive
strength, almost free formability and potential application without any traditional reinforcement allows for
the design of thin walled structural elements. Connecting these elements on site requires the
development of new construction techniques. The authors are developing a construction method which
allows thin walled elements to be point connected by means of so called implants. Design basis for the
implants so far is the transfer of high local compressive loads. Thus, the utilization of bearing capacity in
the connecting point by a homogeneous introduction of stresses becomes the main design issue. Based
on a first implant design [2,5], further analytical and experimental investigations were carried out.
Different effects on the stiffness, size, form and geometry of implant components were analysed and are
presented in this paper.
Keywords: Ultra-high-performance concrete, Fiber reinforced concrete, Joining/Fitting, Prefabricated
elements, Composite construction method, Implant
1 Introduction
Advantageous properties of Ultra-High-Performance Fibre Reinforced Concrete (UHPFRC) are
its given high compressive strength, almost free formability, potential application without any
traditional reinforcement and its excellent surface quality. Prefabrication of structural elements
made of UHPFRC allows for a consistent high material quality [1]. However, requirements for
the assembly, disassembly and recyclability as well as the compensation of tolerances and the
accessibility of the gap between joined structural elements have to be taken into account for
joining prefabricated elements on site [2]. New tendencies for the structural and architectural
design by the use of UHPFRC elements arise. A reduction in weight, consumption of material,
resources and energy as well as the creation of aesthetical surface impressions could go along.
Practical applications for thin walled elements made of UHPFRC are for example shell
structures, roofings or facade elements. Considering the basic necessity for a prefabrication of
structural elements made of UHPFRC, the development of a construction method moves into
the center of attention for practical applications. The authors are developing a construction
method for thin walled elements made of UHPRFC by the use of implants. Basis for the
construction method are considerations of essential requirements coming from the design for
assembly, disassembly, flexibility and the general transfer of high forces, thus, enhancing the
material utilization. Connecting prefabricated structural elements by point connections meet
these essential requirements for a joining technology on site. To avoid stress concentrations in
the connecting area, the implant consists of two components. Compressive stresses are
transferred by a longitudinal tooth bar and a thin tie element, a so called fan, is designed to
cover the lateral tension.
773
2 Joining structural elements

General aspects
Essential for the appropriate design process of joining, fitting, connecting and assembling
structural elements are considerations related to the material involved. By categorising
connections into a differential-, integral-, composite- and integrating construction method,
constructive qualities and properties, characteristics for the assembly, disassembly and the
recyclability are possible to evaluate [3]. The general function of a construction technology is
primarily the structural connection of elements, in detail the transfer of loads. Secondary,
aspects of coupling thermal and acoustic influences as well as deformations between
connected elements are typical characteristics to be considered for the joining technology.
Connection types for structural elements
Connections of structural elements can be categorized in continuous and point connections.
Continuous connections of structural elements allow for a continuous load transfer in the
connecting area. Therefore the joint construction requires a sufficient bearing capacity for
compressive, tensile and shear stresses. Point connections on the other hand result typically in
stress concentrations in the connected area. A concentrated introduction of forces causes
stress peaks that may affect local material failure and reduce the bearing capacity. Stress
peaks caused by a concentrated load introduction, as shown in Fig. 1 for a compressive load,
result in tensile stresses (1) perpendicular to the minimal principal stress (2). Fig. 1 shows
exemplarily the stress trajectories caused by a concentrated load introduction in an isotropic
shell element. The homogenisation (P=0) of stresses for isotropic materials can generally be
achieved within a distance of ~d from the point of loading. The length in anisotropic materials
may increase.
Figure 1: Stress trajectories using an example of a shell with isotropic material under concentrated load
introduction (left); Definition of principal stress directions (right) [4].
The focus in this paper is on thin walled structural elements. Typical solutions for connecting
those structural elements are: a) bonding due to glue, b) overlapping of thin reinforcement in
the joint between elements with filling the joint afterwards, c) mechanically fastening of
elements by means of prestressing. Drawbacks of aforementioned solutions are mainly caused
by the required construction effort, precision, durability and the environmental influences as for
instance temperature dependencies. A technique, focussed on in this paper, is a point
connection of structural elements by the use of a built in part, a so called implant [2,4,5].
Advantageous properties are a minimized construction effort, a possible design for assembly
and disassembly as well as for recyclability, possibilities for balancing tolerances, the
prefabrication of joining elements and an optimized solution for the transfer of loads.
774
Analytical and experimental investigations on the introduction of compressive loads in thin walled elements made of
UHPFRC by the use of implants
3 Implant design
General design issues
Basis for the implant design is the stress field caused by the introduction of a concentrated load
in a thin walled element (Fig. 1). Reduction of the stress peaks, homogenization of the stresses
and maximization of the applicable load introduction are the driving design issues for the
component design of the implant. Based on a preliminary design carried out at the Institute for
Lightweight Structures and Conceptual Design (ILEK), University of Stuttgart [2,5], a detailed
investigation of the implant components for the concentrated load introduction is being carried
out by the authors [4]. For the time being the compressive load introduction is the leading
design parameter. The general focus in the design of the implant is on the analytical descri ption
of the mechanisms acting on the implant components. Developing a design concept for the
practical application of implants as part of a construction method is designated by the authors.
The mode of action of the implant for the introduction of concentrated loads in thin walled
elements is based on two components [2]. First, a longitudinal tooth bar for the homogeneous
introduction of forces into structural elements [5,6,7]. Secondly, a thin tie element, so called
fan, designed to cover the lateral tension in the connecting area. Different parameters for the
geometrical design of the implant components, influencing the structural behaviour, have been
investigated and are presented in this paper.
Analytical investigations
Based on first developments [5], further analytical investigations on the implant design have
been carried out for a detailed understanding of the general mode of action of the components.
The main parameters, influencing the design of the implant are the size, length, material,
construction, tip pressure, grade of toothing at the toothing bar and the differing stiffness of
elements. As a start a numerical analysis on a linear elastic basis was carried out to firstly
analyse the general behaviour of the toothing bar. At this stage of the design the influence of
the load introduction, especially the design of the toothing bar, is in the centre of attention.
Figure 2: Numerically analysed geometries and variants of toothing bar.
Fig. 2 and Fig. 3 show the numerical results of a parameter study where the geometry of th e
toothing bar was varied (block form (type B_a)) vs. wedge form (type B_c))) and the tip
pressure of the toothing bar (with (type B_a)) and without tip pressure (type B_b))). First, the
design issue of a homogenization of stresses was looked at. Fig. 3 shows the compressive load
distribution in a shell element by a concentrated load introduction. In comparison to the variants
with an implant (type B)), results for a plain shell element (type A)) are also presented. A
homogenization of compressive stress in the shell element by the use of a toothing bar is
shown in Fig. 3. The ratio of stress peak to basic stress by using a toothing bar for the load
introduction can be reduced from 4.6 to 1.5 using a wedge geometry for the toothing bar (type
B_c)) or by using a block geometry with no tip pressure (type B_b)). Beside a homogenization
775
of compressive stress, also the tensile stress distribution in the element is in the focus of
interest. For elements made of UHPFRC, the tensile strength of the material is about 1/16 of the
compressive strength (Tab.1) and therefore relevant for the practical design of unreinforced
elements.
Figure 3: Distribution of principal stress (2) in section 1-1 in relation to constant stress at the basis (left);
Tensile stress (1) in section 2-2 (middle) and 3-3 (right) in relation to the stress at point of loading.
In general, a shell element with an implant can geometrically be divided in two parts. Part one is
the area beginning at elements top and vertically limited by the implant length. In this area the
fan, working as reinforcement, is designed to cover exceeding tensile stresses in the UHPFRC
material. In the area below the implant, only the tensile strength of the material is relevant for
design. Fig. 3 presents the tensile stress distribution in the elastic stage (uncracked) for a shell
element with a use of aforementioned different implant variants. It is shown, using the toothing
bar for the load introduction, that the tensile stress distribution in both areas, above and
beneath the implant, is strongly linked to the geometrical design of the toothing element.
Conclusions from this numerical study are the basis for the following experimental
investigations.
4 Experimental investigations
Programme
The test programme, according to afore investigated implant variants, consisted of 15 test
specimen that were tested by a concentrated load introduction. 12 specimens were tested with
an implant and 3 specimens without implants, loaded by a partial area pressure at specimens
top. Investigated parameter on the implants design were the form of the toothing bar (type B_a)
and B_c)) and the construction with and without tip pressure (type B_a) and B_b)). Add itionally,
the construction of the fan was varied and tested by using welded armature plates in
comparison to a perforated fan (type B_a) and B_d)). See Fig. 4 for the different co nstruction
types and tested implant variants. Each parameter has been tested by three specimens. A
series of three specimens without an implant (type A)) was also tested for reference purposes.
Test specimen
The test specimens were 20mm thin shell elements made of UHPFRC. The geometrical ratio of
loading area to specimens basis was 0.1 (42mm/420mm). Ratio of height to width was 1.3
(~560mm/420mm). The material used for the specimens was the UHPFRC DuctalFM with
2 Vol.-% steel fibres. The construction of the implants consisted of high strength steel. Tab. 1
summarizes the material properties for the UHPFRC and the used high strength steel. The
776
components of the implant geometry have been prefabricated by a laser (toothing bar) and a
high pressure water jet (fan), providing production accuracy. The construction of single parts
then is based on fittings (Fig. 4). For the investigation of the effectiveness of the components by
itself, especially the toothing bar, a mechanical separation of the components was considered
for this test series. A long hole in the fan (Fig. 4) combined with a plastic interlayer between
loading plate and fan enabled sliding between toothing bar and fan. Though, the
compressive load introduction was only carried out by the toothing bar. The fan only carried
tensile stresses. Six specimens were manufactured in one charge (Fig. 5). After striking, the
specimens were put in a water tank for heat treatment. The water temperature was slowly
increased to 90C and kept constant for 48 hours.
Figure 4: Tested variants of implant components: Type B_a), B_c), B_d) (from left); General implant
construction (right).
Table 1: Material properties.
element
material
shell
DuctalFM
toothing bar
S960QL
fan
SZSM1200
producer
compressive
strength
[MPa]
elastic tensile
strength
[MPa]
Lafarge
Thyssen Krupp
Salzgitter Flachstahl
2451)
960
1200-1450
10,02)
-
ultimate tensile
strength
[MPa]
14,52)
960
1200-1450
modulus of
elasticity
[MPa]
59.3643)
210.000
210.000
1) Mean value of tested control cylinder (h=200mm, =100mm), 2) [9], cross section of test specimen 75mmx75mm, 3) [9], control cylinder h=200mm,
=100mm
Test setup
Fig. 5 shows the test setup at a 3MN universal testing machine. The tests were carried out
displacement controlled at a test speed of 0,05 m/s. Two LVDTs were diametrically positioned
at the specimens top, measuring the displacement between specimen and loading plate. A
further measurement by strain gauges was carried out at separated specimen [4]. The load
introduction was carried out vertically with a high strength steel plate at specimens top.
Specimen basis was linear supported in vertical directions and also horizontally to avoid
influences due to stability effects.
Results
In Tab. 2 are the test results summarized regarding the mean values of the cracking force and
the maximum compressive force. The coefficient of variation shows a largely consistent
behavior for each implant type. Fig. 7 to Fig. 9 present the load displacement curves of the
tested specimens. The different behavior and structural effects of the various parameters could
be investigated. The failure mechanisms were basically equal in all cases. After reaching the
cracking force, almost no loss in stiffness could be observed. First vertical cracks were
observed below the implant. The crack width varied between maximal 0.1mm-0.4mm. Close to
777
the maximum force, splitting at the toothing bar started and was followed by a failure of the
compression struts at the toothing flanks. Only a little residual strength could be observed after
the specimen reached their maximal load. Some specimens failed explosively. Fig. 6 sh ows the
toothing bar after maximum loading for the tested implant variants. A consistent behavior for the
cause of failure could be observed for the different implants, although the cracking and
maximum force were influenced by the design of the implant components. General observations
regarding the structural behavior can be summarized as follows:
- the stress in the loading area increased nearly linear up to the maximum load, although
cracking of the specimens occurred at an early stage.
- the partial area pressure for the specimens of series C3, without implants, only reaches a
value of 1.1fc.
- the wedge form of the toothing bar caused a homogenization regarding the stress
distribution along the toothing flank (Fig. 3), but resulted in an early cracking of the element
and a general reduction of load carrying capacity.
- considered tip pressure decreased the stress at the flanks of the toothing bar and
increased therefore the load carrying capacity. Further influences by the ratio of length and
tip pressure have to be investigated.
- the stiffness of the fan, firstly analyzed by a perforated and armatured fan, had its
influence on the maximum loading capacity. Further investigations on the influence and for
the optimization have to be carried out.
- failure occurred by the loss of material strength at the toothing bar. The grade of toothing
as well as the size has to be analyzed to optimize the load carrying behavior.
- the failure was largely not ductile for the investigated implant construction. By connecting
the working mechanism of toothing bar and fan the post failure behavior is assumed to be
more ductile. Further investigations on this are in progress.
-
Figure 5: Casing of the test specimen with applied implants (left); test setup (right).
5 Conclusions
The numerical and experimental results presented in this paper summarize the development of
a construction technique for thin walled elements made of UHPFRC by the use of implants. The
assessment of the structural behaviour and the influence of the various parameters on the
component design of the implants were the basis of investigations. The compressive load
introduction was investigated so far, while further investigations regarding the introduction of
tensile and shear loading are still in progress. The results presented illustrate the possible
introduction of high local forces which are three times higher than without using implants. The
need for further investigations on the implant size, construction and grade of toothing arises
from presented investigations and will be carried out by the authors for a detailed understanding
778
of working mechanisms of the implant components and the development of a design concept.
This process is accompanied by further tests and numerical nonlinear analyses.
Figure 6: Structural failure at toothing bar C5-2 (B_a)), C5-5 (B_b)), C6-1 (B_c)), C6-2 (B_d)) (test specimens
backside).
Table 2: Summary of test results.
specimen type mean value
mean value
FCrack
coefficient
of variation
[kN]
[%]
[kN]
[%]
[MPa]
FMax
coefficient mean value of partial area

of variation pressure at specimens top
C3-1,2,3
163
12,5
218
15,6
260
C5-1,2,3
B_a)
182
9,3
550
5,7
655
C5-4,5,6
B_b)
253
2,3
655
1,8
780
C6-1,3,6
B_c)
114
35,3
524
6,5
624
C6-2,4,5
B_d)
181
6,3
493
1,9
587
Figure 7: Force displacement curve for the test specimens type A)
6 Acknowledgement
The
authors
gratefully
acknowledge
financial
support
from
the
Deutsche
Forschungsgemeinschaft (DFG) and express their thanks to Lafarge, Paris, for the support of
the UHPFRC material DuctalFM.
779
Figure 8: Force displacement curve for the test specimens type B_a) (left) and type B_b) (right) .
Figure 9: Force displacement curve for the test specimens type B_c) (left) and type B_d) (right).
References
Berlin, 2008.
[2] Sobek, W., Mittelstdt, J., Kobler, M.: Fgen schlanker Bauteile - Untersuchungen zur Einleitung von
Druckkrften mittels Implantaten. Beton- und Stahlbetonbau 106 (2011) 11, pp. 779-784.
[3] Sobek, W. (1995): Zum Entwerfen im Leichtbau. Bauingenieur, 70/1995, pp. 323329.
[4] Mittelstdt, J; Sobek, W. (2012 in preparation): Lokale Lasteinleitung von Druck-, Zug- und
Querkraftbeanspruchungen mit Implantaten in Bauteile aus ultrahochfestem Beton.
Abschlussbericht zum Forschungsvorhaben SO 365/9-1 der Deutschen Forschungsgemeinschaft
(DFG); Antragsteller: Prof. Dr.-Ing. Dr.-Ing. E.h. Werner Sobek, Institute for Lightweight Structures
and Conceptual Design (ILEK), University of Stuttgart, Germany.
[5] Kobler, M.; Sobek, W. (2008): The introduction of High Forces into Thin-Walled UHPC Elements by
the use of Implants. P. 683-690 in: Ultra High Performance Concrete. Proceedings of the Second
International Symposium on Ultra High Performance Concrete. Schmidt, M.; Fehling, E.; Strwald,
S. (Hrsg.). University of Kassel, Schriftenreihe Baustoffe und Massivbau, Heft 10.
[6] Wiedemann, J. (1989): Leichtbau Band 2: Konstruktionen. Berlin, Springer Verlag.
[7] Schmid, V. (2000): Hochbelastete Verbindungen mit Zahnleisten in Hybridtragwerken aus
Konstruktionsbeton und Stahl. PhD, Institute for Structural Design II, Univ. of Stuttgart, Germany.
[8] Dehlinger, C. (2004): Sthlerne Verzahnungen fr Stahlbetonkonstruktionen. PhD, Institute for
Lightweight Structures and Conceptual Design (ILEK), University of Stuttgart, Germany.
[9] Sobek, W., Frettlhr, B., Plank, M., Quappen, J.(2010): Strukturoptimierte Trme fr OffshoreWindenergieanlagen aus UHFFB in Segmentbauweise. Zwischenbericht zum Forschungsvorhaben
FD-Nr.: SF-10.08.18-7-09.25; II3-F20-09-43. Bundesamt fr Bauwesen und Raumordnung -BBR-,
Bundesinstitut fr Bau-, Stadt- und Raumforschung -BBSR-, Forschungsinitiative "Zukunft Bau",
Bonn (Frderer); Antragsteller: Prof. Dr.-Ing. Dr.-Ing. E.h. Werner Sobek, Institute for Lightweight
Structures and Conceptual Design (ILEK), University of Stuttgart, Germany.
780
Load-Bearing Behaviour of Sandwich Strips with XPS-Core

and Reinforced HPC-Facings
Frank Mller, Christian Kohlmeyer, Jrgen Schnell
Institute of Concrete Structures and Structural Engineering, Technische Universitt Kaiserslautern, Germany
In order to examine the load-bearing behaviour and the failure modes of sandwich strips with an extruded
polystyrene foam (XPS) core and thin high performance concrete (HPC) facings, four different test series
with a total number of 37 bending tests were carried out. A distinctive feature of this type of sandwich
elements is the bond between the layers, which was only achieved by adhesion between the concrete
and the XPS. No additional mechanical connecting devices were used. In the four test series, the manufacturing process, the type of reinforcement, the density of the XPS-core, as well as the layer thicknesses
of the facings and the cores were varied. The influence of this variation on the load-bearing behaviour
and the failure modes was investigated and compared. The results of this analysis are described in detail
in the following paper.
Keywords: sandwich panels, high performance concrete, extruded polystyrene foam
1 Introduction
The primary aim of the research project Sandwich Wall Panels with HPC-Facings is the
development of innovative three-layered sandwich wall panels which consist of two thin high
performance concrete (HPC) facings and an extruded polystyrene foam (XPS) core. The
dimensions of the concrete and the polystyrene foam layers can be chosen due to mechanical
and thermal requirements. The necessary adhesion between the concrete and the XPS was
achieved with an imprinted diamond-shaped texture of the XPS-surface (see Fig. 1) and without
any additional mechanical connecting devices, comparable to the common sandwich panels
with metal skins [1, 2].
In order to set up design recommendations for the practical application of the sandwich
elements, extensive experimental investigations were carried out. The test programme
consisted of four series of bending tests. In each test series, a particular parameter or property
of the sandwich specimens was varied. In this way, the influence on the load-bearing behaviour
and load-bearing capacity, as well as on the failure mode was
investigated.
2 Specimens and test set-up

For the manufacturing of the sandwich specimens a finegrained, self-compacting concrete was used (see Table 4).
The mechanical properties of the concrete at 28 days were as
follows: mean compressive strength fcm,cube = 125 N/mm,
mean elastic modulus Ecm = 35390 N/mm and mean flexural
tensile strength fctm,fl = 10.5 N/mm. For the XPS-core,
insulating panels Styrodur C with imprinted texture, supplied
by the chemical company BASF SE, were used.
Similar to the recommendations given in standard
EN14509 for self-supporting double skin metal faced
insulating panels [3], a set-up for the testing of the sandwich
strips was developed. The span and width of all tested
specimens was 1150 mm and 200 mm, respectively. The
781
Figure 1: Arrangement of a
sandwich panel reinforced with
micro steel meshes.
facings of the specimens had a thickness of 10 - 20 mm and the core a thickness of 120 - 140
mm.
To achieve different moment to shear force ratios, 4-point and 3-point bending tests were
carried out (see Fig. 2). During the tests, the deflections and strains on top of the concrete
surface as well as the applied load were measured.
P/2
P/2
50
a
50
b
50
a
1150
50
b
1150
Figure 2: Schematic test set-up of the 4-point bending tests (left) and the 3-point bending tests (right).
3 Test programme
In the test programme, the parameters which were expected to have the greatest influence on
the load bearing-behaviour and capacity were investigated. These parameters were as follows:
(i) the manufacturing process, (ii) the type of reinforcement, (iii) the density of XPS and (iv) the
layer thicknesses.
A summary of the four test series, with the varied parameters and all tested specimens is
given in Table 1. The names of the specimens indicate the properties and parameters of each
specimen, i.e. type of reinforcement, the batch of XPS and the layer thicknesses (see Fig. 3).
S.X1.S10.120.104
Number of specimen
Depth of upper facing, core and lower facing [in mm]
Type of reinforcement of upper facing, batch of XPS of core, and
type of reinforcement of lower facing (see Table 2 and 3)
Figure 3: Description of the names of the specimens.
Manufacturing process
In the first testing series, the influence of the manufacturing process on the bond between the
concrete and the XPS was investigated. Two different methods were used. In the first set, the
XPS-core was pushed into the wet concrete. In the second set of tests, the concrete was cast
on top of the XPS-core. In the following three series, the former method was used.
Type of reinforcement
In order to examine the influence of the reinforcement material on the load-bearing behaviour
and failure modes, three different types of reinforcement, i.e. micro steel meshes [4] as well as
glass and carbon fibre grids [5] were used. The material properties provided by the
manufactures of the reinforcement are summarized in Table 2. In the case of the steel meshes
and the glass fibre grids, 3 layers of reinforcement were used. Due to the high tensile strength
and large cross section of the carbon fibre grid, one layer was sufficient.
782
Load-Bearing Behaviour of Sandwich Strips with XPS-Core and Reinforced HPC-Facings
Table 1: Test programme and varied parameters.
a2
b3
c4
Failure mode5
[mm] [mm] [mm]
Specimen
BTS1
S.X0.S10.120.1016
4-PBT
100
350
50
S.X0.S10.120.102
4-PBT
50
400
50
XPS core pushed into S.X0.S10.120.103

wet concrete
S.X0.S10.120.104
4-PBT
50
400
50
4-PBT
50
400
50
S.X0.S10.120.105
3-BPT
50
575
50
S.X0.S10.120.106
3-PBT
50
575
50
S.X0.S10.120.107
4-PBT
50
400
50
S.X0.S10.120.108
4-PBT
50
400
50
S.X0.S10.120.109
4-PBT
50
400
50
G.X1.G10.120.101
3-PBT
50
575
60
3 layers of glass fibre G.X1.G10.120.102

grids
G.X1.G10.120.103
3-PBT
50
575
60
3-PBT
50
575
150
G.X1.G10.120.104
3-PBT
50
575
150
C.X1.C 10.120.101
3-PBT
50
575
60
B, C
1 layer of carbon fibre C.X1.C10.120.102

grids
C.X1.C10.120.103
3-PBT
50
575
60
B, D
3-PBT
50
575
150
C.X1.C10.120.104
3-PBT
50
575
150
S.X1.S10.120.101
3 layers of micro steel
S.X1.S10.120.102
meshes
S.X1.S10.120.103
3-PBT
50
575
60
3-PBT
50
575
60
3-PBT
50
575
60
S.X2.S10.120.101
4-PBT
35
400
50
S.X2.S10.120.102
4-PBT
85
350
50
S.X2.S10.120.103
4-PBT
35
200
50
S.X2.S10.120.104
4-PBT
35
200
50
S.X2.S10.120.105
4-PBT
35
200
50
F, G
S.X3.S10.120.101
4-PBT
35
200
50
S.X3.S10.120.102
4-PBT
35
200
50
S.X3.S10.120.103
4-PBT
35
200
50
S.X4.S10.140.101
facings = 10 mm, core
S.X4.S10.140.102
= 140 mm
S.X4.S10.140.103
4-PBT
50
400
50
4-PBT
50
400
50
4-PBT
50
400
50
S.X5.S15.120.151
S.X5.S15.120.152
= 120 mm
S.X5.S15.120.153
4-PBT
50
400
50
4-PBT
50
400
50
F, G
4-PBT
50
400
50
4-PBT
50
400
50
F, G
4-PBT
50
400
50
4-PBT
50
400
50
Varied parameters
Manufacturing process:
concrete cast on top

of XPS core
Type of reinforcement:
Density of XPS:
X2, density
= 36.6 kg/m
X3, density
= 45.8 kg/m
Layer thickness:
S.X5.S20.120.201
S.X5.S20.120.202
= 120 mm
S.X5.S20.120.203
1
2
3
4
5
6
Bending test set-up, 3-PBT: 3-point bending test, 4-PBT: 4-point bending test
Excess lengths at the supports (see Fig. 2)
Distance between the supports and the point of load application (see Fig. 2)
Width of the load distribution plate (see Fig. 2)
Explanation of the failure modes see Table 5
Span = 1050 mm
783
Density of XPS
In previous publications [6-8], it was established that the load-bearing behaviour and capacity of
the sandwich elements strongly depend on the shear modulus and shear strength of the XPS.
Furthermore, shear modulus and shear strength both correlate with the density of the XPS. The
higher the density, the higher the shear modulus and shear strength. Because of this, the
density of the XPS-cores was varied in an additional test series. Two types of XPS, i.e. X2 and
X3, with an increased density of 36.6 and 45.8 kg/m were applied.
Table 2: Material properties of the reinforcement.
No.
Type of reinforcement
Material properties
micro steel meshes

(3 layers)
wire diameter = 1 mm
grid spacing = 12.6 mm
elastic modulus = 210,000 N/mm
tensile strength of wire = 400 N/mm
glass fibre grids

(3 layers)
fineness of yarn = 620 tex

grid spacing = 10.0 mm
elastic modulus of filaments = 74,000 N/mm
tensile strength of filaments = 1,400 N/mm
carbon fibre grid

(1 layer)
fineness of yarn = 3,300 tex

grid spacing = 18.0 mm / 10.8 mm
elastic modulus of filaments = 240,000 N/mm
tensile strength of filaments = 4,000 N/mm
For all other specimens a XPS-type with an in average lower density was used. However, due
to the manufacturing process of the material, the properties vary from batch to batch to some
extent. Consequently, it was necessary to determine for each batch of XPS the shear
properties. The results are summarized in Table 3.
Table 3: Material properties of the XPS.
Table 4: Concrete mix.
Density
[kg/m]
Shear
strength
[kN/m]
Shear
modulus
[kN/m]
X0
32.0
X1
36.7
220
X2
37.7
X3
No.
Raw material
[kg/m]
cement CEM I 42,5 R
831,6
water
73,8
8,700
coarse sand (dmax < 2 mm)
694,0
250
8,400
fine sand (dmax < 0.5 mm)
223,9
46.9
297
10,500
quartz powder
205,4
X4
36.0
168
9,300
silica suspension (incl. 50% water)
249,5
X5
31.4
182
6,900
superplasticizer (PCE)
35,8
Layer thickness
The load-bearing behaviour is dependent on the bending and shear stiffness of the sandwich
panels. The bending stiffness consists partly of the bending stiffnesses of the three layers and
partly of the bending stiffness caused by the sandwich effect, which is dependent on the
distance between the neutral axes of the two facing and the elastic moduli of the facings. The
shear stiffness is dependent on the shear modulus and also on the distance between the
neutral axes of the two facings and the thickness of the core [1].
Because the bending and shear stiffness both depend on the layer thicknesses of the facings
and the cores, the ratio of the thicknesses were varied. In addition to the ratio of all other
784
specimens of 10 / 120 mm, three further configurations, i.e. 10 / 140 mm, 15 / 120 mm, 20 /
120 mm, were tested. All three configurations were reinforced with micro steel meshes. Instead
of 3 layers of reinforcement, 4.5 and 6 layers were used for the specimens with a 15 and 20 mm
facing thickness to keep the percentage of reinforcement constant.
Table 5: Failure modes.
No.
Failure mode
tension failure of the reinforcement
compression failure of the core at the

point of load application
local bending failure of the upper

facing
local shear failure of the upper facing
shear failure of the core and

delamination of core and facings
longitudinal shear failure of the bond

between the core and the upper
facing (at one or both ends)
compression failure of the core at the

supports (at one or both ends)
4 Test results
Failure modes
In the experiments, seven different failure modes were determined (see Table 5). The failure
mode of each tested specimen can be found in Table 1.
The tension failure of the reinforcement (see Table 5, No. A) occurred mainly in the 3-point
bending tests, due to the fact that this set-up has the highest moment to shear force ratio.
However, in case of the experiments with the higher XPS-density, tension failure occurred also
in two 4-point bending tests.
In case of the specimens with steel meshes, the tension failure of the reinforcement was
indicated by a widening of the cracks, which was caused by the yielding of the steel. However,
the specimens reinforced with glass fibre grids failed in all tests without any prior indication. In a
fatigue test with cylic loading, the glass fibre reinforcement of specimen G.X1.G10.120.103
785
failed after about 60 cycles of a deflection from 4.1 mm to 15.5 mm. In test G.X1.G-10.120.10-1,
the failure occurred after 20 cycles of a loading from 0.5 kN to 7.5 kN. Because of its high
tensile strength and its large cross section, it was not possible to achieve a tension failure of the
specimens reinforced with carbon fibre grids.
In case of the 4-point bending tests, the majority of specimens failed due to a longitudinal shear
failure of the bond between the core and the upper facing. This shear failure of the bond
occurred either on the right or left side of the specimens, in some tests at both sides.
In the experiments with carbon fibre grids, the compressive strength of the XPS was
exceeded at the point of load application. This failure resulted in a compression of the core (see
Table 5, no. B). Along with these deformations, secondary failures of the facing occurred, which
were either a local bending failure (see Table 5, no. C) or a local shear failure (see Table 5, no.
D), both were located directly next to the point of load application. Another local compression
failure of the core caused by an application of a concentrated load occurred at the supports.
The core was crushed and a sharp bend developed at the end of the core (see Table 5, no. G).
A shear failure of the core along with a delamination of core and facing occurred in three
tests of different testing series. By examining the specimens after testing, it was determined
that there was a void between the concrete and the XPS, because the core had not touched the
wet concrete in this area. Due to the void, the shear force could not be transferred continuously.
As a result, the shear force concentrated at the edges of the void and caused the core to crack.
General load-bearing behaviour
The diagrams Fig. 4-7 show the moment at midspan as well as the shear force between the
points of load application and the supports printed over the deflection at midspan, whereas the
moment is represented on the left y-axis and the shear force on the right y-axis. As the
deflection of the sandwich elements is caused partly by moment and partly by shear force, it is
necessary to consider both effects in the analysis.
In general, the load-deflection behaviour of all specimens was up to a deflection of about
10 mm almost linear. After this linear part, the load-deflection curves developed differently. In
case of the specimens which failed due to a longitudinal shear failure of the bond, i.e. failure
mode F, and a compression failure of the core at the supports, i.e. failure mode G, the loadbearing behaviour was very ductile and a large yield plateau developed (see Fig. 4 and 7). No
brittle failure occurred. In the majority of these tests, the experiments were stopped due to large
deflections, although the applied load was still being transferred by the sandwich strips.
The load-bearing behaviour in case of the failure mode A, i.e. tension failure of the
reinforcement, did not show large plastic deformations. Caused by the yielding of the micro
steel meshes the load-deflection curves flattened slightly before the failure. In the tests of the
specimens reinforced with glass fibre grids, failure occurred even in the linear part of the loaddeflection curves (see Fig. 5).
The specimens which failed due to a compression at the point of load application, i.e. failure
no. B, with the subsequent secondary failures C and D did not show a ductile behaviour (see
Fig. 5). In case of a shear failure of the core, i.e. failure no. E, the cracking of the core led to a
rapid drop of the load. However, the load deflection-behaviour of these specimens before the
failure was similar to the specimens with the same parameter set and undamaged bond.
Load-bearing behaviour of the different test series
By analysing the curves of the test series manufacturing process (see Fig. 4), it can be seen
that there was a minor difference in the load-bearing behaviour of the specimens with different
manufacturing methods. The load-deflection curves of the specimens which were manufactured
by casting the concrete on top were slightly stiffer than the specimens which were produced by
786
pushing the core into the wet concrete. Furthermore, the maximum moment of the former was
in average about 2.4% higher.
10
9
To get the correct shear force

values, multiply the read
values of y-axis by 0.7.
8
3
6
2
5
4
S.X0.S-10.120.10-1
S.X0.S-10.120.10-2
S.X0.S-10.120.10-3
S.X0.S-10.120.10-4
S.X0.S-10.120.10-5
S.X0.S-10.120.10-6
S.X0.S-10.120.10-7
S.X0.S-10.120.10-8
S.X0.S-10.120.10-9
* For reasons of clarity, the

areas of repeated loading
are cut off and indicated
with a dotted line.
20
30 40 50 60 70 80
deflection at midspan [mm]
90
3
C.X1.C-10.120.10-1
C.X1.C-10.120.10-2
C.X1.C-10.120.10-3
C.X1.C-10.120.10-4
G.X1.G-10.120.10-1
G.X1.G-10.120.10-2
G.X1.G-10.120.10-3
G.X1.G-10.120.10-4
S.X1.S-10.120.10-1
S.X1.S-10.120.10-2
S.X1.S-10.120.10-3
2
1
* For reasons of clarity, the

areas of repeated loading
are cut off.
0
10
0
0
100
0
0
Figure 4: Load-deflection curves of test series

manufacturing process.
shear force [kN]

moment at midspan [kNm]
shear force [kN]
10
20
30 40 50 60 70 80
90
100
Figure 5: Load-deflection curves of test series type

of reinforcement.
20
10
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
S.X2.S-10.120.10-1
S.X2.S-10.120.10-2
S.X2.S-10.120.10-3
S.X2.S-10.120.10-4
20
30
40
50
60
S.X3.S-10.120.10-2
S.X3.S-10.120.10-3
70
80
90
5
4
S.X4.S-10.140.10-1
S.X4.S-10.140.10-2
S.X4.S-10.140.10-3
S.X5.S-15.120.15-1
S.X5.S-15.120.15-2
S.X5.S-15.120.15-3
S.X5.S-20.120.20-1
S.X5.S-20.120.20-2
S.X5.S-20.120.20-3
* For reasons of clarity,

the areas of repeated
loading are cut off.
3
2
1
0
10
S.X3.S-10.120.10-1
0
0
S.X2.S-10.120.10-5
* For reasons of clarity,
the areas of repeated
loading are cut off.

0
0
100
shear force [kN]
shear force [kN]

10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
Figure 6: Load-deflection curves of test series density

of XPS.
Figure 7: Load-deflection curves of test series layer

thickness.
In case of the test series type of reinforcement, the load-deflection curves of the specimens
were identical up to an applied moment of approximately 0.6 kNm. At this load level, the first
cracks occurred in the lower facing. The load-deflection behaviour in this area of the curve was
dependent on the tensile stiffness of the reinforcement. In the tests, the specimens reinforced
787
with micro steel meshes were the stiffest, followed by the specimens reinforced with carbon
fibre grids. The specimens reinforced with glass fibre grids were the least stiff.
By comparing the curves of the test series density of XPS (see Fig. 6), it can be determined
that the specimens with XPS-type X3 were slightly stiffer than the specimens with type X2. This
difference in the stiffness resulted from the different shear moduli of the XPS. The maximum
shear force which could be transferred was approximately 25% higher in case of the specimens
with XPS X3. This fact can be explained by the higher shear strength.
When analysing the test series layer thickness (see Fig. 7), it needs to be considered that
two different batches of XPS were used, i.e. the batch X4 for the specimens with 120 mm core
and the batch X5 for the specimens with 140 mm cores. The densities of the two batches vary
to some extent so that the specimens with the layer thickness ratio 10/140 mm cannot directly
be compared with the specimens with the ratio 15/120 and 20/120 mm.
The specimens with the ratio 20/120 mm were slightly stiffer than the specimen with
15/120 mm. However, in general the influence of the layer thickness ratio on the load-deflection
behaviour was not considerably large. This can be explained by the fact that the cracking of the
concrete reduces significantly the stiffness of the facings.
5 Conclusions
With the help of the described experimental investigations, the load-bearing behaviour and the
failure modes of the sandwich strips were analysed in detail. Due to the variation of the
parameters and properties, different failure modes were achieved. Depending on the failure
modes, the load-bearing behaviour of the sandwich strips was in some tests very ductile, e.g.
failure mode F and G, and in other tests brittle, e.g. failure mode D.
In addition to this experimental investigation, a numerical investigation with the help of a
finite element (FE) model has been undertaken. The FE-model is being calibrated and verified
with the results of the described experiments. Based on the findings of this experimental
investigation and the numerical investigations, recommendations for the design of the sandwich
panels at the ultimate limit and serviceability limit state will be set-up.
This research project is financially supported by the Ministerium fr Bildung, Wissenschaft,
Jugend und Kultur des Landes Rheinland-Pfalz (Ministry for Education, Science, Young
Persons, and Culture of Rhineland-Palatinate), the European Regional Development Fund
and the companies RETT GmbH and BASF SE. All support is gratefully acknowledged.
References
[1] Stamm, K.; Witte, H.: Sandwichkonstruktionen. Berechnung, Fertigung, Ausfhrung. Wien, 1974
[2] Davies, J. M.: Lightweight Sandwich Construction. Oxford, 2001
[3] European Committee for Standardization: EN 14509 Self-supporting double skin metal faced
insulating panels, 2007.
[4] Hauser, S.; Wrner, J. D.: DUCON, ein innovativer Hochleistungsbeton. Beton- und Stahlbetonbau
94 (2), pp. 66-75, (3), pp. 141-145, 1999.
[5] Jesse, F.; Curbach M.: Verstrken mit Textilbeton. Beton-Kalender 2010: Brcken Betonbau im
Wasser, Berlin, 2010.
[6] Horstmann, M.: Zum Tragverhalten von Sandwichkonstruktionen aus textilbewehrtem Beton,
Aachen, 2010.
[7] Mller F.; Kohlmeyer, C.; Schnell, J.: From research to practice - development of UHPC-sandwich
wall panels. Proc. Current Scientific Challenges in Concrete and Steel Structures and Concrete
Technology, p. 113120, Gdansk, 2011.
[8] Kohlmeyer, C.; Schnell, J.; Mller, F.: Sandwich wall panels with UHPC facings. Proc. fib
Symposium Prague 2011, p. 12091212, Prague, 2011.
788
Part Six
APPLICATIONS
789
790
Microstructural Optimization of High-Strength Performance

Air Hardened Foam Concrete
Bernhard Middendorf, Armin Just
Department of Building Materials, TU Dortmund University, Germany
A new type of foam concrete was developed by combination of chemical foaming with aluminum powder
and air hardening. Compared to autoclaved aerated foam concretes the manufacturing of this new type
of foam concrete consumes less energy and the production is not stationary. The main advantage of this
foam concrete is the combination of high thermal insulating properties with high compressive strength.
The microstructural optimization of the matrix is based on the same approaches which were already
developed for HPC and UHPC. The above mentioned properties are the results of a high density of the
cement paste matrix combined with a dedicated pore size distribution of the macropores. The preparation
of target-oriented properties are fulfilled by using a combination of ordinary portland cement, foaming
agent, admixtures as well as additives.
Keywords: high performance foam concrete, chemically expanded, air hardened
1 Introduction
Buildings require energy during any period of their life cycle. The need for energy starts with the
production of the building materials and the construction of the buildings. After that the use and
operation of buildings need energy as well. Finally there is also energy required for the
deconstruction of a building.
The paper deals with the benefits of multifunctional building materials. With present-day
construction, any building material fulfills its specific task. Steel and concrete are used for load
transfer but they do not achieve thermal insulation properties. For heat insulation, highly porous
materials like foams are necessary. Such constructions have energetic disadvantages because
several different building materials and components must be produced, assembled and also,
finally, have to be disposed of or recycled. One advantage of multifunctional building materials
is that one component and of course one material can fulfill different tasks in a modern building.
Mineral-bound foam is one such multifunctional building material. These fine-grained
concretes have a density 2.0 g/cm3 and are classified as lightweight concretes. Some of them
are applicable for load bearing constructions with thermal insulation properties at the same
time. Thereby the use of this class of building materials requires less energy and supports the
establishment of sustainable construction.
Figure 1 shows the classification of mineral-bound foams according to the manufacturing
process. The process of forming air voids in the fresh cement paste is significant. The methods
of chemical expansion, as well as physical or mechanical foaming are well known and state-ofthe-art. Autoclaved aerated concrete can be based on a mortar with finely grounded, quartzitic
sand, cement and/or lime and water where a foaming agent, commonly aluminum powder, is
added. The stable material is cured after being removed from its mould in a saturated steam
atmosphere in autoclaves at high pressure within a few hours and thereby receives its final
properties [1, 2].
Foam concretes are given their structure by using foam generators or stirring up the cement
paste using foaming agents and fast rotating pug mill mixers. The paste consists of the binder,
usually cement, finely grounded quartzitic sand, water and foam generating admixtures. After
moulding the foam, the concrete hardens under normal atmospheric conditions.
791
During the mechanical foaming procedure, a foam agent is added to the mortar. Numerous
voids are mechanically introduced by high speed mixers. A relatively unstable foam develops
with an irregular structure and undefined void structures [3].
In practice, a more usual manufacturing method is physical foaming. A pre-manufactured
foam consisting of water and chemical admixture is mixed with the additional components.
Under these conditions, a more stable mortar with a fine pore structure can be created [3].
In addition to the two established representatives of mineral-bound foams, the possibility to
produce chemically expanded, air cured, mineral-bound foams, with mechanical properties
which allow their use as construction material has been established recently [4 - 7]. The
physical-mechanical properties of these air cured foams - like density, compressive strength
and thermal conductivity - are partially superior to the conventional cellular concretes hardened
in autoclaves. This type of foam concrete hardens without using an autoclave and therefore
without the need of additional production energy. Thus it makes the further development of this
innovative foam concrete ecologically worthwhile.
Mineral-Bound Foams
Autoclaved Aerated
Concrete
Chemically
Expanded
Foam Concrete
Mechanically
Foamed
Autoclaved Cured
Physically
Foamed
Air Cured
Chemically Expanded,
Air Cured Foam
Chemically
Expanded
Air Cured
Figure 1: Classification of mineral-bound foams according to the manufacturing process.

The studies on foam concretes were made by using a cement paste without aggregates. In part,
admixtures and additives were added. In Table 1 the materials used to produce the paste
mixtures are listed.
Table 1: Basic materials used.
Binder
cement
CEM I 42.5 R
Additives
I (average. 60 - 70 m)
aluminum powder
II (average. 20 - 30 m)
III (average. 15 - 20 m)
plasticizer
IV(average 15 m)
PCE
Admixtures
microsilica
suspension
CEM I 42.5 R according to EN 197-1 [8] was used as binder. By using different grain sizes of
the aluminum powder, the air void distribution in the hardened material was controllable,
whereas the air void volume was adjusted by the total quantity of the aluminum powder.
792
The water/cement ratio (w/c) has a crucial influence on the increase of volume of the cement
paste during expansion. In order to ensure an expansion in cement pastes with a low water
volume, the introduction of superplasticizers on the basis of polycarboxylatether was necessary.
The structure of the hardened cement paste matrix was also optimized using a reactive
microsilica suspension.
The samples were examined by means of light microscopy with an associated digital image
analysis, scanning electron microscopy as well as by mercury intrusion porosity. The methods
of investigation are described briefly in the following.
Digital image analysis:
For structural examination of foam concrete using digital image analysis, for detecting the pores
it is essential that the sample is first saturated with coloured epoxy resin. When the epoxy resin
is hardened the surface of the cross section was ground and polished. The digital image
analysis detects air voids by means of differences of contrast between the cement paste matrix
and the air voids which are filled with coloured epoxy resin. The properties of the air voi ds are
determined by analysing polished cross sections by means of light microscopy for each
individual air void.
For the investigations the digital image analising software Omnimet by Buehler GmbH and a
light microscope by Zeiss were used.
Scanning electron microscopy:
SEM images were acquired using a Philips XL30i scanning electron microscope. Imaging was
performed in high vacuum with the application of a conductive coating. The samples were made
conductive with a carbon and gold layer. The accelerating voltage of the scanning electron
microscope was 15 kV.
Mercury intrusion porosity:
For the determination of the porosity and the pore size distribution a mercury intrusion
porosimeter was used. Therefore the samples were first dried. After this the samples were put
into a dilatometer which was afterwards filled with mercury up to a pressure of 200 MPa.
Therewith pore radii to 4 nm could be determined.
A mercury intrusion porosimeter type Pascal 140-240 by Porotec was used for the
investigations.

Microstructure
The structure of the hardened cement paste implies the spatial arrangement of the reaction
products and the partly unfilled or filled areas with an aqueous solution: the pores. The pore
area is composed in its entirety by the gel pores, the capillary pores and the air voids. The
existing gel porosity and capillary porosity are primarily responsible for the characteristics of the
microstructure. Regarding the optimization of this structure of air hardened foam concretes, the
same basic approaches maintain their validity for mineral-bound foams, as they were already
developed in [9-13] for high performance concrete (HPC) or even for ultra high performance
concrete (UHPC).
The influence of the reduction of the w/c ratio and the simultaneous use of microsilica solidify
and consolidate the microstructure of the hardened cement paste matrix. In Figure 2 a
hardened cement paste is represented on the left side, which was manufactured without
additives and admixtures and with a w/c ratio of 0.60. The right side of Figure 2 illustrates a
foam concrete, which is manufactured with the w/c ratio of 0.35 and the use of superplasticizers
and microsilica. A clearly more consolidated and thus firmer structure is identifiable. This
793
structure of the foam concretes cement paste matrix is comparable with the structure of a HPC.
Usual for UHPCs are w/c ratios less than 0.20. This low w/c ratio is not applicable for mineralbound foams. The approach taken by UHPC technology for improving the hardened cement
paste structure often make the generation of an arranged air void area more difficult even by
using superplasticizers. The lower limit for w/c ratio of chemically expanded, air hardened,
mineral-bound foams is 0.28, in the authors opinion [4]. Of course this sets limits to the
properties of the structural optimized foams.
Figure 2: Microstructure of two foam concretes; left: w/c ratio = 0.60, without microsilica;
right: w/c ratio = 0.35, microsilica content = 10 wt.%.
Figure 3 clearly shows the influence of the selected structure optimizing methods by comparing
more than 100 foam concretes which differ in their compositions. The exponential trend lines,
with numeric values of R 2 = 0.979 and R2 = 0.888, agree nearly congruently with the measured
individual values. The trend line of the foam concretes, which were prepared by using additives
and admixtures, is clearly above the trend line of the foam concrete mixtures which were
produced only with cement, water and aluminum. The increase in compressive strength
depends on the mass density which is illustrated in Figure 3. The use of admixtures and
additives increase the compressive strength by approximately 20 %.
24
22
R2 = 0.979
18
16
[N/mm2]
20
14
12
10
R2 = 0.888
8
6
4
2
0
400
600
800
1000
1200
1400
mass density [kg/m ]

without adm/add
with adm/add
Figure 3: Compressive strengths as a function of the mass density with and without
the usage of admixtures (adm) and additives (add).
The same methods for the improvement of the structure have a significantly larger influence on
the properties of pure hardened cement pastes, which were manufactured without foaming
agents. Comparative measurements of reference samples R0 to R9, according to Table 2, show
an increase in compressive strength with decreasing w/c ratio and increasing content of
794
microsilica. The reference samples correspond, apart by the exclusion of the foaming agent, in
their composition to the mixtures of the foam concretes, whose characteristics are represented
in Figure 3. The compressive strength, of 48.0 N/mm 2, is the lowest of all reference samples. A
reduction of the w/c ratio to 0.35 and the simultaneous addition of superplasticizer and 10 wt.%
microsilica at the same time increases the compressive strength of the reference sample R9 to
105.7 N/mm2 (= + 120 %) which is conform to the compressive strength of a HPC.
The strength increase in the corresponding foam concretes is lower, as shown in Figure 3.
Table 2: Compositions and strengths of the reference samples.
Specimen
R0
R1
R2
R3
R4
R5
R6
R7
R8
R9
Cement
Microsilica
w/c ratio
CEM I 42,5 R
Superplasticizer
[wt.%]
[wt.%]
0
0
5
10
0
5
10
0
5
10
0
0.25
0.75
1.10
0.06
0.40
0.73
0.20
0.56
1.00
0.60
0.45
0.45
0.45
0.40
0.40
0.40
0.35
0.35
0.35
Compressive
strength
[N/mm2]
48.0
77.5
86.8
87.2
67.2
81.9
78.3
93.2
102.4
105.7
cumulative volume [mm3/g]
The comparison of the microstructure of foam concretes and reference samples, whose
compositions (Table 3) do not contain aluminum powder, results in comparable characteristics.
The cumulative pore volumes of the investigated samples are comparable (Figure 4). The pore
size distribution of foam concretes and non foamed cement pastes is also largely comparable.
An influence of the foaming agent on the pore sizes < 5 m cannot be determined. That means
that the optimized microstructure of air hardened foam concretes is comparable with the
microstructure of high performance concrete. The phenomenom of bottle neck pores limits the
informational value of mercury intrusion porosimetry regarding to foam concretes. This is the
reason why in this case only pores < 5 m can be analyzed.
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0,001
0,010
0,100
1,000
10,000
pore radius [m]

R7
R8
R9
E/2/0.10/0.35/0/0.20
E/2/0.10/0.35/5/0.75
E/2/0.10/0.35/10/1.10
Figure 5: Cumulative pore volume of foams (E/) and reference samples (R)with a w/c ratio of 0.35
determined by mercury intrusion porosity
795
Structure of Air Voids

The air voids must be responsible for the slight increase of compressive strength on air
hardened foam concretes, because the optimization of the microstructure leads to the
expectation of a higher strength increase.
Getting a detailed view of the structure of the porosity of the air voids, the results of 3
selected sample mixtures are examined and compared to each other. The sample A does solely
consist of water, cement and aluminum powder. This three-substance-system is extended by a
superplasticizer in sample B. In sample C the mineral-bound foam represents a five-substancesystem consisting of water, cement, aluminum powder, superplasticizer and microsilica.
Thereby the microstructure of the hardened cement paste of specimen C is comparable with the
microstructure of HPC.
Although the composition of the single samples differentiate extremely, density and
compressive strength are very similar. The compressive strength has values between 10.9 and
12.0 N/mm2 with densities of 0.92 and 0.93 kg/dm 3. The compositions and the properties of the
selected mixtures are shown in Table 3.
Table 3: Recipes and properties of three selected sample mixtures.
Specimen
A
B
C
w/c ratio
0.60
0.40
0.40
Aluminum
powder
[wt.%]
0.05
0.08
0.10
[wt.%]
Superplasticizer
[wt.%]
[kg/dm3]
Compressive
strength
[N/mm2]
0
0
10
0
0.04
0.85
0.92
0.92
0.93
11.9
10.9
12.0
Microsilica
Density
The shape and the size distribution of the air voids are responsible for the properties of the
hardened foam concrete. The structural differences within the air voids become clear when
examining the roundness of the pores. The roundness of all examined samples tends to
decrease with rising pore sizes (Figure 6).
For all samples the roundness of the pores with a surface < 0.1 mm2 is very similar. The
roundness has values from 0.74 to 0.78 and has the least deviation from the cross section of all
classes. Since these pores develop in all cases similarly, their influence on compressive
strength must take place via the pores with an area larger than 1.0 mm2. The roundness of the
air voids of the class >1.0 mm2 ranges between 0.50 for sample A to 0.27 for sample B. These
differences are justified in the consistency of the fresh paste. The high water content of the
sample A permits the production of a foam with the dry bulk density of 0.92 kg/dm3 when using
an aluminum powder content of 0.05 wt.%. The remaining samples represented here reach this
dry bulk density only with an accordingly higher aluminum ratio of 0.08 and 0.10 wt.%. This
means that the roundness of the air voids decreases when the generation of gas bubbles is
obstructed by stiffer fresh paste consistency.
796
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
>1.0
0.9 - 1.0
0.8 - 0.9
0.7 - 0.8
0.4 - 0.5
0.3 - 0.4
0.2 - 0.3
0.1 - 0.2
< 0.1
0.2
0.6 - 0.7
0.3
0.5 - 0.6
Average roundness
0.8
Pore area [mm2]

A
Figure 6: Average roundness of different air void classes of the three selected specimens.
This change to the air voids finally results in a reduction of the compressive strength when
comparing the samples A with B and C because the hardened cement paste matrix solidified
due to the reduced w/c ratio and due to the use of admixtures and additives, as shown in [5].
The most important results can also be derived qualitatively from Figure 7. With a high
performance microstructure, that means with decreasing w/c ratios and simultaneous use of
microsilica and superplasticizer, the average diameter of the air voids decreases and the
number of inconsistently formed pores increases. This is because a stiffer fresh paste
consistence requires a higher amount of aluminum for the same densities compared with less
stiff consistences. Furthermore, the quantity of irregularly formed pores increase s considerably.
The smaller the diameter of the pores are, the more regularly they are formed. Regularly formed
air voids, however, increase the compressive strength with comparable densities.
Figure 7: SEM pictures (different magnifications) of air voids in three foam concretes:
left:
w/c ratio = 0.60, no microsilica, no superplasticizer.
middle: w/c ratio = 0.40, no microsilica, superplasticizer content = 0.04 wt.%.
right: w/c ratio = 0.40, microsilica content = 10 wt.%, superplasticizer content = 0.85 wt.%.
4 Conclusions
It is technically possible to manufacture chemically expanded, air cured, high performance
mineral-bound foams, which can be used for load bearing structures. These foams are
sustainable and multifunctional because of the combination of high strength and high thermal
insulating properties.
The properties of HPC mineral-bound foams can be improved by the specific use of
microsilica as well as superplasticizer. The reduction of the w/c ratio and the simultaneous use
of microsilica lead to a optimized cement paste matrix and a stiffer consistency. To get a
processible consistency the use of a PCE superplasticizer is necessary. The microstructure of
797
high performance foam concretes is largely comparable with the microstructure of HPCs.
Furthermore the consistency of the stiff paste is influenced by the use of superplasticizer in
such a way, that the growing of unequally shaped air voids, which occur during the chemical
expansion, is encouraged. These unequally shaped air voids negatively affect the properties
(e.g. compressive strength) of the hardened foam concrete, because the load transmission
within the cement paste matrix is disturbed. The more superplasticizer is used the more
irregularly formed air voids occur. It was observed that the size of the air voids plays a decisive
role. The bigger the air voids the more irregularities occur.
It can be stated that optimized air hardened foam concretes, which should have increased
compressive strengths, must be adjusted in such a way that they preferably possess as f ew air
voids as possible, with a cross section area of > 1.0 mm2. Independent of the paste
composition, air voids with a cross section area < 0.1 mm2 are consistently formed.
References
[1] Verein Deutscher Zementwerke e.V.: Zementtaschenbuch. 50. Ausgabe Verlag Bau + Technik
GmbH, 2002.
[2] Homann, M.: Porenbeton Handbuch. 6. Auflage, Bauverlag, 2008.
[3] Readymix: Sonderdruck 37, Fliefhiger Porenbeton. Transportbeton Beratungsgesellschaft, 1978.
[4] Just, A.: Untersuchungen zur Weiterentwicklung von chemisch aufgetriebenen, lufthrtenden,
mineralisch gebundenen Schumen. Dissertation, Shaker Verlag, ISBN 978-3-8322-6905-0, 2008.
[5] Just, A., Middendorf, B.: Microstructure of High-Strength Foam Concrete. Materials Characterization,
07/2009, pp. 741-748, Elsevier, 2009.
[6] Just, A., Middendorf, B: Influence of PCE on the Macro- and Microstructure of Air Hardened Foam
Concrete. 13th International Congress on Polymers in Concrete, Proceedings pp. 473 - 479, ISBN
972-99179-4-3, 2010.
[7] Just, A., Middendorf, B., Klein, D.: Structural Optimization of High Strength Air Hardened Foam
Concrete. fib Symposium 2011, Prague, Proceedings pp. 337 - 340, ISBN 978-80-87158-29-6, 2011.
[8] EN 197-1, Cement - Part 1: Composition, specifications and conformity criteria for common
cements. German version EN 197-1:2000 + A1, 2004.
[9] Bornemann, R., Schmidt, M., Fehling, E., Middendorf, B.: Ultra-Hochleistungsbeton UHPC Herstellung, Eigenschaften und Anwendungsmglichkeiten, Beton- und Stahlbetonbau 96, Nr. 7, S.
458-467, Verlag Ernst & Sohn GmbH & Co. KG, Berlin 2001.
[10] de Larrard, F., Sedran, T.: Mixture proportioning of high-prformance concrete: Cement and Concrete
Research, Volume 32, Issue 11, Pages 1699-1704, 2002.
[11] de Larrard, F.: Ultrafine particles for the making of very high strength concrete. Cement and
Concrete Research, Volume 19, Issue 2, Pages 161-172, 1989.
[12] Richter, T.: Hochfester Beton Hochleistungsbeton. Verlag Bau + Technik GmbH, Dsseldorf, 1999.
[13] Cwirzen, A., Penttala, V., Vornanen, C.: Reactive powder based concretes: Mechanical properties,
durability and hybrid use with OPC. Cement and Concrete Research, Volume 38, Issue 10, Pages
1217-1226, 2008.
798
UHPC Under Intensive Autoclave Cycles for Energy Storage

Water Tanks
Mohamed Abd Elrahman 1,2 Bernd Hillemeier1
1: Dept. of Building Materials and Chemistry, Institute of Civil Engineering, TU Berlin, Germany.
2: Structural Eng. Dept., Faculty of Engineering, Mansoura University, Egypt.
This paper presents a new ultra high performance concrete for solar energy storage concrete tanks to
store water and steam at a temperature above 100 C. The modified Fuller &Thompson curve has been
used for proportioning the aggregate and fines. Rene LCPC software has been used to measure the
porosity and dense packing of dry mixture. The autoclave technique has been used to load the concrete
specimens with a temperature of 200 C and a pressure of 15,5 bars for repeated cycles with
heating/cooling rates of about 1/0,5 C/min respectively. Experimental investigation involving the
measurements of porosity, permeability and strength will be presented. The results indicated that
optimization of the concrete mixture can effectively reduce the total porosity and permeability of concrete
as well as increase the compressive strength. After hydrothermal exposure, the optimized concrete
showed very stable properties with regarding to durability and strength.
Keywords: concrete optimization, durability, hydrothermal attack
Introduction
Storage of solar thermal energy or of waste heat from heat and power cogeneration plants can
significantly contribute to substitute fossil fuels in future energy systems. Some solar energy
storage tanks have been built in the last few years [1], but these tanks were limited with
maximum temperature of 95 C and the stored energy is used for heating only. Normal concrete
can not be used alone as a construction material for these tanks because of the high porosity
which gets higher with increasing the temperature [2 and 3]. The construction costs are very
high because these tanks need stainless steel liner to prevent water leakage [1]. In recent
years, some tanks without liner have been built with high performance concrete to store hot
water at 95 C [4]. However, to make a practical use of the stored energy such as industrial
processes and steam generation, the storing temperature must be increased above 100 C.
The present paper is a part of an extensive investigation on Hot water concrete tank to store
solar generated energy. The purpose of this article is to optimize a low porosity/high durability
concrete mixture to be used in the construction of the closed energy storage tank to store water
and steam at a temperature of 200 C and a pressure of about 15,5 bars.
Concrete Mixture Optimization
When a concrete wall subjected to hydrothermal cycles, water and vapour try to penetrate the
wall. The penetration rate depends mainly on the temperature and pressure of the water and
vapour as well as on the microstructure, durability and porosity of concrete. The aggregate, the
matrix, and the bond between them affect concrete porosity, microstructure and durability. The
matrix depends not only on the w/c ratio but also on the granulometry and reactivity of the
cementitious material. Therefore, in this research, concrete mixture optimization is primarily
based on three fundamental mechanisms:
1- Enhancing packing density of solid particles
2- Designing of dense cement matrix
3- Optimization of water/cement ratio
799
Enhancing packing density of solid particles

The production of extremely dense concrete to resist hydrothermal conditions is based on the
designing of a system with highly compatible well graded components. Uniform grading with
proper amount of each size results in mixture with high packing density [5] and in concrete with
minimum binder content and low water demand. As a result, the concrete will have less
durability problems such as permeability, shrinkage, and thermal degradation. An additional
object is to block and lengthen the access path of contaminants to the concrete.
Fuller [6] stated that if the aggregate is graded according to Equation 1, the resulting mix
requires less cement and gives higher compressive strength. The Fuller curve despite its
historical value is still the base for proportioning of the aggregate in many national concrete
standards [7]. The problems of applying this curve are the low workability and probability of
segregation in fresh state. To overcome these problems, some modifications have been done to
achieve better workability and mix stability and have better particle packing [8] (see figure 1).
P(
d n
)
Dmax
(1)
Passing (V %)
Where P: cumulative percent finer than d, d: particle size, Dmax: maximum particle size, n 0,5.
In this research, the mixture components proportioning has been calculated according to the
modified Fuller curve (figure 1). For the maximum aggregate size of 16 mm (Dmax), the
aggregate volume (d > 125 m) is 85,1%, while the cementitious materials (d< 63 m) is 12,9%
by volume. Quartz powder (63 < d < 125 m) (QP) and quartz sand (QS) have been used to fill
the gap between cement and aggregate.
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
100
Modified Fuller
Fuller
70 71
50
9 69
4 47
1/2048
100
14 9
12 9
6 25
1/1024 1/512 1/256
8 84
1/128
18 6
23 3
29 1
35 36
62 9
44 4
35 1
25
12 5
1/64
17 68
1/32
1/16
1/8
1/4
1/2
Size (d/Dmax)
Figure 1: The grading curve for aggregate and binder according to modified Fuller & Thompson.
Designing of dense cement matrix

All transport processes depend primarily on the structure of the hydrated cement paste [ 9].
During the hydration process, the size and the continuity of the pores would control the
permeability of the hardening concrete. If the hydration process of cement is too fast, large
amounts of hydration products with capillary pores are generated on the surface of cement
particles at early age and the microstructure is not dense as desired. In contrast, if the hydration
rate is slow, a denser microstructure is formed [10]. In addition, Portland cement hydration
produces about one-third of its mass of calcium hydroxide (CH), which is associated with
greater permeability and lower durability. The use of pozzolans improves the durability through
the pore refinement and the reduction in the CH [11].
Concrete durability can be improved significantly by using cements containing blast furnace
slag. These cements, in contrast to ordinary Portland cement(OPC), show lower permeability,
800
UHPC Under Intensive Autoclave Cycles for Energy Storage Water Tanks
lower hydration heat, lower effective alkali content, and lower steel corrosion. The beneficial
effects of blast furnace slag arise from the low CH content and making the pore space being
filled with CSH. The slag retains the alkali and CH in its hydration products (i.e. CSH). This
results in a hardened cement paste with denser microstructure and smaller pore sizes than
equivalent OPC paste, thus permeability and ionic diffusivity are reduced [12]. Due to their
pozzolanic reactivity, using pozzolanic materials with slag cement enhances the concrete
impermeability by the formation of additional CSH phases. In this research, the amount of
cementitious materials is about 312 kg/m3 (12.9% by volume). CEM III/B 32,5, fly ash, fine fly
ash (M10 and M20) and silica fume were used as cementitious materials.
Optimization of water/cement ratio
The durability of concrete cannot be characterized with a uniform value, but the impermeability
of concrete against water and gases is always of the most crucial aspects. The transport of
liquids and gases, which can be harmful to concrete, occur exclusively through the capillary
pore system of the cement matrix. Accordingly, the minimization of the fraction of capillary
pores is of vital importance for concrete impermeability and durability. It is theoretically known
that, capillary pores begin to form at a water/cement ratio higher than 0,42. However, there is a
physical limit to how low the w/c ratio can be. This is because the water added must be at least
sufficient to fill up the voids between solid particles [13]. Because of the low cement content,
small increase in the water content may lead to high increase in w/c ratio [14].
In this research, the water/cement ratio was 0,42 (mixing water) for all mixes with k factor of
0,4 and 1 for fly ash and silica fume respectively. The water required to fill the voids between
solid particles (required water) has been calculated by the help of Rene LCPC software [15].
Rene LCPC Software
Rene LCPC software which is based on the compressible packing model developed by Larrard
[15] was used to calculate the porosity of the dry mixture. This model is based on the concept of
virtual packing density and compaction index. Two interaction effects should be considered in
this calculation: the wall effect exerted by coarser grains, and the loosening effect, exerted by
the finer particles. This model aims to predict the packing density and porosity of polydisperse
mix, from the knowledge of three types of parameters: packing density of monosized classes,
size distribution of the mix and compaction index (K). The compaction index (K) depends mainly
on the type of compacting (see table 1). The calculated porosity was used to determine the
required water assuming the air content of concrete is 1%.
required water = calculated porosity air content
(2)
Table 1: K values for different compaction methods according to [15].
Implementation
Loose
Striking
with a rod
vibration
Wet
packing
Vibration with
Comp. 10 KPa
Virtual
4,1
4,5
4,75
6,7
infinity
Materials and methods
Materials and concrete mixes

In the experimental work, CEM III/B 32,5 N-LH/HS/NA with slag content of 68,8 % according to
DIN EN 197-4, fly ash according to DIN EN 450-1, and silica fume (SF) according to DIN EN
13263-1 have been employed as cementitious materials. Three types of fly ash have been
used; normal (FA) and fine fly ash (M20 and M10). Figure 2 shows the particle size distribution
of fine materials. Superplasticizer (Muraplast FK63.30) has been used to achieve a desirable
801
consistency (class F4) according to DIN EN 206-1. Table 1 shows the physical properties of the
used materials. Ten mixes have been prepared and tested (table 2). The autoclave technique
was used to load the concrete specimens with repeated cycles of high pressure (15 bars) and
temperature (200 C) with heating and cooling rates of 1 K/min and 0,5 K/min respectively.
100
90
Silica fume
M 20
M 10
CEM III B32,5
FA
QP
QS
80
Volume %
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 01
01
10
Particle Size (um)
100
1000
Figure 2: Particle size distribution of fine materials by Laser granulometry.

Table 1: Physical properties of the used materials.
Material
CEMIII/B
FA
M 10
M20
SF
QP
QS
Aggregate
2,96
2,29
2,49
2,45
2,2
2,69
2,67
2,61
Surface area cm /gm*
4156
2877
6400
6000
200000
2683
760
Water demand [15]
22,6
18,5
23
21,6
49,9
24,4
Density (t/m )
2
*The surface area of all materials were measured by Blaine method except Silica fume which measured by BET.
Table 2: Mixes composition and fresh properties of concrete.
Mix
Composition of cementitious
materials(wt.%)
M10
Aggregate
QS
(wt.%)
Kg/m3
Kg/m3
Flow
Air
QP
Diameter Content
Kg/m3
(cm)
(V %)
Cement
FA
M20
100
0,7
1854
84
46
53
1,5
70
30
1854
84
46
52
1,3
70
30
1854
84
46
48
1,6
70
30
1854
84
46
51
1,4
70
15
15
1854
84
46
51
1,3
70
20
0,9
1854
84
46
54
1,3
90
10
0,7
1854
84
46
48
2,3
65
10
1,1
1854
84
46
50
2,0
65
10
65
25
15
SF
SP
12,5
12,5
10
1854
84
46
50
2,2
10
1854
84
46
50
2,0
Mixing Sequences
In order to enhance the distribution of all particles and make the mixture more homogenous, the
following diagram shows the sequence of the addition of concrete constituents in the mixer.
802
Addition of Aggregates and quartz

powder and quartz sand
1/2 minute mixing
1/2 Minute mixing
Addition of cement and fly ash
Addition of part of mixing water and

mixing for 1/2 minute
1 minute mixing
Addition of residual mixing water

and superplasticizer
Addition of silica fume, M10 and

M20
Mixing for 4 minutes

Figure 3: The sequence of addition of concrete constituents in the mixer.
Test procedures
In this experimental work, the porosity of dry mixture have been measured using Rene LCPC
software. The porosity of hardened concrete was measured using Helium Pycnometer. The air
permeability of concrete according to TGL 21094-12 (Equation 3) has been measured on
cylindrical samples with diameter of 50 mm and height of 20 mm. The compressive strength of
concrete specimens according to DIN EN 206-1 for 100 mm cubes has been tested. All tests of
hardened concrete have been made after 56 days in two cases; in normal conditions and after
autoclaving for 15 cycles. Flow diameter and air content have been measured according to DIN
EN 12390.
V .h.
A.t. p
(3)
Where: K = gas permeability coefficient (cm2), V: flow volume (cm 3), t: passing time
(seconds), h: height (cm), A: cross section area (cm 2), p: pressure N/cm2, : dynamic viscosity
of the air N/cm2.
Results and Discussion
Water requirement
The mixing water (w/c = 0,42) and required water (Equation 2) contents of all mixes are given in
table 3. For mixes 8, 9, and 10, the required water is higher than the mixing water which means
that the voids between solid particles are not fully filled with water. In contrast, mixes 1, 2, 6,
and 7, the mixing water is more than the required water; the volume of the added water is larger
than the available volume between solid particles. While mixes (3, 4, and 5), the mixing and
required water are approximately the same; little escape as free water, and no voids is still
empty.
803
Table 3: Mixing and required water content of mixes.
Mix
10
mixing water
131,3
107,7
107,7
107,7
107,7
107,7
131,3
111,6
111,6
111,6
required water
110,7
105,8
107,3
107,3
107,2
106,1
119,8
112,8
116,6
115,4
Porosity
The test results showed that optimizing concrete mixture results in reducing the porosity of all
mixes as seen in figure 3. In dry mixture, fly ash with its spherical shape enhances the packing
density and reduces the water demand. The packing density of mixes with silica fume is lower
than other mixes because the ultra fine nature and lower density of silica fume particles which
makes the particle dispersion inhomogeneous and reduces the packing density [16]. In
hardened concrete, fine fly ash (M10 and M20) enhance the packing density and reduce the
porosity to less than 6% (mix 5). After autoclaving for 15 cycles a slight increase in porosity for
all mixes can be observed. Due to the hydrothermal conditions, contrary to heating alone, the
volume of fine pores tend to increase and the volume of big pores decreases. This phenomena
is due to the autoclaving effect, which is associated with a decrease in the phases (C3S + C2S) and in an increase in CH content [3].
16
Porosity (V%)
14
Porosity at normal conditions

Porosity after autoclaving for 15 cycles
Porosity of dry mixture (Rene LCPC)
12
10
8
6
4
mix 1
mix 2
mix 3
mix 4
mix 5
mix 6
mix 7
mix 8
mix 9
mix 10
Figure 3: Porosity of normal and autoclaved concrete at age 56 days.
Air permeability
It can be seen from figure 4 that optimization of concrete mixture can significantly reduce the air
permeability for all mixes. This can be due to the higher packing density of the mixture which
reduces the porosity and the required cement paste. In the same time, the high content of
aggregate lengthens the flow paths and makes them unconnected. Mixes containing fine fly ash
exhibited lower air permeability. It reacts with CH to form CSH, which fills large capillary voids
and disrupts their continuity. By autoclaving for 15 cycles, the air permeability of concrete
reduced to 1.8*10-17 m2 (mix 5). The hydrothermal process increases the reaction of fine fly ash
with calcium hydroxide and this reaction leads to two important effects. First, the volume of
calcium hydroxide is reduced because it is substituted by CSH product which makes the
microstructure denser and as a result the permeability is reduced. Secondly, the hydration
products of this reaction fill the voids and reduce its size and connectivity and consequently the
permeability is reduced also.
804
16
Air permeability at normal conditions
Air permeability after autoclaving for 15 cycles
12
-17
Air permaebility x 10 m
14
10
8
6
4
2
0
mix 1
mix 2
mix 3
mix 4
mix 5
mix 6
mix 7
mix 8
mix 9
mix 10
Figure 4: Air permeability of normal and autoclaved concrete at 56 days.
Results of compressive strength at 56 days are given in figure 5. For mixes with pozzolanic
materials, hydrothermal process improves concrete strength because this process accelerates
the reaction of cement components with water as well as the pozzolanic reactions between fly
ash and silica fume with CH. As seen from figure 5, the increase of strength in the first stage of
autoclaving (5 cycles) is more noticeable, while in the later stages of autoclaving (10 and 15
cycles) the compressive strength is approximately constant.
110
Compressive strength (MPa)
normal
100
5 cycles
90
10 cycles
15 cycles
80
70
60
50
mix 1
mix 2
mix 3
mix 4
mix 5
mix 6
mix 7
mix 8
mix 9
mix 10
Figure 5: compressive strength of normal and autoclaved concrete at 56 days.
Conclusions
The following conclusions can be drawn from the present investigation:

1 With optimization of concrete mixture, it is possible to produce low porosity, highly
durable concrete with desirable workability and strength by using a low cement content.
2 Incorporation of fine fly ash enhances the packing density and reduces the water
requirement as well as it reduces the concrete porosity and permeability.
3 After hydrothermal treatment, the optimized concrete showed very stable properties with
regarding to durability. The changes in the matrix morphology, microstructure, mineral
805
and chemical composition were limited and can be neglected in the applied
hydrothermal conditions.
References
[1] Schmidt, T. and Mangold D., New steps in seasonal energy storage in Germany, Proceedings of
Ecostock 2006: 10th International Conference on Thermal Energy Storage, May31-June2, 2006,
Pomona, USA.
[2] Djaknoun S., Ahmed Benyahia A., Ouedraogo E., Porosity and permeability of mortar exposed to
elevated temperature, Journal of Applied Science Research, 4(3), 2008, pp 231-240.
[3] M. Schekarchi, G. Debicki, L. Granger, Y. Billard, Study of leaktightness integrity of containment
wall without liner in high performance concrete under accidential conditions I. Experimental,
Nuclear Engineering and Design 213 (2002), pp 1-9.
[4] Joo M., Dichtheit von heiwasser-langzeitspeichern aus hochleistungsbeton, Ph.D. Thesis,
Institut fr Werkstoffe im Bauwessen, Universitt Stuttgart, 2001.
[5] Geisenhanslke, C. and M. Schmidt, ," Methods for modelling and calculation of high density
packing for cement and fillers in UHPC", International Symposium on Ultra High Performance
Concrete. 2004, Kassel.
[6] Fuller, W.B. and Thompson, S.E. (1907), The laws of proportioning concrete, ASCE J. Transport,
Vol. 59. pp. 67-143.
[7] Vogt, C. (2010), Ultrafine particles in concrete; influence of ultrafine particles on concrete properties
and application to concrete mix design, School of Architecture and the Built Environment, Division
of Concrete Structure, Stockholm: Royal Institute of Technology.
[8] Hillemeier BHA. High performance concrete specialized for acid resistance, 1st International
conference on Concrete & Development, 30 April-2 May, Tehran, Iran, 2001.
[9] Neville A. M., Properties of concrete, Fourth and Final Edition, Standards updated to 2002, 844 P.
[10] Tongsheq Zhang, Qijun Yu, Jianngiong Wei, Peng Gao, Pingping Zhang, Study on optimization of
hydration process of blended cement, Journal of thermal analysis and calorimetry. DOI.
10.1007/s10973-011-1531-8.
[11] P. Chindaprasirt, S. Homwuttiwong, V. Sirivivatnanon, Influence of fly ash fineness on strength,
drying shrinkage and sulphate resistance of blended cement mortar, Cement and Concrete
Research 34 (2004), pp 1087-1092.
[12] ACI Committee 233 R, Ground Granulated Blast Furance Slag as a cementitious constituent in
concrete American Concrete Institute, Farmington Hills, Mich. 1995.
[13] A.K.H.Kwan, H. H. C. Wong," Packing density of cementitious materials: part 2 packing and flow of
OPC + PFA + CSF", Materials and Structures (2008), 41:773-784, DOI 10.1617/s11527-007-9281-6.
[14] S.A.A.M. Fennis, Design of ecological concrete by particle packing optimization, PhD Thesis,
Design and Construction Department, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Geosciences, TU Delft, 2011.
[15] Sedran, T. and Larrard, F. de. (2000) "Rene LCPC user manual", (in French).
[16] Reschke T., Einflu der Granulometrie der Feinstoffe auf die Gefgeentwicklung und die Festigkeit
von Beton, Schriftenreihe der Zementindustrie Vol. 62, Dsseldorf, 2001.
806
Ultra High Performance Concrete for Drill Bits in Special

Foundation Engineering
Hursit Ibuk, Karsten Beckhaus
BAUER Spezialtiefbau GmbH, Germany
The strength properties of Ultra High Performance Concrete (UHPC) allow it to be used for research
applications in special foundation engineering. In this regard, UHPC generally competes with steel. In
many special foundation applications, steel is used as the common material. For the successful market
penetration of applications made of UHPC, however, it is not only mechanical aspects that are decisive,
but also economical and nowadays additionally ecological aspects.
The research presented here is supported by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF,
Germany, FKZ: 13N10456) and is mainly focused on the use of UHPC in special foundation engineering.
So far, drill bits for constructing full displacement piles made of UHPC have been researched. Initial field
tests have been carried out with great success.
Keywords: UHPC, special foundation engineering, drill bits
1 Introduction
BAUER Group and UHPC Research
The BAUER Group is an international construction and machinery manufacturing corporation
based in Schrobenhausen, Germany. The Group markets its products and services all over the
world. The operations of the Group are divided into three segments: Construction, Equipment
and Resources.
The company BAUER Spezialtiefbau GmbH (abbr. BST construction segment) performs
special foundation works for excavation pits, foundations, cut-off walls and ground improvement
worldwide. The company BAUER Maschinen GmbH (abbr. BMA equipment segment)
develops and manufactures equipment and tools for specialist foundation engineering
applications and mining. In the third segment BAUER Resources GmbH focuses on products
and services in the fields of water, energy, mineral resources and environmental technology.
Especially for the fields of activity of BST and BMA, applications made of UHPC may lead to
research into economical and ecological products. Here, the commonly used building material
steel is the reference for UHPC.
Within the framework of the collaborative research project UHPC in Special Foundation
Engineering run jointly by BST and the cbm (Centrum Baustoffe und Materialprfung,
Technische Universitt Mnchen), the application of drill bits made by UHPC was researched
and verified. The research presented here is supported by the Federal Ministry of Education
and Research (BMBF, Germany, FKZ: 13N10456).
Execution of bored piles in full displacement method with the lost bit technique
The specific construction method of bored piles made of reinforced concrete must be chosen
from a number of special foundation methods dependant on the present soil conditions and
economical aspects. In particular in soft to stiff, loose to medium-dense soils, the execution of
bored piles in the full displacement method with the lost bit technique is becoming increasingly
relevant.
With this method, a drill bit is used. A drilling rig equipped for the displacement pile method
provides the required power (force and torque) (Fig. 1). First the present soil is drilled by the
drill bit at the toe of the drill string and the soil is loosened. Then, the drill string enlarges the
borehole in its final diameter by displacing the loosened soil radially into the surrounding soil.
807
The drill bit performs its task only once, until the final depth of the bored pile is reached.
Afterwards the drill bit remains in the soil. In this way, a borehole for placing the reinforced
concrete pile is constructed. Following this, the reinforcement and the concrete are installed in
the hollow of the drill string in order to ensure a proper result of the bored pile (Fig. 1, Fig. 2).
Figure 1: Full displacement method with lost bit technique.
2 Bits made of Ultra High Performance Concrete

The common material for drill bits is steel (Fig. 2). Steel is the reference material for possible
special foundation applications made of Ultra High Performance Concrete (UHPC).
Figure 2: Common steel bit (bottom left) and the drill string (hollow).
808
Ultra High Performance Concrete for Drill Bits in Special Foundation Engineering
There are several fields of special foundation engineering in which steel could be replaced in
the future by UHPC. UHPC is characterised by its dense structure, which gives UHPC excellent
durability properties. Furthermore, the very high compression strength of UHPC, which is about
5 times higher than the compression strength of common concrete in special foundation
engineering, is an important UHPC property. Within the bored pile construction, the drill bits are
not only applied by compression forces rather by torque additionally. This makes the shear
resistance and shear strength of UHPC extremely important (Fig. 3).
Figure 3: Shear strength test of an UHPC specimen.
For this reason, shear strength was examined in separate test series. Furthermore, the largescale production of UHPC applications was researched. The mixing technique of UHPC and the
material handling characteristics of UHPC were also considered in the test program. The
influences on product quality were researched.
The use of steel fibres in UHPC compositions leads to greater ductility characteristics for the
final UHPC product. For this reason, steel fibres are also unavoidable for one-way drill bits
made of UHPC. A total failure of the drill bit after reaching its strength is prevented by steel
fibres limiting the crack width (Fig. 4).
Figure 4: UHPC drill bit.
809
Drill bits made of UHPC with embedded steel fibres can be characterised by extremely high
corrosion-resistance. This durability aspect represents a huge advantage for UHPC drill bits
(Fig. 4) over steel bits.
UHPC drill bits were successfully tested at a number of special foundation job sites in Italy
and Switzerland. Bored piles with a diameter of 620 mm were constructed by using UHPC drill
bits in the full displacement method, including in difficult soil conditions for drilling. After the
drilling process, UHPC drill bits were still fully functional and were free of any cracks (Fig. 5). In
addition, the essential sealing system between the UHPC drill bit and the drill string remains
active so that groundwater from outside cannot flow into the drill string (hollow). The following
concreting process can thus be properly carried out. An equivalent drilling performance
between UHPC and steel bits was also verified by practical tests. Mechanical abrasion due to
drilling at the surface of the UHPC drill bit cannot be avoided, but is not relevant for the drilling
process (Fig. 5).
Figure 5: UHPC drill bit after the drilling process.
3 Conclusions
With the researched drill bit for full displacement piles, a first product made of UHPC (Ultra High
Performance Concrete) is now available. This product may have good market opportunities
because of its high quality and proper realisation standard. At the same time, UHPC drill bits
are cheaper to produce than steel bits.
Technically, UHPC drill bits are not inferior to steel bits. Moreover, the carbon footprint of
UHPC drill bits is comparatively small.
In future, products made of UHPC may become increasingly important because the price of
steel is set to increase in the medium term, as well as in the long term significantly more than
the price of UHPC.
The UHPC drill bit was taken from the research project UHPC in Special Foundation
Engineering. The basic understanding of UHPC up to this point was obtained in collaborative
research work (BST and cbm). In the future, further product developments (e.g. economical
optimisation in steel fibre content, form and strength improvement) will be started separately in
order to achieve market readiness.
810
Effect of Fibres on Impact Resistance of Ultra High

Sandy Leonhardt, Dirk Lowke, Christoph Gehlen
Centre for Building Materials, Technische Universitt Mnchen, Germany
The suitability of ultra high performance concrete (UHPC) as a material for driven piles is demonstrated
in this contribution. The effect of fibre content and type on the impact resistance of UHPC was
investigated. Impact resistance increased with the amount of micro steel fibres 0.16 mm in diameter.
Replacement of the micro steel fibres by crimped fibres with a larger diameter reduced the impact
resistance of UHPC. It was shown that fibre orientation and distribution affect the impact resistance of
UHPC.
Keywords: UHPC, impact resistance, steel fibres, fibre content, fibre orientation
1 Introduction
Driven piles are employed to improve the load bearing capacity of the construction ground.
While being driven the piles are continuously subjected to impact and therefore require
appropriate high resistance (Fig. 1). Thus up to now piles were mainly made of ductile cast iron
[1].
Figure 1: pile driving in operation.
Because of increasing environmental awareness as well as economic considerations and

availability of raw materials the replacement of cast iron by a new material for driven piles would
help reduce the amount of steel used in construction and thus the environmental impact of steel
production as a whole. Ultra high performance concrete possesses excellent properties with
regard to compressive strength, but fails in a brittle manner if steel fibres are not included in the
mix. Usually 1.5 to 3.0 vol.% steel fibres are added [2], [3] to counteract the explosive failure
which otherwise occurs on reaching maximum strength. The higher ductility also improves the
impact resistance of UHPC whereby knowledge of optimum fibre content and orientation is
vitally important. Consequently, the present investigations focus on the effect of steel fibre
content and orientation on the impact resistance of UHPC. The impact resistance of fibre811
reinforced regular concrete has been investigated in the past [4], [5], [6]. Bonzel and Dahms [5],
[4] showed that impact resistance could be increased by more than a factor of 20 by adding 3
vol.% steel fibres with dimensions of l/d = 25/0.4 mm to the mix. The increase in deformation
energy of steel fibre concrete was attributed to the high degree of friction between the fibres
and the concrete. The authors noted that the distribution and orientation of the fibres affected
impact resistance; an uneven distribution of fibres with a preferred alignment originating from
the manufacturing process led to more scatter of the measurements [4].
Fibre orientation also affects concrete strength significantly for other types of mechanical
loading. Empelmann and Teutsch [7] investigated the effect of the production-related orientation
of fibres on flexural strength after crack initiation using beams concreted in either a horizontal or
vertical position. The post-cracking flexural strength of vertically concreted beams was found to
be at most only 70% of the value for the horizontally concreted beams. According to the stateof-the-art report published in 2008 [8], the direction of concreting and thus the preferred
alignment of the fibres in the flow direction of fresh concrete affects tensile strength greatly. In
the case of a flexural load, the fibres should preferably be aligned in the direction of tensile
force because then all the fibres will contribute to stress transfer in the crack [9]. Consequently,
load direction and fibre orientation affect decisively the strength of concrete reinforced with steel
fibres.
2 Investigations
The investigations were carried out using three UHPC which differed in fibre content and type,
Table 1. Micro steel fibres were used which were 6 mm long and 0.16 mm in diameter as well
as crimped fibres 6 mm long and 0.50 mm in diameter. The concrete mixes were prepared
using Portland cement of strength class 42.5 N, silica fume with a mean grain size of 0.15 m,
quartz flour and sand with a maximum grain size of 0.5 mm. A superplasticizer based on
polycarboxylate ether was added to fluidize the mix. To investigate possible sedimentation
effects during concreting concrete specimens were produced by pouring as well as the
conventional pumping method.
Table 1: UHPC compositions.
Materials
UHPC 1
UHPC 2
UHPC 3
Cement
kg/m
680
675
680
Silica fume
kg/m
138
138
138
Quartz flour
kg/m
360
356
360
Quartz sand
kg/m
990
982
990
kg/m
118
236
39
kg/m
79
Total steel fibre content
vol.%
1.5
3.0
1.5
Superplasticizer
kg/m
21
21
21
Water
kg/m
179
170
179
0.24
0.24
0.24
901
780
865
Steel fibres
l/d = 6/0,16 mm
6/0,50 mm crimped
w/b
1)
Slump flow
mm
including silica fume and water in superplasticizer
1)
The concretes were prepared in a high performance mixer in which the mineral materials and
steel fibres were homogenized before adding the water and 40% of the superplasticizer. The
remaining superplasticizer was added after mixing for two minutes. After a total mixing time of
3.5 minutes the fresh concrete was fed into a receptacle fitted with a screw pump. A total of six
812
standing (vertical) cylindrical moulds were used with dimensions near /h = 100/200 mm. At
first, fresh concrete specimens were scooped directly out of the receptacle for slump flow
measurements, Table 1, and to fill three of the moulds. Fresh concrete was then pumped out of
the receptacle into the remaining three moulds. The fresh concrete was not compacted
externally. After demoulding and storing in standard climate 20C/65% RH until an age of five
days, the cylinders were heat treated for 48 h in water at 90C. Finally, the cylinder ends were
ground parallel to height of 2002 mm.
Impact Resistance
The impact resistance of the specimens was investigated in an impact test device according to
DIN 1097-2 [10], Fig. 2. Each specimen was positioned between a hydraulic cylinder and a die
and then preloaded with 1000 N. A 50 kg weight falling from 600 mm onto the die produced the
impact. After a series of five consecutive impacts the specimens were removed from the device
and the ultrasonic pulse velocity measured between transducers mounted on the ends of the
cylinders [11]. The specimens were then returned to the testing device and the procedure
repeated until the pulse velocities decreased by 10% of the initial value. The number of impacts
needed to reach this velocity was designated as the impact failure number. It was used to
characterize the impact resistance of the cylinders. Mostly cracks parallel to the direction of
impact appeared during testing (longitudinal cracks, Fig. 3) indicting that the main load was in
the horizontal direction (transverse tensile load).
Figure 2: Impact resistance tester.
Figure 3: Specimen during impact.
Fibre Content and Orientation

After impact testing, the amount and orientation of the fibres in the cylinders were determined.
Fibre segregation in the fresh concrete was investigated by cutting the cylinders into three
sections (top, middle, bottom) each 67 mm in height as shown in Fig. 4 enabling the
determination of the orientation of the fibres at different concrete heights. In particular,
alignment of the fibres along the base of the mould was reckoned with.
The amount and orientation of the fibres was determined using inductive measuring
equipment, Fig. 5, in which the ferromagnetic steel fibres acted as the core coil. Excitation and
induction coils were used to measure the induced voltage [12], [13]. High voltages
corresponded to high fibre contents.
At first, the ferromagnetic properties of the steel fibres were characterized by calibration
measurements for each fibre type, Table 1. A container having the same dimensions as the
cylinder sections was filled with a mixture of fibres and 0/4 mm sand. Calibration measurements
813
were carried out for different amounts of fibres in the mixture [13]. In this manner, fibre profiles
were entered in the database of the device for each fibre type in UHPC and the mix of fibre
types in UHPC 3. The cylinder sections could then be measured using the appropriate
calibration for the fibres used.
By measuring the voltage once along the cylinder axis and at four different angles in the
transverse direction it was possible to determine the orientation of the fibres as well as the
percentages Vx, Vy and Vz (Vx+Vy+Vz = 100%) lying in the x, y and z (vertical) directions. The
results for the x and y directions were added to yield the orientation in the horizontal direction.
An accuracy of 5% is stated by the manufacturer for the measurement, but it may be as much
as 7% according to [12].
Figure 4: Cylinder cut in three sections for the

inductive measurement.
Figure 5: Inductive measuring equipment with

specimen.

Impact Resistance
Table 2: Impact failure numbers measured for the cylinders.
Series
Cylinder no.
Poured
Average
Pumped
Impact failure number [-]

UHPC 1
51
27
25
50
54
41
UHPC 2
55
150
110
48
128
98
UHPC 3
15
35
12
x - impact failure number not determined
The impact failure number of the cylinder with 1.5 and 3 vol.% micro steel fibres, UHPC 1 and
UHPC 2, were on average 41 and 98, respectively, i.e. doubling the micro steel fibre content
doubled on average the number of impacts to failure. Replacement of 1.0 vol.% micro steel
fibres in UHPC 1 with crimped fibres, 0.50 mm in diameter (UHPC 3), reduced the mean impact
failure number to 12.
Fibre Content and Orientation
Fibre contents and orientations in vertical and horizontal directions measured in the top, middle
and bottom sections and as an average for the whole cylinder are compiled in Table 3. Values
are shown for the horizontal and vertical contributions. The mean fibre contents for series
UHPC 1 and UHPC 2 of 1.8 and 3.3 vol.%, respectively, were both above the calculated
designed values in Table 1.
814
Table 3: Fibre contents (T: top, M: middle, B: bottom) and orientations (H: horizontal, V: vertical) in top, middle
and bottom sections as well as averages for cylinders as a whole.
Series
UHPC 1
UHPC 2
UHPC 3
Cyl.
Fibre content [vol.%]
No.
Fibre orientation [%]
Mean
Top
Middle
Bottom
Mean
1.6
1.9
1.7
49
51
64
36
56
44
1.6
1.8
1.8
1.7
50
50
46
54
64
36
53
47
1.7
1.7
1.8
1.7
46
54
49
51
66
34
54
46
1.9
1.8
2.0
1.9
53
47
54
46
66
34
58
42
1.8
1.8
2.0
1.9
53
47
55
45
62
38
56
44
2.5
3.1
3.2
2.9
58
42
66
34
74
26
66
34
3.0
3.1
3.7
3.3
62
38
70
30
71
29
68
32
3.2
3.6
3.9
3.6
69
31
69
31
74
26
71
29
3.3
3.2
3.6
3.4
69
31
72
28
73
27
72
28
1.4
1.3
1.4
1.3
62
38
68
32
73
27
67
33
1.5
1.7
1.8
1.7
55
45
62
38
62
38
60
40
1.5
1.6
1.7
1.6
55
45
60
40
61
39
59
41
6
x not measured
80
50
Number of fibres [104]
Horizontal fibre orientation [%]
In the case of UHPC 3, the designed content was measured. It was apparent that the fibre
content in the bottom section of the cylinders was generally higher than in the middle and top
sections, indicating sedimentation of fibres in the cylinders. Notwithstanding the slump flow of
the concrete of series UHPC 2 which was lowest, fibre sedimentation was largest; up to
0.7 vol.% more fibres were in the bottom section, cf. Table 1. Furthermore it is noticeable that
the fibre content of cylinders (No. 1 to 3) which were not filled by pumping the concrete tended
to be less than for the cylinders (No. 4 to 6) filled by pumping. This is explained by
sedimentation of the fibres in the bottom of the pumping receptacle because the cylinders were
filled using the pump last and therefore the fresh concrete in the bottom of the receptacle
contained more fibres. In general, the fibres in the bottom section of the cylinders possessed a
higher orientation in the horizontal direction, Table 3, indicating a tendency to parallel alignment
to the bottom of the moulds.
Most of the fibres (53 to 72%) in concretes UHPC 1 and UHPC 2 reinforced with micro steel
fibres were aligned horizontally. The degree of horizontal alignment was observed to increase
with the content of steel fibres, Fig. 6.
70
60
UHPC 2
50
40
UHPC 1
1
2
3
Micro steel fibre content [vol.%]
40
30
20
10
0
50
100
150
Impact failure number [-]
Figure 6: Horizontally orientated fibres as a function

of micro steel fibre content.
815
Figure 7: Relationship between impact failure

number and number of fibres (determined
according to a single fibre volume and density).
On replacing 1.0 vol.% micro steel fibres 0.16 mm in diameter (UHPC 1) with crimped fibres
0.50 mm in diameter (UHPC 3), the mean impact failure number decreased from 41 to 12.
Although the volume of fibres was the same in the cylinders UHPC 1 and UHPC 3, the latter
contained less fibres owing to the larger dimensions of the crimped fibres. Apparently, this
resulted in faster cracking. Fig. 7 shows how the impact failure number increases when the
cylinders contain more fibres. This behaviour can be explained by a larger friction surface
between the fibres and the concrete [5], [6]. More fibres increase surface friction and therefore
the energy of deformation. Owing to the transverse load the more pronounced horizontal
orientation of the fibres in the series UHPC 2 (Fig. 6) appears to have a favourable effect on
impact resistance.
Owing to high degree of fibre sedimentation in the cylinders of series UHPC 2, the fibres are
very unevenly distributed over cylinder height, Table 3. This could explain the high scatter of the
impact failure number for series UHPC 2. Dahms [4] noted a larger degree of scatter in test
results for an uneven fibre distribution.
The results of the investigations show that it was possible to increase the failure impact
number and thus impact resistance by increasing the horizontal orientation of the fibres and the
number of fibres in the concrete. Further investigations are necessary using specimens with
different fibre contents and types to provide a larger database to confirm the results.
4 Conclusions
In specialist foundation engineering, ductile cast iron is mainly used for the production of driven
piles. However, this material is often subject to large variations in price and requires large
amounts of energy for its production. Fibre-reinforced ultra high performance concrete is
presented as a new material for driven piles in this contribution. Concretes were investigated
which were made with 1.5 and 3.0 vol.% micro steel fibres 0.16 mm in diameter or crimped
steel fibres 0.50 mm in diameter. Impact resistance was tested using cylinders with dimensions
of /h = 100/200 mm. Impact resistance was characterized by the impact failure number, i.e.
the number of impacts leading to a reduction in ultrasonic pulse velocity of 10%. After impact
testing, the cylinders were cut into three sections and the content and orientation of the fibres
determined using an inductive measuring device. It was thus possible to measure the effect of
fibre content on fibre segregation over the height of the concrete specimens.
The results showed that impact resistance increased with the amount of micro steel fibres.
Doubling the fibre content from 1.5 to 3.0 vol.% increased the impact failure number from 41 to
98. Replacement of 1.0 vol.% the former micro steel fibre content by crimped fibres with a larger
diameter reduced the impact failure number from 41 to 12. This was due to the reduced number
of fibres in the mix and therefore smaller deformation energy of the concrete. Higher fibre
alignment in the horizontal direction appears to affect impact resistance favourably.
The measured steel fibre contents and orientations revealed distinct differences over the
height of the UHPC cylinders. As observed for the series with 3 vol.% micro steel fibres, a large
variation in fibre content over height indicates a high degree of sedimentation of fibres. The high
scatter in impact failure number for this series is primarily due to an uneven distribution of fibres
caused by fibre segregation.
5 Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the Federal Ministry of Education and Research for providing
financial support.
816
References
[1] Schmidt H. G., Seitz, J. M.: Grundbau. Beton-Kalender 1998, Teil 2, Verlag Ernst und Sohn, Berlin,
1998.
[2] Fehling, E., Schmidt, M., Teichmann, T., Bunje, K., Bornemann, R., Middendorf, B.: Entwicklung,
Dauerhaftigkeit und Berechnung Ultra-Hochfester Betone (UHPC). Forschungsbericht DFG FE
497/1-1, Schriftenreihe Baustoffe und Massivbau der Universitt Kassel, Heft 1, 2005.
[3] Stengel, T., Schiel, P.: Sustainable Construction with UHPC from Life Cycle Inventory Data
Collection to Environmental Impact Assessment. Proceedings of the 2 nd Int. Symposium on UHPC,
Kassel, 2008.
[4] Dahms, J.: Herstellung und Eigenschaften von Faserbeton. Beton 19 (4), Betontechnische Berichte,
pp. 139-143, 1979.
[5] Bonzel, J., Dahms, J.: Schlagfestigkeit von faserbewehrtem Beton. Beton 31 (3), Betontechnische
Berichte (3), pp. 97-101, 136-142, 1980/81.
[6] Stangenberg, F.: Stahlfaserbeton als hervorragender Baustoff fr stobeanspruchte Bauteile.
Bauingenieur 61 , pp. 339-345, 1986.
[7] Empelmann, M., Teutsch, M.: Faserorientierung und Leistungsfhigkeit von Stahlfaser- sowie
Kunststofffaserbeton. Beton 6, pp. 254-259, 2009.
[8] Schmidt, M., Bunje, K., Dehn, F., Droll, K., Fehling, E., Greiner, S., Horvath, J., Kleen, E., Mller, C.,
Reineck, K.-H., Schachinger, I., Teichmann, T., Teutsch, M., Thiel, R., Tue, N. V.: Sachstandsbericht Ultrahochfester Beton. Deutscher Ausschuss fr Stahlbeton, Heft 561, Beuth Verlag, 2008.
[9] Bergmeister, K.; Fingerloos, F.; Wrner, J.-D. (Hrsg.): Faserbeton, Beton-Kalender 2011, Band 2,
Berlin, Ernst & Sohn, 2010.
[10] DIN EN 1097-2: Tests for mechanical and physical properties of aggregates - Part 2: Methods for
the determination of resistance to fragmentation. Beuth Verlag, Berlin, 2009.
[11] Leonhardt, S., Lowke, D., Stengel, T., Gehlen, C.: Schlagversuche an ultrahochfestem Beton
Charakterisierung der Dehnungen und der Ultraschallgeschwindigkeiten, accepted for publication,
Materials Testing 53 (11-12), 2011.
[12] Breitenbcher, R., Rahm, H.: Zerstrungsfreie Bestimmung des Stahlfasergehalts und der Stahl faserorientierung im Frisch- und Festbeton. Beton 3, pp. 88-93, 2009.
[13] Schuler, F., Sych, T.: Analyse der Faserorientierung in Betonen mit Hilfe der Computer-Tomographie, Technische Universitt Kaiserslautern, Fraunhofer IRB Verlag, 2009.
[14] Hertz Messtechnik GmbH: Handbuch BSM 100, Delmenhorst, 2008.
817
818
On The Way To Micrometer Scale:

Applications Of UHPC In Machinery Construction
Bernhard Sagmeister
durcrete GmbH, Germany
The machine tools and manufacturing systems industry has a great demand for high precision cutting
and grinding machines with the need for higher working speed combined with less deterioration of tools.
This is possible using massive machine beds which are damping the vibrations effectively. For this
purpose the use of a material with a high mass and a high damping coefficient of the ma terial itself is
required. State of the art is the application of beds made of polymer concrete, but machine beds of
UHPC are produced by several precast plants in Germany. The lecture compares the possibility and
limits of UHPC, ordinary concrete, polymer concrete and natural stone for machine beds. In a general
way, the calculation principles and the non-cracked design are explained, also in addition with prestressing. The demands for accuracy and low tolerances of about 5/1000 mm, including their
measurement (e.g. under climatic conditions) are demonstrated.
Keywords: machinery construction with UHPC, machine bed, accuracy of concrete, structural analysis
1 Why to use massive machine elements

Massive and monolithic machine beds and bases made of UHPC are necessary where highspeed machining is combined with the utmost of precision and strict tolerances. Machines can
run with more speed and less deterioration compared with bases made of welded steel or cast
iron. The components made of cementitious High-Tech-Concrete are damping vibrations
effectively. The non-combustible material reacts slowly to temperature changes.
Machine building companies in the furniture industry use the new material in serial
production since two years and reached a remarkable outstanding position in this sector. The
special concrete is damping vibrations up to 80% faster than conventional casted constructions.
The machines have a new dynamic with faster feed and accelaration. Senior engineers are
enthusiastic, when they listen to the silent and smooth run of the machine. The concrete beds
are produced in various prefab companies with different recipes.
Figure 1: BMG 511 of Homag Group with SorbTech machine bed made of UHPC.
819
Figure 2: Concrete body of various machine beds.
2 Characteristics of UHPC for machinery industry

We use a special cement [1], which is developed and designed for UHPC applications. Due to
the components of the cement, the recipe is free of microsilika. Products with this special
binding agent are not designed to have a high pressure strength, but they are characterized by
high flexural strength and density. So it is possible to design big machine beds without bar or
fiber reinforcement. Due to the fact, that no silica fume is used, the mixture can be mixed in
every mixer (even in a kitchen mixer) and can be poured very easily. With the help of a
shrinkage retarder, shrinkage is reduced to 0.6 mm/mm and so embedded parts like threaded
sleeves, steel rails etc. can be integrated in the concrete elements. Channels, slopes and
conduits are simple to realize. The cement is delivered as a compound, where the binding
agent is mixed together with stone dust, so that all fine ingredients are delivered with one truck
and only one free silo is needed.
Table 1: Typical Recipe.
Materials
amount
Crushed aggregates 1/3 or 2/5 or 5/8 mm e.g.

basalt splitt or comparable
kg/m
880
Pit sand 0/2 mm
kg/m
430
Nanodur Compound 5941
kg/m
1050
Admixtures as PCE and shrinkage retarder
kg/m
26
W/Z-value approx.
density approx.
0,24-0,28
kg/m
Figure 3: Ingredients.
2.500
Figure 4: Pouring Concrete.
820

Table 2: Materials Comparison.
Materials
Density
[to/m]
Compr. Strength
[MPA]
Flex. Tensile
Strength [MPA]
Youngs Modulus
[MPA]
UHPC for machinery
2.4 - 2.5
> 125
10 - 25
35 - 50,000
Granite
2.5 - 3.0
160 - 240
10 - 30
40 - 60,000
Polymer Concrete / PC
2.0 - 2.5
90 - 150
15 - 35
20 - 45,000
Steel / stainless steel
7.8 - 8.0
200 - 900
170 - 210,000
3 Design
The machinery industry needs concrete parts with a well defined stiffness, deflection and
damping. So it is essential to design and produce uncracked elements. Testing procedures take
care, that every machine frame is delivered without cracks and with a defined stiffness. If there
is only one small crack, the machine bed has to be removed and to be demolished. This is a
challenge for production, but it simplifies the design and structural calculation. The machine
beds can be calculated in uncracked state, with a linear elastic FEM Calculation, using volume
elements. There is no need to regard reinforcing bars or steel fibers, because these parts only
really work, if the concrete is in cracked state. But if this happens, the machine bad is destroyed
and out of order. So the limiting value for the design is the flexural bending strength (without
any influence of fibres or reinforcing bars), which may be increased using prestressing.
Figure 5: Design possibilities.
Figure 6: Machine Base for a drilling machine.
Table 3: UHPC characteristics.
w/z-value
Compr. Strength
[MPA]
Flex. Tensile
Strength [MPA]
Comment
concrete used in Fig. 2
0,26
157
22,7
with fibers, with

shrinkage retarder
concrete used in Fig. 6
0,27
146
19,8
no fibers,
with pigment, with
shrinkage retarder
Materials
Tests performed with prism 40x40x160mm, wet condition, without thermal treatment, three point bending
test, pressure test with 40x40x40mm.
821
4 Accuracy
Fig. 6 shows and machine element for a drilling machine. Using a stiff steel form, the German
prefab company reaches an accuracy of eveness of the surface less than 0,1 mm over 2 m
length. The accuracy of position the embedded sleeves after shrinkage is less than 0,5 mm.
But the machinery industry needs evenness and rectangularity of rectangular and linear
supports areas down to 5 micrometer/m or 0.000005 m/m and an accuracy of position of
threaded sleeves of less than 0.1 mm. This can be reached by:
embedding steel parts which are hobbed and drilled in a metall-center
grinding and lapping the stone surface in specialiced natural stone companies
casting/forming of epoxy against high precision models in a second pouring step.
The tolerances and deformations are so small, that they can only be measured with precise
instruments under defined climatic conditions, because every change in temperature and
moisture influences the result.
But all the above mentioned measures are useless, if a concrete bed with a length of some
meters shrinks after the precise treatment about some millimeters. So the cement company
developped an thermal treatment of the fresh poured machine elements, which stopps
effectively the shrinkage of the concrete and brings it to an definite end.
Figure 7: InnoCRETe by JFA: High Precision

surface by grinding and lapping.
Figure 8:Stopping of shrinkage with thermal

treatment.
Internal test performed at the Hochschule Reutlingen show, that the damping characteristic of
the UHPC beds can be compared with polymer concrete and natural stone. The decline of the
vibration is up to 10 times faster compared with welded steel constructions or casted iron [2].
5 Conclusions
This paper deals with the application of UHPC in machinery industry. The material is in
competition with polymer concrete and natural stone. The technical challenge is not the strength
itself, but the contour accuracy of the material and the absolute regularity and dimension
tolerances of production. Several prefab companies in Germany are dealing sucessfully with
different recipes in this new field of UHPC application.
822

6 Acknowledgement
The pictures in this paper show products and test results of the Homag-Group/Schopfloch,
Johann Fischer Przisionswerke/Aschaffenburg, Dyckerhoff AG/Wiesbaden and the production
of Sudholt-Wasemann GmbH in Herzebrock-Clarholz.
References
[1] Dyckerhoff NANODUR Compound 5941 Dyckerhoff AG 05/2011.
[2] H. Nebeling: Untersuchung der Dmpfungseigenschaften von durcrete Beton, internal report of TEC
Hochschule Reutlingen, 12/2011.
[3] Deuse T.; Hornung D.; Mllmann M.;: From Mikrodur to Nanodur technology. BFT Concrete Plant +
Precast Technology 05/2009 volume 75, 2009.
[4] Deuse T.; Strunge J.; Parker F.: Nanostrukturierte Steuerungskomponenten in Normzement fr
ultrahochfeste Betone. Nanotechnologie aktuell, 2008.
[5] Ultrahochfestes Maschinenbett. maschine+werkzeug, Heft 7,Seite 302 ff, 2011.
[6] Sagmeister B., Deuse T.: Anwendungen von UHPC auf Basis eines Spezialbindemittels in
Bautechnik und Maschinenbau. BWI Betonwerk International, Heft 1, 2012.
823
824

Kay Wille, Rui Zhong
Dept. of Civil & Environmental Engineering, University of Connecticut, USA
Pervious Concrete is a durable, sustainable, environmental friendly and economically efficient building
material, which is mostly used as pavement material. Its porous structure allows the water to penetrate
through, thus positively affecting our natural environment in several ways. The current hindrance of a
broad and widespread application is its limited strength due to its open structure.
The objective of this research is to significantly increase the strength of pervious concrete, which will
allow its application for entire urban areas including heavy weight traffic. Aimed at developing a new type
of pervious concrete with enhanced strength and comparable permeability, three series of mix design
have been carried out and their effects on the compressive strength and permeability investigated.
Keywords: compressive strength, pervious concrete, permeability, porosity
1 Introduction
Porous concrete is an open structured concrete with intentionally incorporated continuous
voids. The porosity, generated by the elimination of fine aggregates, allows the water to
penetrate through. Pervious concrete is recognized by the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency (EPA) as a Best Management Practice (BMP) in first flush pollution control and storm
water management. In comparison to regular concrete, the amount of cement, which is the
most expensive and the most environmentally demanding ingredient, is reduced to a minimum.
Figure.1: Comparison of impervious and pervious concrete.
Besides the ability to reduce the volume and pollution of run-off water, pervious concrete also
leads to the following environmental friendly impacts:
1. Reduced heat island effect in urban areas through reduced heat absorption from solar
radiation due to its light colour in comparison to dark pavements and through the open
material structure, which stores less heat.
2. Increased live quality of plants and trees by increased air and water supply to the soil
which facilitates the implementation of greenery in urban areas and thus helps reducing
the heat island effect.
3. Trapping of oil and other contaminants with increased likelihood of biodegrading [1].
4. Water purification ability due to the large specific surface area of the pervious concrete. A
porous concrete with smaller size of aggregate and a higher void content was found to
have superior ability of removal of T-N and T-P in the test water [2].
825
Porous concrete has been used for over 30 years in Europe and the USA [3]. The material is
primarily used for pavements, parking lots, footpaths, sidewalks, bicycle trails and other areas
with low strength requirements, and in particular where storm water run-off is critical. The
compressive strength of the material with desired porosity can currently reach about 20 to 30
MPa [4].
The limited strength is the current hindrance of a broad and widespread application of
pervious concrete. Intensive research has been conducted to investigate the strength of
pervious concrete. Meininger reported laboratory compressive strengths ranging from 9 to 36.5
MPa for porosity ranging from 27% down to 8% respectively using AASHTO No. 8 size
aggregate [5]. A laboratory study conducted by Ghafoori and Dutta using AASHTO No. 89 size
aggregate reported compressive strengths between 8.3 and 19.3 MPa for porosity of 30% down
to 21% respectively [6]. ACI 211.3R shows compressive strengths of 10 to 25 MPa for AASHTO
No. 8 size aggregate [7]. Tennis, Leming, and Akers report compressive strengths ranging from
3.5 to 28 MPa and state that a value of 17 MPa is typical [8]. Lian and Zhuge recommended an
optimum mix design which can achieve 40 MPa. However, the porosity of such a mix design is
6.5% which is too low to be considered as pervious concrete [9].
The objective of this research is to significantly increase the strength of pervious concrete
without losing its permeability. This would allow the application of high strength pervious
concrete for entire urban areas including heavy weight traffic. Among numerous factors
influencing the compressive strength and permeability of pervious concrete, binder and
aggregate characteristics are the most important. Within this research, the combination of the
use of an ultra-high strength cementitious matrix with a compressive strength of 174.3 MPa
under normal laboratory curing conditions and the optimization of the amount and size of
aggregate leads to an increase in strength.
Figure 2 summarizes compressive strength versus porosity test results reported by several
other authors [5,9-12] and compares these to the test results achieved in the authors current
research.
Reference Data
Our research
Compressive Strength (MPa)
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
10
20
30
40
50
Porosity (%)
Figure.2: Overview of the relationship between compressive strength and porosity, summarized from different
authors.
826
2 Materials and Mix Design

Based on prior research results on material design of ultra-high performance concrete [13,14]
the following materials and mix proportions have been used.
Materials
1. Cement Type I with a high C3S content (74%), a moderate fineness (3930 cm 2/g Blaine
value) and a low C3A content (<5%). It meets ASTM C150 standard specification for
Portland cement.
2. Silica fume with a very low carbon content (0.3%) and a median particle size of 0.4m.
3. Glass powder (or silica powder or quartz powder) with a median particle size of 1.7m
4. Superplasticizer based on polycarboxylate ether.
5. Three different sized sands with 99% content of quartz
Mix Design
For this study, three series of tests (highlighted in bold in Table 1) have been carried out by
investigating seven different pervious concrete mixtures. The first series (M1, M2, M3) was
carried out to investigate the effect of matrix strength on the compressive strength and
permeability of pervious concrete. The second series (M1, M4, M5) and the third series (M1, M6,
M7) were carried out to investigate the effect of amount and size of aggregates, respectively.
Table 1: Series details.
M1
M2
//
Series Number
Matrix Strength (MPa)
174.3
M3
M4
133.6
50.0
M5
M6
174.3
M7
174.3
174.3
174.3a
Aggregate to Binder Ratio
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.5
2.5
3.0
3.0
Aggregate Size (mm)
1.19
1.19
1.19
1.19
1.19
4.76
2.38
a: The proportion of the ultra high performance matrix (UHPM) which includes no sand or aggregate is based
on [13]. The mixture proportions are given in Table 2.
b:This matrix is referred as high performance matrix (HPM) in this paper.
c:This matrix is referred as normal performance matrix (NPM) in this paper.
d:Tested with 50mm x 50xmm x 50mm cubes.
Table 2: Mix proportions used in this research.
Proportions By Weight
Ingredient
M1
M2
M3
M4
M5
M6
M7
Silica Fume
0.25
0.12
0.00
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
Silica Powder
0.25
0.00
0.00
0.25
0.25
0.25
0.25
Water
0.22
0.30
0.65
0.22
0.22
0.22
0.22
SP
0.036
0.005
0.000
0.036
0.036
0.036
0.036
3.0
3.0
3.0
3.5
2.5
3.0
3.0
Cement
Aggregate
Specimen Preparation and Curing
Prior to mixing, the three different aggregates were washed to remove adhered clay and other
impurities. After being dried, they were sieved to obtain three single sized aggregate s. The
matrix (cement, silica fume, silica powder, water and superplasticizer) was mixed first and the
aggregates were added later. After mixing, the pervious concrete was poured in three layers in
827
cylindrical moulds to full capacity using slight vibration. Each layer was compacted by a 2. 4kg
hammer with three blows for 10cm by 20cm specimen and by a 1.3kg hammer for 7.5cm by
15cm specimen. After casting, the specimens were covered with plastic sheets and stored at
room temperature for 24h. Then they were demoulded and stored in a water tank at 20 for
additional 26 days. Specimens were removed from water and capped after being left to dry in
laboratory environment for 12h. Specimens were tested at the age of 28 days. For each batch,
a total of 6 cylinders were cast (three 7.5cm by 15cm cylinders for compressive testing, two
7.5cm by 15cm for porosity test, one 10cm by 20cm cylinder for hydraulic conductivity test).
Compressive strength was determined in accordance with ASTM C39 using sulfur mortar
capping at 28 days. The reported results are an average of three tests.
Porosity
Due to the high air void content of pervious concrete typical tests such as ASTM C173 are not
applicable to measure the porosity. Therefore, the porosity of pervious concrete was calculated
using the difference of weight between the oven dried sample and the saturated sample under
water. Test set up is shown in Fig. 3. Equation (1) was used for calculation:
)]
where P is the porosity of the sample,

of the container filled with water,
the same level,
(1)
is the mass of the oven dried sample,
is the container with saturated sample filled with water at
is the density of water, and
Figure 3: Porosity Test Set Up.
is the mass
is the volume of the sample.
Figure 4: Hydraulic conductivity test rig.
Hydraulic Conductivity
The constant head method was used to measure hydraulic conductivity. Equation (2) was used
for calculation:
QL
Ah
(2)
where K is the hydraulic conductivity, Q is the flow rate of water, L is the length of the sample, A
is the cross sectional area of the sample, and h is water head difference of the in flow and out
flow. A constant head permeameter was constructed in the laboratory. The basic design of the
permeameter consisted of a 10.2cm diameter clear PVC pipe U shape assembly as shown in
Fig. 4. The specimens were sealed to only allow the water penetrating along specimen direction.
828

Effect of Matrix Strength
The effect of matrix strength on compressive strength, porosity and hydraulic conductivity are
plotted in Fig. 5 (a) to (c) respectively. It can be seen from Fig. 5 (a) that compressive strength
increases with the increase of the matrix strength. The averaged compressive strength values
of mixtures using UHPM, HPM and NPM are 50.1 MPa, 33.7MPa and 19.8 MPa, respectively.
The results show that the stronger the matrix is, the stronger the pervious concrete is in the
range investigated.
Average
Individual Samples
60
25
50
20
40
Porosity (%)
Individual Samples
30
20
15
10
5
10
0
0
40
90
140
190
40
90
140
190
Compressive Strength of Paste (MPa)
(a)
(b)
Individual Samples
Hydraulic Conductivity (mm/s)
Average
Average
1,4
1,2
1,0
0,8
0,6
0,4
0,2
0,0
40
90
140
190
(c)
Figure 5: Effect of matrix strength on pervious concrete (a) compressive strength; (b) porosity; (c) hydraulic
conductivity.
Figure 5 (b) summarizes the porosity determined from series I. It is worth noting that all
porosities are larger than 15% which is within the desired void range of pervious concrete. As
shown in Fig. 5 (c), the hydraulic conductivity of this series is below 1mm/s which cannot be
considered pervious any more. Porosity values of larger than 15% should result into higher
hydraulic conductivities. The authors see the compaction method as a dominant factor for the
829
low conductivity. Although the hammer with a flat surface supported the compaction of the
concrete it also increased the risk of creating layers of lower porosity and thus lower hydraulic
conductivity. While these layers should have very little influence on porosity they significantly
influence the hydraulic conductivity, which depends on the pore connectivity. The increase of
hydraulic conductivity with the increase of matrix strength might be an attribute of the different
viscosities of the mixes.
Influence of Amount of Aggregate
The effect of the aggregate to binder ratio on compressive strength, porosity and hydraulic
conductivity are plotted in Fig. 6 (a) to (c) respectively. As expected, the increase of the
amount of aggregate leads to the reduction of strength while the porosity and hydraulic
conductivity are increased. Sufficient paste is needed to cover the aggregates and ensure
bonding while excessive paste will occupy the voids. It is worth noting that the mixture with A/B
ratio 2.5 (M4) generates a high compressive strength of 42.3 MPa with desired hydraulic
conductivity of 2mm/s.
Average
Individual Samples
80
25
70
20
60
Porosity (%)
Individual Samples
50
40
15
10
5
30
20
Average
2.5
3.0
3.5
(a)
Individual Samples
2.5
3.0
3.5
(b)
Average
2,5
2,0
1,5
1,0
0,5
0,0
2.5
3.0
3.5
(c)
Figure 6: Effect of the ratio of the amount of aggregate to the amount of binder (A/B) on pervious concrete (a)
compressive strength; (b) porosity; (c) hydraulic conductivity.
830
Effect of Aggregate Size

The effect of aggregate size on compressive strength, porosity and hydraulic conductivity are
plotted in Fig. 7 (a) to (c) respectively.
Individual Samples
Average
60
30
50
25
40
20
Porosity (%)
Coimpressive Strength (MPa)
Individual Samples
30
20
10
0
Average
15
10
5
1.19
2.38
4.76
Aggregate Size (mm)
(a)
Individual Samples
1.19
2.38
4.76
Aggregate Size (mm)
(b)
Average
8,0
7,0
6,0
5,0
4,0
3,0
2,0
1,0
0,0
1.19
2.38
4.76
Aggregate Size (mm)
(c)
Figure 7: Effect of aggregate size on pervious concrete (a) compressive strength; (b) porosity; (c) hydraulic
conductivity.
As shown in Fig. 7 (a), the compressive strength reduces significantly with the increase of
aggregate size at first, then increases slightly with the increase of the aggregate size. This
would suggest the existance of a critical aggregate size. At equal aggregate and matrix amount,
a mixture with smaller size aggregates has more specific area than one with larger aggregates.
There will be more bonding area for small size aggregates mixture leading to higher
Figure 7 (b) illustrates, that there also exists a critical aggregate size for porosity. At first, it
seems counterintuitive that the porosity increases as the aggregate size increases. Smaller
aggregate should require more matrix to cover them leaving less to fill the voids and increasing
porosity. However, as mentioned before, the porosity is also affected by pore size and
connectivity. The larger the aggregate size, the larger the pore size and the better the chance
831
pores are connected leading to a higher measured porosity. This can also be used to explain
the trend shown in Fig 7 (c).
5 Conclusions
Our hypothesis that the strength of pervious concrete can be improved by using ultra-high
performance matrix has been supported. More research is needed and currently carried out at
the University of Connecticut to further improve the mechanical performance of pervious
concrete. The following conclusions can be drawn from the current research:
1. The higher the strength of the matrix, the stronger the pervious concrete.
2. Increasing the aggregate to binder ratio of pervious concrete leads to increase of porosity
and hydraulic conductivity but lower compressive strength in the range investigated
(A/B=2.5 to 3.5). Sufficient matrix should be used to ensure the strength of pervious
concrete while excessive matrix should be restricted.
3. With the increase of aggregate size, hydraulic conductivity is increased correspondingly
due to the increase of pore size and connectivity.
4. With the combination of the use of ultra-high strength cementitious matrix and an optimum
aggregate to binder ratio of 3.5, pervious concrete with high strength of 42.3 MPa and
comparable permeability of 2 mm/s can be achieved.
References
[1] Pratt, C.J.; Newman, A.P.; Bond, P.C.: Mineral oil bio-degradation within a permeable pavement:
long term observations. Water Science and Technology 39, pp. 103-109, 1999.
[2] Park, S.; Tia, M.: An experimental study on the water-purification properties of porous concrete.
[3] Schaefer, V.R.; Wang, K.; Sulieman, M.T.; Kevern, J.T.: Mix design development for pervious
concrete in cold weather climates. Final reports, Iowa Department of Transportation. National
concrete Pavement Technology Center, Iowa Concrete Paving Association, 2006.
[4] Yang, J.; Jiang, G.L.: Experimental study on properties of pervious concrete pavement materi als.
[5] Meininger, R.C.:No-fines pervious concrete for paving. Concrete International 10 (8), pp 20-27, 1998.
[6] Ghafoori, N.; Dutta, S.: Laboratory investigation of compacted no-fines concrete for paving materials.
Journal of Materials in Civil Engineering, 7 (3), pp 183-191, 1995.
[7] ACI 211.3-R02.: Guide for selecting proportiond for no slump concrete. Manual of Concrete Practice
2004 CD-ROM, American Concrete Institute, Famington Hills.
[8] Tennis, P.D.; Leming, M.L.; Akers, D.J.: Pervious concrete pavements, EB302, Portland Cement
Association, Skokie, Illinoia, 2004.
[9] Lian, C.; Zhuge, Y.: Optimum mix design of enhanced permeable concrete an experimental
investigation. Construction and Building Materials 24, pp 2664-2671, 2010.
[10] Chindaprasirt, P.; Hatanaka, S.; Chareerat, T.; Mishima, N.; Yuasa, Y.: Cement paste characteristics
and porous concrete properties. Construction and building materials 22, pp 894-901, 2008.
[11] Suleiman, M. T.; Kevern, J.; Schaefer, V. R.; Wang, K. : Effect of compaction energy on pervious
concrete properties. Submitted to Concrete technology forum-focus on Pervious Concrete, National
Ready Mix Concrete Association, Nashville, TN, May 23-25, 2006.
[12] Kumar, R.; Bhattacharjee, B.: Porosity, pore size distribution and in situ strength of concrete.
Cement and concrete research, 33, pp 155-164, 2003.
[13] Wille, K.; Naaman, A.E.; Parra-Montesinos, G.J.: Ultra high performance concrete with compressive
strength exceeding 150 Mpa (22 ksi): A simple way. ACI Materials Journal 108 (1), pp 46-54, 2011.
[14] Wille, K.; Naaman, A.E.; El-Tawil, S.; Parra-Montesinos, G.J.: Ultra-high performance concrete and
fiber reinforced concrete: achieving strength and ductility with no heat curing. Materials and
Structures, published online Aug. 27th 2011.
832
Sewer pipes and UHPC - Development of an UHPC with earthmoist consistency

Michael Schmidt, Torsten Braun, Heiko Mller
Sewer pipes and concrete have been in use since the mid-19th Century for the management of
wastewater. Concrete pipes have the advantages of a large variety of possible cross-sectional shapes
and they are economically producible and durable. Due to the progressive industrialization of the early to
the mid 20th Century and the damaging effect of biogenic sulfuric acid in combination with a low water
consumption there will be increasingly higher demands on the sewer pipes. Concrete with proper
execution is in general resistant to various external influences, but has weaknesses in its resistance to
acids. The protection of the sewage pipes as well as the repairs are usually very complex and expensive
and presents challenges to the public sector as a carrier of the sewerage system. When using the finegrained and slightly moist flowable UHPC in a earth-moist mixture, the acid resistance and hence the
durability of concrete pipes can be increased. A UHPC has due to its low w / c ratio practically no
capillary porses and its optimized packing density compared with normal concrete allows it to have a
much higher structure tightness. Moreover, it is possible to achieve a reduction in the cross-sectional
dimensions of the tubes, due to the high compressive strength.
Keywords: earth-moist concrete, concrete pipes
1 UHPC with earth-moist properties

Introduction
Earth-moist concrete after a vibration-press compaction is characterized by high green strength
and fast direct stripping. These properties are of particular importance for the concrete products
industry as the concrete products can be stripped immediately after the design. The green
strength at this time must be designed so that it can hold the proper weight of the concrete
products and that the shape stability is guaranteed. To achieve these properties classic earthmoist concrete has a relatively low water-cement ratio of 0.35 to 0.45 and a cement content of
between 270 kg/m and 350 kg/m. The paste content is between between 210 and 240 l/m [1].
These small paste content and a relatively high proportion of coarse grain in the recipe are
responsible for the stiff consistency of a earth-moist concrete. The paste content, with optimal
dosing, in the early hardening stage is primarily responsible for the formation of the green
strength. At this stage, the paste content acts as a filler of the cavities formed between the rock
grains and as an adhesive of the grain skeleton. With increasing hydration, the paste is
increasingly under pressure from compression forces and combines the grain skeleton with
each other. In the stage of the hardened concrete the paste is responsible for the formation of a
sufficiently pressure-resistant and durable concrete. Thus the paste has two essential functions
from a setting time perspective, both of which are essential features for an earth-moist concrete
in the early and late stages. With the use of a fine-grain and flowable UHPC paste for the
creation of earth-moist concrete, specific characteristics of traditional earth-moist concrete can
be improved. This includes a denser and more closed surface that is more resistant to external
influences. A further increase in efficiency in the production, transportation and handling of the
pipes can be achieved by reducing the wall thickness.
Focal points of the research
The aim of the work performed was to conceive an earth-moist concrete, which contains a high
proportion of coarse grain and a binders paste that is based on a UHPC. The characteristics of
833
this earth-moist concrete should, as with the traditional earth-moist concrete also, be a good
green strength immediately after stripping. Furthermore, the results were also evaluated based
on the parameters of surface integrity and of dimensional stability of the specimen. In order to
achieve these conditions, the optimal relationship between the UHPC and the aggregate has
been identified using a vibration proctor test developed by the University of Kassel. Following
these investigations in the laboratory, the practicality of the formulations was to be documented
in a concrete factory with the production of pipe demonstrators with a nominal diameter of DN
300.
Setting the UHPC paste
UHPC formulations developed at the University of Kassel are firstly fine-grain recipes with a
maximum particle size of 0.5 mm and the secondly coarse-grained recipes with a maximum
particle size of 8 mm. The main differences between these two recipes consist in a lower matrix
fraction < 0.125 mm by 35 vol- to 40.5 vol-% and at a much lower cement content of the coarsegrained UHPC formulation [3]. During these investigations, the fine-grained and coarse-grained
UHPC formulations were studied for up to a maximum particle size of 0.5 mm, in terms of fresh
and hardened mortar characteristics. For the development of an earth-moist UHPC a flowable
paste with a slump flow of > 30 cm should be used, and the paste should have very good
compressive strength and overall porosity results. The studies were divided in fresh paste
investigation with the following characteristics:
slump flow according to DIN EN 12350 Part 3

air content according to DIN 12 350 Part 7
and in hardened paste investigations with these characteristics:
compressive strength after 7 - and 28 days after immersion in water
Studies on the pore size distribution by the mercury penetration porosimetry.
Table 1: Composition of UHPC paste.
Constitutive materials
Volume [dm]
Mass [kg]
Density [kg/dm]
Water
158,0
175,0
1,00
Pore space
15,1
CEM I 52,5R
209,7
650
3,10
Silica fume
80,5
177,0
2,20
Superplasticizer
28,3
30,0
1,07
Quartz powder fine
122,6
325,0
2,65
Quartz powder gross
49,4
131,0
2,65
Quartz sand 0,125/0,5
133,6
354,0
2,65
Paste levels
An earth-moist concrete in the fresh state corresponds to a weakly cohesive soil [4]. The
structural behavior in this early stage is not yet based on the hydration products which are
being formed, but there is an interaction between paste and aggregate, which are based on
known soil mechanical relationships. The cohesion of the earth-moist concrete is ensured at
this point by variables such as internal friction and cohesion, and the load transfer is ensured by
the grain skeleton of the rock grains [4, 5, 2, 1]. This grain structure forms a so-called load
transfer chain when it comes ideally to a a grain-to-grain contact.
834
Figure 1: Four-phase model of the cavity filling.
According to [2] an optimal paste/aggregate ratio relationship exists when a grain-to-grain

contact exists and when the voids are filled with paste. If the cavities are overfilled or underfilled
the green strength and dimensional stability of the removed concrete products is no longer
guaranteed. In Figure 1 the four-phase model of the cavitty filling is presented. It describes the
increasing degree of filling of the cavities, Phase 3 is characterized by an optimal filling and with
a grain-to-grain contact between the aggregate. In order to obtain the optimum filling level of a
earth-moist mixture using a UHPC paste, the vibration proctor test was used. In this method the
paste/aggregate ratio is graded and compressed under a steady vibration-press compaction.
Through the gradual approach the paste content increases with each examination step whilst
the aggregate content is decreased. This makes it possible to determine the optimal paste
content of a slightly moist mixture.
Vibration proctor investigation
The proctor test [6] is a method, used in geotechnical engineering, to determine the ability of a
soil compaction. With a sweeping consolidation a connection between the dry density and
different water levels of the soil is created using a constant compaction work. In [2] an
additional development step was created for the vibration proctor test modeled after the Proctor
experiment for the use of an earth-moist sample. The apparatus consists of a steel cylinder
mold (height: 300 mm, diameter 150 mm) and a load weight, which creates a constant
surcharge stress of 0.016 N/mm . The surcharge stress prevents movements of gross
aggregate in the earth-moist aggregates in the sample slightly moist. The test set is fixed firmly
on a vibrating table and with incipient vibrating influence stand there is a compression of the
sample. Figure 2 shows the structure of vibration proctor stand. With this method it is possible
to determine the maximum achievable dry density of a concrete mixture. This indicates in turn,
with which level of paste content the void is completely filled.
The vibration proctor investigations were made with UHPC paste shown in Table 1. As
aggregates, a gravel- (unbroken), basalt- (broken) and a basalt grain size with gap grading
were used. The grain size range in each case was 0/16. In accordance with DIN 1045-2, the
grain size range "cheap" was used and for the gap grading the gap grading grain size was
used.
The mixing of earth-moist concrete was carried out in a compulsion mixer ZZ30 HE from the
manufacturer Zyklos with a volume of 20 l at a speed of 60 rev/min with the auxiliary drive and
whorl in use. The initial mixing volume was 12 l and increased with the increase of the paste
content to about 20 liters. After the end of the mixing time of 10 minutes the earth-moist
concrete was filled under vibration influence (60 Hz, amplitude 0.75 mm) flush with the surface
in the steel cylinder mold. The load weight was placed after the filling and then it was
compressed for another minute. The entire filling and compaction time was about 3 minutes.
835
1
2
3
4
cylinder mold
vibrating table
load weight
auxiliary frame
3
2
Figure 2: Experimental setup vibration proctor test.
In Figure 3, the Proctor curve of the three test series are shown. The y-axis shows the dry
density and the x-axis shows the respective paste content of the mixture. There is evidence
across all three mixtures, that an optimal density is reached at about 35 vol-% paste to 65 vol-%
aggregate. It can also be seen that the two basalt mixtures have almost identical patterns and
overall a higher dry density than the gravel mix. In the literature it is known that with increasing
fine-grain content, the dry densities also increase. The mixing quantities of basalt mixtures were
larger than the mixing quantities of the gravel mixture. This is an indication that a higher void
content had to be filled between the basalt graining with paste. This in turn increases the overall
paste content and therefore the fine-material content of the mixture. The curve of the gravel
mixture approaches saturation much more slowly, this indicates a continuous increase in the
cavity saturation.
Figure 3: Determination the proctor density with three different grain compositions [7].
Critical to the selection of a suitable composition was not only the best paste/aggregate ratio,
instead the surface texture of the specimens should likewise have a unified appearance.
Figure 4 shows an exemplary specimen of gravel mixture after the vibration proctor
investigations. The left image shows a test specimen with the paste/aggregate ratio of 26/76,
the middle image, a ratio of 35/65 and right ratio of 37/63. In the images of the specimens the
phase model of the cavity filling [2] based on constructed surfaces can be seen quite clearly.
The left image shows a test with too small a paste content, hence the surface is not closed. The
836
middle image shows an almost unbroken surface, the specimen remained stable in shape after
stripping and using the Proctor curve this paste/aggregate ratio has the highest packing density.
As for the right-hand specimen there was an over-filling of the cavities, this is very easily
recognized by the supersaturated surface as well as the loss of form stability. In conclusion, it
shows that with the vibrating proctor test the optimal density of the earth-moist mixture can be
detected even with a gradual approach with regards to the paste content.
26/74
35/65
37/63
Figure 4: Specimens with different paste/aggregate ratios, gravel mixture.
2 Preparation of concrete pipes in the plant

Composition / Experimental procedure / production
In a precast concrete plant the earth-moist mixtures, which were previously examined in the
laboratory, were put into practice. The plant produces steel reinforced concrete pipes for the
wastewater sector in various diameters and lengths up to about 1 m. The earth-moist mixtures
are manufactured in a 1.5 m synchronous mixer and transported via a conveyor belt to the
production plant. The production of the pipes is carried out via a system with a fixed inner part
and a movable and removable outer tubular casing. The filling of the formwork is done under
vibrating influences, after completion of the filling the pipe is compressed under load. A total
of 11 concrete pipes with a nominal diameter of DN 300, length 1100 mm were produced.
In a precast concrete plant the earth-moist mixtures, which were previously examined in the
laboratory, were put into practice. The plant produces steel reinforced concrete pipes for the
wastewater sector in various diameters and lengths up to about 1 m. The earth-moist mixtures
are manufactured in a 1.5 m synchronous mixer and transported via a conveyor belt to the
production plant. The production of the pipes is carried out via a system with a fixed inner part
and a movable and removable outer tubular casing. The filling of the formwork is done under
vibrating influences, after completion of the filling the pipe is compressed under load. A total
of 11 concrete pipes with a nominal diameter of DN 300, length 1100 mm were produced.
In the practice tests in that plant the same moist mixture from the laboratory tests was used.
Furthermore, a second UHPC recipe was used, which contained a different superplasticizer and
silica fume. Thus conclusions about the effect of different flow agents could be drawn and this
enabled a certain hedge against the possible non-success of a mixture. As the optimal
paste/aggregate ratio 35/65 was also used for this second UHPC paste.
837
For the production of these first tube pipes made out of a earth-moist UHPC principally the
following main questions should answered :
is it possible to create and process an earth-moist UHPC in the factory given the existing
mixing and compaction equipment?
is it still possible to process the earth-moist UHPC for the duration of a production cycle
which consists of a total of six tubes and a duration of about 60 minutes?
Is it possible to obtain a closed surface (blowholes, flaws)?
A volume of 500 l was mixed using a paste/aggregate ratio of 35/65. As aggregate sand 0/2,
gravel 2/8 and gravel 8/16 from the available local resources were used. The mixing time in the
synchronous mixer was about 10-12 minutes. The ingredients were homogenized for 2 minutes
before the water/superplasticizer mixture was added. The fresh concrete temperatures
fluctuated between 24.5C and 25.4C. The earth-moist concrete was then transported to the
pipe manufacturing plant via the conveyor belt system. Overall, the pipe fabrications were very
successful, so that 5 pipes DN 300, l = 1100 mm w with bell and spigot were manufactured for
each of the two recipes . The figure below shows some of the manufactured concrete pipes in
the general view and the detail of the surface.
Figure 5: Manufactured concrete pipes (left) in the view, detail of surface structure UHPC pipe (middle),
concrete pipe factory original (right)
The pipemanufacturing with the reformulated recipe was generally speaking a success.
However, the optimum paste/aggregate ratio of the laboratory investigations of 35/65 turned out
to be a bit too high for the production inside the plant system. The tubes manufactured with this
ratio showed within in a shorttime a slight bulge in the middle of the tube. In a second
experiment, the paste/aggregate ratio was then decreased to 30/70. These tubes could be very
well produced and are shown in Figure 5.
The earth-moist concrete could be used after mixing of about 60 minutes. The surfaces
shown in figures 5 indicate that that the earth-moist UHPC exhibited a similar high surface
quality as the concrete tubes of the concrete plant. The surfaces of the tubes were almost
cavities free except some small spots. A coarse-grained and non-closed structure was formed
primarily in the folds of the spigot of those pipes that were produced at a later stage.
Post examinations
Following this production several studies of the concrete pipes were conducted. For this
purpose pipes from each recipe as well as original pipes of the concrete plant were sent to the
University of Kassel. The original pipes were used to generate some reference values. Several
studies on the compressive strength and durability were conducted. As examples the following
838
figure shows the results for compressive strength according to DIN EN 12390-03 and the crown
compressive strength according to DIN EN 1916.
170
Raw density
160
150
130
120
110
100
90
2500
80
70
60
2000
50
Raw density [kg/m]
Compressive strength [N/mm]
140
40
30
1500
20
10
1000
Re
ci
pe
UH
PC
UH
PC
Co
nc
re
te
Re
ci
pe
pl
an
t
Crown compressive strength [kN/m]
200
Steel concrete
pipe
180
160
Concrete pipe
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
pl
an
t
Co
nc
re
te
pl
an
t
Co
nc
re
te
pl
an
t_
IR
Co
nc
re
te
pl
an
t_
IR
Co
nc
re
te
Re
ci
pe
UH
PC
UH
PC
Re
ci
pe
Figure 6: Compressive strength results on cores (above), results of the crown compressive strength (below)
The mixture designation Recipe 1 describes the UHPC paste that has been studied in the lab
using the vibration proctor tests. The Recipe 2 is the additional recipe that was made in the
concrete plant. In order to determine the compressive strength three cores were drawn from the
pipes for each recipe. The ends of the cylinders were grinded so that the height and the
diameter were 5 cm. The compressive strengths were determined at an age of > 56 days. The
graph shows very clearly the increased strengths of a earth-moist UHPC compared with a
839
normal earth-moist concrete. The right figure shows the results of the crown compressive
strength test after 28 days. The earth-moist UHPC pipes as well as two steel reinforced
concrete pipes of the concrete plant were examined. The steel reinforced concrete pipes
showed as expected, a much higher crushing strength than the concrete pipes. The two results,
called concrete plant_IR show the initial cracking during the the crushing test of the steel
reinforced concrete pipes. For concrete pipes the break would have occurred after the initial
crack and this indicates compared to the moist UHPC pipes an increase in the crown
compressive strength compared to concrete pipes made out of ordinary earth-moist concrete.
3 Summary
UHPC is typically a fine-grained, free-flowing concrete for structural applications. Its high
strength and especially its much higher density structure virtually without capillary pores can
also be used in other application areas. These studies with the use of UHPC in earth-moist
mixtures indicate a new possible application in the field of precast concrete products. It is
possible to manufacture concrete pipes with a significantly improved mechanical and chemical
resistance.
The investigations showed that the optimal paste content a earth-moist mixture can be
identified using a vibration proctor test. The difference to the original test procedure was that
not the water content was increased gradually in the mixture but instead the UHPC paste was
added as a whole in a graded fashion. Due to the dense and compact structure of the UHPC
paste very good compressive strength and crushing results were obtained. For further
investigations in this area, it would also be possible to reduce the wall thicknesses.
References
[1] Bornemann, R.: Untersuchungen zur Modellierung des Frisch- und Festbetonverhaltens erdfeuchter
Betone; Schriftenreihe Baustoffe und Massivbau, Universitt Kassel, Heft 4, 2005.
[2] Schmidt, M.: Stoffliche und konstruktive Eigenschaften hydraulisch gebundener Tragschichten.
Schriftenreihe der Zementindustrie, Heft 51, 1991.
[3] Bornemann, R.; Schmidt, M.: Ultra-Hochleistungsbeton UHPC - Herstellung, Eigenschaften und
Anwendungsmglichkeiten. Beton- und Stahlbetonbau, 2001, S. 458-467
[4] Wierig, H.J.: Zur Frage der Theorie und Technologie des grnen Betons. Institut fr Baustoffkunde
und Materialprfwesen der Technischen Universitt Hannover, Universitt Hannover, Heft 19,1971
[5] Wierig, H. J.: Einige Beziehungen zwischen den Eigenschaften von grnen und jungen Betonen
und denen des Festbetons. Betontechnische Berichte, Betonverlag Dsseldorf, 1971, S. 151 172
[6] DIN 18127: Proctorversuch Baugrund, Untersuchung von Bodenproben, Deutsches Institut fr
Normung, 1997
[7] Mller, H.: Konzeption und Untersuchung erdfeuchter Betone mit erhhten Festigkeiten,
Diplomarbeit FG Werkstoffe des Bauwesens, Uni Kassel, 2010 unverffentlicht
840
Development of an Ultra-High Performance Concrete for

precast spun concrete columns
Thomas Adam1, Jianxin Ma2
1: Europoles GmbH & Co. KG, Neumarkt i.Opf., Germany
2: Inst. f. Werkstoff- und Konstruktionsentwicklung, Magdeburg, Germany
Strength Class of C100/115 is the present state of art in the field of spun concrete. Consequentially, the
next step was the application of concrete above the structural capability of C100/115. Therefore
EUROPOLES has started to enhance the compressive strength gradually up to 150 N/mm during the
past years. Due to the different features in compacting (spinning) process the composition and fresh
propterties of this UHPC differ necessarily from that of common UHPC The volume fraction of the
cementitious paste is much lower. Powders with a Blaine-fineness of about 2500 cm/g are more
favorated than ultrafine powders mostly used in common UHPC. Furthermore the spun UHPC must have
a high green strength after spinning. EUROPOLES has produced prototype spun columns and poles.
The whole project is undergoing.
Keywords: spun concrete, columns, UHPC
1 Introduction
It is characteristic for spun concrete, that the compaction of the fresh concrete is generated by
using centrifugal forces in a rotating mould ( Figure 1).
Figure 1: Spinning process.
Thus, the result are rod-shaped elements with a very smooth and dense concrete shell and a
circular cavity in the middle of the cross section.
Applications range from light poles, telecommunication and power poles to precast columns
for structural use. Logically, an increase in the compressive strength of the concrete benefit the
load bearing capacity, especially of elements mainly stressed with normal forces, as columns.
During the past years the compressive strength has gradually increased up to C100/115, which
is the maximum strength class covered by the DIN-standard [1] and general type approval of
EUROPOLES up to now. In order to stay competitive with other concrete columns and steel
composite columns further progresses were needed.
841
Encouraged by the advances in cementious material science to Ultra High Performance

Concrete (UHPC), with compressive strength up to 200 N/mm, EUROPOLES has proven the
technical feasability of UHPC. The result was positive, although it turned out that the aim of 200
N/mm is apparently too ambitious. Moreover, it became obvious that UHPC-formulas available
in the scientific literature will not work as spun concrete.
In contrast to the mostly flowable consistency of UHPC, spun concrete has to have a soft
plastic consitency during placing and a high green strength after the spinning is done. For that
reason the content of fine material should be moderate.
For the fresh concrete properties as well as the strength the plastisicer is particularly
important. The first trials showed that the so far used plastisizer, on the basis of naphthalene
sulfonate, will not achieve the desired result. On the other hand, polycarboxylates, normally
recommended to use in UHPC, showed some features, which made them not well suited for
spun concrete. Either they led to a flowing but highly viscous mix, which was hard to work with,
or the concrete maintained its soft consistency for too long. The latter led to a strong
segregation during the spinning process and the liquide cement paste, so called slope, which
slide down and accumulates inside the cavity (Figure 2).
Figure 2: Cross section of a test ring with slop.
It is obvious that the choice of the plastisizer requires a compromise. This could be found in a
combination of two polycarboxylates, which have shown the best results so far. The main
admixture ensures the optimal liquefaction of the concrete and the other maintains a sufficient
workability. The duration of workability can be controlled by means of the ratio of both
admixtures. On the basis of this experiments and using standard cement, aggregates and
microsilica which was in stock and everyday used in the concrete pole plant Neumarkt i.Opf. a
mix design was developed and several prototypes were produced. The so-produced concrete
exhibited a good workability and encouraging performance.
842
2 Composition of spun UHPC

Materials
The UHPC in this paper is composed of Portland cement CEM I 52,5 R according to DIN EN
196-1, silica fume, quartz powder, crushed quartz sand and basalt split with the grain size up to
5 mm. Crushed basalt sand with the grain size up to 2 mm was used in the pre-experiments.
However, it showed negative affect on the concrete workability and was not used any more. In
spite of its advantage in compressive strength, an ultrafine quartz powder had to be set aside,
because the UHPC was too viscos and made the placing difficult.
In the laboratory experiments a PCE superplasticizer was used. In the production it was
replaced by a mixure composed of two PCE superplasticizers in order to regulate the setting
time of the spun concrete.
Mixture composition
The mixture composition was firstly determined in laboratory experiments and thereafter
adjusted in pilot experiments at EUROPOLES. The laboratory experiments aimed to develop a
basic mixture composition achieving the required compressive strength and workability. In the
pilot experiments columns with different diameter and length were produced. For the pilot
production the superplasticizer was adjusted to match the weather conditions.
Laboratory experiments
The design of the laboratory concept was carried out in following steps:
Step1: determination of the composition of cementitious paste, i.e. the ratio of silica fume and
quartz powder to cement. The cementitious paste should meet following requirements: a
compressive strength more than 170 N/mm after heat treatment at 90C and a slump flow
more than 300 mm. The compressive strength was performed on 4040160 mm prism and a
Haegermann table, without shock operation was used for testing the paste workability.
The volumetric ratio between water and the powders (cement, silica fume and quartz
powder) in the pastes was kept constant, while the ratio of silica fume and quartz powder to
cement were varied to determine the achievable compressive strength and the paste
workability.
The compressive strength of the heat treated paste/concrete was affected not only by the
water to powder ratio, but also by the silica fume content. Generally the compressive strength
increases with the silica fume content. However, the results in [3] have shown that the silica
fume above 18 wt% of the cement weight does not siginificantly improve the concrete
compressive strength any more. In the laboratory experiments the silica fume content varied
from 12 wt% up to 18 wt%. The results in Figure 3 show that in both series with finer and
coarser quartz powder the paste strength rise with the silica fume content. In the concrete
experiments the silica fume content was set at 18 wt% of the cement weight.
The superplasticizer used in the laboratory experiments was highly liquefying and exhibited a
moderate retarding effect, which turned out unfavourable later. The superplasticizer dosage
was adjusted to a flowablity of the paste greater than 300 mm and a compressive strength of
more than 65 N/mm after 16 hour curing at 20C.
843
Figure 3: Compresseve strength of cementitious paste after heat treatment.
Step 2: determination of the optimal ratio between quartz sand and basalt split:
The air void among aggregate particles is affected by the sand rate. The result in Figure 4
shows that the minimal void of 34.9 Vol.% in the aggregate mixture is reached at the optimal
sand rate of 35 %. A slightly deviance from this optimal sand rate does not significantly increase
the void volume in the aggregate mixture. In the later experiments the sand rate was kept at 32
%. The volume of the cementitious paste in the concrete is 380 Ltr/m, about 10 % higher than
the void volume among the aggregates.
Figure 4: Void among sand-split mixture.
Densifying the concrete in laboratory

It is not easy to simulate the spinning process in laboratory. In fact the concrete during spinning
process is much more intensively compacted than on a common vibration table. The concrete
which is suitable to be densified on the common vibration table in laboratory is usally softer than
spun concrete mixes. Conversely, the concrete consistency which fits for spinning is too stiff for
laboratory experiment. For that reason using a vibration table is unfavourable. The compressive
strength determined on such specimens will not be representative.
In order to simulate the spinning process the concrete was firstly vibrated in steel cylinder
moulds with a diameter of 100 mm and then pressured using a testing machine. The punch,
844
with which the pressure was applied, had a diameter of 90 mm. The concrete was pressed in
cycles with load stages between 5 und 50 kN with a rate of 0.5 N/mm/s. After 20 cycles the
upper loading of 50 kN was held for 30 seconds and then the cylinder was unloaded. During the
cyclc loading the cementitious paste was queezed out.
3 Manufacture of spun concrete elements

During the last two years several test elements and prototyps were made with UHPC. Most of
those were made within the scope of an extensive research program in 2011, founded by the
Federal Ministry of Economics and Labour (BMWi). The project partners were the iBMB TU
Braunschweig and Stahlwerk Annahuette. The iBMB has performed the load test on columns
with different diameters and arrangements of reinforcement. Figure 5 shows exemplary such
columns.
Figure 5: Test columns with 350 mm diameter designated for load test.
Besides the test elements for the load tests prototypes of real columns and poles were made.
This seemed to be needed to test the production of UHPC under every day conditions in normal
operation and to get a feeling for the difficulties connected with it. The concreting was done with
buckets, as seen in Figure 6.
845
Figure 6: Placing UHPC into mould.
The result was gratifying as can be seen in Figure 7. The five columns has been delivered and
assembled on site. The corresponding cube strength ranged between 132,5 and 149,5 N/mm.
The compressive strength of cores, taken from one element, was 157,0 N/mm.
Figure 7: UHPC-columns.
846
Encouraged by those results it has been decided to use UHPC for big poles as well, which
might lead to thinner wall thitcknesses and therefore lighter elements. After a few smaller poles
a bigger telecommunication pole ( Figure 8) was made with UHPC. Therefore 4 batches concrete
were needed, which had to be retarded decreasingly. The concrete has hardened under
ambient conditions. The average core strength was 172,0 N/mm.
Figure 8: 22-meter telecommunication-pole.
The biggest element made up to now was a 26m-pole for overhead power line. This pole was
tested in a bending test at EUROPOLES (Figure 9). It was not able to bend this pole until the
failure of the concrete compression zone.
847
Figure 9: 26-meter 15KN power-pole during the bending-test.
4 Conclusions
Ultra High Performance Concrete can be applied for spun concrete. Compressive strength up to
172 N/mm could be achieved without heat curing and the use of fibres. It could be shown that
columns as well as poles can be manufactured without changing the previous production
technology. Even elements consisting of several batches could be made. Most of the produced
UHPC-elements were designated for load test carried out by TU Braunschweig. The results of
the load test of columns are presented in a separate paper at HiPerMat2012.
References
[1] DIN 1045-1:2008-08: Tragwerke aus Beton, Stahlbeton und Spannbeton Bemessung und
Konstruktion.
Berlin, 2008.
[3] Ma, J.: Faserfreier Ultrahochfester Beton Entwicklung und Materialeigenschaften, Dissertation,
Universitt Leipzig, 2010.
848
Whiteman Creek Bridge A Synthesis of Ultra High

Performance Concrete and Fibre Reinforced Polymers for
Accelerated Bridge Construction
Wade F. Young1, Jasan Boparai1, Vic Perry2, Brent I. Archibald3, Sameh Salib3
1: Ministry of Transportation Ontario, London, Ontario, Canada
2: Lafarge Canada Inc.-Ductal, Calgary, Alberta, Canada
3: Delcan, Markham, Ontario, Canada
The Whiteman Creek Bridge replacement project represents a synthesis of Ultra High Performance
Concrete (UHPC) and Fibre Reinforced Polymers (FRP) to deliver Accelerated Bridge Construction
(ABC) and durability at a reasonable cost. The project involves the replacement of an existing three span
concrete bridge with a single 40 m span bridge, during a seven week highway closure. Prefabricated
components constitute about 90% of the bridge structure including precast abutments, wingwalls, deck
elements, and steel girders. The superior characterisitics of UHPC were the keys to the ABC evolution of
the subject structure by down-sizing the precast elements joints and eliminating the deck formwork.
Furthermore, for enhanced durability, Glass Fibre Reinforced Polymer (GFRP) bars were used as the top
reinforcing mat of the precast deck elements and as the sole reinforcement of the entire new cast -inplace concrete barrier walls.
Keywords: Ultra High Performance Concrete, FRP Reinforcement, Accelerated Construction, Bridge
1 Introduction
All over the world, public and business time waste and delays due to traffic congestion and
detours at infrastructure construction sites have significant impacts on the indirect cost
associated with these projects. In North America, the USA Federal Highways Administration
(FHWA) [1] has developed initiatives for reducing such cost by utilizing Ultra High Performance
Concrete (UHPC). The superior characteristics of UHPC regarding strength, toughness and
durability significantly reduce the material and labour involved in the construction process.
Consequently, the construction time, initial cost, future cost, and the indirect project cost, as
mentioned earlier, can be reduced as well. Also, using FRP reinforcement, with its unique noncorrosive nature and high strength to weight ratio along with UHPC, magnifies the durability and
performance level of the structure. Herein, the Ministry of Transportation Ontario (MTO)-West
Region completed their first ABC project utilizing both UHPC and FRP where the subject bridge,
having both superstructure and substructure as prefabricated elements, was entirely replaced
within seven weeks instead of several months of conventional construction.
2 Background
Highway 24 is a two-lane rural highway serving the southern portion of the Province of Ontario,
Canada. The subject bridge is located near the City of Brantford at the bottom of a vertical sag
curve within a natural valley with residential property and environmental constraints. The
existing (replaced) bridge, with a three span concrete T-beam structure and a total length of
33.5m, was slated for replacement due to its age, condition and structural deficiencies. As a
result of the site conditions and constraints of the surrounding terrain and residential properties,
it was decided to replace the structure using rapid construction techniques.
The MTO Northwest Region Office in Thunder Bay pioneered the use of UHPC in Ontario.
As of 2010, Northwest Region has constructed nine projects. The first project in 200 6 was the
CN Overhead Bridge at Rainy Lake which incorporated precast deck panels with UHPC joint fill.
849
Observations made to date indicate outstanding performance [2]. After 5 years of service in a
northern climate, there is neither deterioration of the material nor any opening of the joints.
Since then, the MTO Northwest Region has used UHPC joint fill for the interconnection of
precast bridge elements including; full depth precast deck panels; side-by-side precast girders;
full depth precast approach slabs, and precast concrete deck curbs (Fig. 1).
a) Deck Prior to Receiving Asphalt Wearing Surface

Figure 1: Typical Details of Previous Projects.
b) Field Cast Joint over Pier.
Recently, during 2010 two bridge projects (Eagle River bridge and Wabigoon River bridge,
Ontario) utilized UHPC field cast joints for live-load continuity over internal piers in precast
girder bridges. This joint design (Fig. 1) completely eliminated the need for post-tensioning and
provided for fast and simple field connections of precast bridge elements.
The MTO has also utilized UHPC field cast expansion joints as a means to provide strong
and durable solutions to solve the durability problems with freeze/thaw, de-icing, the constant
impact/abuse from trucks, and snow ploughs crossing the expansion joints. The use of UHPC
for expansion joints eliminates the need for embedded steel edges or casting of field concrete
between the precast deck and steel embed.
Also, MTO has built a number of trial projects with GFRP reinforcing utilizing their noncorrosive properties with the intent of building more durable structures [3]. The performance of
these bridges is being monitored and testing to date has been very encouraging. Currently in
Ontario, the cost of GFRP reinforcing is about the same as epoxy coated steel and about
double that of conventional steel when calculated by length. Due to the low modulus of elasticity
of GFRP reinforcing (E 40-60 GPa vs. 200 GPa for steel) [4], crack control in concrete
becomes the governing criteria for design [5]. This results in reduced bar spacing as well as
increased bar size when GFRP reinforcing is used as the primary tension reinforcing. A bridge
deck using only GFRP reinforcing requires an average of 60 to 70% additional reinforcing by
length, when compared to a similar bridge using steel reinforcing.
3 The Project
The new bridge structure consists of a 40m single span steel plate girder structure made
composite with a 225mm thick concrete deck. The bridge measures 14.5m in overall width and
is supported on a single row of steel H-piles made integral with the abutments. To reduce
construction time, precast concrete construction was used for all of the reinforced concrete
elements, including the integral abutments, with the exception of the barrier wall, which was
cast-in-place after the structure was opened to traffic. Durability was enhanced by incorporating
two emerging materials into the project, namely, UHPC and GFRP reinforcing. UHPC has been
proven on several projects [2] and by the FHWA [1] to be a superior material when used as a
joint fill between prefabricated components in bridge decks. The non-corrosive property of
GFRP reinforcing is being increasingly utilized by the MTO as a measure to build maintenancefree bridge decks [3]. In addition to its non-corrosive properties, the weight of GFRP reinforcing
850
Whiteman Creek Bridge A Synthesis of Ultra High Performance Concrete and Fibre Reinforced Polymers for
is only about 30% that of steel reinforcing thus facilitating reduced labour costs. Also, in order to
achieve an optimum bridge design, GFRP reinforcing was used for the top mat and
conventional steel for the bottom mat which balances durability and cost.
4 UHPC Joint Fill for Precast Concrete

In terms of durability, construction joints between precast elements have traditionally been the
weak link in the system, thus reducing the overall benefits of incorporating pre-cast elements.
However, the use of UHPC to connect precast elements promises to eliminate this issue and in
fact make the joints the strongest link. For the Whiteman creek bridge, UHPC was used to fill
the voids between the precast abutments and the H-pile foundations, in joints between the
precast deck panels and in joints between the precast approach slab panels. All precast
elements were constructed using regular 35MPa concrete.
The UHPC technology used for the joint infill is an ultra-high strength, ductile material
formulation made with constituent ingredients such as: Portland cement, silica fume, quartz
flour, fine silica sand, high-range water reducer, water and steel fibres. The UHPC specified for
this project was Ductal JS1000 [6] which is a proprietary product supplied by Lafarge Canada
Inc, and is one of several products patented under the trademark Ductal (Table 1):
Table 1: Material Characteristics (Characteristic Design Values).
Strength
Durabiltiy
Compressive (28 days)
140 MPa
Freeze/thaw (after 300 cycles)
Compresive (48 hours)
100 MPa
Salt-scaling (loss of residue)
Flexural
30 MPa
Carbonation depth
Youngs Modulus (E)
50 GPa
100%
<0.10 g/m2
<0.5 mm
The ultra-high strength properties and low permeability provide for excellent protection of the
rebar against corrosion and improved bond with the rebar, thereby providing short bond
development lengths. To provide improved durability and crack control, steel fibres were also
specified for the UHPC joint fill. For field cast UHPC, compressive strength specimens for
quality control are typically 75mm x 150mm cylinders broken at 28 days. Field cast results are
typically lower in compressive strength compared to lab or precast due to mix adjustments for
field batching, hot weather batching and field curing (as opposed to thermally treated). While
compressive strength tests are used to validate field QA/QC during casting operations, it is the
short bond development length that governs the design. All testing of UHPC for joint fill has
been done on specimens with a 100 MPa compressive strength inorder to validate minimum
strengths for opening to traffic.
The UHPC was batched with a mini-slump flow of 200mm to 250mm and will slowly self level
and fill voids without the use of any vibration. In order to ensure a complete filling of the joints
and accommodate the release of any trapped air a small hydro-static head of up to 0.2m is
maintained. The UHPC used is self consolidating during the initial setting of the material and
also exhibits superior durability with the chloride ion permeability (<100 coulombs) being very
low compared to the 1000 coulombs permeability specified for High Performance Concrete
(HPC) in Ontario.
5 Integral Abutment Connection

The abutment stem was precast in four sections; the two central and the two outer sections
being 3800 mm and 2575 mm wide respectively. Since the abutments were precast, and the
851
integral connection required the ability for the abutment to transfer both axial and flexural loads
directly into the piled foundation, a suitable connection between the abutment and steel pile
foundations needed to be developed. Pockets 600mm x 600mm were formed into the underside
of the precast abutments to accommodate the piles and allow for allowable tolerances on the
pile driving operation (See Fig. 2). UHPC was selected as the material to fill the void around the
piles due to its self consolidating, permeability and shrinkage compensating properties to
ensure full contact between the precast abutment and the steel piles.
a) Precast Abutment - Elevation View.

Figure 2: Details of UHPC for Precast Abutments.
b) Abutment Pockets Being Filled with UHPC.
6 Deck Slab Connections

The outstanding strength of UHPC allows the width of joints between precast elements to be
minimized due to the ability of the material to allow for reduced lap splices in the deck
reinforcing. For the transverse joint, the 160 mm wide opening specified could have been
further reduced; however, from a practical necessity to place the UHPC quickly, a narrower
opening would slow the placement of the material. Similarly, the 350 mm wide longitudinal joint
specified is quite wide to allow for the placement of the shear studs on the girders.
The deck slab consists of 16 pairs (32 total) precast panels each 225 mm thick x 2240 mm
wide x 7075 mm long. Pockets in the panels were required over the girders for the shear stud
connection to the girders. At the centre girder, there was a continuous longitudinal gap of 350
mm. The slabs were not post-tensioned as the performance of the UHPC joint fill provides
sufficient durability, when combined with an asphalt and waterproofing system. In addition, the
precast panels were detailed such that the need for formwork was eliminated, which greatly
contributed to the speed of construction.
Prior to erection of the slabs, 50 mm wide strips of ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) foam were
glued to the outside edges of the top flange to contain the UHPC. The first slab was placed and
adjusted to grade via 6 leveling devices (two at each girder) ensuring that proper load
distribution of the precast panel to the supporting steel girders. The weight of the panel was
used to compress the EVA foam strips thus resulting in a leak-proof system.
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Figure 3: UHPC Being Placed into Deck Pockets for Shear Studs.
The shear pockets and haunches over the girder flanges were grouted starting at the low end,
followed by the longitudinal joint along the centreline of the bridge (See Fig. 3). As grouting
progressed, plywood forms were placed over the pockets and fastened down to prevent the
UHPC from overflowing due to the inherent grade of the bridge, since UHPC is self-leveling.
The transverse joints between the precast panels were placed subsequently (See Fig. 4).
Normal productivity for this operation was approximately 12-16 m3/day, based on a crew of
five people, and two high capacity mixers. The 21 m 3 of UHPC needed for the deck of the
bridge thus required two days for placement and an additional four days for normal curing.
Figure 4: Deck Panel Layout with UHPC Placed in Pockets Over Two Girder Lines.
7 Precast Approach Slab Connections

The approach slabs consist of 6 precast panels each 250 mm thick x 2079 mm wide x 6000 mm
long with 200 wide joints between the segments. After the abutments reached 20 MPa, the
precast approach slab panels were installed on the finely graded subgrade and the joints filled
with UHPC (See Fig. 5). The ends of the approach slabs were detailed with preformed holes to
allow the slabs to be connected to the abutments using straight vertical dowels with the annular
space also filled with UHPC.
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Figure 5: UHPC Being Placed into Appraoch Slab Joints.
8 Testing and Development of UHPC for Joint Fill

Full Scale Cyclic and Static Loading
The FHWA [1] has been actively studying the application of UHPC in bridge decks. Slab
specimens were cast in two pieces and joined together at midspan by a 150 mm UHPC joint.
Various arrangements of 15M bars, some straight, some headed and some bent, were used to
connect the two pieces together. Loads were applied immediately adjacent to the joint, via a
254 mm x 508 mm load patch and tested at three levels (See Fig. 6):
Testing
Level
Test Type
Level A
Under cyclic load below cracking
Level B
Under cyclic load above cracking
Level C
Under static load to flexural failure
Figure 6: Load test (Courtesy of FHWA).
Under cyclic loading (Level A & B), there was no interface de-bonding and no leakage through
the joint. Under cyclic loading (Level B), a single flexural crack in the concrete became tightly
spaced micro cracks through the UHPC joint. Under ultimate loading (Level C), the panel
behaved as would be expected of a monolithic concrete slab without any joint or dissimilar
materials.
Pullout Tests on GFRP Reinforcing
Testing of pullout resitance of reinforcing in UHPC, namely the Ductal JS1000 [6] material have
been conducted over the last several years to demonstrate the bond characteristics of the
material and determine suitable development and lap lengths.
With the introduction of GFRP reinforcing, Lafarge Canada Inc undertook pullout tests in
accordance with the Canadian Highway Bridge Design Code [7] in order to obtain approval for
using GFRP in the UHPC deck joint fill for specific MTO projects. Pullout test specimens were
manufactured with 15mm bar sizes with embedment depths of 100mm and 150mm. Failure
behavior of the pullout test conducted on all samples was delamination between the GFRP core
and skin of the GRFP (epoxy sand layer).
9 Future UHPC Applications for Bridges

The use of UHPC field cast connections is a relatively new solution. However, this early
adoption has provided excellent field experience and validation of the methodology. It has also
854
provided exposure and confidence in the technology which has led to innovations for the use of
UHPC for other types of field connections for precast bridge systems which the MTO will
consider for future projects.
Field Cast Connections for Precast Waffle Deck Panels and Hidden Shear pockets:
The use of UHPC for Precast Waffle Deck Panels, currently under development by Lafarge
North America Inc., (See Fig. 7a) provides a light weight durable bridge deck system suitable
for new or the rehabilitation of bridges. Installing UHPC joint fill between the UHPC Waffle Deck
panels provides an entire bridge deck made from UHPC. To further reduce dead load and
improve the deck durability the waterproofing and wearing surface are removed, thereby leaving
the entire UHPC deck exposed in order to provide the highest durability, where it is most
needed, at the riding surface.
a) Waffle Deck Panels for Wapello Bridge, Iowa, USA.
b) Precast Parapet Walls Joined with UHPC.
Figure 7: Future UHPC Applications.

Field Cast Connections for Precast Parapets /
Barrier Walls:
As an alternative to cast-in-place, precast parapets or barrier walls maybe supplied to the
bridge already integral with the deck or as separate units (See Fig. 7b) to be field attached. In
both cases the precast parapet units need to become fully composite with the bridge deck
system in order to carry the traffic barrier loadings.
Field cast UHPC connections for precast parapets and barriers provides the integral
continuity and further aids in speeding the construction of the bridge.
Field Cast UHPC for Thin bonded Overlays:
Another promising use for UHPC field cast rehabilitation is thin bonded overlays (or Hybrid) to
re-strengthen deteriorating bridge decks. Several State DOTs cooperatively with Universities
are investigating the use of UHPC as a cost effective method to significantly extend the life of
bridge decks approaching their service life.
The use of this system is being investigated as both a field cast topping for in-situ deck
repairs and as a precast system. The precast Hybrid would be cast top surface down where
the UHPC is first cast in a textured form liner and then the high performance concrete (HPC) as
a structural back-up. Then panels would be cured, flipped and ready for delivery to site. The
precast Hybrid panels would be connected with field cast UHPC. Hidden shear pockets may
also be used with this system.
Field Cast UHPC for Accelerated Bridge Construction:
UHPC is a family of products where the mix designs can be formulated to provide a wide range
of slump flows, hardened mechanical properties and rate of strength gain. One UHPC product
formulated specifically for ABC construction is being developed by Lafarge, which provides a
855
high early strength of 55MPa in 12 hours at normal ambient temperatures. The product has
similar fluid workability to other UHPCs.
This UHPC rapid strength product is designed for ABC projects executed during week end
closures or other time limited type repairs.
10 Summary and Conclusions

The bridge replacement was completed within the scheduled seven week closure of Highway
24, with the roadway reopened to two lanes of traffic using temporary concrete barriers to
protect the unfinished barrier walls as planned.
Traditional reconstruction of non-complex bridges typically require a minimum of four to six
months to build, or longer if the bridge work is staged to maintain traffic during construction.
Alternately, using Accelerated Bridge Construction (ABC) techniques or heavy lift equipment,
reconstruction of a bridge superstructure can be reduced to as little as 48 hours or one
weekend. This is typically done in urban areas or on freeways, where the extra cost of using
ABC can be easily justified when user costs are taken into account.
Between these two extremes are options to use more traditional equipment and maximize
prefabrication, with the use of UHPC, so that with a small premium, significant savings in
construction duration can be realized. The Whiteman Creek project, with only 15% premium
over traditional construction, reduced construction duration to seven weeks.
This project also created a unique opportunity for a synthesis of ABC, UHPC and GFRP. The
closure necessary for highway reconstruction demanded ABC. Incorporating UHPC ensures
that the joints between precast elements will be durable and can be constructed quickly (no
formwork). Finally, the use of GFRP for the top mat deck reinforcing eliminates corrosion of the
top mat reinforcing. By synthesizing all three elements, this project is yet another step toward
building more durable structures, rapidly.
11 Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank the Whiteman Creek Bridge project team which included MTO
Staff, Delcan Corporation, Lafarge Canada, and Dufferin Construction Limited for the
collaborative partnership throughout the design and construction of this project.
References
[1] Graybeal, B., Behaviour of Field-Cast Ultra-High Performance Concrete Bridge Deck Connections
Under Cyclic and Static Structural Loading, FHWA Report No. FHWAHRT11-023, November
2010.
[2] Perry, V., Scalzo, P., Weiss, G., Innovative Field-Cast UHPC Joints for Pre-cast Deck Panel Bridge
Superstructures In Overhead Bridge at Rainy Lake, Ontario, PCI IHWA National Bridge
Conference, USA 2007.
[3] Lee, J., Craig, B., Loh, P., Dimitrovski, V, Working Towards Maintenance-Free Bridge Decks using
Glass Fibre Reinforced Polymer Reinforcing Bars, 8th International Conference on Short and
Medium Span Bridges, Niagara Falls, Canada, 2010.
[4] CSA-807-10, Specifications for Fibre-Reinforced Polymers, Canadain Standards Association,
2010.
[5] Salib, S., Strength of Concrete Beams Reinforced and/or Prestressed with FRP Bars, Ph.D. thesis
submittted to the Civil and Environmental Engineering Department, University of Windsor, Canada,
2001.
[6] Lafarge North America, Product Data Sheet: Ductal JS1000, www.imagineductal.com, 2009.
[7] CHBDC-06, Canadian Highway Bridge Design Code, Canadain Standards Association, 2006.
856
Current Research on Ultra High Performance Concrete

(UHPC) for Bridge Applications in Iowa
Sri Sritharan1, Sriram Aaleti1, Dean Bierwagen2, Jessica Garder1, Ahmad Abu-Hawash2
1: Dept. of Civil, Construction and Environmental Engineering, Iowa State University, Ames, IA 50011, USA
2: Office of Bridges and Structures, Iowa Department of Transportation, Ames, IA 50010, USA
Following the successful implementation of UHPC in bridge girders and piles, three UHPC research
initiatives are currently underway. The first two initiatives focus on using UHPC for bridge deck s and the
third on Phase 2 of the foundation pile. In the first initiative, a prefabricated UHPC waffle deck panel was
developed. Following investigation of the constructability and performance of critical connections and
panels through large-scale testing, a field structure with waffle decks has been completed. The second
initiative explores an innovative, cost-effective, composite deck system using UHPC and normal concrete
(NC), and experimental investigations identifying the most suitable UHPC-NC interface for practical
applications have been performed. For the previously developed tapered H-shaped UHPC pile, the third
initiative focuses on establishing a splice and pile to abutment connection details. This paper
summarizes the three initiatives, including findings from the completed experimental research.
Keywords: UHPC, deck, waffle, composite, pile, splice, connection, abutment
1 Introduction
The United States bridge infrastructure has received a C grade by the American Society of
Civil Engineers, which is primarily due to the structural deficiency or functional obsoleteness of
one in four of the nations bridges [1]. At the end of 2008, the estimated total number of bridges
in the nation was 600,905, of which 72,868 (12.1%) were identified as structurally deficient,
while 89,024 (14.8%) were listed as functionally obsolete. Unfortunately more bridges are
added to this list annually, especially those from urban areas, where it is considered that one in
every three bridges are deficient [1]. To overcome the nations aging bridge infrastructure,
several State Departments of Transportation (DOTs) and the Federal Highway Administration
(FHWA) have engaged in the development of: a) durable, broadly applicable bridge
components and systems that are cost-effective; and b) accelerated bridge construction
methods to rapidly resolve the bridge deterioration problem of the nation. Due to its superior
structural and durability characteristics, the use of Ultra High Performance Concrete (UHPC) for
bridge applications has gained momentum in the United States over the past decade.
Through collaboration between Iowa DOT, FHWA, Iowa State University (ISU), Lafarge and
Coreslab, the state of Iowa has led the nation in utilizing UHPC for bridge substructure and
superstructure. The past applications include: design, testing and deployment of I-shaped
girders; -shaped girders; and design of a tapered, H-shaped precast pile. Following these
successful projects, three UHPC research initiatives are currently underway in the state of Iowa
with support from the Iowa Highway Research Board, FHWA, and Iowa DOT. The first two
initiatives focus on using UHPC for bridge decks and the third on Phase 2 of the pile foundation
program. Each of these initiatives are aimed at producing durable and longer-lasting critical
bridge components that can be easily deployed. A summary of the three initiatives including the
current status of each is presented in this paper.
2 UHPC waffle deck panel

By combining the advantages of UHPC and prefabricated, full-depth deck systems, a precast
UHPC waffle deck system was developed as part of FHWAs Highways for LIFE program [2].
The constructability of this system and structural performance of its critical connections and
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0.58 m
63.5 mm
51 mm
203 mm
panels were investigated using large-scale laboratory tests, which applied service, fatigue, and
ultimate loads. Following an exploratory study on the feasibility and structural behavior of a
prestressed UHPC waffle deck system by FHWA [3], a UHPC precast waffle deck system with
conventional mild steel reinforcement was developed with the intention of deploying this system
on a two-lane, single-span replacement bridge in Wapello County, Iowa. This bridge, which is
10.1-m wide and 18.3-m long, was designed with five standard Iowa B girders, at a center-tocenter distance of 2.2 m (see Figure 1).
4 spaces at 2.24 m
10.1 m bridge width
Figure 1: Cross-section of the UHPC waffle deck system bridge in Wapello County, Iowa.
Details of connections
To make the UHPC waffle deck panels fully composite with the girders, three types of
connections were used, namely: 1) a pocket connection; 2) a longitudinal connection, and 3) a
transverse connection. The pocket connection consisted of at least one shear hook extending
from the top of the girder into a pocket in the waffle deck panel, which was filled with in-situ
UHPC (see Figure 2a). This detail established the connection between the waffle panel and
exterior or intermediate girders (see detail B in Figure 1). The longitudinal connection was used
between the waffle panels and center girders. Dowel bars extending from the panels with shear
hooks from the girders (as with detail B), and additional longitudinal mild steel reinforcement
was used with in-situ UHPC (see Figure 2b) for this connection. The transverse connection
joined two adjacent UHPC waffle deck panels utilizing dowel bars extended from the panels,
two additional transverse reinforcement, and in-situ UHPC (see Figure 2c).
50 mm f
114 mm
102 mm
152 mm X 305 mm
IN-FILL HOLE
204 mm
50 mm f STAINLESS
STEEL DOWELS
25 mm
(a) Pocket connection

(b) Longitudinal connection
Figure 2: Connection details of the UHPC waffle deck bridge.
(c) Transverse connection
Full-scale testing
Two full-scale, full-depth, UHPC waffle deck panels connected to two precast, prestressed
girders were tested to evaluate the structural characterizations of the panels and connections.
In addition to subjecting a panel and connections to AASHTO [4] specified service and fatigue
wheel loads, overload and ultimate load tests were also performed. The experimental
investigation was complemented with a detailed finite element analysis (FEA) by assuming
perfect bonding between precast panels, in-situ UHPC, and reinforcement. Figure 3 shows the
construction of joints and setup.
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Pocket joint
Long. joint
Transverse joint
(a) Construction of connections

Figure 3: Construction of joints and test setup.
Long. joint
Girder
(b) Joint testing under simulated wheel load
Key findings
As shown in Table 1, a total of eight tests were conducted in this sequence to critically evaluate
the performance of the waffle panels and connections [5]. Each test produced satisfactory
performance. Under service level loading, only limited micro cracking was observed on the most
critical rib and the transverse joint during the panel and joint testing, respectively. When the test
was repeated for more than a million cycles, no progressive degradation of the system was
observed. When a panel and joints were overloaded, visible flexural cracks were noted on the
transverse and longitudinal ribs. To examine the ultimate strength, a panel and joints were
subjected to three to four times the service level wheel loads. Significant cracking to the ribs
was observed, but no failure of the connection or the panels occurred. However, the test was
terminated at this stage due to significant cracking that
occurred to the bridge girders supporting the panels.
The FEA accurately predicted the load and location
of the first flexural crack and the regions susceptible to
increased cracking as a result of an increase in load
[6]. Following successful design and performance
verification, the waffle deck bridge system has been
recently completed in Wapello County, Iowa (see
Figure 4). Following placement of the girders, the
waffle decks were installed with ease and the
construction of all UHPC joints was completed without
any difficulties.
Figure 4: Construction of waffle deck bridge
Table 1: Sequence and details of the tests conducted on the waffle deck system.
Test ID
Description
1
Service load at center of a panel
2
Service load on transverse joint
3
Fatigue test on transverse joint
Load (kN)
95
125
125 x 1 million cycles
Overload on transverse joint
214
Fatigue test of panel
95 x 1 million cycles
Overload on panel
178
Ultimate load on panel
712
Ultimate load on transverse joint
689
859
Expected Damage from FEA

Micro cracking in ribs
Micro cracking in joint
No prediction was made
Visible flexural cracks along the joint
and transverse ribs
No prediction was made
Visible flexural cracks along
transverse ribs
Significant flexural cracks along
transverse and longitudinal ribs
Significant flexural cracks along
transverse and longitudinal ribs
3 UHPC-NC deck interface

Following the success of the UHPC waffle deck system, the development of an innovative
composite deck system using UHPC overlying normal concrete (NC) is currently underway. The
ultimate goal of this project is to come up with a cost-effective UHPC-NC bridge deck system
that can be used for new and existing bridge decks as a means for increasing lifespan of the
superstructure. To date, the study has focused on structural characterization of different shear
friction interfaces that may be appropriate for overlying UHPC on NC slabs, as well as the
factors influencing the interface behavior through laboratory testing.
Test matrix and test setup
As summarized in Table 2, a test matrix that consisted of five different textures and three
concrete strengths was used to examine the feasibility and effects of different interface textures,
concrete strength, casting sequence, and curing condition (fully cured vs. partially cured vs. wet
conditions) on the shear friction behavior of the composite deck interface. Mechanical
connections between UHPC and NC such as that involving shear studs were disregarded to
ensure easily constructible details.
Table 2: Summary of completed UHPC-NC interface tests.
Test type
Texture (# of specimens)
Casting sequence
Target NC Strength
UHPCw-NC5
5 textures (3 per texture)
Wet UHPC over Cured NC
34 MPa
UHPCw-NC7
52 MPa
UHPCw-NC10
69 MPa
UHPCh-NC5
Wet NC on Heat treated UHPC
34 MPa
w wet UHPC; h-heat treated UHPC
Figure 5: Slant shear test setup.
Based on the experimental study on the bond behavior of

composite specimens incorporating UHPC [7] and the slant
shear test concept [8], all interface tests were completed
using prismatic members as shown in Figure 5. Each
UHPC-NC composite specimen was 150 mm by 150 mm in
cross-section, 600 mm long, and consisted of an inclined
joint with different interface textures at the mid-height of the
specimen. An inclination angle of 53.1 degrees was chosen
for the interface based on the preliminary calculations and
previous research [9]. The joint interface surface was
prepared using five different form-liners with varying
roughness values typically used in the precast industry for
architectural panels. As the specimens were subjected to
uniaxial compression at the ends, the interface was
subjected to shear stresses along the inclined joint
interface. Several instruments, including displacement
transducers and rotation meters, were used in the joint
region to adequately characterize the performance, and
closely monitor the movement along the inclined shear
interface. All samples were tested to failure at the interface
or through splitting of the NC (see Figure 6a).
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Key findings
A total of 60 slant UHPC and NC interface specimens were tested. The average depth of
texture was varied from 5 mm to 1.3 mm from texture 1 to texture 5. In each case, the stress
along the interface and bond strength were calculated by dividing the appropriate load along the
joint by the interface area. A comparison of the average bond capacity established under shear
for each surface is presented in Figure 6b. Accordingly, it was found that the bond strength
developed for all textures was adequate for applications in bridge decks. The bond strength
generally increased with the increase of texture roughness. The casting sequence, however, did
not significantly influence the bond strength.
UHPC
NC
a) Compression failure of a test specimen

b) Average bond strength for different surface textures
Figure 6: Test findings from the slant UHPC-NC concrete specimens.
4 Connections for UHPC piles

For routine bridges, the foundation can contribute up to 30% of the overall bridge cost.
Furthermore, increasing the longevity of bridges requires an increase in the durability of the
foundation as well. Consequently, a tapered, H-shaped, UHPC pile was previously developed at
ISU as a means for increasing the longevity of bridge foundations and reducing the
maintenance cost in comparison to steel
and concrete piles [10]. The crosssection details of this pile and a steel Hpile, that is more commonly used in
Iowa, are compared in Figure 7. The fullscale vertical and lateral load tests on
UHPC piles revealed several benefits of
the UHPC pile including reduced risk of
damage during driving, drivability with a
greater range of hammers and strokes,
and use of the existing equipment for pile
Figure 7: Cross section of HP 250x85 vs. UHPC Pile.
handling and driving. To implement the
UHPC piles in bridge foundations, an investigation is currently underway that will focus on
developing connection details to splice piles in the field while ensuring the UHPC piles will be
adequately anchored into the pile caps and bridge abutments.
861
Splice details
With the intention of minimizing construction delays, dry connections, comprising of welding,
bolting or quick-set grout, are typically preferred to
R 13
extend the piles in the field during driving. It is
common practice to use welding when steel piles
are spliced as this is considered an efficient
technique in the field. Consequently, a welded
detail was preferred for the splice of the UHPC
piles. Figure 8 shows the steel embedment used at
the ends of UHPC piles, which facilitates welding
Shear
Studs
between two H-shaped steel plates to establish the
connection. This splice was designed to have a
Plan View
minimum of 50% of the pile capacity in tension and
100% of the pile moment capacity.
Pile-to-abutment connections
The connection of the UHPC pile-to-abutment was
established using the typical Iowa DOT standard
details that are routinely used for steel pile-toabutment connection [11]. This approach was
preferred in order to minimize changes to an
already established construction practice due to the
change in pile material.
Side View
Full-scale testing
Full-scale laboratory tests have been completed to
Figure 8: Splice details.
verify the expected behavior and to ensure
adequate capacity of the UHPC splice connections. The laboratory investigation included the
testing of the splice region under direct tension, as well as, critical shear and flexural stresses.
Two test units were used for these tests. In each case, two 1.22-m long UHPC pile segments
were cast and spliced together at the ends using an 8 mm weld all around the interface at the
splice. As shown in Figure 9a, the direct tension test was performed on the test unit using a
self-reacting test frame supported on rollers, while the shear and flexural tests were performed
using a simply supported configuration and a concentrated vertical load, as shown in Figure 9b.
a) UHPC splice tension test setup

b) UHPC splice shear and flexure test setup
Figure 9: UHPC splice test setup for tension, shear and moment.
The pile-to-abutment connection test was performed on a steel pile and a UHPC pile in an
inverted position under combined axial and lateral loads as shown in Figure 10. For each test, a
2.4-m long pile segment was embedded into a cast-in-place concrete block, which had standard
862
dimensions of a bridge abutment with its length equal to typical center-to-center distance
between two adjacent piles. The abutment block was suspended above the floor by posttensioning two concrete blocks on both sides and attaching these ancillary blocks to the strong
floor using high strength bars. Throughout testing, the piles were subjected to either 445 kN or
890 kN of vertical load using two posttensioning bars and hydraulic jacks. In
addition, each pile was subjected to
cyclic lateral displacements using a
450 kN actuator attached at a height
of 1.4 m from the top of the abutment
block, to simulate the expected
movement of a pile integrally
connected to abutments. Based on the
previous studies on the thermal
movements
and
subsequent Figure 10: Pile-to-abutment connection test.
expansion and contraction that integral
abutment bridges undergo, the piles are expected to move as much as 25 mm in the
longitudinal direction, which corresponds to a 5 mm lateral displacement for the short segment
of the test pile in the laboratory. The UHPC pile was tested in three phases to understand the
influence of vertical load on the behavior of the pile-to-abutment connection. The load protocol
used for the three phases is shown in Table 2. In a similar manner, an HP 250 x 85 steel pile
was also tested to failure to provide the baseline performance of the connection.
Table 2: Laboratory pile-to-abutment testing protocol for the HP 250x85 and UHPC piles.
Axial Load (kN)
# Cycles per Step
Control
Load Step
Phase I
445
Force (kN)
18, 36, 54, 72
Phase II
890
Force (kN)
16, 32, 48, 63
Phase III
445
Displacement (mm)
13, 19, 25, 38

(for steel: 51, 76, 102)
Key findings
The full-scale tests on splice connection confirmed its satisfactory performance and indicated
that the spice had reserve capacity in excess of 975 kN and 200 kN in tension and shear,
respectively. One concern identified during the tests was that the weld quality should be
assured in order for the splice to perform as quantified from the tests. The UHPC pile-toabutment connection was also very successful. The force-displacement responses of the UHPC
and steel piles are shown in Figure 11a and 11b, respectively.
a) UHPC pile
b) Steel pile
c) UHPC pile at failure d) Steel pile at failure
Figure 11: Force vs. displacement response and failure of UHPC and HP 220 x 85 piles under lateral loads.
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No cracking was observed in the UHPC pile at the expected level of lateral displacement of 5
mm. At 8 mm of lateral displacement, two hairline cracks were seen in the UHPC pile near the
connection. However, these cracks were completely closed after the displacement of the pile
returned to zero. The UHPC pile failed in compression at 38 mm lateral displacement (see
Figure 11c). The steel pile experienced yielding in the flange tips at 13 mm of lateral
displacement and buckling of flanges in the critical moment region at 102mm of lateral
displacement (see Figure 11d).
5 Conclusions
Following successful use of UHPC in bridge research projects, three research initiatives are
currently underway in Iowa with support from the state, FHWA and other agencies. Through
these initiatives, it has been shown that 1) the UHPC waffle panel is a durable and easily
constructible, full-depth precast option for bridge decks; 2) adequate shear resistance can be
established between a UHPC and NC interface with minimal roughness at the interface; and 3)
tapered H-shape piles can be spliced and connected to the pile caps and abutments as
routinely done for steel H piles.
References
[1] American Society of Civil Engineers: Report Card for Americas Infrastructure: Facts about bridges,
Reston, VA, USA, 2009.
[2] Aaleti, S., Sritharan, S., Rouse, M., Wipf, T.: Phase1: The structural characterization of UHPC
waffle bridge deck panels and connections. IHRB Project TR-614 Report, Iowa Department of
Transportation, 2010.
[3] FHWA: Analysis of an Ultra-High Performance Concrete Two-Way Ribbed Bridge Deck Slab,
TECHBRIEF, FHWA-HRT-07-055, McLean, VA, 2007.
[4] AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications. American Association of State Highway and
Transportation Officials, Washington, D.C., 2007
[5] Aaleti, S., Sritharan, S., Bierwagen, D., and Wipf, T., J.: Experimental Evaluation of structural
Behavior of Precast UHPC Waffle Bridge Deck Panels and Connections. Transportation Research
Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board (in press), 2011.
[6] Aaleti, S., Sritharan, S., Dean Bierwagen and Brian Moore: Precast UHPC Waffle Bridge Deck
Panels and Connections for Accelerated Bridge Construction. PCI National Bridge Conference, Salt
Lake City, Utah, October 2011.
[7] Harris, K., D., Sarkar, J., and Ahlborn, T.: Interface Bond Characterization of Ultra-High Performance
Concrete Overlays. 90th Annual TRB Meeting, Washington D.C, January 2011.
[8] Wall, J.S. and N.G. Shrive, Factors Affecting Bond Between New And Old Concrete. ACI Materials
Journal,: p. 117-125, 1988.
[9] Zilch, K.; Reinecke, R.: Capacity of Shear Joints between High-Strength Precast Elements and
Normal-Strength Cast-In-Place Decks. International Symposium on High Performance Concrete,
The Economical Solution for Durable Bridges and Transportation Structures, PCI / FHWA / FIB,
Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, U.S.A., 2000.
[10] Vande Voort, T., Suleiman, M. T., and Sritharan, S.: Design and performance verification of ultrahigh performance concrete piles for deep foundations. Final Report, Iowa DOT, IHRB Project TR558, CTRE Project 06-264, Iowa Dept. of Transportation, Ames, IA, 2008.
[11] http://www.iowadot.gov/bridge/standards/english/EnglishIntegralBridges.pdf, cited on 31 October
2011.
864
R&D Activities and Application of Ultra High Performance

Concrete to Cable Stayed Bridges
Byung-Suk Kim, Seungwook Kim, Young-Jin Kim, Sung Yong Park, Kyung-Teak Koh,
Changbin Joh,
Structural Engineering Research Division, Korea Institute of Construction Technology, Korea
Ultra High Performance Concrete (UHPC) is a new kind of material that has high compressive and tensile
strengths together with high durability and fluidity. This paper introduces systematic researches of Korea
Institute of Construction Technology (KICT) to develop competitive bridge systems using the advantages
of UHPC. KICT have developed a new kind of edge girder type cable stayed bridge system using UHPC
for the main span of 200 m ~ 800 m and its feasibility study has been carried out. Various structural
analyses and experiments were performed to verify the new system. Design guidelines and
manufacturing specifications were prepared to design and construct innovative bridges. As a result, in
2009, UHPC pedestrian cable stayed bridge with the span length of 14 m has been design and
constructed in Korea. In addition, in 2011, the first UHPC cable stayed bridge has been designed in detail
for the open tender for Jobal Bridge.
Keywords: UHPC, Cable stayed bridge, edge girder system, feasibility, design guideline
1 Introduction
Ultra High Performance Concrete (UHPC) is an innovative material that has been developed to
secure the ductility and strength of the structural members. UHPC exhibits significantly
improved tensile strength, flexural strength, resistance to cracking, shear strength and
resistance to impact through the addition of steel fibers and admixtures.
The material characteristics of UHPC can be summarized as follows: realization of ultra high
strength through the exclusion of coarse aggregates, uniform material properties and
satisfactory particle distribution; formation of remarkable micro-structure by high temperature
steam curing; increase of toughness through the addition of steel fibers. Diminution of self
weight through the reduction of the cross section and the extended lifespan of the bridge
through outstanding durability can be expected from the application of UHPC to bridge
structures.
Up to date, a number of bridges have been erected using UHPC. The very first application of
UHPC for bridge was Sherbrooke pedestrian bridge constructed in 1997 in Canada. In Korea,
Seonyu pedestrian bridge was built in 2002 but was relying completely on French technology.
UHPC Highway bridges were also built. USA built several highway bridges such as Wapello
County Mars Hill Bridge (2006), Cat Point Creek Bridge (2008) and Jakway Park Bridge (2008).
Japan also applied UHPC to the highway bridges, Tokyo Int. Airport GSE Bridge (2010) and
Kayokawa Bridge (2010). Many other UHPC bridges can be found from the reference [1].
Although UHPC pedestrian and highway bridges were built, it is difficult to say they are
competitive in the bridge market. From the economic point of view, these UHPC bridges for a
short or mid span are probably not competitive to conventional concrete bridges and steel
composite bridges because of high initial construction cost.
On the other hand, it can be easily conceivable that the advantage of UHPC can be effective
when it is applied to long span bridges such as cable stayed bridges. Application of UHPC to a
concrete cable stayed bridge might lead to the reduction of self-weight by replacing heavy
concrete section with compact UHPC one, which, in turn, results in the reduction of expansive
cables and the size of foundation. The expensive steel sections of steel or composite cable
stayed bridges might be replaced with reasonable UHPC ones without increasing the weight
865
excessively, which, again, results in the reduction of material cost large enough to compensate
the increase of cost from the cables and foundation.
To realize this idea, however, it is not simple. Simple substitution of UHPC for concrete and
steel is not enough to use maximum out of UHPC and to secure economic feasibility. A new
cable stayed bridge system combined with UHPC most effectively should be developed. The
realization of an UHPC cable stayed bridge, therefore, should be preceded by the systematic
and intensive investigation of material, structure, construction and economic feasibility.
2 Application of UHPC to Cable Stayed Bridge: Super Bridge 200

KICT launched a 6-year research project called Super Bridge 200 from 2007. This project deals
with the application of UHPC to a cable stayed bridge. The total budget is approximately 11
million USD.
The main goal of Super Bridge 200 is reducing construction and maintenance cost of cable
stayed bridges by 20% respectively and extend the service life of main structural elements up to
200 years through combining UHPC and cable stayed bridge technology together.
Super Bridge 200 has developed technologies for (1) improvement of UHPC behavior, (2)
design of UHPC structures such as girders and plates, (3) light and durable UHPC deck, (4)
UHPC cable stayed bridge system with the main span of 200 m ~ 800 m.
UHPC Developed by KICT
The first UHPC composition developed by KICT is shown in Table 1. The water to binder ratio is
0.2 and the steel fibers of 2 volume percent are used. The steel fibers are 13 mm in length and
0.2 mm in diameter, and the tensile strength of the steel fiber is 2500 MPa. All UHPC are steam
cured for 72 hours at 90 degree after 24-hour curing at room temperature. The mechanical
properties of the material are summarized in Table 2.
As a result of this research, first draft of UHPC fabrication specification was proposed in
2007 and has been updated yearly to include new research.
Table 1: UHPC composition (all by weight but steel fiber).
W/B
Cement
Silica fume
Sand
Filling Power
Super plasticizer
Steel Fiber (Vf)
0.2
0.25
1.1
0.3
0.016
2%
Table 2: Mechanical properties of UHPC.
Design compressive
strength
Design tensile
strength
Elastic
modulus
Poissons
ratio
Total
shrinkage
Creep
coefficient
180 MPa
9.5 MPa
45 GPa
0.2
60010-6
0.45
Apart from developing design technology for UHPC cable stayed bridge using first UHPC
developed by KICT, the research to improve the performance and economic efficiency of UHPC
itself is done in parallel.
This research is focused on both minimizing the amounts of fiber and maximizing the
performance of UHPC. The large amount of the fiber increases the cost of UHPC significantly.
Thus, it is important to minimize the amounts of steel fibers without scarifying the performance
of UHPC.
The performance of UHPC was investigated according to the aspect ratio, shape and volume
content of steel fibers. To improve the flexural and tensile characteristics of UHPC, it was found
that one of the promising methods is to blend two different steel fibers together. Blending macro
866
R&D Activities and Application of Ultra High Performance Concrete to Cable Stayed Bridges
fibers different in length can increase the tensile strength of UHPC while minimize the reduction
in constructability due to long fibers.
The test result shows, compared to the first UHPC with 2% of steel fiber, the flexural strength
increased by 27% (maximum 50%) in average for hybrid UHPC with the use of fibers of 19.5
mm and 16.3 mm in length 1% each (Fig. 1)[2]. The diameter of the fibers is 0.2 mm for both.
Accordingly, the fabrication cost of hybrid UHPC can be reduced by approximately 70%
compared to that of first UHPC. Direct tensile test of the hybrid UHPC reveals the tensile
strength of 17 MPa, which is estimated as one of top levels of the world (Fig. 2)
Figure 1: Flexural behavior of hybrid UHPC (vf=2%).
Figure 2: Tensile strength of hybrid UHPC.
Design of UHPC structures

For the structural design of UHPC, various structural tests were performed at the KICT; flexural,
shear and torsional tests of UHPC girder and punching test of UHPC plates and miscellaneous
tests of reinforced UHPC structural details. As a result of this research, first drafts of UHPC
structural design guidelines were proposed in 2008 and have been updated yearly to include
new researches.
200
180
R13-1
R13-2
160
Load (kN)
140
120
R12-2
100
80
R13C
NR-1
NR-2
R12-1
15
20
25
60
40
20
0
0
Figure 3: Flexural test of UHPC girder reinforced with

rebars.
10
30
Midspan Deflection (mm)
35
Figure 4: Load-deflection curve (UHPC girders

reinforced with rebars) [3].
1400
T1300S
1200
Lo a d (kN )
1000
800
T1000S
600
400
T600N S
T600S
T1000S
T1300S
T600S
200
T600N S
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
M idspan deflection (m m )
Figure 5: Flexural test of UHPC girder prestressed

with tendons.
Figure 6: Load-deflection curve (UHPC girders

prestressed with tendons)[4].
867
First, in 2008 ~2009, reinforced UHPC girders were tested to estimate the flexural strength and
to find how to estimate it for the design (Fig. 3 ~ 6). The tested UHPC girder specimens were
reinforced with rebars or prestressing tendons. It is because, in spite of relatively high tensile
strength of UHPC compared to conventional concrete, the large difference between
compressive and tensile strengths of UHPC makes it necessary to use rebars in the UHPC
flexural member such as a girder.
UHPC girder test results show typical flexural behavior similar to that of a reinforced
concrete girder (Fig. 4 and 6). After first cracking, according to the increase of loading, new
micro-cracks started to develop between the existing cracks and most of the cracks continued
to propagate toward the upper chord without visual widening of the crack width. At ultimate
load, a part of the cracks showed increase of their crack widths while the other cracks exhibited
practically unchanged shape until failure (Fig. 3 and 5).
Test results also show the flexural strength can be estimate reasonable well by applying
stress-strain relationship with Bernoullis assumption. In addition, the tensile behavior of UHPC
together with the effect of fiber orientation should be considered in the estimation.
Second, in 2010, UHPC girders without shear stirrups were tested in shear (Fig. 7). Test
results showed that, as the load was increased, initial diagonal cracks occurred in the web with
degradation of stiffness (Fig. 8). However, the sudden loss of the strength was not observed
and the load was gradually increased with propagation of the initial cracks to upper and lower
flanges. Other diagonal cracks in the web were occurred as well. At the failure, with gradual
decrease of the load, one of the diagonal cracks in the web was developed to the major
diagonal crack (Fig. 7).
Test results also show that, with an additional term to consider the contribution of fibers after
the initial cracks in the web, the shear strength formula for an ordinary concrete girder can be
used to estimate reasonably the shear strength of UHPC girders without stirrups.
1600
1400
S25-F20-P0
1200
S25-F20-PS
Load (kN)
1000
800
600
400
200
0
0
Figure 7: Shear test of UHPC girder without stirrups.
10
15
20
25
30
Mid-span deflection (mm)

Figure 8: Load-deflection curve (UHPC girders without
stirrups) [5].
140
Torsional moment (kN-m)
120
100
80
SS-F2-L88-S35
60
40
SS-F2-L88-S00
20
0
0.00
SS-F2-L00-S00
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.10
Angle of rotation (rad/m)
Figure 9: Torsional test of UHPC girder.
Figure 10: Torsion-rotation curve (UHPC girders

with/without reinforcement) [6].
868
Third, UHPC square members were tested in torsion (Fig. 9). It is because the thin-walled tube
theory that is currently adapted in the code seems to have no term to consider the behavior of
UHPC that is different from ordinary concrete.
The test results (Fig. 10) show that the UHPC specimens with no reinforcement did not lose
its torsional strength after cracking due to the ductility of UHPC, and the UHPC specimen with
longitudinal rebars only also showed a ductile behavior. Those are different from the behavior of
ordinary reinforced concrete members. The UHPC specimens with longitudinal rebars and
stirrups showed hardening after cracking.
Comparison of test results with the design theories showed that, compared to the thin-walled
theory, the skew bending theory with the tensile strength of UHPC is relatively reasonable to
estimate the torsion at cracking and torsional strength of UHPC members. However, this
approach also seems to have a limitation to estimate the contribution of reinforcement to the
torsional strength of UHPC members.
KICT also did punching test of UHPC thin plates (Fig. 11) for punching formula and
miscellaneous test to optimize structural details such as minimum cover thickness, bond-slip
relation, crack width and spacing (Fig. 12), development length and etc.
Figure 11: Punching shear test of UHPC girder.
Figure 12: Miscellaneous structural tests of UHPC.
Design of UHPC structures

In long-span cable supported bridges like a cable stayed bridge, the deck contributes to the
weight of the superstructure largely but does relatively small to the overall construction cost.
The overall economic efficiency of the bridge, therefore, could be significantly improved by
reducing the weight of the deck by the adoption of relatively expensive high-performance
materials.
60mm
260mm
Figure 13: Shape of UHPC ribbed deck.
Figure 14: Load-deflection curve (UHPC ribbed deck)

[7].
KICT applied this idea to the deck of an UHPC cable stayed bridge. KICT has developed the
UHPC ribbed deck slab (Fig. 13) with prestressing tendons as a solution to lighten the self weight of superstructure for cable stayed bridge. It is composed of thin plate with 60 mm in
thickness and stiffening ribs with spacing 600 mm. Its weight is about half of the conventional
869
precast concrete deck. Optimum design and various tests were carried on to verify its
behavioral characteristics and to evaluate its structural performance. Test results verified that
the proposed decks satisfy the relevant design codes (Fig. 14).
UHPC cable stayed system
In the cable stayed bridge the tension in the cables produces a compression in the deck and
tower. The high compressive and tensile strengths of UHPC allow for the redesign and
optimization of stiffening girder and deck elements in the cable stayed bridge.
33.400
16.700
16.700
3.000
rete(
Conc
0
0
5
UHPC
.
3
C. T. C
S= - 2.00%
300
300
1.735
270 265
1.200
UHPC 180MPa
S= - 2.00%
150
CL
Figure 15: Cross section of UHPC edge girder system for the main span of 800 m (unit: mm).
The edge girder with parabolic cross beams (Fig. 15) was developed for the low-cost UHPC
cable stayed system. This system was chosen because, first of all, considering the
constructability related properties of UHPC, the edge girder system is relatively easy to
fabricate compared to typical box girder system. In addition, due to the high compressive and
tensile strength, the cross section and the weight of the edge girder and the thickness of deck
slab can be minimized.
The typical aerodynamic difficulties of the edge girder system can be controlled by modifying
the shape of the edge girder and the cross beam. The wind tunnel test partially verified the
aerodynamic performance.
Figure 16: One-half model of UHPC edge girder

precast segment.
Figure 17: Cost analysis of cable stayed bridge.
The fabrication and connecting of 2 segments of 16.7 m wide one-half model of the edge girder
system (Fig. 16) showed the constructability of the system. The moving wheel load fatigue test
was also done to estimate the fatigue strength using the fabricated edge girder system.
Cost analyses based on detailed design shows the overall construction cost of an UHPC
cable stayed bridge is lower over the main span of 200 m ~ 800 m than that of a conventional
cable stayed bridge (Fig. 17). Especially, the UHPC cable stayed bridge (Super Bridge 800)
with the main span length of 800 m was designed in detail and compared to recently completed
Inchon Bridge, the worlds 5th longest cable stayed bridge with steel deck. The cost analysis
showed UHPC cable stayed bridge can save 23.3% of overall cost of Inchon Bridge (Fig. 17).
For the main span of 200 m~ 400 m, where a concrete or composite cable stayed bridge is a
dominant system, the UHPC cable stayed bridge can reduce the cost by reducing the weight of
870
deck and, accordingly, the costs of cables and foundation. For longer span, where the cable
stayed bridge with steel deck is a dominant system, UHPC cable stayed bridges reduces the
cost by replacing expensive steel deck with UHPC deck. Although the weight of the deck itself
is increased and the related cost is increased more or less, the overall cost is reduced due to
the reasonable UHPC more than that as shown in Fig. 17.
Application of UHPC cable stayed Bridge
In 2009, Super Bridge 200 team designed and constructed UHPC pedestrian cable stayed
bridge (Fig. 18), which connects two office buildings of KICT. This bridge is a full-scale test bed
for Super Bridge 200.
Figure 18: UHPC pedestrian cable stayed bridge built

at KICT [8].
Figure 19: Plan view.
As shown in Fig. 18, the small scale edge girder is selected for the cross-section of the upper
girder to exploit fully the compressive performance of UHPC. A part of the upper girder was
planned as a UHPC precast girder. Two precast girders are connected using steel bar after
bonding with epoxy (Fig. 19). The portion around the pylon was designed to be cast -in-place
concrete considering the connection with the pylon.
In 2011, Daelim cooperation, one of the major construction companies in Korea, chose the
UHPC cable stayed bridge for the biding of Jobal Bridge that is planned to connect Jobal and
Dunbyung islands near south coast line of Korea.
Fig. 20 shows the birds eye view of Jobal Bridge designed by the technologies developed
from Super Bridge 200. The proposed Jobal Bridge is a three-tower UHPC cable stayed bridge
(Fig. 20 and 21). The main span length is 200 m and the height of pylon is 90 m. The edge
girder type superstructure (Fig. 21) was designed using UHPC. This is the first cable stayed
bridge designed using UHPC for a highway bridge.
Figure 20: Birds eye view of Jobal Bridge.
871
Figure 21: Jobal Bridge Plan.
3 Conclusion
This paper presented KICTs intensive and systematic development of technologies for a UHPC
cable stayed bridge since 2007.
KICT launched a 6-year research project called Super Bridge 200 from 2007. The purpose
was reducing construction and maintenance cost of cable stayed bridges by 20% respectively
and extending the service life of main structural elements up to 200 years through combining
UHPC and cable stayed bridge technology together.
As a result, Super Bridge 200 has developed technologies for (1) hybrid UHPC with tensile
strength of 17 MPa, (2) design of slender and durable UHPC structures such as girders and
plates based on the lots of structural tests and analyses, (3) light and durable UHPC deck
based on the optimization and tests, (4) UHPC cable stayed bridge system with the main span
of 200 m ~ 800 m based on the structural optimization and detailed cost analysis. The UHPC
fabrication specification and UHPC structural design guideline were developed. And the Super
Bridge 200 technologies were successfully applied to the design and construction of UHPC
pedestrian cable stayed bridge in 2009, and design of Jobal Bridge, the UHPC cable stayed
bridge.
4 Acknowledgement
References
[1] Fehling, E.; Schmidt, M; Strwald, S.: Proceedings of the 2nd International Symposium on Ultra
High Performance Concrete, Kassel, Germany, 2008.
[2] Park, S.H.; Kim, D.J.; Ryu, G.S.; Koh, K.T.: Tensile Behavior of Ultra High Performance Hybrid Fiber
Reinforced Concrete, Cement and Concrete Composites, In press, 2011.
[3] Yang, I. H.; Joh. C.; Kim, B.: Structural Behavior of UHPC Beams Subjected to Bending,
Engineering Structures, 32: 3478-3487, 2010.
[4] Yang, I. H.; Joh. C.; Kim, B.: Flexural Strength of Large Scale Ultra High Performance Concrete
Prestressed T-Beams, Canadian J. of Civil Engineering, 38: 1185-1195, 2011.
[5] Joh, C.; Lee, J.; Yang, I.H.; Kim, B.: Shear Test of UHPC Girders without Stirrups, Proceedings of
9th Symposium on High Performance Concrete, New Zealand, 2011.
[6] Joh, C.; Lee, J.; Yang, I.H.; Kim, B.: Torsional Test of UHPC Square Members, Proceedings of 3rd
International Symposium on UHPC, Kassel, Germany, 2012.
[7] Park, S.Y.; et.al.: Development of Deck systems for Cable-Stayed Bridges, 4th Year Report, Korea
Institute of Construction Technology, 2010.
[8] Kim, B.; Park, H.K.; Park, S.Y.; Kim, Y.J.; Chin, W.J.; Choi, E.S.; Kim, H.H.; Kim, J.H; Kim, W.J.:
Design and Construction of Innovative UHPC Pedestrian Cable Stayed Bridge in Korea,
Proceedings of IABSE Conference, Bangkok, Thailand, 2009.
872
Structural Performance of Prestressed UHPC Ribbed Deck for

Cable-Stayed Bridge
Sung Yong Park, Keunhee Cho, Jeong Rae Cho, Sung Tae Kim, Byung Suk Kim
Structural Engineering Division, Korea Institute of Construction Technology (KICT), Republic of Korea
Compared to conventional concrete, Ultra-High Performance Concrete (UHPC) develops higher tensile
strength and ductility as well as very high compressive strength. The Korea Institute of Construction
Technology (KICT) had succeeded in developing 200MPa class UHPC, and is now developing an
economic and durable cable-stayed bridge system applying the developed UHPC since 2007. Even if the
bridge deck contributes to a large proportion in the superstructure in terms of self-weight, it occupies only
a small portion in the construction costs of cable-stayed bridges. Therefore, despite of their high price,
applying high performance materials will improve the economics of the bridges by reducing effectively the
weight of the deck. In this study, we propose the UHPC ribbed deck slab with prestressing steel as a
solution to lighten the self-weight of the superstructure. Optimum design is carried out on this deck slab
for a span length of 4 m. The results indicate that the optimal dimensions are a thickness of 60 mm for
the plate of deck, with a height of 200 mm and width of 100 mm for the ribs. This enables a reduction of
the self-weight of the deck by 50% compared to the conventional precast concrete deck slab for cable
stayed bridges. Flexural tests were performed to investigate its behavioral characteristics and verify its
structural performance. Test revealed that the proposed deck slab satisfies the strength and
serviceability criteria required for a bridge deck..
Keywords: UHPC, ribbed deck, prestressing, flexural test, cable-stayed bridge
1 Introduction
The weight of the superstructure has significant effect on the design of cable-supported long
span bridges like cable-stayed bridge. Fig. 1 illustrates the contribution of the elements of the
superstructure to the weight and construction costs of a steel composite cable-stayed bridge
constructed in Korea. It can be observed that the deck represents a very large proportion of
69% of the superstructures weight while occupies only 15% of the construction costs of the
superstructure [1].
Girder
(31%)
Deck
(69%)
Cable
(28%)
Girder
(57%)
Deck
(15%)
(a) Self-weight
(b) Construction costs
Figure 1: Contribution of the elements constituting the superstructure of a cable-stayed bridge to the weight
and construction costs.
In view of such observations, significant reduction of the weight of the deck by applying high
performance materials would result in large reduction in the material quantities required for the
other members and particularly the cables, and in turn, to effective reduction of the construction
costs to a desirable level. Accordingly, KICT carried out research to apply UHPC to the deck of
873
cable-stayed bridges since 2007. To date, this research found out a highly efficient system
minimizing the quantities of UHPC known to be a costly material. This system is the ribbed deck
structure presented in Fig. 2.
This study intends to evaluate experimentally the behavioral characteristics of this optimized
prestressed UHPC ribbed deck.
(a) Structural system

(b) Sectional shape
Figure 2: Conceptual scheme of the developed UHPC ribbed deck for cable-stayed bridge.
2 Optimization of Section
UHPC develops a compressive strength reaching a value higher than conventional concrete by
more than 5 times but a relatively low tensile strength. Considering such properties, it appears
that introducing prestress in the tensile-loaded part of the structure will optimize the effective
utilization of the material. Therefore, the following design concepts were established for the
design of the ribbed deck [2].
(1) Computation of the minimum thickness of the plate member considering punching shear
failure;
(2) Derivation of the maximum allowable spacing of the ribs considering the biaxial flexural
behavior of the plate member; and,
(3) Determination of the dimensions of the ribs and amount of prestress considering the
biaxial flexural behavior of T-shape beam with effective width.
According to these design concepts, optimization with the minimization of the quantities of
UHPC as objective function and satisfying the Korean Highway Bridge Design Code [3] was
conducted. The optimization led to the section shape shown in Fig. 3. Differently from normal
girder bridges, the spacing of the cross-beams in a cable-stayed bridge becomes the span
length of the deck. Following, the running direction of the vehicles represents the principal
direction of the deck. In this study, the optimal section was derived considering a span length of
4 m for the deck.
Figure 3: Shape and dimensions of the ribbed deck section resulting from optimal design.
874
3 Experimental Study
Design and Fabrication of Specimens
The specimens were fabricated considering the eventual introduction of prestress as shown in
Table 1. The reference specimen without reinforcement was used to evaluate the material
characteristics of UHPC. These characteristics compared to those of the prestressed specimen
were then used to observe the effects of the disposition of the tendons. Each tendon of seven
wire strand with diameter of 15.2 mm was tensioned to a force of 200 kN through pretensioning.
Since the specimens were fabricated for positive moment test as shown in Fig. 4, the tendons
were disposed at locations distant by 35 mm and 85 mm from the bottom of the rib. Load was
applied through 4-point loading at intervals of 1.0 m.
Table 1: T-shape beam specimens of UHPC ribbed deck.
Number of
strands
Number of
specimens
TSST0
TSST2
Designation
Dimensions
(lengthwidth)
4 m 0.6 m
Remarks
Reference specimen
Reinforced specimen
Figure 4: Shape and dimensions of the specimens.
A strong frame was assembled for the introduction of prestress. The specimens were fabricated
by tensioning the tendons first followed by the placing of UHPC as shown in Fig. 5. The adopted
UHPC was the one developed by KICT. Its mixing and placing were executed using the UHPC
mixer fabricated in the batch plant of KICT. The capacity of the UHPC mixer shown in Fig. 6 is
1.2 m3. Two mixers were used for the present fabrication.
Figure 5: Placing of UHPC.
875
Figure 6: Mixers in the batch plant of KICT.
Material Tests
Six compressive strength specimens were made in each batch. The results showed that the
compressive strength averaged 194.0MPa with a standard deviation of 2.85MPa for the first
batch, and a mean of 180.3MPa and standard deviation of 3.50MPa for the second batch. The
slightly lower compressive strength obtained for the second batch was caused by the poor
conditions of the compressive strength specimens due to shortage of the residual UHPC
quantities needed.
The tensile strength of the UHPC member is significantly depending on the dispersion of the
fibers. Accordingly, a separate beam specimen was fabricated to evaluate the dispersion of the
fibers and its effects on the flexural tensile strength considering the fact that a small scale Tshape section should be manufactured. This spare specimen was cut at the bottom of the rib to
the size of a flexural tensile strength test specimen (100 mm x 100 mm x 400 mm) as shown in
Fig. 7(a). A total of 8 test specimens were sampled and subjected to flexural strength tests as
shown in Fig. 7(b). Table 2 presents the corresponding results. The numbering of the
specimens indicated in the table starts from the left side (#1) and is sorted in ascending order
rightward with respect to the sampling sequence. Except for samples #1 and #5, the samples
did not show large differences and revealed that the steel fibers are comparatively well
dispersed in the longitudinal direction of the original specimen. At the exception of samples #1
and #5 which showed large discrepancies, the statistical analysis of the flexural tensile strength
of the remaining six samples resulted in a mean cracking strength of 15.0 MPa with standard
deviation of 1.5 MPa. Moreover, the mean and standard deviation of the flexural tensile strength
were 47.5 MPa and 2.9 MPa, respectively.
876
(a) Cutting of test samples for flexural strength tests.
(b) Flexural strength tes.t

Figure 7: Cutting of test samples from a beam specimen and performing flexural strength tests.
Table 2: Flexural tensile strength of the test samples.
Sample
number
Dimensions
Initial crack
Ultimate state
Width
(mm)
Height
(mm)
Cracking load
(kN)
Cracking
strength (MPa)
Failure load
(kN)
Flexural tensile
strength (MPa)
#1
10.4
10.0
46.2
13.3
126.3
36.4
#2
10.0
10.0
46.7
14.0
160.0
48.0
#3
10.0
10.0
57.1
17.1
172.3
51.7
#4
10.0
11.0
50.7
12.6
172.6
42.8
#5
9.8
10.0
51.0
15.6
109.5
33.5
#6
10.0
10.7
56.0
14.7
176.9
46.4
#7
10.0
10.5
59.5
16.2
183.9
50.0
#8
10.0
10.4
55.5
15.4
166.5
46.2
877
Test Results
Flexural tests were carried out for four simple beam specimens described in Table 1 and Fig. 4.
Fig. 8 shows these flexural tests.
Figure 8: View of flexural tests.
Fig. 9 compares the load-deflection curves of the 4 specimens defined in Table 1. The
reference specimens without reinforcement (TSST0) maintained a linear relationship until
approximately 40 kN and reached a maximum of 66 kN on average before failure. As shown in
Fig. 10(a), flexural crack developed at first between the loading points to slant with increasing
load and turned into shear crack before final failure.
The specimens strengthened with tendons (TSST2) preserved a linear relationship until
about 97 kN. The specimens reached a mean maximum load of 190kN before failure. A
difference of approximately 57 kN occurred between the cracking strengths of specimens
TSST0 and TSST2 and can be attributed to the effect of the introduction of prestress. As shown
in Fig. 10(b), the first crack also initiated below the loading points for specimens TSST2. This
crack crossed the center of the section and propagated until the flange. Thereafter, the crack
continued to increase without increase of the load.
Figure 9: Comparison of load-deflection curves.
878
(a) Specimen without reinforcement (TSST0-1)

Figure 10: Comparison of failure mode.
(b) Reinforced specimen (TSST2-2)
Initial crack
Specimens
Ultimate state
Crack
load
(kN)
Central
deflection
(mm)
Ultimate
load
(kN)
Central
deflection
(mm)
Failure
pattern
Reference
specimen
TSST0-1
36.6
2.60
65.1
17.48
Flexural
TSST0-2
42.4
3.16
66.6
18.02
Flexural
Simply supported
specimen
TSST2-1
95.9
6.26
186.9
55.76
Flexural
TSST2-2
97.9
6.02
193.8
50.04
Flexural
In Fig. 9, the initial slopes of all the specimens are identical regardless of the presence or not of
prestressing steels. This verifies the reliability of the fabrication of the specimens per batch as
well as that of the execution of the tests. Regard to the mean failure strength of 65.9 kN
obtained for the reference specimens (TSST0), the failure strength of 190.4 kN provided by the
specimens TSST2 reinforced by 2 tendons at their bottom reached a value approximately larger
by 2.9 times. This increase of the failure strength can be completely attributed to the tendon
reinforcement. In other words, the cracking strength increased by 1.4 times due to the effect of
prestress brought by the tendons, and the utlimate strength increased by 1.9 times through the
action of the tendons as tensile members. Table 3 arranges these results where the initial crack
corresponds to the load and deflection at the end of the initial linear part in the load -deflection
curves of each specimen, and the ultimate load is the maximum load.
The strength and deflection criteria required by the Korea Highway Bridge Design Code [3]
are also indicated in Fig. 9. Ultimate load level (= 48.9 kN) and service load level (= 101.0 kN)
in Fig. 9 mean the required disign strength in the ultimate load state, and service load state,
respectively. Allowable deflection is 4.625 mm (= L/800, L = span length of deck = 3.7 m).
The specimens without reinforcement (TSST0) failed to satisfy the strength criterion but the
prestressed specimens (TSST2) exhibited a failure load 1.9 times larger than the req uired load.
879
Even if a strength reduction factor of 0.85 is applied for flexure, the developed strength remains
still 1.6 times larger than the required one, which indicates that sufficient safety is secured for
the positive moment. In addition, the results showed also that the deflection and crack criteria
are sufficiently satisfied.
4 Conclusions
KICT is performing a project for the development of lightweight and highly durable decks using
an in-house developed UHPC. A ribbed thin plate structure has been proposed as the optimal
structural type for the deck. Prestress was introduced to maximize the efficient use of the
material and optimization of the section was performed. This study was performed to evaluate
the behavioral characteristics of this optimized structural system through tests considering the
eventual presence of prestress as test variable. The test results revealed that the introduction of
prestress improved the safety and serviceability by increasing the ultimate strength and
cracking strength by 1.9 times and 1.4 times, respectively, for an identical section. Remarkable
improvement of the ductility was also observed. Moreover, compared to the relevant design
criteria, the optimal section derived in this study provided a strength larger by 1.9 times and a
deflection reaching 70% of the allowable value. Accordingly, the present deck system realized
by prestressing the ribbed thin plate structure is remarkably effective. Furthermore, the currently
designed optimal section satisfies the safety and serviceability required for bridge decks.
5 Acknowledgement
This study has been supported through the Development of Deck Systems for Hybrid CableStayed Bridge research project, an in-house project of the Korea Institute of Construction
Technology. The authors express their gratitude for the support.
References
[1] Korea Institute of Construction Technology (KICT). 2007.: System Integration for Hybrid CableStayed Bridge. Research Report (in Koran).
[2] Hwang, H.H.; Yoo, D.M.; Park, S.Y.; Kim, B.S. 2009.: Optimized Design of UHPC Bridge Deck Slab
for Hybrid Cable-Stayed Girder Bridge. Proc. 13th REAAA Conference, Incheon, Korea 2009.
[3] Ministry of Land, Transport and Maritime Affairs: Korea Highway Bridge Design Code , 2010 (in
Korean).
880

Bernhard Freytag1, Gnter Heinzle1, Michael Reichel2, Lutz Sparowitz3
2: KHP-Zerna Planungsgesellschaft mbH, Leipzig, Germany
Constructing with UHPFRC still strongly depends on decisions of the authorities. This limiting factor for
the ongoing advance in UHPC building practice must be overcome through the development of design
codes on the one hand and through pilot projects on the other hand. By means of the pilot project WILDBridge this paper shows that a diligent scientific preparation is an indispensable part for convincing the
authorities. Large scale experiments had been necessary before the tender was opened. One focus of
the paper is on the quality assurance. In particular the tolerances in flatness of contact surfaces of the
dryly jointed precast elements and the non-destructive determination of the local and direction dependent
post cracking tensile strength are treated. A final review on the construction process points out some
innovative details and demonstrates the smooth flow of mounting.
Keywords: arch bridge, UHPFRC, flatness of surfaces in contact, non-destructive steel fibre check
1 Form Finding and Structural Philosophy

WILD is the name of a company producing electro-optic and mechatronic apparatuses. This
company is resident at the eastern bound of Vlkermarkt in the south of Austria. For this part of
the town and especially for the company WILD a new passage to the motorway was planned .
The projected road runs through a so far virgin landscape and crosses over a romantic valley.
This is where the WILD Bridge was built. From an architectural as well as a structural point of
view the shape of the valley offers ideal conditions for an arch bridge. The material chosen for
the arch was UHPFRC, not least because of its outstanding durability. This decision made the
engineer leave the traditional way of solid construction and change to a light-weight design and
precast method of construction. Very slender kind of tubes form two arches side by side. These
arches need a symmetrical stabilising load which is realised through a rather heavy deck
concreted on site. This dead load is transferred by the columns and act as concentrated forces
on the arch, which results in a polygonal thrust line. Thus, as a result of the light-weight
approach, the final structure is a well-balanced and quite appreciated truss frame.
It consists of several straight hollow beam elements and also hollow node elements in
between. In order to minimise the expense for formwork the arch is planned to be symmetrical
accepting that the inclination of the road is not continued in the arch. A brief listing of some
absolutely
Figure 1: Cross-section and elevation.
881
unique key details shall give information about why the procedure of getting an admittance for
construction was difficult. After that, chapter 2 illustrates the scientific preparation to overcome
these understandable obstacles.
The entire arch does not contain any passive reinforcement. Except at the crown, all joints
between beam and node elements are realised in form of plane dry contact joints. Axial
prestress assures closed joints during erection as well as under service and provides the
stiffness required for the buckling resistance under non symmetric loads. The light weight
design made it possible to mount the arch by means of the swivel-in method.
2 Scientific Preparation
Required flatness of contact surfaces in dry joints
Dry joints consist of two surfaces in contact and work through a certain amount of contact
pressure. Generally, the real contact takes place only in a certain number of contact points,
depending on the geometric perfectness of the surface. The compressive capacity will decrease
with worse accuracy. But which geometric parameter accounts for this degradation? This
question will be answered by means of numerical simulations elaborated with Abaqus using
plane stress elements (CPS8R) and hard contact. The model simulates the worst case where
the peak of one surface touches the other surface at a peak too. Thus, the model is symmetric
and can consequently be simplified to a contact pair of one flat rigid body and one non perfect
body made of UHPFRC specified by the wave length a, the radius r and the amplitude s (see
Fig. 2). These three parameters describe the occurrence, the shape and the magnitude of an
idealised asperity. Nine models with various combinations of parameters are analysed.
rigid body
UHPFRC
a
Figure 2: FE- model (left) and results of the simulation (right).
The results of the variation of r show that the shape of the contact points influence the bearing
capacity only slightly. Further, the influence of the wave length a cannot be evaluated
separately because geometrically affine shapes lead to the very same result. Since asperities
are the subject in contrast to surface roughness, the variation of the gap width s is executed
keeping a constant to 100mm. It turned out, that the gap width is the decisive parameter. Fig. 2
(right) shows the degradation of the bearing capacity with varying s. A gap width of 0.1mm does
not affect the bearing capacity. This value was subsequently specified as the permitted
tolerance in the tender. The check of the flatness before mounting was performed with a 3D
laser tracker by the manufacturer monitored by the employer.
Non destructive determination of the direction dependent post cracking tensile strength
In the pilot project WILD the required tensile strength of the hollow beams is specified
separately for longitudinal and circumferential direction. Therefore, the knowledge about the
882
real fibre orientation all over the beams is indispensable. Equation (1) clearly shows the main
parameters influencing the flexural post cracking tensile strength of UHPFRC [1] [2]. It is the
basis of further developments.
f cf 0, flex , x D
lf
df
x g f
(1)
lf ............ fibre length
g............ effectiveness of fibres (assumed to be 1
df ........... fibre diameter
according to [3])
.......... fibre content

f ......... bond strength between fibre and matrix
x ........ fibre orientation number related to the D ........... ratio between flexural strength (prism
direction of interest (x)
150 mm) and axial tensile strength
x generally says how likely it is that a fibre of a volume -being as deep in x as the fibres are
long- crosses a section perpendicular to x. In the case of equation (1) x is an average over all
fibres of a volume. The theoretical upper and lower bounds (1 and 0) result from pure uniaxial
orientation. In the case of absolutely isotropic orientation x becomes 0.5 for each direction. In
very thin building members, fibres are constrained to align nearly parallel to the mould which
results in rather 2D orientation states. An isotropic 2D-orientation leads to x = 2/= 0.64 [1].
The ferromagnetic behaviour of steel fibres allows for detecting them inside the hardened
UHPC. Thus, a U-shaped core made of ferrite is provided with a spool. So, a simple inductive
sensor is created (Fig. 3). This sensor changes its inductance if ferromagnetic things move to
the main region of its magnetic field. In the case of steel fibres this measurable change
depends on the magnetic permeability of the fibres, the fibre content and on the fibre
orientation. The more a fibre is aligned to the permeating line of magnetic flux the higher is the
measurable change of inductance. Thus, if we measure in several directions at one point of the
structure, we will gain information about the fibre orientation state in the plane parallel to the
surface. In order to transform the cluster of measured inductance values Li to geometric ( x , )
or directly to mechanical quantities ( f cf 0, flex , x ), it is necessary to find an adequate mathematical
relationship. The project schedule did not allow for deriving sophisticated physical relations
between inductance and the oriented mix of fibres. Simple empirical but physically plausible
relations had to suffice. The simplest way to meet all these boundary conditions was to evaluate
the inductance measurements regarding the post cracking flexural strength and to calibrate the
equation of evaluation by means of bending tests.
If all directions of a measured point show the same inductance there will surely be an
isotropic orientation in the plane parallel to the surface. We will call it iso which is always less
than 0.64. Generally, it is assumed that analogously to principle stress directions one of the
principle fibre orientation directions is always perpendicular to the surface (out of plane). We
call it t (t for direction of thickness) which must obviously be less than 0.5 due to the little
thickness of the beams walls (60mm), also verified by photo-optical investigations [4].
Continuing the thoughts above, the deviation of the fibre orientation number relating to any
direction x (in plane) from iso is assumed to correlate with the deviation of Lx to the mean Lm.
To simplify matters, a linear dependency (B) is proposed (see equation (3)).
x ( Lx Lm ) B iso
(3)
883
The local fibre content will mostly influence the absolute level of inductance at a measuring
point. The simplest form for describing that is given in equation (4). In the project WILD-bridge
four directions are considered.
A Lm A
L0 L45 L90 L135

4
(4)
Finally, all the remaining effects on the tensile strength (see equation (1)) caused by the bond
strength, the slenderness of fibres and the effectiveness of fibres shall be summed up in a
constant C. In the project WILD a fibre cocktail is used. This is handled as follows:
l f 1 1
l f 2 2
g f ges x C ges
f cf 0, x x
f
1
ges
f
2
ges
(5)
Inserting equations (3) and (4) into equation (1) brings the final equation for the determination of
the post cracking tensile strength via inductance measurements:
(6)
re
gr
es
si
on
35
30
25
y = 1.00x - 0.00
R2 = 0.87
20
qu
an
tile
15
10
95
0.
tile
an
u
-q
1.
05
-
Flexural tensile strength from bending

tests [N/mm]
f cfo , flex , x A B C D ( Lx Lm ) iso Lm

B
fcfo,flex,x 2.40 Lx Lm 0.939 Lm
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
35
Flexural tensile strength via inductance

measurement [N/mm]
Figure 3: Sensor and principle of measuring.
Figure 4: Individual calibration of equation (6) for the

inspection of beam 2 piece 2.
If the term A B C D is merged there remain only two unknown constants to be determined by
the calibrating regression analysis on the basis of the minimum of the error square. For this
purpose 12 prisms are sawn out from each element of the type beam 2 and 3 (Fig. 1) which
were therefore produced with extra length (see also [6]). The constants looked for are
determined for each element individually (see an example in Fig. 4). So, the influence of the
particular mix properties on the bond strength f is also taken into account.
The beams type 1 could not be produced with extra length, for which reason their
measurements are evaluated by means of a collective calibration considering all samples taken
from all beams with extra length.
In the scope of the quality assurance of the project each hollow beam is checked at 120
points. Taking into account the uncertainty of the method a 0.95-quantile is applied for the
comparison with required strength values (Fig. 4). Details about the specification of required
values are given in [6].
884
Destructive Experiments
Figure 5: Full-scale test: overview (left), instrumentation inside the beam at the joint to the node (right).
Based on findings and experience gained from many preliminary tests concerning mixing and
workability, pumping, fibre segregation, fibre orientation versus casting method et. al . a costly
and time-consuming full-scale experiment was conceived, prepared and carried out (Fig. 5).
The specimen consisted of a hollow beam and a node element in true size. Only the length of
the beam was reduced to 5m in order to make the production of the specimen easier. It was
important to have one experiment which covers all interactive loads and carrying mechanisms.
The dry joint between beam 1 and the springing node as well as the connection between beam
1 and the node 2 were part of the test. The load path of the test was chosen in a way that the
limit states, ultimate as well as serviceability limit state, were passed in the experiment. The
safety factor of the resistance (material) was shifted to the loads. Doing that, the response of
the specimen in the theoretical state of the ultimate load could be demonstrated. By means of
more than 50 measuring sensors the global deformation behaviour as well as local phenomena
which had already been well known in theory could be verified. The accordance between
theoretical predictions via finite element analysis and the measuring results was convincing [5].
Representatives of the awarding authority, the civil engineer as well as the construction
company attended the experiment. Thus, the experiment not only brought about the desired
technical information but it also deepened the confidence in the seemingly venturous design of
the bridge.
Before the final manufacturing of the pre-cast elements could start, a further full scale test
(approval test) had to be carried out. It aimed at the examination of the capability of the
elements produced by the contractor. A specially developed mini anchorage for mono strands
was tested according to ETAG 013. Based on the impeccable results of all tests the
construction authorities gave a single approval for the construction of the WILD Bridge.
3 Practical Realisation
Figure 5: Mounting of arch halves.
Figure 6: Process of swivelling in.
885
As indicated in chapter 1 there is a need of only 4 moulds for the casting of 16 node elements.
The 12 beams are produced with just 1 mould. All manufacturing details are treated separately
in this proceeding [7]. Corresponding node- and beam-elements are preassembled to so-called
segments in the plant. Twelve segments thus created are finally shipped to the site.
Figs. 5 and 6 illustrate the final erection which only took 10 working days. The sequence is
indicated by bracketed numbers, which are referred to in the following text.
Figure 7: Sinking of segment 1.
Figure 8: Details of the temporary swivelling hinge.
After the foreland bridges had been built conventionally (0), the segments were assembled to
arch halves at each springing (1) to (6). The challenge at the beginning was to sink segment 1
(32 t) (Fig. 7) and to meet the seats of the hinge with the corresponding bolts (Fig 8). The 4
seats at one springing were precisely aligned to their common axis using geodetic methods.
The accuracy of that was essential for a precise key stone at the end of swivelling in.
For getting an exact and total closure of the joints between the following segments a
particular inclination of the hanging segments was needed (Fig. 9). For safety reasons it was
not allowed to enter the inner space of the arch. Thus, the tendons had to be threaded from the
top (Fig. 9) via threading ropes which had been prepared in the segments before mounting.
Figure 9: Mounting of segments 2 and 3, threading of a mono strand (above).
886
Figure 10: From mounting the last segment to the final bridge.
Fig. 10 illustrates the swivelling process which was performed by the use of 8 staying cables
(mono strands) each side being fixed at the foreland bridges (7) to (12). At the crown a
horizontal mismatch of just 10 cm was corrected by means of a simple steel frame, threaded
bars and nuts. The next step was to stabilise the joint through load-bearing wedges (Fig. 11).
Afterwards the staying cables were released, whereby the load carrying mechanism of the arch
Figure 11: Details of the key stone (left, centre), fixation of the springing hinge by cast in situ concrete (right).
887
was activated for the very first time. Final grouting of the gap with high strength mortar can be
seen as the real key stone. Eight overlapping strands coming from both sides of the crown
made the crown joint bending resistant. Before the columns and the deck were built
(conventionally) (Fig. 10) the springing hinges had been fixed by pouring out the space between
foundation and segment 1 with concrete (Fig. 11 right). From a mechanical point of view the
arch changes from a temporary two-hinged arch to the final and well-planned clamped arch.

Many things contributed to the success of the pilot project WILD-Bridge. Beside technical
innovation and scientific preparation the tight cooperation of everybody involved in the project
as well as the extra visionary but responsible approach of the authorities were of greatest
importance. From a technical point of view unique details and methods made the project a mile
stone in the development of bridge construction and at the same time led to further research for
advancing those details.
The prestressing of compressive members is currently being investigated in a fundamental
research project focusing on extra slender architectural columns made of UHPFRC. This project
also considers the idea of dispensing with passive reinforcement. The improvement of the nondestructive inspection method based on magnetic induction is in good progress. The project
FibreScan funded by the Styrian Government deals with theoretical approaches describing
general anisotropic inhomogeneous states of fibre orientation and aims at a final method
without the need of destructive calibrating tests.
A mechanical monitoring system installed at the WILD -Bridge will provide information about
the technical condition and allows for detailed examination of mechanical predictions.
5 Acknowledgments
The authors want to thank the following institutions for generously giving various kinds of
support:
Krntner
Landesregierung,
Kommunalgesellschaft
Vlkermarkt
GesmbH,
STRABAG AG, FH-Krnten, Massivbau GesmbH, SIKA sterreich, SW Umwelttechnik
sterreich GmbH. We are deeply grateful.
References
[1] Behloul, M.: Les micro-btons renforcs de fibres; De lprouvette aux structures; XI-Vmes
Journes de lAUGC, Clermont-Ferrand. Prix Jeunes Chercheurs Ren Houpert, 1996
[2] Leutbecher, T.: Rissbildung und Zugtragverhalten von mit Stabstahl und Fasern bewehrtem Ultrahochfestem Beton (UHPC); Schriftenreihe Baustoffe und Massivbau, Heft 9, 2007
[3] AFGC: Ultra High Performance Fibre-Reinforced Concretes Additional Informations for Interim
Recommendations; 2002
[4] Heinzle, G.; Freytag, B.; Sparowitz, L.: Herstellungsmethoden, Faserorientierung/-verteilung und
Bogenmontage der WILD-Brcke, FFG-Projekt 819342, F-10-29-2010, TU-Graz, 2010
[5] Freytag B. et. al.: Groversuch WILD-Brcke Versuchsgesttzte Bemessung einer UHPCBogenbrcke, Beton- und Stahlbetonbau 104 (3), p.134-144, 2009
[6] Reichel M., Sparowitz L., Freytag B.: Wildbrcke Vlkermarkt vorgespanntes Bogentragwerk aus
UHFB-Segmentfertigteilen, Teil 1 Entwurf und Bemessung, Beton- und Stahlbetonbau 106 (11),
p.760-769, 2011
[7] Hecht, M: Practical Use of Fibre-reinforced UHPC in Construction - Production of Precast Elements
for Wild-Brcke in Vlkermarkt, Proceedings of the 3rd International Symposium on UHPC and
Nanotechnology for Construction, Kassel University Press, 2012, Kassel 2012
888
Practical use of fibre-reinforced UHPC in construction production of precast elements for Wild-Brcke in
Vlkermarkt
Markus Hecht
Max Boegl Group, Construction Company, Neumarkt in Upper Palatinate, Germany
The construction of the worldwide first Ultra High Performance Fibre Reinforced Concrete arched bridge,
the Wild-Brcke across the Mhlgraben in Vlkermarkt, Austria, required the Max Boegl Groups
comprehensive concrete technology know-how. The heart of the filigree 157m long bridge (including the
foreshore bridges) is comprised of the two parallel arches, both of a 70m span. Both arches consist of six
components and eight joints (in the inflexion points) of a box-girder-shaped cross-section each. The thinwalled prefabricated elements were manufactured at Max Boegl prefabrication plant, Sengenthal, with an
evenness of 0.1 mm in the contact areas. The developed C 165/185 UHPFRC meets all requirements
regarding workability, heat development and structural demands without requiring any conventional
untensioned reinforcement. The bridge was opened for traffic on 01.10.2010.
Keywords: UHPFRC, Ultra High Performance Fibre Reinforced Concrete, arched bridge
Production of precast elements for Wild-Brcke in Vlkermarkt

Wild-Brcke spanning the Mhlgraben in the Austrian town of Vlkermarkt (South Carinthia),
smoothly integrates into the landscape thanks to its filigree arched beam structure. The name of
this bridge was dedicated to the local company Wild GmbH, which is connected from
Vlkermarkt over this innovative bridge made of fibre-reinforced ultra-high-performance
concrete. In addition to the Austrian province of Carinthia and the municipality of Vlkermarkt,
Wild GmbH was also involved in financing this project.
Figure 1: Wild-Brcke Vlkermarkt after completion (Source: Strabag AG, engineering Austria).
The supporting structure is made of two parallel strutted arches connecting the valleysides with
a clear span of approx. 70 meters. The arch crown is at a maximum level of approx. 40 meters
889
above the Mhlgraben. The total length of the bridge structure is approx. 157 meters including
the foothills bridges the rise of the arch is all about 18 meters.
Both bridge arches were planned as a traverse and consist of six members and eight nodes
each in the salient points. The members (tubes) with up to 16 meters in length have a boxgirder-shaped cross section revealing a wall thickness of only six and ten centimeters
respectively in the edges. At the thicker-walled nodes which also have a box-girder cross
section, the rising supporting in-situ pillars are cast into the elevated section of the track. There
is a connexion to transmit load between the arch elements through externals tendons. The
tendons run freely in the box-girder cross section of the members and are diverted at the arch
bend through tendon ducts in the node elements. Conventional reinforcement was spared
altogether. All precast elements were cast in fibre-reinforced UHPC.
The Sengenthal precasting plant of the Max Boegl Group was entrusted with the
sophisticated precast elements by order of Strabag AG. The construction works were executed
by the engineering division of Strabag AG, Austria. The bridge was planned and designed by
Prof. L. Sparowitz, TU Graz.
Convincing Special Proposal
Both bridge arches consist of ultra-high-performance fibre reinforced concrete of a compressive
strength category of C 165/185 and an elasticity module of 50.000 N/mm.
The target of such planning was to produce the construction elements of steel-fibre
reinforced UHPC (UHPFRC) without using any conventional steel reinforcement.
Originally, the arch segments composed of members and nodes were to be made in a
match-cast procedure. Instead, a special proposal brought forward by the Max Boegl Group
was applied, to produce each member and each node for itself and to span all elements over
corbel dry joints. To this effect, all contact areas between the precast elements underwent CNC
milling and were ground with maximum precision to an evenness tolerance 0,1 millimeters.
The evenness reached by grinding also contributes to increase the coefficient of friction in the
joint which positively affects the shear force load capacity.
To ensure such precision, milling the contact joints made sense only when creep and
shrinkage had largely subsided. Consequently, the components underwent heat treatment prior
to CNC milling. Another positive effect of heat treatment is the increase of compressive strength
and elastic modulus.
Maximum Concrete Quality
With regards to dimensions and strength category, Wild-Brcke is unique in the world and
required individual acceptance for lack of standards.
The required concrete parameters necessitated the development of a new recipe through the
concrete technologies of the Max Boegl Group.
The following table shows the requirements for concrete.
890
Practical use of fibre-reinforced UHPC in construction - production of precast elements for Wild-Brcke in
Vlkermarkt
Table 1: Concrete parameters.
Properties
Requirements according to Bill of Quantities
Strength category
C 165/185
Exposure categories
XC4, XD3, XS3, XF4, XA3, XM3
Bending tensile strength
18 N/mm
Axial tensile strength
7 N/mm
Elasticity module
50.000 N/mm
Equivalent bending strength (4-point, DBV)

Deformation zone 1
18 N/mm
Deformation zone 2
12 N/mm
Evenness of contact surfaces
0,1mm
Frost and de-icing salt resistance (CDF)
fullfilled: 20 g/m ( 1500g/m)
In the end, a UHPFRC was developed which meets all requirements with regards to workability,
heat development and statics. So the weathering rate identified by the CDF test resulting from
frost and de-icing salt stress was determined to be 20 g/m.
In all arch elements (members, knee and camper notes) the same recipe was used.
The decisive factor for the recipe design were the camper nodes as they constitute the
massiest building elements with 9.5 tons each. A CEM III / A 32,5 N-LH/NA was used to limit
the development of hydration heat.
To harmonize the required workability, high bending tensile strengths at a marked ductile
structural performance within the limit state of load-bearing capacity (equivalent tensile strength
in deformation zone 2, a steel fibre mixture of short and long fibres was used.
Quality Assurance
In order to ensure a constantly high concrete quality level, increased efforts were made within
the group of companies:
To reduce the ready-mixed concrete temperature, the cement was cooled with fluid nitrogen
by means of a cement cooling system.
All base materials such as cement microsilica and steel fibre underwent a strict entrance
test within the scope of quality assurance.
A 100 % check was carried out, consequently all concreting works were carefully
monitored.
To reduce creep and shrinkage, all building elements underwent a defined temperature
cycle in a heat chamber.
To avoid cracks resulting from thermal stress, the temperatures in the building element were
monitored from the start of the concreting works to the end of the heat treatment.
The entire workforce involved in the project (ranging from the mixing plant operator to the
man on the storage yard) underwent special training.
Preliminary Test at the Building Element

In the course of a large-scale test at the TU Graz a five-meter-long member element spanned
on a nodal point was loaded until it broke in order to demonstrate the assumed material
properties with the experiment and to compare the actually measured values with the calculated
values of statics.
891
The building contractor extended the original requirement for an even distribution of the steel
fibres by an evenly defined, homogenous steel fibre orientation. This resulted in further
extensive preliminary examinations of the steel fibre orientation at the original building
component cross section. Preliminary examinations were carried out at building elements of 5
m in length.
Sample bars were cut out of the tube walls and subsequently checked in bending tests.
Cores with a diameter of 50mm were extracted from the thin tube wall in longitudinal and
transverse direction.
The steel fibres in the core were visualized by means of computer tomography.
Quality Check of the Building Element
At the request of the building contractor the members were produced in excess lengths. Thus,
random girders could be cut out from the precast elements in excessive lengths to identify the
bending tensile strength at the building component. In addition, an extensive testing program
was made by the concrete expert assigned by the building contractor in parallel to production.
After CNC milling the high-precision three-dimensional measuring of all precast elements was
effected within the scope of the final check by means of the state-of-the-art measuring
technology in order to verify the compliance with the required tolerances.
Production Sequence Concreting Works
The production of the high-performance concrete used necessitated appropriate technical
equipment. The concrete was mixed with a mixing unit specifically designed for highperformance concretes in the pre-casting plant Sengenthal.
All the aggregates, sands and finest substances used were dried before and filled in
weather-proof daily doses and silos respectively. This ensured that no water was transported
into the blend from the surface humidity through the dried base substances, which would
otherwise have had to be corrected through the mixing water. The w/b-ratio to be complied with,
was exclusively regulated at the mixing unit by adding water and flow agents.
The temperature of the ready-mix concrete was limited by a maximum value of 32C. To
meet such requirement even in summer temperatures, the concrete engineers worked with the
cement cooling unit connected to the mixing unit. This allowed to cool an appropriate share of
the cement used down to -100C with fluid nitrogen in a counter-current process and to blend it
with warm cement. Thus, the temperature of the ready-mix concrete could specifically be
adjusted. 6m UHPFRC at 4 batches of 1,5m were mixed for each concreting operation.
Due to the formworks and production facilities to be kept available, the production of the
members and of the nodes had to run in a production hall which could not directly be operated
by the concrete mixing plant. So the UHPFRC had to be transported to the site with the readymix truck. The four batches were surrendered to the BMA in the pub mill of the ready-mix truck
and homogenized there. Within a processing time of 120 minutes, the concrete had to be mixed
and poured according to the requirements of the QA manual, which also comprised smoothing
and curing the upper surface. The countdown started when water was added to batch number
1.
Within the scope of quality assurance, a random sample of the homogenized concrete from
the ready-mix truck was taken prior to each concreting process. Concrete technologies of the
central laboratory determined the consistency and the ready-mix temperature.
To ensure an even and homogenous mixture with the steel fibre cocktail, the steel fibre
content was determined by means of electromagnetic induction measurement (measuring
device BSM 100). Elution tests according to the requirements of DAfStb confirmed such
measurements.
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Vlkermarkt
If the required ready-mix concrete parameters (temperature, consistency and steel fibre
content) were observed, the concrete was released for pouring. In line with production, test
specimens to identify all relevant hardened concrete parameters were produced, and the w/b
value was checked. The texture was determined by a concrete flow of 58cm (+/- 2cm). The
ready-mix temperature was not to exceed 32C. The water/binder-ratio was defined at 0.23.
Figure 2: Composition of concrete.
Representatives of the building contractors and of the external supervisors frequently

participated in the concreting works to assure themselves of the quality of production and
workmanship of the concrete.
Formwork Construction and Workmanship
Choosing the appropriate production method revealed to be a particular challenge for the
concrete specialists of the Max Boegl Group. In the end, the members were produced in favor
of an optimized steel fibre orientation by pouring in the mold and not, as originally intended,
by equal pumping. A smart formwork system allowed extracting a core when stripping the
members with box-girder profile of up to 16 meters in length.
The core designed by the formwork engineers allowed to compensate the arising shrinkage
tensions. Cracks which might have arisen from the concrete shrinking up to the core, could be
avoided altogether.
The high-performance concrete supplied by the ready-mix truck was divided into two crane
buckets. The concrete was poured into the formwork through funnel-shaped slides arranged
along the tube. The consistency of the concrete allowed a full flow of the thin-walled crosssection until it rose again on the opposite side and filled the upper surface of the formwork. The
concrete in the side walls was compacted by means of form vibrators, concrete on the upper
surface of the tube was compacted and planed with a vibrating beam. After the funnel-shaped
slides had been removed, the concrete was protected against draught and loss of water until
the concrete surface was completely smoothed. Subsequently, the building element underwent
finishing treatment (curing) and thermal insulation.
The nodes were poured in concrete in a vertical position and were rather sophisticated in
formwork construction, too, due to their angled geometry.
With the help of temperature measuring wires, the development of hydration heat in the
building element cross sections was checked during the hardening process. The measuring
sensor also helped to control and to check the heating rate in the subsequent heat treatment.
After 3.5 days the building element was lifted from the formwork with an average
compressive strength of 95 MPa and prepared for thermal curing in the heating chamber, as
shown in figure 3.
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Figure 3: Member about 16m long, lifted out of the formwork, the inner core was already pulled out.
Heat Treatment
Heat treatment of the tubes and nodes was started on the fourth day in a heat chamber of 20m
in length at a climate of 90C and 100% r.H..
The heating and cooling rate of the chamber were permanently monitored by the inserted
thermo couples connected to an automatic control system in order to avoid excessive
temperature differences distributed over the concrete section in particular in the massy
camper nodes. On the one hand, this type of curing contributed to increasing the strength due
to the acceleration of the puzzolanic reaction of the microsilica, on the other hand creep and
shrinkage were also largely eliminated.
Shrinkage was measured with the help of a modern portable index arm which identified any
alternation of length as against the previously applied gauge marks with an accuracy of +/- 0.01
mm.
A comparison between concrete that had undergone heat treatment and such concrete
which had not revealed that such artificial ageing helped to largely anticipate shrinkage
deformation within a short time.
CNC Treatment
Subsequent to heat treatment, the individual front edge was milled at the node or at the
member with an accuracy of 0.1mm. This operation ensured that an accurately fitting contact
joint between node and corresponding member could be formed.
At the building contractors request, the members were produced in excessive lengths. Thus,
sample bars could be cut out of the excessively long precast elements to identify the bending
tensile strength at the building element. In addition, an extensive testing program was carried
out by the concrete expert entrusted by the building contractor along with production. After the
CNC milling process, the three-dimensional high-precision measuring of all finished elements
was carried out within the scope of a final check by means of state-of-the-art measuring
technology in order to verify and to document the compliance with the required tolerances.
894
Vlkermarkt
Figure 4: CNC milling process at the node.
Figure 4 shows the CNC milling of the contact joint. The small metal jacket tubes, which are
encased in the concrete, can be seen at the front edge (in process). Their function is to direct
the tensioning strands. Holes (for reinforcement) have been prepared to connect the in-situ
concrete columns of the track elevated on the node.
Transport
To simplify the assembling process on the building site, the individual member and node
elements were already tensioned to individual arch segments of up to 27 tons in weight in the
factory before being delivered. Suspa DSI took over the task of prestressing the nodes and the
corresponding members.
The prestressed finished elements were loaded and transported to Vlkermarkt by the Max
Boegl Group.
Figure 5: Loading the first arch segment (with camper and knee node).
Assembling the arch halves and folding up the semi-arches

On the building site, the arch segments were subsequently assembled by the executing
company, Strabag AG. Vertical threading into the thrust bearing of the arch started with the
camper node. Afterwards, the other arch segments were assembled in an almost vertical
position until the semi-arches of roughly 43m in length and about 50 tons in weight were
finished. The arch segments were pre-stressed over tensioning strands running in the inner part
of the cross section.
895
After this operation, mid April 2010, the simply supported arch halves were lowered during the
so-called folding-in process by means of presses and steel ropes until the arch was
completed. Such lowering process was alternately effected from the two valleysides.
After the successful lowering process, the arch halves were fixed and grouted at the crown.
Even the camper joint was poured in concrete.
Columns out of in-situ concrete were erected above the node points (knee nodes). They are
the supporting elements for the elevated track.
The bridge superstructure was made in conventional concrete construction, and the track
layer was produced in asphalt.
The arches are walkable from inside by means of a ladder from an access at the camper.
Thus, measuring technology and internal tensioning strands can be inspected.
On October 01, 2010, this unique building was solemnly opened by the Carinthia governor
Mr. G. Drfler and representatives of Messrs. Wild.
Within this building project which has been unique so far, the Max Boegl Group could
impressively provide evidence of the fact that it is possible to produce and to supply precast
precision elements of ultra-permanent concrete and CNC-milled contact surface in C 165/185
quality.
This high level of prefabrication resulting from milling the contact surfaces and the precision
arising therefrom allowed a modular construction method as a consequence of which a lot of
time could be saved during the assembling process on site.
Moreover, with the fibre-reinforced UHPC, a material was used which, due to its very
compact structure results in improving the durability thus increasing the life of the building.
Maintenance costs are minimized due to this sustainable and economic construction method.
Progress is built on ideas Max Boegl Group
896
Structural Design and Preliminary Calculations of a UHPFRC

Truss Footbridge
Juan ngel Lpez1, Esteban Camacho1, Pedro Serna Ros2, Juan Navarro Gregori 3
1: PhD student, Universitat Politcnica de Valncia, Spain
2: University Professor, Universitat Politcnica de Valncia, Spain
3: Assistant Professor, Universitat Politcnica de Valncia, Spain
An innovative design of a UHPFRC footbridge of 45-metre span is presented in this paper. The resisting
system consists of two identical trusses of variable depth, in which the compressed chord is also used as
a railing. There is an intermediate curved ribbed slab connecting both trusses that works as the bridge
deck, as well as a third truss that connects the bottom chords. The diagonals of the truss are shorter at
the support than at the midspan. The design of the truss follows a wave shape that makes a reasonable
transmission of the shear loads along the footbridge possible. The diagonals in tension are strongly
reinforced, and second-order effects are considered in the top chord and in the compressed diagonals.
The final design results in a very aesthetic, functional and safe footbridge, which may become the first
UHPFRC truss pedestrian bridge. The study of alternative design solutions and preliminary calculations
are presented.
Keywords: footbridge, truss, bridge, UHPFRC.
1 Introduction
The preliminary applications of UHPFRC focused on the design and construction of pedestrian
bridges. Since the construction of the Sherbrooke footbridge in 1997 [1] to the most recent
pedestrian bridges, the design, optimisation of UHPFRC material properties and construction
methods have greatly improved. Over the years, much bolder designs have appeared thanks to
a better understanding of this material and the experience gained in previous projects.
In the Sherbrooke 60-metre span footbridge, both bottom chord and diagonals are
prestressed to counterbalance tension forces. In addition, diagonals consist of stainless steel
with 150-mm diameter tubes filled with UHPFRC to avoid buckling and to achieve greater
compression stress, confinement and ductility. As this is the first UHPC footbridge in the world,
the design is quite conservative accomplishing a low dead load of around 4.4 KN/m2 [2]. In
2002, the Sakata Mirai footbridge (49.2 m in span) achieved a dead load of 4.6 KN/m2 with a
web thickness of only 8 cm [3]. In 2007, the world record span was also recorded in Japan of a
trough-girder typology with a 63.3-m span. It consists of a U-shaped prestressed section
precast into segments in a precasting factory [3]. The structure, which probably best takes
advantage of the UHPFRC properties, is its 69-meter span arch that supports the main span of
the Wild Bridge in Austria (2011)[4]. The whole arch consists of two connected polygonal
arches, each with a 6-cm thin-walled square cross-section. The arches are also prestressed to
increase the flexure capacity and to make the construction system possible.
Structures are becoming increasingly slenderer, and this allows the UHPFRC structural
design to come closer to steel than normal reinforced or prestressed concrete. In this way, new
problems arise when using UHPFRC, such as vibrations or buckling, which are usually taken
into account in steel structures.
The footbridge presented in this paper is the first to be constructed with UHPFRC in Spain
and, as far as we know, it is the first truss pedestrian bridge made only of UHPFRC. It is to be
located in Alicante (E Spain) very close to the sea, which justifies the use of this material given
its great durability properties. A very aesthetic, innovative and slender design has been devised
for the purpose of establishing a reference point, as well as a suitable connection between two
897
districts that are historically isolated by the Ovejas ravine. In this way, the footbridge will cover
the city of Alicantes environmental and expansion needs.
2 Objectives
The main objective of this paper is the design of a 45-metre span UHPFRC footbridge. The
design has to guarantee a very durable structure since it is to be located very close to the sea
in a very aggressive environment. Another important requirement is slenderness and minimal
visual impact. We ought not to forget the relevance of the aesthetic factor since it is an urban
footbridge. Moreover, the final design must be easy to manufacture in a conventional precasting
factory in order to cut costs as much as possible. Thus, the UHPFRC solution must not only be
a good solution from the structural point of view, but also the best option when compared to
other designs using different materials.
Given the fact that this pedestrian bridge is to be the first UHPFRC construction in Spain, the
intention for the design is to show the potential of this material by making full use of all the
advantages that it offers in terms of mechanical, durability and aesthetics properties.
3 Initial conditions
The design has to satisfy certain initial conditions. On the one hand, both the City Council and
the Regional Government impose the following limitations:
A 45-metre span without intermediate supports
The upper bound deck is fixed by the maximum slope of the stairs that access the
footbridge, while the bottom bound is fixed by a flood study. The distance between them
is only 44 cm.
There is no railing and the upper chord of the structure has to perform this function.
The upper chord width has to be narrow enough to avoid people walking on it.
Slenderness and low visual impact
On the other hand, a precasting factory established its own limitations to maintain its
construction systems with only minor modifications and, in this way, to ensure an economical
formwork and casting process:
Trough-girder typology
U-section shape
Maximum bottom chord width of 2.90 m
Maximum web slope of 6:1
Use of prestressing strands must be avoided in the top chord
All these considerations have been taken into account in the design process. Despite them
posing some problems, they have been overcome to ensure the safety of this pedestrian bridge.
4 Materials and design codes

The dosage used was the result of a previous study which aimed to optimise the concrete
behaviour in both fresh and hardened states with 2 percent of hybrid fibres [5]. The main details
of the UHPC mix design are summarised in Table 1. Using the optimal dosage, compression
specimens 100x100x100 mm were cast in the laboratory at the Universitat Politcnica de
Valncia, and also in a precasting factory. A uniaxial compression test was performed on the
cast specimens under both conditions. Six specimens were used for each test and the results
are shown in Table 2. The average concrete compression strength is 150 MPa in both cases
with a low standard deviation, which denotes good production stability. These tests confirm that
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UHPFRC can be manufactured in a conventional precasting company with the same technology
used until the present-date.
The tensile properties of the material were determined by means of flexural tests. In addition,
a non-linear material model was used. A trilinear stress-strain curve in tension was assumed
according to [6]. The parameters of the constituve law were adjusted to six flexural tests. The
elastic branch had an elastic modulus of 44 GPa up to a stress of 11.5 MPa with a 5%
coefficient of variation. The ultimate stress in tension was reached at a strain of 3% o
corresponding to a stress of 13 MPa with an 11% coefficient of variation.
Table 1: Details of the UHPC mix design.
Content (Kg/m3)
Content (Kg/m3)
Cement
1000
Fibres OL13/0.16 (1)
78.1
Silica Fume
150
Fibres RC80/40 BP (1)
78.1
Silica Sand 0.5 mm
702
Superplasticizer (2)
9.06
Silica Sand 1.8 mm
380
w/c ratio
0.213
Total water
213
w/b ratio
(1)
1% in volume of each kind of fibre from Bekaert
(2)
Solid fraction of the superplasticiser
0.185
Table 2: Concrete compression tests under lab conditions and in a precasting factory.
Lab conditions
Precasting Factory
Days
Average Value
(MPa)
Standard
Deviation
Average Value
(MPa)
Standard
Deviation
79
3.3
71
9.3
103
2.9
100
2.2
128
122
3.4
25
150
150
2.7
The actions applied to the footbridge were determined according to the Spanish Code for
Actions on Bridges [7,8], which is based on Eurocodes. Table 3 shows the most important
parameters considered.
Table 3: Actions considered in the footbridge design.
Dead load
(KN/m2)
Characteristic Live
Load (KN/m2)
Frequent Live
Load (KN/m2)
Vertical Displacement under

Frequent Live Load (cm)
4,3
3,6
Basic Wind
Velocity (m/s)
Increase of
Temperature (C)
Decrease of
Temperature (C)
Horizontal/Vertical Seismic
maximum acceleration (m/s 2)
18
34,2
11,5
3,44/2,41
A 3D model was implemented into the SAP2000 software and a linear analysis was done to
obtain the reinforcement requirements. Buckling problems in the top chord were studied by
means of a non-linear geometric analysis. Second-order section forces were obtained, resulting
in an increase of the compression diagonals reinforcement and their widths. The shear
reinforcement requirement at the construction joints was also studied. Moreover, a non-linear
mechanical model was developed to ensure the safety of the joints. The structural concrete
design was carried out according to the Recommendations of AFGC [9] for both ultimate (ULS)
and serviceability limit states (SLS).
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5 Study of alternative design solutions

As mentioned earlier, the maximum vertical distance between the bottom chord and the upper
bound of the deck is 44 cm. As a result, the railing is forced to be the upper chord of the
structure, which makes the longitudinal shape of the footbridge very restricted. If a constant
depth footbridge was to be designing, the maximum depth would be 1.34 m by considering a
0.90-m railing depth. The span-to-depth ratio would be very low (1/34) and it would be very
difficult to satisfy the vertical displacement condition under live loads. Another solution would be
a closed box shape, but this would result in a total depth of about 3 metres to avoid pedestrians
feeling they were jailed inside the structure. As a result, the choice of a variable depth structure
seems appropriate, which requires a curved top chord and also a curved deck. Thus, the railing
height remains constant along the footbridge.
A maximum 6% slope in the abutments was considered to determine the curve described by
the top chord. If a parabolic with a maximum depth at the midspan was used, the vertical depth
at the midspan would increase by 0.675 m. If we were to assume a 0.90-m railing depth, the
span-to-depth ratio at the abutments and the mid-span would be 1/34 and 1/22, respectively,
which are common values for a simple supported beam.
Once the position and the curve described for the top chord and the deck has been
established, the longitudinal design would be completed by defining the webs of the girder. The
webs could be solid, leading to a box-girder, or they could be lightened, leading to a truss. The
box girder is the commonest solution for UHPC footbridges in Japan [3] since the last six
footbridges have been made with this section type. However, the Sherbrooke and Grtnerplatz
[10] pedestrian bridges tend to have a truss shape.
In our case, a truss beam is more transparent for both sight and the wind, and it enhances
the sensation of the footbridges slenderness. In addition, anyone who sees such a slender
truss pedestrian bridge from a certain distance might think it is made out of steel, and it is not
until they approach it that they realizes it is a actually a concrete construction. The confusion
this creates gives the footbridge a good deal of aesthetic appeal. Nevertheless, a truss beam
with an intermediate deck poses more buckling problems in the top chord than a box-girder
since a solid web offers greater stiffness in the web-plane and in the transverse plane. Despite
the fact that a box-girder is more suitable for this case with an intermediate deck, the
slenderness and visual transparency have been considered to be more important than
structural efficiency. The cost of this choice has resulted in greater thickness and reinforcement
requirements in the diagonals and the top chord.
Truss structures have been commonly used for design purposes. The most widely used truss
is the Pratt type. However, this type of truss is usually associated with industrial building
solutions. Two other alternatives are the Warren or the Vierendel trusses. Six different types of
trusses are presented in Figure 1. The first three examples are based on a Vierendel truss,
while the others are inspired by a Warren truss. Obviously, a Warren truss is more efficient
since the diagonals work alternatively in tension and compression with low flexure. However, a
Vierendel truss carries the shear forces by means of flexure. The use of Vierendel trusses
involves larger sized diagonals and greater reinforcement, but does not improve the aesthetics
design.
Truss number four shows a common Warren solution in which all the diagonals have the
same slope and length. In the fifth and sixth cases, the slope and length of the diagonals are
variable. The latter solution makes sense for the shear load transfer and, therefore, axial stress
is slighter at the midspan. As a result, even though the buckling length is longer, the axial load
on the diagonal is lesser. Alternatives five and six offer a more pleasant longitudinal shape,
900
which reminds us of a wave shape, and this is most appropriate for a footbridge close to the
sea.
Between solutions five and six, number five was chosen because the buckling length of the
top chord is shorter, and it gives an adequate slenderness ratio resulting in more buckling
stability on the truss plane.
Figure 1: Different alternatives for the truss shape.
6 Final design
The final design consists of (Fig. 2 to 6) a U-shaped cross-section beam with a 45-metre span
and a variable depth from 1.34 m at the abutments to 2.02 m at the midspan. The footbridge
lateral webs are two modified Warren trusses made with a 6V:1H transverse slope, which are
connected at the bottom chord with an X-shaped truss, which keeps the same wave-shape as
the main truss (Fig. 3).
The truss bottom chord is 0.15 m in depth and contains a total of 18 0.6 seven-wire
prestressing strands. The top chord has a constant depth and a variable width. It is narrower
near the support and its width widens towards the midspan.
The deck is located in an intermediate position and connects the two trusses. It is 30 mm
thick and has two longitudinal 150x240 mm cross-section ribs and transverse stiffening ribs with
1.6 m spacing. The deck is made in linear segments.
The truss diagonals members are variable in length with 150x120-mm cross-sections and
are heavily reinforced. The diagonals in tension include four 20-mm diameter bars, while the
diagonals in compression include four 20-mm diameter bars to bear in mind transverse bending
due to the wind and to prevent the top chord from buckling on that plane. The bottom truss is
formed by a 150x120-mm cross-section with four 12-mm diameter bars.
In addition, a service box is included on one of the bottom chords with three 75-mm diameter
PVC tubes for water supply. A longitudinal lighting element is placed along the underside of the
top chord. The holes in the truss above the deck are closed by means of transparent glass
without diminishing transparency, which also make walking on the footbridge safe.
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Figure 2: Longitudinal elevation of the footbridge.
Figure 3 The X-shaped truss at the bottom chord.
Figure 4: Cross-section at S5.
Figure 5: Cross-section at S5. Secondary elements and shear reinforcement at the construction joints.
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Figure 6: Overview of the footbridge.
7 Casting process
As the footbridge has a 45-metre span, it is possible to transport the whole structure from the
precasting factory to the final location by means of special transport. The whole footbridge is
very difficult to cast in one segment without any joint because of the complex truss webs, the
deck and the deck ribs. It was decided to cast the bridge in four steps by taking care of the
construction joints generated and by taking into account the complex design.
The first elements (Fig. 8) to be cast are the two lateral trusses. These elements are cast on
a horizontal position using a 45-m length, 120-mm height and variable width formwork, which
follows the top chord curve. Inside the formwork, high-density polystyrene pieces of 120-mm
thickness are placed. In this phase, the longitudinal deck ribs are also cast to be integrated with
the truss. The truss also includes shear keys and bars to connect the top and the bottom chords
and the deck.
The second elements to be cast are the top chords with their corresponding lightening and
reinforcement. Once these chords are cast, both lateral trussed webs are placed with their
definite slope.
Figure 7: Casting phases. Details of the deck.
In the third phase, the bottom chord and truss are cast on the floor, following the same process
used in the lateral trussed webs. The prestressing strands are previously located and
tensioned.
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In parallel to this process, a series of precast linear deck segments are made in a fourth
phase. The precast deck segments are raised to their final position, and the bars, which were
prepared in the first phase, are inclined towards the deck. Finally, the two longitudinal
connection ribs are cast (Fig. 7, right).
8 Conclusions
A 45-metre span footbridge has been designed to be constructed in a neighbourhood in
Alicante (E. Spain), and will be the first pedestrian bridge in Spain using UHPFRC. In addition,
this footbridge will probably become the first truss pedestrian bridge only in UHPFRC. The
proposed design has taken into account all the determinant factors imposed by local authorities
and the precasting company. The final design consists of a slender footbridge with a total dead
load of 4.3 KN/m2, which maximises the conventional possibilities of a precasting factory and
minimises the total cost; therefore, it is an economical solution if compared to other materials
such as steel or normal-strength concrete.
9 Acknowledgements
The presented results were obtained in the context of the FIBAC research projects, with
reference BIA2009-12722, supported by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation.
Support for this project is gratefully acknowledged. We also wish to thank the company
Prevalesa S.L.
References
[1] Blais, P.Y., and M. Couture. 1999. Precast, Prestressed Pedestrian Bridge Worlds First Reactive
Powder Concrete Structure. PCI Journal, Sept., Vol 44, No. 5: 60-71.
[2] Adeline, R., Lachemi, M., Blais, P.Y.; Design and behaviour of the Sherbrooke footbridge.
Proceedings of the Internacional Symposium on High Performance and Reactive Powder Concretes,
1998. Sherbrooke University, p.59-63.
[3] Tanaka, Y., Maekawa, K., Kameyama, Y., Ohtake, A., Musha, H., Watanabe, N. 2009. Innovation
and application of UFC bridges in Japan. BFUP 2009/UHPFRC2009 Proceedings.
[4] Reichel, M., Freytag, B., Sparowitz, L. 2009. Road Bridge WILD UHPFRC for a segmental arch
structure. BFUP 2009/UHPFRC2009 Proceedings, pp.88-89.
[5] Lpez, J.A., Serna, P., Camacho, E. 2010. Diseo estructural de un muro de contencin de tierras
para la defensa de taludes en el puerto de Jvea (Alicante) con la utilizacin de hormign de muy
alto rendimiento. Final Project Degree, Universidad Politcnica de Valncia, Spain.
[6] Lpez, J.A., Serna, P., Camacho, E. Structural Design and Previous Tests for a retaining wall made
with precast elements of UHPFRC. 6 th International Conference on High Performance Fiber
Reinforced Cement Composites. June 20-22, 2011, Ann Arbor, Michigan, USA.
[7] IAP2011. Instruccin sobre las acciones a considerar en el proyecto de puentes de carretera.
Ministerio de Fomento. 2011. Spain.
[8] NCSP-07. Norma de construccin sismorresistente: puentes. Ministerio de Fomento. Spain.
[9] AFGC. 2002. (Association Francaise de Gnie Civil). Recommendations provisoires. Btons firbrs
ultra-hautes performances.
[10] Fehling, E., Schmidt, M., Bunje, K., Schreiber, W.; Ultra High Performance Composite Bridge across
the River Fulda in Kassel Conceptual Design, Calculations and Invitation to Tender, Proceedings
of the International Symposium on Ultra High Performance Concrete, 13.-15. September, 2004,
Kassel University, p.69-75.
904
Behaviour of an Orthotropic Bridge Deck with a UHPFRC

Topping Layer
Pierre Marchand, Fernanda Gomes, Lamine Dieng, Florent Baby, Jean-Claude Renaud,
Cyril Massotte, Marc Estivin, Jol Billo, Cline Bazin, Romain Lapeyrere, Dominique
Siegert, Franois Toutlemonde
In the frame of the French national R&D project Orthoplus, an experimental program has been carried
out to assess the influence of a UHPFRC topping layer on the behaviour of orthotropic decks and their
fatigue resistance. This project aims at improving the design rules for orthotropic decks and developing a
UHPFRC-based innovative solution to improve their durability. Bendings tests were carried out on four
specimens, consisting in a realistic steel orthotropic deck model, 2.4 x 4m, with different types and
thicknesses of topping layers: traditional bituminous concrete, thin layer of UHPFRC or no topping layer.
The load application has been chosen as representative of real situations and of idealised cases
considered in design codes. The loads were first applied through static tests with different configurations
in accordance with Eurocode 1 and then through a fatigue test representative of traffic loads during
bridge lifespan.
Keywords: UHPFRC, orthotropic deck, fatigue
1 Introduction
In the case of long span bridge or movable bridge, minimizing dead load becomes predominant.
Despite their higher cost, orthotropic decks turn out to be competitive in these cases, because
of their very low dead weight. However, one of their major weaknesses is the possible
development of fatigue cracks at the junction between troughs and the upper steel plate under
local repeated load due to traffic, depending on the stress level at weld toe (cf. figure 1).
Figure 1: Possible fatigue cracks in an orthotropic deck (a) and stress level at weld toe (welded joint) on deck
plate bottom side D and on trough wall T (b) [1].
In the frame of the National R&D project Orthoplus [2-4], tests have been carried out at LCPC
(now IFSTTAR) structures laboratory, to quantify the effect of topping layers on possible fatigue
cracks development. In addition of traditional bituminous concrete layer, an innovative UHPFRC
topping layer was tested. This solution was inspired by some recent attempts of bridge
stiffening [5].
2 Specimens
Three specimens were made by the company Eiffel, partner of the project, in Lauterbourg
factory, following the same manufacturing process as for Millau viaduct (cf. figure 2).
905
Figure 2: Test models with main dimensions : bottom side view on the left and cross section on the right.
The specimens were manufactured with deck plate thicknesses of 10, 12 and 14 mm. The
14 mm deck plate specimen was tested without topping layer and with a 70 mm-thick
bituminous concrete layer. To assess the stress level under the deck plate inside the trough, a
hole was made in one of central troughs, only on the 14 mm specimen. The 12 mm-thick deck
plate was topped with a 35 mm UHPFRC layer connected with studs while the 10 mm deck
plate was also topped with a 35 mm UHPFRC layer but connected with a welded grid mesh.
The studs and welds of the grid mesh are located along the troughs axis. The connection points
are hence spaced 600 mm transversally. The UHPFRC was cast directly on the steel deck
plate. The UHPFRC contained steel fibres, with 2.5% volume ratio. The compressive strength
was about 180 MPa, elastic limit strength in tension was about 9 MPa and Youngs Modulus
was about 56 GPa. The characterisation was made according to [6]. This UHPFRC was not
submitted to heat treatment. The material was provided by Eiffage company, partner of the
project, as well as the reference Orthochape bituminous concrete [7].
3 Testing conditions
Test set up
The specimens were tested under local bending at mid-span between cross-beams as shown
on figure 3. Load was applied either directly with one or two real wheels or with rectangular
plates representative of the fatigue load model of Eurocode 1-2 [8]. In the case of a rectangular
steel plate, an elastomeric bearing was placed at the interface between the rectangular steel
plate and the steel deck to distribute the load as uniformly as possible. Thereafter, we use the
results corresponding to loading with a single wheel and with a rectangular steel plate with
dimensions 220x320mm called plate A.
The specimens were supported on four bearings under the cross-beams, either fix or
movable, to limit membrane forces inside the specimen.
Figure 3: Testing setup and supports.

906
Instrumentation and stress determination at weld toe

To assess the stresses at weld toe, instrumentation with strain gauges and chains of strain
gauges in the vicinity of the weld was installed. The location of gauges was determined
according to ECSC report [9] and to the studies of International Institute of Welding [10] (cf.
figure 4). Two stress values characterize the stress concentration critical with respect to
fatigue :
D at the lower side of the deck plate is the extrapolation of gauges signals located at
distance t/4 and t (dD1 and dD2 on figure 4), where t is the thickness of the deck plate,
following [10].
T (stress at trough wall), is the extrapolation of gauges signals located at about 15 and
30 mm from weld toe or 25 and 37 mm, as recommended by [9].
The choice of extrapolating methods was made after observing that stress distribution was
quite linear along the trough wall, and not linear along the deck bottom side, following
transverse axis. Some displacement transducers were placed to measure the specimen
deflection. In the case of specimens topped with a UHPFRC layer, some gauges were placed
on the UHPFRC top side. The applied force was measured through force cells placed under the
actuator and under the four bearings. Details of the tests and global analysis of the experiment
are given in [11].
Figure 4: Gauges location to assess stress concentration at weld toe.
Loading
The force range was up to 45 kN by wheel and up to 150 kN by plate. For wheels, this
corresponds to the maximum force that the wheels could take. As concerns rectangular plate, it
was the maximum force at characteristic Service Limit State (SLS) given by Eurocode 1-2
(Tandem System 1 from Load Model 1).
For specimens with 10 and 12 mm deck plate thickness topped with a UHPFRC layer, a
cyclic load was applied during two million cycles. The purpose was to represent 100 million
cycles with 45 kN load expected in the lifetime of the bridge. Given the reduction in number of
cycles, the force range was increased following the Whler curve for steel proposed by
Eurocode 3 [12] with slope -1/3 and -1/5, which led to a cyclic loading amplitude of 111 kN.
4 Experimental results
The figure 5 shows the deflection at mid-span along the transverse axis under 45 kN centred
load for different specimens loaded with plate A or real wheel.
907
Deflection under fatigue load model with A plate - 45 kN
Deflection under real wheel - 45 kN

distance on transversal axis (mm)
distance on transversal axis (mm)

500
1000
1500
2000
2500
-0,2
-0,2
-0,4
-0,4
deflection (mm)
deflection (mm)
-0,6
-0,8
-1
-1,2
500
1000
1500
2000
2500
-0,6
-0,8
-1
-1,2
-1,4
-1,4
-1,6
-1,6
-1,8
-1,8
14 mm plate uncoated without hole

14 mm plate bitum layer with hole
12mm plate with UHPFRC
14 mm plate uncoated without hole

14 mm plate bitum layer with hole
12 mm plate with UHPFRC
14 mm plate uncoated with hole

10mm plate with UHPFRC
14 mm plate uncoated with hole

Figure 5: Deflection under steel plate A and real wheel under 45 kN load.
Despite the thinner steel deck plate, specimens with UHFRC topping layer show a lower
deflection than specimens without topping layer or with bituminous concrete layer. For the
14 mm specimen, the non symmetry comes from the hole made in the third trough.
In terms of fatigue stresses at weld toe (D and T), the reduction is also important. Table 1
shows these results for the different configurations. The displayed figures are the mean values
of results obtained on each side. For comparison, class details given by Eurocode 3 [12] and
Kolstein [13] are indicated. They are the maximum stress levels admitted for the structure
during 100 million cycles. Stress determination was made by multiplying the extrapolated
transversal strain by steel Youngs modulus, that is 210 GPa.
Table 1: Linear extrapolation for assessing fatigue stresses at weld toe.
Real wheel 45 kN
A-plate 45 kN
D
47 MPa
64 MPa
48 MPa
73 MPa
14 mm plate with bituminous

concrete layer
37 MPa
53 MPa
44 MPa
60 MPa
10 mm plate with UHPRC

topping layer
43 MPa
41 MPa
44 MPa
39 MPa

topping layer
22 MPa
33 MPa
22 MPa
35 MPa
Class detail Eurocode 3 [7]
100 MPa
71 MPa
100 MPa
71 MPa
Class detail acc to Kolstein [8]
125 MPa
90 MPa
125 MPa
90 MPa
Specimen
14 mm plate without coating
We can notice that either uncoated 14 mm plate orthotropic deck, or coated with an ultra-thin
layer do not exhibit a safe enough margin on the fatigue stress at trough wall (73 MPa instead
of 71 MPa according to Eurocode 3 class detail). Moreover, reference bituminous concrete
layer has a significant influence on the reduction of fatigue stresses (from 15 to 20 %), and as
expected, stiffness brought by UHPFRC layer enables to reduce significantly the fatigue
stresses.
Non linearities and evolutions observed during static tests
During static tests, some non linearities on strain values have been noticed on specimens with
UHPFRC topping layer as shown on figure 6, (transversal strains at top side of the steel deck
plate).
908

Transversal strain at transverse mid-span (10 mm)
0,000
0,000
40,000
Applied force (kN)

80,000
120,000
Transversal strain at transverse mid-span (12 mm)

0,000
0,000
160,000
Applied force (kN)

80,000
120,000
160,000
-100,000
Strain (m/m)
-100,000
Strain (m/m)
40,000
-200,000
-300,000
-400,000
-200,000
-300,000
-400,000
-500,000
-500,000
Figure 6: Transversal strain at mid-span in the middle of transversal axis for 10 mm and 12 mm deck plate.
The non linearity could be due to two phenomena. The first one is that there is some slipping at
the steel-UHPFRC interface. The connexion is not perfect, and there can be some relative
displacement at interface between the studs or the welds fixing the UHPFRC layer on the
orthotropic steel deck. This slipping leads to the second phenomenon which is source of non
linearities, that is UHPFRC cracking. If a total connexion leads to a almost total compression in
UHPFRC layer, slipping at the interface leads to some tensile stress at UHPFRC botto m side.
This cracking can be seen through the evolution of behaviour between the first static tests and
the last ones (cf. figure 7)
Deflection along transversal axis (10 mm)
500
distance (mm)
1000
1500
2000
Deflection along transversal axis (12 mm)

2500
0,000
-0,2
-0,200
-0,4
Test 24/07/09
-0,6
Test 28/07/09
Test 02/09/09
Test 09/10/09
Test 18/11/09 *
-0,8
-1
deflection (mm)
deflection (mm)
500
distance (mm)
1000
1500
2000
2500
-0,400
-0,600
Test 27/07/10
Test 03/09/10
Test 29/09/10
Test 22/10/10 *
-0,800
-1,000
-1,2
-1,200
Figure 7: Deflection along transversal axis under A-plate loading (45 kN) at different dates (* indicates tests
which have been carried out after 2 million cycles loading).
Figure 7 shows that the deflection significantly increased during static load tests, which certainly
means an increasing cracking of the UHPFRC bottom layer. The evolution is less significant in
the case of 12 mm deck plate specimen, undoubtedly due to the fact that level of stress in
UHPFRC bottom layer is lower because of the thicker steel deck plate.
In the case of 12 mm deck plate specimen, the deflection decreased after cyclic loading. This
clearly indicates that the damaging level is below the 111 kN cyclic loading and the decrease
can result from a modification of the interface property during the 2 million cycles. In the case of
10 mm deck plate specimen, the deflection slightly increased during the 2 millions cycles which
seems to indicate that the damage level is close to 111 kN.
It shall be reminded that the load applied with A-plate is more severe than Eurocode 1-2
because the loaded surface is 220x320 instead of 400x400 mm for Tandem TS1 at SLS. The
150 kN loading was consequently beyond characteristic SLS.
The nonlinearity can also be seen on linear extrapolation to assess fatigue strain and stress
at weld toe, under the steel deck plate, and on the trough wall (cf. figures 8 and 9).
909
Extrapolation Trough (10 mm)
Extrapolation Deck (10 mm)

100
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
0
-20
-200
extrapol deck north
-300
extrapol deck south
-400
strain (m/m)
Strain (m/m)
-100
-100
20
40
60
100
120
140
160
180
extrapol trough north

extrapol trough south
-300
-400
-500
-500
-600
-600
Applied force (kN)
Applied force (kN)
Extrapolation Trough (12 mm)
Extrapolation Deck (12 mm)

100
0
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
180
-100
-20
-200
extrapol deck south
-300
extrapol deck north
-400
Strain (m/m)
Strain (m/m)
80
-200
-500
-100
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
-200
extrapol trough south

extrapol trough north
-300
-400
-500
-600
-600
Applied force (kN)
Applied force (kN)
Figure 8: Strain extrapolation at weld toe under deck plate and on trough wall, versus applied force, with A plate on 10 and 12 mm specimen topped with UHPFRC.
Cyclic loading results

Two million cycles have been applied with a force oscillating between 10 and 121 kN
(F=111 kN), without noticing visible damaging. The deflection slightly increased for 10 mm
deck plate specimen (about 5%) and slightly decreased for 12 mm deck plate (about 1 or 2%)
(cf. figure 8).
No fatigue damage was observed after fatigue test on the welds between troughs and deck
plate (visual control and cutting of specimens).
Figure 9: Variation of ratio deflection/applied force during fatigue loading (A-plate, F=111 kN).
During the fatigue test with 12 mm specimen, two temperature sensors were recording
temperature. One was located at midspan on the UHPFRC top side and the other one was
under the deck plate, also at mid-span. During tests, we have observed a temperature
systematically 3C higher under the deck plate than on the UHPFRC layer (the temperature
difference stabilized after some cycles), whatever the external temperature. This is consistent
with the hypothesis of a slipping interface between the steel deck plate and the UHPFRC layer,
which dissipates some energy.
5 Comparison with FEM model

Assessing stiffness brought by different topping layers
In the experimental program, the steel deck plate thickness varied between the different
configurations and the specimens topped with UHPFRC layer were not tested before casting of
the UHPFRC layer. Therefore, a FEM model has been developed and used to assess the
910
rigidity brought by the different topping layers and it will possibly help to further optimize
orthotropic decks and topping layers design [14].
The used model contained 69560 quadrangular elements and 64351 nodes (Q4 : with linear
interpolation) representing cross-beams, troughs, and deck plate.
For comparison, only model A rectangular plate loading at 45 kN will be considered
hereafter.
Comparison between 14 mm uncoated specimens with FEM model
Table 2 compares values for 14 mm deck plate obtained by FEM model and those obtained
experimentally. Fatigue stresses obtained with FEM model are extrapolation of results obtained
at nodes close to the weld toe. The FEM underestimates deflection and fatigue stresses on
deck plate (D) of about 10% and fatigue stresses on trough wall of about 35%. The
underestimation of deflection and D by the model, can be explained by the unperfect
modelization of bearings under the tested specimen. Although more important, the difference in
T is more difficult to explain.
Table 2: Values obtained with FEM Model and test results on 14 mm deck plate specimen.
Test results
FEM model results
Deflection at mid-span
-1.44 mm
-1.36 mm
45.8 MPa
39.5 MPa
63.4 MPa
41.0 MPa
Comparison between 10 mm and 12 mm specimens without coating (FEM model) and with
UHPFRC topping layer (test results)
We compare FEM model of uncoated specimens 10 or 12 mm thick and experimental results
with UHPFRC topping layer (cf. tables 3 and 4). The ratio between coated and uncoated
specimen is calculated with and without the underestimation of deflection and fatigue stress by
the model obtained on the 14 mm uncoated specimen.
Table 3: Values obtained with FEM Model (uncoated specimen) and test results with UHPFRC layer on 10 mm
deck plate specimens.
FEM model results for

uncoated specimen
Test results with

UHPFRC layer
Ratio
Ratio taking into account

model underestimation
-2.12 mm
-1.14 mm
46 %
51 %
97.7 MPa
43.4 MPa
56 %
60 %
63.2 MPa
40.5 MPa
36 %
52 %
Table 4: Values obtained with FEM Model (uncoated specimen) and test results with UHPFRC layer on 12 mm
deck plate specimens.
FEM model results for

uncoated specimen
Test results with

UHPFRC layer
Ratio
Ratio taking into account

model underestimation
-1.64 mm
-0.92 mm
44 %
49 %
60.7 MPa
22.0 MPa
64 %
67 %
49.3 MPa
32.8 MPa
33 %
51 %
Both solutions bring similar stiffness increase. The UHPFRC layer connected with studs
(applied on 12 mm deck plate specimen) seems to be consequently more efficient than
UHPFRC layer connected with welded grid mesh (applied on 10 mm deck plate specimen), as
911
the initial rigidity is higher in the case of the 12 mm specimen. We can note that the main
advantage of the 12 mm specimen is to be less critical in terms of stress D.
6 Conclusions
This test campaign showed the feasability of using cast UHPFRC connected with studs or with
wire mesh to bring stiffness to steel deck plate and limit the fatigue stresses. The stress
reduction brought by the UHPFRC layer was shown between 30% and 60%, enabling to
increase significantly lifetime of the bridge, whereas bituminous concrete layer enables a stress
fatigue reduction from about 15 to 20 %, as compared to uncoated deck, or deck with ultra-thin
epoxy bituminous topping layer.
Since the UHPFRC layer is not perfectly connected to the deck plate, some local slipping
occurs at the interface between the two materials, which creates some non-linearities and
causes some cracks at the bottom of UHPFRC under very high load (more severe than
characteristic SLS).
Cyclic loadings have shown that no fatigue degradation occurred under fatigue cycles.
Next step for this kind of technical solution is now to be implemented on real bridges. A
retrofitting of an existing bridge has been made recently at Illzach (France), with precast
UHPFRC thin plates. [15].
References
[1] De Jong, F.B.P., Renovation techniques for fatigue cracked orthotropic steel bridge decks, PhD
Thesis, TU Delft, 2006.
[2] Le Qur C., Projet Orthoplus : ingnierie avance des dalles orthotropes et de leur revtement,
Revue Travaux, n 843, July/August 2007.
[3] Luangkhot E. et al, Orthoplus - New theoretical and methodological tools for a realistic calculation of
the lifetime for orthotropic steel deck bridges, p1341, Eurosteel 2011, Budapest.
[4] Gomes F. et al, Fatigue behaviour of an orthotropic steel bridge deck benefits of an ultra-high
performance fibre reinforced concrete topping layer, p2097, Eurosteel 2011, Budapest.
[5] Braam, R., Kolstein, H., Romeijn, A., Buitelaar, P., Concrete overlays to improve the fatigue life of
movable orthotropic steel bridge , International Orthotropic Bridge Conference, Sacramento, 2008.
[6] AFGC-Stra : Ultra-high performance Fiber-Reinforced Concretes, Interim Recommendations.
Bagneux, France. 2002.
[7] Hritier B. et al, Design of a Specific Bituminous Surfacing for the Worlds Highest Orthotropic Steel
Deck Bridge. Article, Journal of the Transportation Research Record. (2005).
[8] NF EN 1991-2, Eurocode 1, Actions on structures, Part 2: Traffic loads on bridges, March 2004.
[9] Bignonnet A., Carracilli J., Jacob B., Comportement en fatigue des ponts mtalliques : application
aux dalles orthotropes en acier, ECSC research report n 7210 KD/317, LCPC, March 1990.
[10] Hobbacher A., Recommendation for fatigue design of welded joints and components, IIW document
XIII-1965-03/XV-1127-03, International Institute of Welding, April 2006.
[11] Gomes F., Marchand P. et al : rapports projet ANR Orthoplus, tche 3C, 2011.
[12] NF EN 1993-1-9, Eurocode 3, Design of steel structures, Part 1-9: fatigue, December 2005.
[13] Kolstein M.H., Fatigue classification of welded joints in orthotropic steel bridge decks, PhD Thesis,
TU Delft, 2007.
[14] Dieng L., Remy C., MohammadKhani-Shali S., New numerical approach for assessing the fatigue
resistance of the orthotropic steel bridge decks, Eurosteel 2011, Budapest.
[15] Hajar Z., Une cure de jouvence, La voie, Le magazine dEiffage Travaux Publics, n22, septembre
2011. http://www.eiffagetravauxpublics.com/files/etp/la_voie/la_voie_22.pdf.
912
Application of UHPC for multifunctional road pavements

Benjamin Scheffler, Michael Schmidt
Department of Building Materials and Construction Chemistry, University of Kassel, Germany
Due to the increase of heavy traffic on German roads the serviceability and thus the service life of the
pavements is more and more restricted. The challenges of modern road construction are therefore to
create more durable pavement structures with prolonged service-life and reduced needs of repair and
rehabilitation to be applicable not only for new roads but also allowing for a quick and inexpensive
recovery of the load bearing capacity and safety of elder fatigued and damaged structures.
In addition to nowadays rehabilitation methods, a so called "Whitetopping" technique based on thin
layers of high- and ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) was developed. On top of the pavement
layer a thin layer of fine grained nano-optimized UHPC is placed allowing for generating a very special
surface texture to reduce the emission of tire noise.
Keywords: whitetopping, road construction, high-performance concrete pavement, noise reduction.
1 Introduction
Concrete pavements are always used when a high standard of bearing capacity and durability
for road pavements is required. Nevertheless, the lifetime and service properties decrease as a
result of the increasing traffic volume, especially on German highways. To take account to
these problems it is necessary to develop innovative and cost effective rehabilitation
procedures. They should be material-saving, but nevertheless highly loadable and durable.
A method known from the USA is Whitetopping. Here asphalt or concrete roads in need of
rehabilitation are covered with a 15 to 25 cm thick layer of ordinary concrete. In the latest
generation of ultra-thin-whitetopping, high- or even ultra-high-performance concrete is applied.
Due to the high compressive strength of UHPC of about 150 MPa in compression and
together with steel fibres of 15 to 35 MPa in bending tension and due to the improved
density of the microstructure durable layers of even less than 15 cm show a sufficient
loadbearing capacity. In order to decouple the major requirements sufficient load bearing
characteristics, a high level of grip and low noise emissions - an advanced concrete pavement
system is presented. The system consists of two different layers consisting of a combination of
coarse grained UHPC and a special, nano-optimized high-performance mortar applied on top
allowing for generating a very special surface texture to significantly reduce the emissions of
tire noise by up to 5 dB(A).
In a first step the workability of commonly flowable UHPC used for structural elements had to
be transformed to a more plastic consistency enabling to place and to sufficiently compact the
coarse grained concrete by means of customary slipform pavers. Secondly the mortar of the
surface layer was created. To validate the laboratory results and to further optimize the
performance, the new whitetopping system was practically applied at test sections.
2 Basic concept
The results that are presented here were collected within a research project which is supported
by the Federal Ministry of Education and Research (BMBF). The main aims of this project are
on the one hand to deepen the findings of placing pavement layers with high performance
concrete that have already been achieved in the previous BASt-study [1]. And on the other
hand to transfer this knowledge to the use of ultra-high performance concrete, to answer the
question if the method of whitetopping is more long-lasting and therefore more economic and
913
sustainable. For this purpose a highly dense structured, fibre-reinforced concrete with a
compressive strength of about 150 N/mm was used.
Figure 1 shows the method of whitetopping schematically: rehabilitation of a fatigued road
pavement with a continuously reinforced layer of ultra-high performance concrete. This layer
consists of an upper top layer with only 10 to 20 millimeter of thickness placed and bonded to a
base layer with a height of around 100 to 130 millimeter. The existing substance of the old
pavement remains in place and is used as a kind of high-quality base course.
120-150 mm
270 mm
Figure 1: Whitetopping with ultra-high performance concrete.
To conceive the whitetopping-top layer the following steps were processed: at first adequate
raw materials were chosen under aspects of low shrinkage, hydration heat, dense microstructure and paver-related workability. To gain a durable microstructure, free of capillary pores
and thus preventing chloride ions from accession the concrete, the packing density was
optimized [2]. Subsequently, the amount of binder paste was varied in different levels to adjust
it to the amount and the skeleton of the coarse grain structure in a way that both - a plastic
consistency and a sufficient stability of the fresh concrete - was achieved after casting.
3 Experiments
Analyses on paste mixture
UHPC is usually characterized by a Portland cement content of 600 - 900 kg/m. This leads to a
high development of hydration heat and early and severe shrinkage of the concrete, the danger
of undesired cracks rises. A higher demand for reinforcement in order to confine cracks is the
consequence. Due to a high amount of superplasticizer and silica fume, UHPC also tends to be
of a viscous consistency. The first was to reduce to content of cement and cement paste in the
concrete. To reduce the heat development and shrinkage, a CEM III/A with a content of slag
sand of 40 % was used. Table 1 gives an overview of the fines.
Table 1: Overview of the fine raw materials with selected characteristics.
bulk density
[kg/dm]
max. grain size

D95 [m]
RRSB x
[m]
RRSB n
[-]
spec. surface
[cm/g]
CEM III/A 42,5 N
3.00
36.2
10.1
1.26
4000
Silica fume (Silicoll P u.)
2.20
0.5
0.3
2.12
198000 [2]
Quartz powder (Millisil W3)
2.65
256.9
84.8
0.92
1100
raw materials
Besides an extraordinary compressive strength of the concrete, especially its microstructure

density is essential. A higher packing density leads to a lower water demand of the grain
mixture and together with a low water-binder ratio of only about 0.20, being characteristic for
UHPC, a higher microstructure density of the concrete, especially against chlorides, an
increased freeze-de-icing resistance (without air entrainer agents and with CEM III/A) and the
914
bearing capacity of the grain structure rises. The largest potential of optimization for an effective
increase of the packing density lies in the holometric adjustment of the reactive and inert fine
materials, smaller than 125 m. Figure 2 shows the behavior of the granular structure by using
different grain sizes and contents. In Figure 3 the grading of the fines used is given. In particular, mixtures of significantly different distributions of the fines have to have fewer voids [3].
Figure 2: Left: Separation of the grain skeleton by too many fines (left), too large grains (middle) and an ideal
filling of cavities (right); Right: optimum graded particle size distribution [4].
Silica fume-cum
Silica fume-dif
CEM III/A-cum
CEM III/A-dif
10
90
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0,01
0,1
1
10
grain size [m]
100
differential volume fraction [%]
100
0
1000
Figure 3: Cumulated und differential grading of the raw materials used.
2,29
0,73
2,26
0,72
2,23
0,71
2,20
0,70
2,17
0,69
2,14
0,68
2,11
0,67
2,08
0,66
slump flow [cm]
0,74
slump flow
air content
60,0
3,3
50,0
2,8
40,0
2,3
30,0
1,8
20,0
1,3
10,0
0,8
2,05
0,0
0,3
5 10 15 20 25 30 35
0
5 10 15 20 25 30 35
silica fume content [V.-%]
silica fume content [V.-%]
Figure 4: Left: Comparison of theoretical packing density and bulk density depending on the silica fume
content; Right: Slump flow compared to air content depending on the silica fume content.
0
915
air content [%]
bulk density
bulk density [kg/dm]
packing density [%]
packing density
Fuller - 0,5
Millisil W3-cum
Millisil W3-dif
cumulated volume fraction [%]
The packing density is being

optimized
by
adding
appropriate fine filling grains
to fill up the pore volume
between the respective larger
grain fractions. The packing
density was determined and
theoretically
pre-optimized
according to a method described by Schwanda [5] and
Geisenhanslke [3]. Results
of former examinations have
shown that a compromise has
to be found between the ideal
grain composition for a high
packing density of the powder
and for a sufficient workability
and firmness.
Then the laboratory tests started up with extensive paste examinations to create a flowable and
ventilatable paste, to completely surround the coarse grains. The rheology of the paste is to a
large extent steered by the kind and pureness silica fume due to its extreme fineness and
therefore high specific surface. The amount of silica fume was increased stepwise. The spread
level, the bulk density and the air content were determined, the theoretical packing density was
calculated. The results are shown in Figure 4. The w-b value (water-binder) was constantly kept
at 0.20 and the superplasticizer was dosed with 0.5 % (solid content based on binder b. vol.).
The left side of Figure 4 shows a significant decrease in density of the mixture, mainly due to
the different densities of cement (c) and silica fume (ms). The content of silica fume was varied
in steps (V.-% of binder (c+ms)). With a value of approx. 15 % the bulk density decreases
disproportionately. The cause is also the higher than proportional increase of the air content at
a value of 15 %. This effect can also determine the slump, which is relatively stable up to this
point. In addition, it can be observed that the theoretical packing density is approaching the
maximum. But also the practical measured properties assume that there is a maximum reached
at the described point. With a higher content of silica fume, the packing density of the mixture
increases. This generates less voids and the water demand of the mixture should decrease.
However, at the point of 15 % the slump falls disproportionately - which would mean an
increasing water demand. According to the practical examinations a point is reached at which
the coarser grain is filled and the processing is just secured.
A silica fume content of 15 % was
selected for the following analyses regard- Table 2: Overview of selected mortar measurements.
test method
result
ing purposes of processing. The procedure
for determining the optimal proportion of
[cm]
34
slump flow [6]
quartz powder and quartz sand 0.125/0.5
[Nmm]
0.55
shear moment (yield point)
was identical.
[kg/dm]
2.46
density (fresh) [6]
Table 2 gives an overview of the
[%]
1.4
air content [6]
carried out measurements of the fresh and
[MPa]
144.6
compressive strength [7]
hardened fine mortar developed (prisms
[MPa]
11.6
40 40 160 mm). The specimens were
flexural tensile strength [7]
produced without any reinforcement and
[kg/dm]
2.33
density (hardened) [6]
tested at the age of 28 days, stored under
porosity (mercury intrusion
[V.-%]
6.5
standard conditions.
porosimetry)
packing density [4], [5]
[-]
0.80
Analyses on concrete
Figure 5 (left) shows a structural model of the grain skeleton of coarse aggregates with an
increasing amount of fine mortar. Phase 1, characterizes the mortar free skeleton of coarse
granules. In phase 2, a small volume of mortar covers the aggregates and provides the
concrete with a certain but small strength due to the significant amount of hollow space still
remaining. Regarding the deformation resistance of the freshly compacted green concrete and
the compressive strength, phase 3 represents the optimum structure. The aggregates are still in
direct contact with each other, providing the concrete with a maximum of internal transfer of
compression loads. The mortar completely fills the hollow spaces in between the grains thus
densifying the structure and providing it with an optimum tensile strength as well. However the
workability will still be sub-optimal due to the fact that the deformability of the concrete will be
hindered by the friction between the particles especially if as usually crushed aggregates
are used. Thus phase 4 will be the optimum: A minimum surplus volume of mortar between the
grains allows for a sufficient relative movement of the particles when being dynamically
compacted and thus an optimum densification of the concrete on site. To ensure a sufficient
916
devaporation during compaction and a sufficient edge stability of the green concrete the mortar
has to show an adequate viscosity and stability as describes before [8].
Phase 1
Phase 2
100
100
grain size distribution (coarse)
89
A8
85
B8
74
79
C8
71
67
U8
61
57
57
Phase 3
Phase 4
cumulated fraction [M.-]
90
80
70
60
50
40
39
30
29
26
17
14
20
10
0
0
0,125
21
11 11
5 5
0,25
0,5
46
42
37
30
21
36
30
grain size [mm]

Figure 5: Left: Structural model of a bearing structure filled with fine mortar [8]; Right: Grain size distribution of
coarse aggregates used.
At the right side of Figure 5 is shown the well graded and thus favorable grain size distribution
of the coarse aggregates used. The amount of fine mortar with a grain size of up to 0.5 mm was
increased stepwise. The ratio of paste to aggregates tested referring to the volumetric
proportion of fine mortar is shown in Figure 6. For each ratio the compactability was determined
according to DIN EN 12350-4 [9] and the optical appearance of the specimen was assessed, as
shown in Figure 6. On the vertical axis the consistency classes according to
DIN EN 206-1/DIN 1045-2 are shown [10], [11]. As a rule the consistency of ordinary concretes
used for road constructions ranges between a stiff (C1) and a plastic (C2) consistency. With an
increasing amount of fine mortar the compactability of the concrete steadily decreased.
compactability [-]
1,60
1,50
C0
1,40
1,30
1,20
C1
C2
1,10
1,00
40.0:60.0
52.5:47.5
55.0:45.0
ratio paste/aggregates [V.-%]

Figure 6: Left: Compactability at different ratios paste/coarse aggregates used; Right: specimens after
compactability test.
To select an appropriate ratio, the stability of the compactability specimen after testing and the
achieved quality of the surface was evaluated. The green strength of the concrete depending of
the amount of fine mortar is shown in Figure 6 (right).
917
It is clearly seen that the specimen with an Table 3: Mixture of the developed UHPC StB .
amount of 40 % fine mortar only falls apart.
UHPCraw materials
There is not enough mortar available to
StB1
compact the structure, to sufficiently fill the
kg/m 106.0
Water
hollows, and to build up sufficient structural
kg/m 444.0
CEM III/A 42,5 N
cohesion to stabilize the green concrete. On
kg/m
56.0
Silica fume (Silicoll P u.)
the other hand an amount of 55 % by volume
kg/m
34.0
Quartz powder (Millisil W3)
of the specific mortar is already too much. The
kg/m
8.8 2
Superplasticizer (PCE based)
green concrete specimen deforms plastically,
kg/m 561.0
because the mortar steers the deformation
Quartz sand 0.125/0.5
behavior and the aggregates are more or less
kg/m 272.0
Quartz sand 0.6/2
swimming in the mortar.
kg/m 595.0
Basalt 2/5
Sufficient green strength is imperative in
kg/m 487.0
Basalt 5/8
road construction, because the concrete must
78.5
Steel fibre 0,19/13mm (1 V.-%) kg/m
not deform after leaving the slipform.
0.22
w/(c+ms) - ratio
According to Figure 6 the requirements were
1
2
best met at a ratio of 52.5 % b. vol. of fine
optimization in progress; 54 % solid
mortar to 47.5 % b. vol. coarse aggregates.
Due to these results it can be assumed that the concrete has an adequate green strength for
the following practical tests.
The mixture of the final paver Table 4: Material properties of the paver adequate UHPC
adequate UHPC-StB is given in
test method
result
Table 3. Due to the high amount of
110.0
compressive strength [13]
7d
coarse aggregate the content of
[MPa]
151.0
28 d
cost intensive ingredients like
162.0
56 d
cement, silica fume, quartz powder
and superplasticizer could be
13.0
flexural tensile strength [13]
7d
significantly reduced compared to
[MPa]
16.0
28 d
flowable UHPC mixes usually used
17.0
56 d
for structural elements (cement 600
[kg/dm]
2.66
apparent density [13]
28 d
to 900 kg/m concrete) contributing
[MPa]
60000
stat. modulus of elasticity [14] 28 d
both to a more cost effective kind of
1
[V.-%] 8.0 (< 1.0)
porosity (cap. pores)
28 d
pavement construction and a
reduction of the ecologic impact, for
[g]
< 60.0
freeze-thaw resistance [13]
28 cyc.
further information see [12]. The
[mm]
< 1.0
chloride penetration [15] after 120 h
properties of the hardened UHPC,
0.07
autogeneous shrinkage 2 after 1 d
[]
reinforced with 1 % b. vol. of steel
0.19
60 d
fibres, are given in Table 4.
[mm]
< 3.0
carbonation depth 2 after
90 d
The low volume of capillary
1
2
mercury intrusion porosimetry; at 20 C/65 % r. hum.
pores and the corresponding high
resistance to chloride diffusion are
of special interest to protect the reinforcement from corrosion even if the concrete cover is
reduced to further reduce the thickness of the pavement layer.
Practical application
To validate the laboratory tests and to adjust it to the field conditions several field tests were
performed as part of the research project. At first it was tested whether and with which
equipment the material can be properly mixed. Due to the high content of fine materials UHPC
requires a considerable mixing energy to break up agglomerations and to ensure a sufficient
918
homogeneity of the mixture. On the other hand the mixing time should not be too long to keep
the concrete temperature within acceptable limits and to provide the building site with a steady
flow of concrete to feed the paver.
The concrete was successfully mixed by means of a mobile 5 m3-mixer usually used to mix
cement rich early high strength concrete being utilized to repair single concrete pavement
slabs. For longer projects a stationary mixing plant provided with a normal pan mixer and
additional agitators will be adequate. The concrete was placed and compacted by means of a
standard concrete slipform paver as shown in Figure 7 (left). The green concrete was
sufficiently compacted and stable in shape. The drill core in Figure 7 (right) demonstrates the
final structure rich in coarse aggregates and provided with a minimum amount of compaction
pores only.
Figure 7: Left: Finishing a layer (10 cm) of UHPC with an customary slipform paver; Right: Removed drill core.
4 Conclusions and outlook

In a comprehensive research project supported by the Federal Ministry of Education and
Research (BMBF) the previous experience has been processed and deepened. At the current
state of development, the characteristics of the mixture can be described as follows: a low w-b
ratio of 0.22, a cement content of approx. 440 kg/m (CEM III/A), 1 Vol.-% steel fibres and a
high amount of well staggered coarse aggregates. Within these conditions a compressive
strength > 150 MPa, a flexural tensile strength of > 15 MPa, a modulus of elasticity of
60000 MPa and a capillary porosity < 1 V.-% was reached. Therefor the material basis for
durable and long lasting concrete pavements made of UHPC has been laid.
The workability of the concrete was adjusted to the special needs of conventional concrete
slipform pavers. The field tests with customary equipment has shown that it is possible to place,
compact and finish thin layers made of aggregate enriched and thus very economic UHPC. The
project and research is still under progress.
The aim of further work is to optimize the processing of the mixture under real conditions and
the final adaption to the road paver. In particular, the homogeneity of the mixture and the
control of hydration heat development are subject to the following test series being in progress.
919
References
[1] Schmidt, M.; Freisinger-Schadow, S.: Dnne Deckschichten aus Hochleistungs-beton (DDHB),
Schlussbericht zum Forschungsvorhaben FE-Nr. 89.0188/2007/AP, Kassel, 2009.
[2] Fehling, E.; Schmidt, M.; Teichmann, T.; Bunje, K.: Entwicklung, Dauerhaftigkeit und Berechnung
Ultra-Hochfester Betone (UHPC); Forschungsbericht an die DFG, Schriftenreihe Baustoffe und
Massivbau, Heft 1, kassel university press, Kassel, 2005.
[3] Geisenhanslke, C.: Einfluss der Granulometrie von Feinstoffen auf die Rheologie von
Feinstoffleimen, Schriftenreihe Baustoffe und Massivbau, Heft 13, kassel university press, Kassel,
2009.
[4] Gysau, D.: Fllstoffe. Vincentz Net-work, Hannover, 2005.
[5] Schwanda, F.: Der Hohlraumgehalt von Korngemischen, beton 9, Heft 1, S. 12-19, 1959.
[6] DIN EN 1015: Prfverfahren fr Mrtel fr Mauerwerk, Beuth Verlag GmbH, Berlin, 2007.
[7] DIN EN 196: Prfverfahren fr Zement, Beuth Verlag GmbH, Berlin, 2005.
[8] Schmidt, M.: Stoffliche und konstruktive Eigenschaften hydraulisch gebundener Tragschichten,
Schriftenreihe der Zementindustrie, Heft 51, Dsseldorf, 1991.
[9] DIN EN 12350: Prfung von Frischbeton, Beuth Verlag GmbH, Berlin, 2009.
[10] DIN EN 206-1:2000: Beton Teil 1: Festlegung, Eigenschaften, Herstellung und Konformitt; Beuth
Verlag GmbH, Berlin, 2000.
[11] DIN 1045: Tragwerke aus Beton, Stahlbeton und Spannbeton, Beuth Verlag GmbH, Berlin, 2001.
[12] Schmidt, C.; Schmidt, M.: "Whitetopping" of Asphalt and Concrete Pavements with thin layers of
Ultra-High-Performance Concrete - Construction and economic efficiency, Proceedings of Hipermat
2012, Heft 19, kassel university press, Kassel, 2012.
[13] DIN EN 12390: Prfung von Festbeton, Beuth Verlag GmbH, Berlin, 2000.
[14] DIN 1048: Prfverfahren fr Beton, Beuth Verlag GmbH, Berlin, 1991.
[15] Tang. L.; Nilsson, L.0.: Rapid determination of the chloride diffusivity in concrete by applying an
electrical field, in: ACI Materials Journal, pp. 49-53, 1992.
920
Whitetopping of Asphalt and Concrete Pavements with thin

layers of Ultra-High-Performance Concrete - Construction
and economic efficiency
Cornelia Schmidt1, Michael Schmidt2
1: Department of the State Northrhine-Westfalia, Gelsenkirchen, Germany
An advanced pavement construction method, named Whitetopping was developed to improve the loadbearing capacity of underdesigned or to reconstruct damaged road pavements. A thin layer of High- or
Ultra-High Performance Concrete developed at the University of Kassel reinforced with fibers and/or with
steel bars is placed on top of the existing structure. Thus the existing structure must not be removed. It
further on acts as a high grade base course. In a comprehensive study the technical and the economical
benefits of this kind of high performance Whitetopping are compared with conventional methods to
strengthen or to renew pavements by means of layers consisting of unreinforced ordinary concrete.
Keywords: UHPC, Whitetopping, economic efficiency
1 Introduction
The concept of Whitetopping is to strengthen or to renew underdesigned or fatigued pavement
structures by applying a new concrete layer on top of the existing structure to further on take
advantage of its remaining load bearing capacity.
First experiences with Whitetopping were made in the USA. Beginning in 1920,
unreinforced jointed pavement layers out of conventional concrete were applied on damaged
asphalt roads. From 1990 on, there were global developments towards so called thin and
ultra-thin Whitetopping layers with a thickness of less than 150 or of 50-100 mm only
respectively, still made of normal strength concrete. In Germany, particularly projects for the
maintenance of intra-urban roads, industrial areas and areas of public transport were carried
out, in which low-shrink fiber-modified normal- or in few cases - high performance concretes
were used.
Standard construction method for concrete pavements in Germany is a non-reinforced
system with doweled transverse contraction joints at intervals of 5 m using conventional
concrete of strength class C 30/37 acc. to EN 206. The thickness varies according to the
intensity of the traffic between 200 (Traffic class III) und 270 mm (Traffic class SV) [1]. The
base courses are bituminous or cement bound, in some cases the concrete slabs are based on
layers of unbound gravel.
In some research projects performed at the University of Kassel a Whitetopping system
based on specific high- and ultra-high performance pavement concretes was developed which
enables to build significantly thinner layers with the same load-bearing capacity
2 High-and Ultra-high performance Pavement concretes

Ultra-High-Performance Concretes are characterized by an extremely dense microstructure free
of capillary pores and a steel like compressive strength of 150 200 MPa. High performance
concretes with a characteristic strength of up to 115 MPa are already part of the European
Concrete Standard EN 206.
Different research projects performed at the Department of Building Materials of the
University of Kassel together with industrial partners focused on the development of Pavement
adequate High- and Ultra-High Performance Concretes (UHPC) made of regional raw materials
921
showing a sufficient workability to be placed and compacted with a conventional concrete road
paver. Further requirements were a microstructure being sufficiently resistant to the diffusion of
chloride and alkali ions and an improved load-bearing capacity due to a compressive strength of
minimum 150 MPa and reinforced with steel fibers - a bending tensile strength of more then
approx. 15 MPa. Based on comprehensive laboratory tests mixtures were developed which
already fulfilled all criteria mentioned above. Its applicability was validated by practical tests. In
table 1 the optimized mixture for an UHPC pavement concrete adapted from [2] is summarized.
The economical considerations presented in chapter 4 are based on this mix.
Table 1: UHPC-Pavement-Mixture.
Materials
kg/m3 concrete
Cement CEM III/A 42,5 N
425
Quartz sand 0,125/0,5 mm
536
Quartz sand 0,6/2 mm
285
Basalt 2/8
1132
Microsilica
53
High strength steel fibers 0.2 x 13 mm 1.5 % b. vol.
120
Quartz powder
32
Superplasticizer
6,4
Water
103
Water-cement-ratio
0.25
Water-binder-ratio
0.22
The mixture differs significantly from flowable UHPC mixtures with a maximum grain size of 0.5
to 1 mm so far used for constructive applications [3]. As can be seen from table 1 Basalt
aggregate with a grain size of up to 8 mm was incorporated. As a result the volume of cement
mortar was reduced from formerly 100% to approx. 45% only. Thus the amount of cost
intensive ingredients was significantly reduced as well, the cement content from commonly 750
to 900 kg/m3 to only 425 kg and the content of microsilica from regularly about 120-200 kg/m3 to
approx. 50 kg only. The average 28-days compressive strength of water cured cylinders
150/300 mm made of HPC was 122 MPa and if made of UHPC 148 MPa. The bending
strengths of beams 150x150x700 mm was 13 or 16 MPa respectively.
3 Design of UHPC-Whitetopping Layers

The thickness of the Whitetopping layer being adequate to withstand both the traffic and the
temperature induced stresses was calculated stepwise. Firstly the remaining load-bearing
capacity of a fatigued concrete pavement was estimated. Based on the axial vertical deformations
measured underneath a 60kn wheel load applied on an elder pavement structure consisting of a
260 mm concrete slab and a 100 mm asphalt base course an equivalent modulus of elasticity
was iteratively calculated by means of the BISAR pavement design program [4] characterizing the
deformation resistance of an assumed elastic-isotropic half-space underneath the later
Whitetopping layer. The material parameters chosen are summarized in table 2.
922
Whitetopping of Asphalt and Concrete Pavements with thin layers of Ultra-High-Performance Concrete Construction and economic efficiency
Table 2: Characteristic values for a fatigued pavement structure; wheel load 60 kN.
Structure
Concrete
(fatigued)1)
Height
[mm]
E-mod.
260
6.500/
[N/mm]
Poisson ratio
[-]
Vertical deform.
[mm]
0,50
0,130
13.500
100
3.500
0,40
0,124
FPL
340
500
0,35
0,123
Base
250
0,35
0,107
Asphalt base
layer (average)
1)
Precracked and thus homogenised by means of a falling weight.
Depending on the elastic modulus of the concrete layer the substitute modulus gained for the
half-space amounted to min. 780 or max. 1.280 N/mm2 respectively. With this input value, the
minimum thickness of a fiber reinforced Whitetopping layer being necessary to durably
withstand both the dynamic traffic loads induced by a 60kN wheel and the stresses being
induced by temperature changes [5] was calculated as for a 2-layer system. Based on the
material parameters of the UHPC mentioned before the minimum thickness amounted to
120 mm [4] if the static bending tensile strength of the UHPC exceeds 13 N/mm2 verified by an
adequate content of fibers. As a result it can be stated that, theoretically and without
consideration of deviations in material and thickness during construction Whitetopping layers
of HPC or UHP show a sufficient load-bearing capacity already at a thickness of 120 mm. For
the economic considerations in chapter 4 however, a safer layer thickness of the fiberreinforced Whitetopping layer for heavily trafficked roads (classification SV) of 150 mm was
taken as a basis in order to cover possible imperfections in the execution of the construction
work as well as discontinuities in the base layer. Moreover slabs with a thickness of 150 mm or
more must no longer be bonded to the supporting layer to withstand the loads.
Due to construction reasons the same thickness of 150 mm was also chosen for an
alternative structure consisting of a continuously reinforced layer of HPC or UHPC in
combination with fiber reinforcement. According to the results of calculations performed with a
three-dimensional nonlinear FE-program on the basis of the algorithms given in the technical
rules and standards for the design of structural members of reinforced concrete [6] a thickness
of 100 mm would have been sufficient, if the percentage of reinforcement in longitudinal and
lateral direction is at least about 6 cm2/m. For a layer of 150 mm thickness, however, a two-ply
bar reinforcement of at least about 8.7 cm2/m is necessary because of the higher temperature
induced stresses. In both cases the max. crack width allowed to prevent from steel corrosion
was 0.1 mm and a minimum covering of the reinforcement of only 2.5 cm instead of 5.5 cm for
normal concrete was considered due to the fact that no chloride ions will penetrate into the
dense concrete and thus the corrosion resistance is ensured.
923
4 Considerations of economic efficiency of the Whitetopping construction

method
After definition of the technical conditions an overall life cycle economic evaluation was
executed to compare the Whitetopping system with nowadays reference structures already
described in chapter 1. The criteria commonly essential for a financial decision of the road
construction authorities and enterprises primarily the initial investment, the costs of
maintenance, capital- and administration cost in relation to service-life - were embedded into a
total system in order to receive a valuation method for strategic decisions. Thus further targets
for the preservation of the road infra-structure were considered becoming increasingly
important, which can be summarized according to [7] as follows:
Safety avoiding any dangers of accidents due to bad pavement conditions
Trafficability avoiding inappropriate physical strain of the road users as well as the
vehicles and their payload
Substance preservation economic preservation of the capital assets invested in the

traffic areas
Environmental sustainability minimal conditioned emissions of noise / splash- / spray

water and minimal optical disturbance of the street scenery
Furthermore the road user costs like vehicle operating cost, travel expenses and accident costs,
have been estimated and implemented for each respective construction method. The social cost
and environmental expenses play rather a minor role in this study due to the lack of basic facts.
The reference structures for the economic considerations are based on the German
Catalogue of Pavement Structures RStO 01 [1]. For heavy traffic (Design class SV) as shown in
figure 1 an unreinforced concrete layer of 260 mm thickness with doweled joints is applied on a
100 mm asphalt base course (ATS) resting on a 340 mm frost protection layer made of gravel.
If the concrete pavement has to be renewed due to a loss of its load-bearing capacity and an
insufficient rideability (basic renewal) either the concrete or both the concrete and the asphalt
base layer are being removed and substituted.
Figure 1: Reference structure and renewal (left) and renewal by Whitetopping (right) in the lifetime of 54 years.
The examination of the Whitetopping construction methods distinguishes between two cases, an
150 mm concrete overlay and a partial replacement of the existing concrete to be applied if even
a thickness of only 150 mm may end up in an insufficient clearance gauge below existing bridges.
Both structures apply for heavily trafficked roads (classification SV) as well as for a preventive
924
strengthening of roads showing an insufficient load bearing capacity, e.g. due to an increase of
the traffic intensity.
Before the Whitetopping layer is placed the stability and the homogeneity of the existing
concrete slabs has to be improved by means of a falling weight. In the course of the partial
replacement shown in fig. 1 the existing concrete surface is milled off to a maximum of 100 mm
in order not to damage the present dowels and anchors and to preserve their function.
According to [8] for economic considerations the lifetime of the reference structure classified SV
is 26 years. For the Whitetopping structures a lifetime of 54 years is presumed due to the higher
strength and durability of the materials used together with the positive effect of the
reinforcement.
Figure 2: Lifetime according of reference structures according to [8].
At present the phD-study is not yet finished [4]. Up to now the building costs for the initial (to)
and all further technical actions to be executed in accordance with the time schedule given in
fig. 2 and the technical description given in table 3 have been calculated. The so called net
present value method was used as a dynamic procedure of the capital expenditure budgeting,
which is the most commonly used procedure for the evaluation of the profitability of investment
projects. This consists of the following items as, among others, explained in [9]:
Determination of the required rate of return
Discounting of all payments to be effected after transacted investment at the time of the
investment using the required rate of return
Determination of the capital value
Examination of the profitability (positive capital value)
The capital value formula for the useful life t0 until tn according to [10] is:
K0 = t0 until tn (Et - At) x 1/(1+i)t
with K0 = capital value
(Et - At) = cash value of all current payment balances
1/(1+i)t = (1-i)-t = discount factor
All costs are capitalized to the basic year t0 in fig. C when either the existing concrete slabs are
replaced by a new conventional concrete layer or the Whitetopping layer is applied. The
payments discounted to the time t0 are the cash values, the total of the cash values of all
payments within the time of examination is called capital value. For this calculation exclusively
those expenditures are considered which occur within the time of examination of 54 years, so
that the common formula of [10] presented above can be modified as follows:
925
The inflation-adjusted rate of interest was determined with 3% according to federal evaluation
methods, as defined in [11]. The calculations were performed by means of the computer
program E-Cost [12]. It disposes of an extensive data base covering a wide range of costs e.g.
for building materials and different types of pavement structures. As the data implemented in
the program still reflect the price level of 2003 they were adjusted to the level of 2010 by means
of the official price index provided by the German Bureau of Statistics. To validate the data
used they were compared with the effective costs of real maintenance projects performed in the
state of North Rhine-Westphalia. The measures to be taken in a time period of 54 years and
the total building costs evaluated for e.g. a highway section of 5 km with a width of 11.5 m are
presented in table 3.
Table 3: total building costs.
Time of
action
acc. to
fig. 2
Conventional renewal
t0
Replacement of original
concrete layer
t1,CR
(t0 + 25)
t2,CR
(t0 + 47)
t1,WT
(t0 + 54)
t3,CR:
(t0,+66),
2nd renewal: concrete and

bit. base layer
3rd renewal: concrete
layer
Basic renewal
of the total structure
Whitetopping
Building Costs
[]
2.840.004,-
Building Costs []
150 mm continuously
reinforced WT-overlay
2.889.764,-
3.662.304,-
2.840.004,-
Renewal WT and bit.

base
5.320.899,-
4.389.559,-
The study will be finished completely until the time of the symposium in March 2012. But at
present it can already be stated that due to the lower thickness of the UHPC-layer and to the
fact that the old concrete must not be removed and despite the higher costs for the UHPC and
for the reinforcement the Whitetopping method with UHPC is only marginally more expensive
compared with the conventional reference method (unit price per m2 acc. to table 3 50.25
instead of 49.39 /m2). Within the considered period of 54 years after the first measure (to in fig.
2) the concrete slabs of the reference structure have to be replaced twice after 25 and 47 years
of service, once together with the bituminous base. Opposite to this, for the Whitetopping
construction method only the initial application at t0 has to be considered. The replacement of
the WT-concrete layer together with the asphalt base course which becomes necessary after 54
926
years for the Whitetopping construction method will not be taken into consideration, neither the
basic renewal of the reference structure after 66 years of service.
Over a review period of 54 years the total of the capitalized maintenance and renewal costs
shows that for the Whitetopping construction method they amount only up to half of the
capitalized maintenance cost of the conventional reference method. This means that in the long
run, the Whitetopping construction method is economically profitable to verify the requirements
of traffic and to ensure the preservation objectives. The availability of the system is increased
due to little interference into the traffic flow by construction sites. The significantly longer
renewal intervals lead to a further reduction of construction-, traffic congestion- and accident
cost. This will be verified by further calculations to be performed in the remainder of the study.
5 Summary and Outlook

An advanced pavement construction method based on Ultra-High-Performance was developed to
improve the load bearing capacity of under designed or to reconstruct damaged road pavements.
A relatively thin layer of only about 150 mm of High- or Ultra-High-Performance Concrete
reinforced with fibers and/or with steel bars is placed on top of the existing structure
(Whitetopping). Thus the existing substance further on acts as a high grade base course. In a
comprehensive economical study it was demonstrated that the initial costs of those highperformance Whitetopping structures are only marginally higher than for the conventional
reference method based on thick unreinforced slabs of ordinary concrete. Over a review period of
54 years the capitalized costs for maintenance und renewal are only half of the reference method.
Significantly longer renewal intervals lead to a further reduction of construction-, traffic
congestion- and accident cost. The results will be presented at the Symposium.
References
[1] RStO 01: Richtlinien fr die Standardisierung des Oberbaus, Forschungsgesellschaft fr Straen- und
Verkehrswesen, 2001.
[2] Scheffler, B.: Weiterentwicklung von Ultra- Hochfestem Beton (UHPC) hinsichtlich seiner Verwendung
im Straenbau fr Verbundvorhaben BMBF, unverffentlicht, Universitt Kassel, 2011
[3] Fehling, E.; Schmidt, M.; Teichmann, T.; Bunje, K.; Bornemann, R.; Middendorf, B.: Entwicklung,
Dauerhaftigkeit und Berechnung Ultra-Hochfester Betone UHPC, Schriftenreihe Baustoffe und
Massivbau (Structural Materials and Engineering Series) No. 1, Kassel, 2005, ISBN 3-89958-108-3.
[4] Schmidt, C.: Konstruktion und Wirtschaftlichkeit von Whitetopping aus Hochleistungsbeton fr
Fahrbahnen, Dissertation, unverffentlicht, Universitt Kassel, 2012
[5] Eisenmann, J. und Leykauf, G.: Betonkalender 1987, Band 1, Verlag Ernst & Sohn, 1987
[6] DIN 1045-1: Tragwerke aus Beton, Stahlbeton und Spannbeton Teil 1: Bemessung und Konstruktion
Ausgabe Juli 2001 mit Berichtigung Juli 2002. Beuth Verlag, Berlin.
[7] SEP Maerschalk: Anwenderhandbuch zum Inhalt des Pavement Management System (PMS). Hrsg.
Der Bundesminister fr Verkehr, Berlin 2001.
[8] RPE-Stra 01: Richtlinien fr die Planung von Erhaltungsmanahmen an Straenbefestigungen,
Forschungsgesellschaft fr Straen- und Verkehrswesen, 2001.
[9] Schmalen; Pechtl: Grundlagen und Probleme der Betriebswirtschaft, 14. Auflage 2009, Verlag
Schffer und Poeschel.
[10]Whe; Dring: Einfhrung in die Allgemeine Betriebswirtschaftslehre, 24. Auflage, Verlag Vahlen,
2010.
[11] EWS-97: Empfehlungen fr Wirtschaftlichkeitsuntersuchungen an Straen, Forschungsgesellschaft
fr Straen- und Verkehrswesen, 1997.
[12] Oefner; Krmek; Nurainer: Kostenermittlung fr Erhaltungsmanahmen zur Bestimmung der
Kosteneingangsgren fr das PMS, Forschung Straenbau und Straenverkehrstechnik, Heft 896,
2004.
927
928
Application of Ultra-High Performance Concrete (UHPC) as a

Thin-Topped Overlay for Concrete Bridge Decks
Sarah V. Shann1, Devin K. Harris, Ph.D. 1, Miguel A. Carbonell 1,2, Theresa M. Ahlborn 1
1: Michigan Technological University, United States of America
2: Polytechnic University of Valencia, Spain
As transportation infrastructure across the globe approaches the end of its service life, new innovative
materials and applications are needed to sustainably repair and prevent damage to these structures. The
feasibility of using Ultra-High Performance Concrete (UHPC) as a thin-bonded overlay on concrete bridge
decks is investigated in this study. Design optimization of the bridge deck overlay system was examined
to minimize overlay thickness, dead load, and cure time without sacrificing bond integrity or loss of
protective capabilities. This was done with a 3-D finite element model of a simply supported bridge under
a notional truck, the HL-93 design truck common to the United States, in the worst case loading position.
Keywords: finite element analysis, bridge decks, overlay, fibre reinforced concrete
1 Introduction
Background
A large percentage of bridges in the United States will be reaching their design service lives in
the coming decades and more than 12% are currently listed as structurally deficient [1]. A major
contributor to the degradation of a bridge system is the deterioration of the concrete bridge
deck, as it is directly exposed to de-icing salts and serves as protection for the underlying
superstructure. Concrete bridge deck degradation can be in the form of spalling, delaminations,
scaling, freeze-thaw damage, or corrosion of reinforcing steel due to infiltration of chloride ions
and moisture [2]. Overlays are often applied to bridge decks to protect the superstructure from
these contributors, in addition to providing an improved riding surface and adequate bearing
capacity. However, the maintenance, repair, and replacement of these systems are perpetual
drains of the financial resources of state and national transportation agencies [2].
Feasibility of Ultra-High Performance Concrete as a Thin-Bonded Overlay
Ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) has several properties, which make it a viable material
for thin-bonded concrete bridge deck overlays. These properties include high compressive
strength, post-cracking tensile capacity, high resistance to environmental and chemical attack,
negligible permeability, high early strength gain, and its ability to self-consolidate [3]. A
summary of representative material characteristics for various curing regimes of UHPC are
presented in Table 1, however the numerous characteristics can also be found in literature [3].
Table 1: Selected Material Characteristics of UHPC [3].
Steam
Tempered
90C, 95% RH, 48 hrs 60C, 95% RH, 14hrs

28-day compressive strength (MPa)
Ambient
23C, 50% RH
193
171
126
9.7-11.0
7.6-9.0
5.5-6.9
No scaling
No scaling
No scaling
Abrasion resistance (grams lost)
0.17
0.20
0.73
Freeze-thaw resistance (RDM)
96%
100%
112%
<0.06
<0.06
<0.06
Direct tension cracking strength (MPa)

Scaling resistance
Chloride ion permeability (kg/m )
929
Traditional bridge deck overlays include latex modified concrete, low-slump dense concrete,
polymer concretes such as epoxy overlays, microsilica modified concrete, slag modified
concrete, and in some cases asphalt concrete with a waterproof membrane [2]. However, each
of these overlay types have their own challenges and shortcomings related to cost, cure -time,
constructability, bond strength, added dead load, service life, and special equipment or
experienced technician requirements [2].
2 Research Objectives
The primary objective of the ongoing research is to evaluate the feasibility of using UHPC as a
thin-bonded overlay for concrete bridge decks, both from rehabilitation and new construction
perspectives. The focus of the work presented in this paper is centred mainly on optimizing the
thickness of the overlay layer to reduce dead load, material quantity and cost, while ensuring the
integrity of the interface between the overlay and bridge deck substrate concrete. Other features
investigated include the early age strength gain which relates to the opening of a rehabilitated
bridge to traffic and turning beds over in a precast environment. This research is primarily a
numerical investigation, using the finite element method, which evaluates the influence of overlay
thickness and strength gain (or more specifically stiffness) on system behavior. In North America,
multiple UHPC formulations have been developed in research environments [4], but the primary
commercially available product is Ductal, manufactured by Lafarge North America. The results
presented herein are applicable to the Ductal brand ultra-high performance concrete.
3 Bond Strength Between UHPC and Normal Strength Concrete

Combinations of optimized overlay thickness and compressive strength (stiffness) were
evaluated to ensure that the interfacial stresses between the UHPC overlay and normal
strength concrete (NSC) substrate were less than the bond strength determined from past and
current research. Research conducted by Harris et al. [5] investigated the bond strength of
UHPC to mortar by conducting slant shear tests (ASTM C882-99) and the bond strength of
UHPC to NSC through splitting tensile test (modified ASTM C496). This research was used as
the bounds on bond capacity. Table 2 presents the bond strength results and coefficient of
variation (COV) for different surface preparations. It should be noted that these combined
shear-compression and indirect tension tests are not exact characterizations of the bond
strength between the two materials; however, they provide a base representation for
comparison in this research. Concurrent research is being conducted to further characterize this
bond strength and develop failure envelopes based concrete surface preparations.
Table 2: Bond Strength of UHPC to Deck Substrate.
Bond Surface Preparation
Slant Shear Test
Splitting Prism Test
Grooved Surface
[MPa], [COV%]
14.20, 11.7
3.28, 34.0
Smooth Surface
[MPa], [COV%]
11.07, 11.3
5.16, 16.5
4 Early Age Compression Strength

Previous research has shown that the properties of UHPC are highly influenced by curing
regime [3,6]. These properties have significant implications for an overlay including strength at
the time of opening, stiffness differential between overlay and substrate, and long -term
compatibility of the composite deck section. Two cure methods, ambient and presteam/tempered steam, were included in this study with an emphasis on the stiffness ratio
between the substrate and overlay. In this research, ambient curing (23C, 50% RH) is
applicable to cast-in-place, field applications of UHPC overlay, while a pre-steam treatment
930
Application of Ultra-High Performance Concrete (UHPC) as a Thin-Topped Overlay for Concrete Bridge Decks
(60C, 95% RH for 14 hrs followed by ambient cure) is more applicable to the thermal and
moisture capabilities of a precast plant. Figure 1 and Figure 2 show representative early age
compressive strength gain characteristics of UHPC under ambient and pre-steam treatments,
respectively. [6]
Figure 1: Ambient Cure Early Age Strength Gain.
Figure 2: Pre-steam Cure Early Age Strength Gain.
UHPC compressive strengths at 24 hours of pre-steam cure and 48 hours of ambient cure were
used in the finite element models described in the next section to highlight the impacts and
potential benefits of early traffic openings. The compressive strengths corresponding to these
cure times are shown in Table 3; however, the elastic moduli (E) for these compressive
strengths at exact cure times were not available, but ranges of E between 29-50 GPa were
estimated from available literature [3,5,6]. As Figure 1 and 2 illustrate, bed turnover time and
traffic-opening could be shortened even further with satisfactory results.
5 Finite Element Model Methodology

The finite element method was used as the primary basis for optimizing the UHPC overlay
thickness. Two model scenarios were used to evaluate the state of stress at the interface
between the UHPC overlay and concrete bridge deck. The first model scenario evaluated a
basic plate with variable boundary constraints intended to represent the deck region between
girders in a slab-girder bridge system, while the second scenario evaluated the system
response of a full bridge structure. This staged approach proved to be more computationally
cost-effective due to the complexity of modeling a complete bridge. For both model scenarios,
the objective was to assess the state of stress parametrically as the overlay characteristics
(thickness and stiffness) varied. All models were created using ANSYS 12.0 [7] with the
following assumptions: 1) perfect bond between the normal strength concrete deck and UHPC
overlay, 2) perfect bond between fibres and matrix, and 3) linear-elastic materials.
Scenario 1 Plate Model
A plate model representing the interior region between girders was created to evaluate the
variation of the interfacial stress under a variety of loading scenarios based on the HL-93
design truck configuration [8]. The plate was modeling using an eight-node, layered shell
element (SHELL281), which is a Mindlin-Reissner element formuled for moderately thick plates
(thickness:span of 1/10-1/5). A sensitivity analysis for the plate model was conducted to select
the appropriate mesh size and density and to validate results with Mindlin-Reisnner plate
theory. For all of the plate models, the end restraints were assigned simple support conditions,
similar to what would be observed in a simple span bridge (see Figure 3), whereas the edges
labeled girder supports were evaluated under both simple and fully restrained conditions in
order to bound the global system response. In addition to the restraint conditions, the loading
configuration was varied to account for the wheel pattern position to cause peak stress
931
condition (Figure 3). The wheel load(s) of the HL-93 design truck were applied to the plate as a
uniform pressure distributed over a patch area of 25.4 cm x 50.8 cm. To prevent the longitudinal
boundary conditions from influencing the transverse behaviour, an aspect ratio of 1:3
(width:span) was used in all plate models [9].
1.83 m
(a) One Tire.

(b) One Tire from Middle and Back Axles . (c) Middle and Back Axles.
Figure 3: Loading Scenarios of Simple Plate Finite Element Model under HL-93 Design Truck.
The plate response was evaluated parametrically by changing features of the design, including
overlay thickness, overlay stiffness (represtened as a ratio of the slab stiffness), girder spacing,
and restraint conditions. A summary of the parameters considered are presented in Table 3 and
a list of the material properties used in this analysis are shown in Table 4.
Table 3: Optimized Parameters.
1
Overlay Thickness
mm
6.4
12.7
19.1
25.4
38.1
50.8
48 day
Ambient
28 day
Pre-steam
2 day
Ambient
1 day
Pre-steam
MPa
68
69
119
147
Girder Spacing
1.08
2.44
3.05
Girder Support
Conditions
Simple
FixedFixed
Cure Method
Compressive
Strength of UHPC
Table 4: Material Properties.
Modulus of Elasticity (E)

Poisson Ratio ()
UHPC
NSC
Steel
GPa
29-50
24.9
200
0.22
0.15
0.29
Scenario 2 Bridge Model

To further evaluate the behavior of UHPC as a thin bonded overlay, the findings from the plate
model were incorportated into a model of a complete bridge system under HL-93 truck loading.
To eliminate the need for a full design, an existing 40 m long bridge (S11 Bridge over Stanley
Road) was used as the template for the analysis (Figure 4) [10]. A finite element model of the
existing design was created and validated using results from field testing that was conducted in
the State of Michigan [10]. Similar to the plate model, the full bridge model used layered shell
elements (SHELL281) to represent the concrete bridge deck and overlay, whereas the girders
and bracing members were modeled using 2-node Timoshenko beam elements (BEAM188)
with composite action introduced with constraint elements (MPC184) between the deck and
girders.
Variations in the design, including overlay thickness and strength (Table 3), were evaluated
parametrically to assess the interfacial stresses; however, no variations in the base bridge
design were considered. A summary of the material properties used in the model are presented
in Table 4.
932
Figure 4: Cross Section of S11 Bridge over Stanley Road.
6 Results
Interfacial stresses from the finite element analyses were used to evaluate both the plate and
bridge model optimizations. These results were compared with measured results from bond
tests shown in Table 2, to establish whether the various overlays were acceptable. It is again
noted that the results from the bond testing do not provide a direct comparison to the complex
state of 3-D stress at the interface, but do provide a basis for comparing the magnitude
interface shear and principal tensile stress.
Scenario 1 Plate Model
A summary of the variation in the interfacial stresses is presented in Figure 5 as a function of
the overlay thickness, overlay stiffness, girder spacing, and boundary restraint. It was found that
when girders were spaced at 1.08 m, the maximum state of stress was obtained by the loading
configuration shown in Figure 3b, while the loading scenario displayed in Figure 3c produced
the maximum interfacial stresses for girders spaced at 2.44 m and 3.05 m. Figure 5 displays the
results from the controlling loading configuration for each given girder spacing. The maximum
transverse shear stress (yz) was higher than the longitudinal shear stress (xz) in all plate
models; therefore (yz) is the stress presented in Figure 5. It should be noted that the scales for
Figure 5 are consistent except for the principal stress results under fixed girder supports.
(a) Simple Girder Supports Spaced at 1.08 m.
(b) Simple Girder Supports Spaced at 2.44 m.
933
(c) Simple Girder Supports Spaced at 3.05 m.
(d) Fixed Girder Supports Spaced at 1.08 m.
(e) Fixed Girder Supports Spaced at 2.44 m.
(f) Fixed Girder Supports Spaced 3.05 m.

Figure 5: State of Stress at Bond Interface using Simple Plate Finite Element Model.
In comparison to the bond test results (Table 2), all of the overlay thicknesses result in stresses
below those measured. Two distinct trends include an increase in interfacial shear stress and a
decrease in principal tensile stress at the interface with an increase in overlay thickness. The
trends can be attributed to a shift in the location of the neutral axis, which are further confirmed
934
with a comparison of overlay stiffness impacts. The interfacial principal tensile stress when
girders are modelled as simple supports does deviate from this trend in that it decreases with
increased overlay thickness, but then plateaus and begins to increase with increased overlay
thickness. This trend is not seen in cases of fixed girder supports, which indicates that the
actual interfacial behaviour under a global system is somewhere in between.
Scenario 2 Bridge Model
Figure 6 displays the variation of interfacial stresses as a function of the overlay thickness and
overlay strength (stiffness) using a complete bridge system. It should be noted that while the
maximum transverse shear stress (yz) was higher than the longitudinal shear stress (xz) in all
plate models, the opposite was true in this scenario. Therefore, it is the transverse shear stress
that is presented in Figure 6.
Figure 6: State of Stress at Bond Interface using Complete Bridge System.
As in Scenario 1, there continues to be an increase in interfacial shear stress and a decrease in

principal tensile stress at the interface with an increase in overlay thickness. As shown in Figure
6, there is a point in which overlay thickness and stiffness no longer affect the principal tensile
stress. For the S11-Bridge, this point occurs around 30 cm, however it would vary for alternative
bridge configurations. The general trend of principal tensile stress shown in Figure 6 supports
the trends found in Scenario 1, which are extreme bounds to the actual condition. It is again
found that the stresses for all overlay thickness are below the results presented in Table 2
indicating that the minimum overlay thickness is mechanically adequate to ensure the integrity
of the interfacial bond.
7 Conclusions
UHPC represents a recent advancement in the area of concrete materials due to its enhanced
mechanical and durability characteristics. These characteristics make UHPC an ideal solution
for a number of applications, including bridge deck overlays where the service-life of existing
and new structures may be significantly extended. To evaluate the feasibility of using UHPC as
a bridge deck overlay, a study was performed to optimize the appropriate thickness required to
ensure integrity of the composite deck system. The optimization study was performed
parametrically using the finite element method, coupled with experimental results of the bond
and early-age strength in an effort to minimize the overlay thickness. From this investigation, it
was determined that the state of stress at the bond interface was significantly lower than the
ultimate strength determined by Harris et al [5]. Due to this considerable difference, it is
reasonable that traffic could be opened earlier than 48 hours on a cast-in-place overlay or that
bed-turnover time of a UHPC overlay on a precast deck panel could take place sooner than 24
hours. An overlay thickness of 6.4 mm on an uncracked concrete bridge deck is recommended
935
to reduce the initial cost and dead load, while ensuring the integrity of the interfacial bond.
However, it is noted that constructability of a UHPC overlay will be the limiting factor in
determining the required thickness, not the live load induced state of stress at the interface.
8 Future Work
Further study is needed in the following areas, which include assessing the state of interfacial
stress when existing cracks in the deck are present, investigating the effect of autogeneous- and
thermal-shrinkage on the interfacial bond, inspecting live load induced stresses at locations of
maximum negative bending, addressing variation in early strength gain, analyze the
constructability of this application, as well as a relative service-life and expense comparison
between traditional overlays and a UHPC overlay.
9 Acknowledgements
The authors would like to thank Lafarge North America for providing the materials (Ductal ) for
this research and also the University Transportation Center for Materials in Sustainable
Transportation Infrastructure (UTC-MiSTI) at Michigan Tech for supporting the research activities.
References
[1] Federal Highway Administration (FHWA): National Bridge Inventory. Federal Highway
Administration, Washington, DC, 2010.
[2] Krauss, P.; Lawler, J.; Steiner, K.: Guidelines for Selection of Bridge Deck Overlays, Sealers, and
Treatments. Wiss, Janney, Elstner Associates, Inc., Northbrook, IL, 2009.
[3] Graybeal, B.: Material Property Characterization of Ultra-high Performance Concrete. Federal
Highway Administration, Office of Research, Development and Technology, Turner-Fairbank
Highway Research Center, McLean, VA, 2006.
[4] Astarlioglu, S.; Krauthammer, T; Felice, C.: State-of-the-art Report on Fiber Reinforced Ultra-high
Performance Concrete, Technical Report to DTRA, CIPPS-TR-003-2010. Center for Infrastructure
Protection and Physical Security, University of Florida, 2010.
[5] Harris, D.K.; Sarkar, J.; Ahlborn, T.M.: Interface Bond Characterization of Ultra High Performance
Concrete Overlays. Transportation Research Board (TRB) 90th Annual Meeting, Transportation
Research Board, Washington, D.C., 2011.
[6] Flietstra, J.: Creep and Shrinkage Behavior of Ultra High Performance Concrete under Compressive
Loading with Varying Curing Regimes. Michigan Technological University, Houghton, MI, 2010.
[7] ANSYS Release 12.0 Documentation, Version 12.0. Swanson Analysis System, Inc., Cannonsburg,
PA., 2011.
[8] American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO). AASHTO LRFD
bridge design specifications. American Association of State Highway and Transportation Officials,
Washington D.C.
[9] Timoshenko, S; Woinowsky-Krieger, S.: Theory of plates and shells. McGraw-Hill, New York, 1959.
[10] Intelligent Engineering Limited (IE): Stanley Bridge Static and Dynamic Load Test Results, 2004.
936
Assessment of a UHPFRC based bridge rehabilitation in

Slovenia, two years after application
Aljoa ajna1, Emmanuel Denari2, Vladimir Bras1
1: Slovenian National Building and Civil Engineering Institute, ZAG, Ljubljana, Slovenia.
2: Maintenance, Construction et Scurit des ouvrages, (MCS-ENAC), Ecole Polytechnique Fdrale de Lausanne
(EPFL), Suisse.
Within the framework of the EU FP6 Project ARCHES, improved Ultra High Performance Fibre
Reinforced Concretes (UHPFRC) based on local components were developed and applied to the
rehabilitation of an 36 years old reinforced concrete bridge in Slovenia. Two years after the rehabilitation
a thorough visual inspection of the deck and kerbs was performed. During the visual inspection nondestructive and less-destructive on-site tests were performed, such as those to determine the pull-off
strength of the UHPFRC layer, as well as its air permeability, the corrosion protection function and the
skid resistance were performed. Additionally samples of the UHPFRC were taken for laboratory testing.
The paper presents the results of the assessment, including the visual inspection and test results. Based
on these, the successfulness of the UHFPRC based rehabilitation is conformed. As a conclusion the
benefits and applicability of improved UHPFRC materials are discussed.
Keywords: Ultra High Performance Fibre Reinforced Concretes, bridge rehabilitation, assessment
1 Introduction
Within the framework of the EU FP6 Project ARCHES, improved Ultra High Performance Fibre
Reinforced Concretes (UHPFRC) based on local components were developed and applied to
the rehabilitation of a 36-year-old bridge, which is located in the Soa river valley in NW
Slovenia (Figure 1a). The complete deck of this 65 m long bridge was covered by an UHPFRC
overlay with a thickness of 2.5 3 cm. In order to perform this work successfully, various
problems had to be solved, including the application of a self-compacting UHPFRC on the 5 %
longitudinal slope of the bridge, the insufficient compatibility of local cement and
superplasticizer, the satisfactory workability, and the surface finishing requirements set by the
owner (ARCHES D14, 0). The new generation UHPFRC materials, developed at MCS/EPFL,
are characterized by a significantly lower clinker content, the use of local raw materials for the
UHPC matrix, adaptability to surface inclination (vertical, horizontal, inclined), and much lower
global warming potential (GWP), (ARCHES D06, 0). There fibrous mix was based on the
Cemtecmultiscale concept from Rossi, 0. This full scale application confirmed the potential of cast
in situ UHPFRC materials for the rehabilitation of bridges and industrial buildings, and their
applicability in various countries.
This paper reports on (1) the on-site assessment, two years after the rehabilitation, of the
bridge condition and (2) UHPFRC performances (protection, skid resistance, bond to the
concrete substrate) both on site and in the laboratory on cores.
2 The Rehabilitation of the Log ezsoki bridge with UHPFRC

The concept of UHPFRC, as an "everlasting UHPFRC winter coat", for the rehabilitation of
structural members was proposed by Brhwiler already in 1999, 0. The use of an UHPFRC
layer on bridge superstructure is to be recommended particularly in zones of severe
environmental and mechanical loads (exposure classes XD2, XD3), and only where it is doing
so. When a UHPFRC layer is used instead of an ordinary waterproofing membrane, this critical
steps in the construction process can be eliminated together with the associated mistakes
which can occur when such a membrane is used. Bituminous concrete can be applied after only
937
7 to 8 days of moist curing of the UHPFRC, resulting in a shorter duration of the constructions
works and shorter disturbances for users. The construction process also becomes simpler,
quicker, and more robust. The concept is well-suited for bridges and can also be implemented
in the case of galleries, tunnels, retaining walls and buildings.
a)
b)
Figure 1: The Log ezsoki bridge before a), and two years after the application of the UHPFRC layer b).
Since the first on-site application of a UHPFRC during the EU project SAMARIS, in 2004 in
Switzerland, various full scale applications on bridges and buildings in Switzerland have shown
that UHPFRC technology is mature for cast in-situ rehabilitation applications, using standard
equipments (Denari et al. 0, 0, 0).
In 2009, during the EU project ARCHES, the concept of the rehabilitation of structures with
UHPFRC was applied for the first time outside Switzerland. New materials designed
predominantly from local components were used for the rehabilitation of a road bridge in
Slovenia, 0. The concept of the rehabilitation of the 4.5 m wide and 65 m long bridge built in
1973 was to overlay and protect the full upper face of the bridge deck, footpath and external
faces of the kerbs with a 2.5 cm to 3 cm thick layer of UHPFRC. The requirements set by the
owner were the durability of the rehabilitation and as short as possible the site occupation, as
well as the possibility to walking barefoot on the finished UHPFRC surfaces of the footpaths.
The most challenging technical problems for the team involved the ability of the UHPFRC to
maintain the longitudinal and transverse slopes of 5 % and 2.5 % respectively, and how to fill
properly the formwork, which had a height of more than 50 cm and a gap of 3 cm. The
application was successful and rapid (12 m3 UHPFRC placed in 2 days in July 2009), and it
demonstrated at an industrial scale that the newly designed UHPFRC mixes can respond
adequately to the difficult challenges of the site, without any increase in rehabilitation costs, but
to the great satisfaction of the owner, user and contractor. Since this application, slope
tolerances up to 10 % are now possible in fresh state, and by means of simple surfacing
techniques it is possible to achieve uniformly textured UHPFRC surfaces on which barefoot
walking is possible. It is worth mentioning that the newly designed UHPFRC recipes have a
dramatically reduced cement content, which makes them more economical and particularly
attractive from an environmental point of view, 0.
3 Assessment of the rehabilitation

Overview
Two years after the rehabilitation of the bridge a thorough inspection of the deck an d kerbs was
performed. During the visual inspection non-destructive and less-destructive on-site tests, such
as those top determine the pull-off strength of the UHPFRC layer, as well as its air permeability,
938
Assessment of a UHPFRC based bridge rehabilitation in Slovenia, two years after application
corrosion protection function, and the skid resistance. Additionally samples of the UHPFRC
were taken for laboratory testing, e.g. for its capillary adsorption capacity.
Visual inspection
Two years after the rehabilitation the bridge was thoroughly visually assessed. During the
inspection special attention was paid to the details, joints and spots of poorer quality, zones
around formwork spacers, outflows, the cold joint between day 1 and day 2 casting, areas with
fibres extruding from the surface, repaired zones around spacers etc.
Generally the UHPFRC layer was found to be in very good condition. Compared to the
inspection performed directly after the completion of the rehabilitation works, no additional flaws
or new damages could be seen. The horizontal and vertical surfaces, which were well finished
using a Controlled Permeability Form liner (CPF), were still in very good shape, Figure 2a. They
are still smooth, and the "textured" structure of the CPF printed on the UHPFRC surface is
still undamaged. Almost no traces of corrosion or fibres protruding from the surface were
observed in these zones. No new damages, compared to the inspection of 2009, were observed
either on the surfaces with protruding fibres, or on the areas around the formwork spacers
where UHPFRC had not penetrated properly, on the internal vertical face of the kerbs, and
which were refilled with a UHPFRC. Where finishing of the UHPFRC surface by the means of
the CPF was of poorer quality, the steel fibres protruding from the UHPC matrix kept corroding,
resulting in a red-brownish colour, but no spalling of the UHPFRC occurred (Figure 2b). Even
on the highly loaded area on the bridge turn, where traces of truck tyres are visible on the
kerbs, no damage to the UHPFRC layer was observed. No cracking occurred on the joint
between day 1 and day 2 casting, nor did it occur on the corners between the horizontal surface
of the footpath and the vertical surfaces of the kerbs. Due to asphalt layer laid on the bridge
deck, the joint between the vertical surface of the curb and the bridge deck couldnt be
inspected. The unfilled zones around formwork spacers, repaired using UHPFRC directly after
the completion of the rehabilitation works, were inspected by the means of hammering. No
problems with adhesion were detected. The areas around the outlets were also in unchanged
condition.
Based on the results of the visual inspection it can be concluded that no damage has
occurred to the UHPFRC layer since its application and that 80 % of the apparent UHPFRC
surfaces are close to the visual rendering shown in Figure 2a.
On site tests
During the visual inspection some non-destructive and less-destructive in situ tests were
performed, i.e. air permeability tests, pull-off strength tests, skid resistance tests, and a
corrosion rate test.
a)
b)
Figure 2: UHPFRC surface of excellent a) and poorer quality, with apparent fibres b).
939
The air permeability tests were performed according to the Torrent method, 0. As two different
UHPFRC mixes were used on the bridge, the air permeability of both was measured, the
footpath upper surface (locations F1 to F3) being coated by a mix capable of holding a 5 %
slope, and on the outer, vertical surface of the kerb (locations C1 to C3) repair by a selflevelling mix. The measuring points were distributed along the whole bridge so that the results
cover both casting days, and can be considered as representative. Due to the unevenness of
the footpath surface, the micro-location of the tests F1 to F3 needed some attention, in order to
ensure the airtightness between the UHPFRC surface and the vacuum chamber of the testing
equipment. On the other hand, due to the perfect surface finishing no special attention was
needed on the outer surface of the curb. The results are presented in Figure 3.
Air permeability, kT [10e-16 m ]
0,007
0,006
0,005
0,004
0,003
0,002
0,001
0
F1
F2
F3
C1
C2
Location of test
C3
Figure 3: Results of the in situ air permeability tests.
Comparing the air permeability of the two concrete mixes it can be concluded that their air
permeability is of the same order of magnitude. Furthermore, the air permeability of the in situ
cast UHPFRC two years after application is very close to that of the laboratory made UHPFRC.
Both UHPFRC mixes having the permeability of 0,004x10 -16 m2 in average, can according to the
quality classes of cover concrete introduced by Torrent et all 0, be classified as very good.
The pull-off strength of the UHPFRC was measured at three locations on the upper surface
of the footpath. The tests were performed according to EN 1542, 0. The results are presented in
Table 1.
Table 1: Pull-off strength of the UHPFRC layer.
Pull-off strength
[kN/m2]
Breaking point
PO1
1.55
90 % contact, 10 % substrate
PO2
2.68
PO3
1.46
The pull-off strength of the UHPFRC layer is on average 1.9 kN/m2, which is greater than the
1.5 kN/m2 required by EN 1504-3 0 for Class R3 structural repair mortars, very close to Class
R4 (2 kN/m2). Taking into consideration that this requirement is for laboratory conditions and for
a standard concrete substrate, and that the surface covered by the UHPFRC was only cleaned
by water jetting, not water-blasted, the measured pull-off strength fulfil all expectations.
940
The safety of vehicles and pedestrians crossing the bridge is of major importance. As the road
surface of the bridge is covered by an asphalt layer, skid resistance was measured only on the
upper surface of the footpath. Locations without fibres protruding from the UHPC matrix were
chosen for these measurements. The tests were performed according to EN 13036-4, 0, using
the CEN rubber. The four SRT values obtained (70, 73, 75 and 76 respectively) were compared
with the requirements to be found in the literature, such as SRT from 55 to 65 for heavy traffic
and difficult driving conditions, 0, SRT > 44 class excellent for external colonnades, walkways
and pedestrian crossings, 0, or SRT > 45 for horizontal walking outside surfaces, 0. The
UHPFRC surface of the footpath fulfils all these requirements.
The corrosion rate was measured below the UHPFRC layer by the means of embedded
corrosion resistance sensors (CRS), patented by Legat et all, 0. Four CRSs were installed on
the footpaths horizontal surface, just under the 2.5 cm thick layer of UHPFRC. The measured
reduction of the sensors thickness was 0.24 microns on average over two years, which is very
low, and at the limit of the measuring accuracy.
Laboratory tests
During the inspection two cores of UHPFRC with diameters of approximately 50 mm were taken
from the footpaths horizontal surface for capillary absorption tests. The core designated CA1
was taken where the UHFRC surface was, based on visual inspection, assumed to be of good
quality, whereas the core designated CA2 was taken at a location where fibres were extruding
from the concrete surface, representing concrete of a poorer quality, i.e. concrete where more
air voids or bunches of steel fibres could be present.
The capillary absorption test results, performed according to EN 13057, 0, are presented in
Figure 4. The sorption coefficient values for the cores CS1 and CS2 were 0.064 kg/m2h0.5 and
0.059 kg/m2h0.5 respectively. The difference between the two sorption coefficients, taking into
account that the sample CS1 represented good quality concrete and CS2 bad concrete, is
relatively small. Surprisingly, a higher sorption coefficient was measured on sample CS1, which
was supposed to represent better concrete. In any case, the sorptivity S of the UHPFRC placed
on the bridge footpath is one order of magnitude lower than 0.5 kg/m2h0.5, the value required by
EN 1504-3 for Class R4 repair products.
0,16
0,14
Water uptake [kg/m ]
S = 0,0637 kg/m2h0,5
0,12
0,10
S = 0,0589 kg/m2h0,5
0,08
0,06
0,04
0,02
0,00
0,0
0,5
1,0
Time [h0,5]
1,5
2,0
2,5
Figure 4: Capillary absorption of the UHPFRC cores.
The two capillary absorption cores (CS1 and CS2) and the three cores from the pull-off tests
(PO1 to PO3) were evaluated visually. Additionally the cores PO3 and SC2 were subjected to a
computer microtomography (CT) based assessment for homogeneity, i.e. for the presence of air
941
voids and bunches of steel fibres. The CT scan of core PO3 is presented in Figure 5 (cores are
turned up-side-down). As on the core surface the concrete microstructure and especially the
steel fibres are damaged during the drilling process, only the inner part of the cylinder, approx.
30 mm in diameter, but of the whole core height, which corresponds to the actual height of the
UHPFRC layer, is presented. A horizontal cross-section of the core is presented on the upper
left, and in the upper-right and bottom-left figures two perpendicular vertical cross-sections are
shown. All three cross-sections were located through the largest air void found in the core (in
the middle of the horizontal cross-section), 1.5 mm in diameter. The black spots are air voids,
whereas the white colour represents the steel fibres and steel wool, and the grey-coloured part
is the UHPC matrix. O the bottom-right figure the distribution of the steel fibres is presented as
an 3D image.
From visual and CT assessment of the cores the following observations were made:
The failure surface is mostly in the substrate, showing good bond between the UHPFRC
layer and the substrate. Again its worth mentioning that the substrate, in this case the
footpaths upper surface, was only washed by water jetting, and not water-blasted.
The homogeneity of the UHPFRC layer can be assessed on the curved surface of the
cores. It appears that the steel fibres are well distributed in all of the cores, and that
there are no bunches of steel fibres.
Except in the case of core SC1, no air voids are visible. This is also the case for core
SC2, representing the areas of poorer surface quality.
Comparing the upper core surfaces, a significant difference in the finishing quality can
be clearly seen. As already mentioned, the aim of the core sampling was to target both
types of surface, i.e. concrete of good and of poorer quality. No damage was visible on
the well-finished surfaces. On the surfaces of poorer quality, corrosion of fibres
extruding from the cement paste was visible, but no spalling had so far occurred.
The CT images of the cores confirm the conclusions of the visual inspection. The
UHPFRC layer is homogenous, with few small pores visible, and the steel fibres are
evenly distributed. Additionally the CT images confirm that all the fibres lie in the
direction of the UHPFRC layers plane, as expected.
4 Conclusions
Two years after application the UHPFRC overlay of the Log ezsoki bridge was assessed.
Based on the results of a thorough visual inspection, as well as in situ and laboratory tests,
including pull-off strength, air permeability, capillary absorption and computer tomography
based scanning the following conclusions can be drawn:
The concept of the rehabilitation of structures with UHPFRC was applied for the first time
outside Switzerland, in Slovenia, with new materials designed predominantly from local
components.
Two years after the application the UHPFRC layer was found to be in very good shape; as
no damage, cracks or spalling was found during the thorough visual inspection. Areas with
poorer concrete finishing, i.e. steel fibres extruding from the UHP cement matrix, continue to
corrode, resulting in a red-brownish colouring of the surface, but no spalling of the concrete was
recorded. The deficient areas repaired just after the application are fully functional.
The UHPFRC layer has a good bond with the substrate, and its air permeability is extremely
low, within the range of an in-lab produced UHPFRC of similar composition. The capillary
absorption is very low, even at the spots of (visually) poorer quality. The UHPFRC layer is
homogeneous, of low porosity and with uniformly distributed fibres.
942
Two years after its application, the UHPFRC overlay is in good shape and fully functional.
Figure 5: Computer microtomography based image of core PO3; upper-left: horizontal cross-section, upperright and bottom-left: vertical cross-sections, and bottom-right: 3D image of the steel fibres.
5 Outlook and future possible applications

This successful example of the transfer of technology opens up very promising perspectives for
the dissemination of the concepts of rehabilitation of civil engineering infrastructure not only in
CEEC and New Member States (NMS), but also in practically any country.
The new generation UHPFRC materials, developed at MCS/EPFL, are characterized by a
significantly lower cement content, the use of local raw materials for the UHPC matrix,
adaptability to surface inclination (vertical, horizontal, inclined) and much lower global warming
potential (GWP). This makes the family of UHPFRC materials cheaper, more easily adaptable
to local materials and geometry challenges, more sustainable, and thus more competitive with
other products for the protection and repair of concrete structures of both the infrastructure and
buildings.
Nevertheless, when it is planned that UHPFRC will be used, the following concept shall be
kept in mind: UHPFRC where is worth using it.
6 Acknowledgements
The ARCHES project was funded by the 6 th Framework research Program from the European
community. The support of the scientific and technical "UHPFRC teams" of EPFL, ZAG, LCPC,
Salonit, and TKK is gratefully acknowledged. Special thanks go to the Log ezsoki bridge
owner: Municipality of Bovec and the Mayor Mr. D. Krivec, the Primorje Company and the
designer Mr. B. Ipavec, the contractor CPG Nova Gorica and its director J. Brecelj for their trust
and support.
943
References
[1] Denari E.; Habert G.; ajna A.: Recommendations for the use of UHPFRC in composite structural
members rehabilitation Log ezsoki bridge. Deliverable ARCHES D14, http://arches.fehrl.org,
2009.
[2] Denari E.: Recommendations for the tailoring of UHPFRC recipes for rehabilitation, Deliverable
ARCHES D06, http://arches.fehrl.org, 2009.
[3] Rossi, P.; Arca, A.; Parant, E.; Fakhri, P.: Bending and compressive behaviours of a new cement
composite", Cement and Concrete Research, 35, 2005, pp. 27 33.
[4] Brhwiler E.; Denari E.: Rehabilitation of concrete structures using Ultra-High Performance Fibre
Reinforced Concrete, in Proceedings UHPC-2008: The Second International Symposium on Ultra
High Performance Concrete, March 05 - 07, 2008, Kassel, Germany, Kassel University Press, pp.
895-902.
[5] Denari, E.; Brhwiler, E.: Structural rehabilitations with Ultra High Performance Fibre Reinforced
Concretes, International Journal for Restoration of Buildings and Monuments, Aedificatio, Vol. 12,
No. 5 and 6, 453-467.
[6] Denari, E. et al.: Full scale application of UHPFRC for the rehabilitation of bridges from the lab to
the field, deliverable SAMARIS D22. http://samaris.zag.si/, 2006.
[7] Denari, E. et al. Guidance for the use of UHPFRC for rehabilitation of concrete highway structures,
deliverable SAMARIS D25b http://samaris.zag.si/, 2006.
[8] AJNA, A; STRUPI-UPUT, J.; DENARIE, E.; BRHWILER, E.; HABERT, G.: ROSSI, P.; REI,
L.; WIERZBICKI, T.: Composite UHPFRC-concrete construction for rehabilitation - most recent
advances and applications. V: FRANGOPOL, Dan M. (Eds.). Bridge maintenance, safety and
management and life-cycle optimization: proceedings of the Fifth International conference on bridge
maintenance, safety and management, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA, 11-15 July 2010. Boca
Raton [etc.]: CRC Press, cop. 2010, pp. 445-446.
[9] SIA 262/1 Schweizer Norm, Betonbau Ergnzende Festlegungen, 2003.
[10] Torrent, R.J.; Frenzer, G.: The Permeability of Cover concrete. Permeability Tester Torrent,
Operating Instructions, Proceq.
[11] EN 1542 Products and systems for the protection and repair of concrete structures - Test methods Measurement of bond strength by pull-off, 1999.
[12] EN 1504-3 Products and systems for the protection and repair of concrete structures - Definitions,
requirements, quality control and evaluation of conformity - Part 3: Structural and non-structural
repair, 2005.
[13] EN 13036-4 Road and airfield surface characteristics - Test methods - Part 4: Method for
measurement of slip/skid resistance of a surface - The pendulum test, 2004.
[14] TSC 06.620 Slovenian Technical Specification for Roads, 2003.
[15] Australian Standard HB 197: An Introductory Guide to the Slip Resistance of Pedestrian Surface
Materials, 1999.
[16] SIST EN 13670/A101: Execution of concrete structures - National Annex, 2010.
[17] LEGAT, A.; KUHAR, V.;: Sensor, device and procedure for corrosion rate evaluation of steel rebar in
concrete structures: patent SI 22559 A, 2008.
[18] EN 13057, Products and systems for the protection and repair of concrete structures - Test methods
- Determination of resistance of capillary absorption, 2002.
944
Structural Health Monitoring of the Gaertnerplatz Bridge over

the Fulda River in Kassel Based on Vibration Test Data and
Stochastic Model Updating
Michael Link, Matthias Weiland
Institute of Structural Mechanics, University of Kassel, Germany
For structural health monitoring purposes model updating techniques are utilized for relating
experimentally observed changes of the modal data (natural frequencies and mode shapes) to the
changes of the physical parameters of a Finite Element model, e.g. the bending stiffness of a beam
element. Such changes should indicate any significant deviation of the healthy state from the actual state
of the monitored structure. Some results are reported from an application to the Gaertnerplatz Bridge in
Kassel where the experimental modal data are continuously measured in the framework of a structural
health monitoring project. In the contribution an extension of the classical model updating technique is
presented. The extension addresses the assumption that the Finite Element modelling parameters as
well as the test data are no longer treated as deterministic but as band limited stochastic variables.
Keywords: structural health monitoring, damage detection, model updating, system identification
1 Introduction
Structural monitoring of the Gaertnerplatz Bridge over the Fulda river in Kassel is aimed at
evaluating the structural performance and safety. Modal data (natural frequencies and mode
shapes) extracted from the dynamic bridge response due to ambient excitation (caused for
example by pedestrians, bikers and off-bridge traffic) are used as indicators of changes of the
structural performance. These data have been collected continuously since completion of the
bridge construction in the year 2007 (about 500 modal data sets per year).
The construction of the Gaertnerplatz Bridge in Kassel is characterised by the first time
application of Ultra High Performance Concrete (UHPC) for bridges of this size and by the
application of adhesive bonded connections between the UHPC parts of the bridge, ref.[1].
Figure 1 shows a photo of the bridge shortly before it was opened together with the bridge
design.
Before the continuous monitoring measurements were started experimental modal data
(eigenfrequencies and mode shapes) were measured using artificial impact hammer
excitation. It is well known that low frequency vibration test data or static response data are not
very well suited for detecting and quantifying localized small size damage. Exploitable results
can only be expected if high spatial resolution of the response data is available. For the
Gaertnerplatz Bridge relatively high resolution modal data were obtained from the premonitoring test, 13 natural frequencies and mode shapes measured at 96 locations over the
length of the bridge. The pre- monitoring modal test was performed by artificial impact excitation
using an impact hammer instrumented by a force sensor. An impression of the impact testing is
given in figure 2. The impacts were applied at the 96 locations shown in the figure. For each
impact the acceleration response was measured simultaneously at 5 reference locations. These
data permitted to acquire 96 frequency response functions (FRF) for each reference. The modal
data (eigenfrequencies, mode shapes and modal damping values) were extracted from these
FRFs for each reference using our in-house experimental modal analysis code code ISSPA [2].
From these
pre-monitoring tests the reference modal data of the healthy structure were
extracted. The results of these test were reported in ref.[3].
945
Only those modal data measured continuously from ambient excitation were retained for
further evaluation which showed a strong correlation to the reference modal data coming from
the pre-monitoring test. The reference modal data of the pre- monitoring test were also used to
establish a reference Finite Element model calibrated to the pre- monitoring test data by
computational model updating techniques as also described in ref.[3].
Figure 1(a): Gartnerplatz bridge over the Fulda river in Kassel shortly after completion of the construction
19
24
21
36 m
21
13
Small room in abutment for data acqusition

system and internet connection1
Figure 1(b): Bridge design [1].
Figure 2: Impact hammer testing applied at 96 impact locations on the bridge deck using 5 reference
sensors R1- R5. 10 DOFs (blue) retained for monitoring test
The Finite Element model shown in figure 3 is composed of about 200 plane shell elements for
the bridge deck and the abutments and 650 beam elements for the truss and the inner piers
resulting in about 3500 DOFs. Special attention was given to the adhesive bonded connection
of the UHPC cord and the deck and the eccentric connections between deck and cord and cord
946
Structural Health Monitoring of the Gaertnerplatz Bridge over the Fulda River in Kassel Based on Vibration Test
Data and Stochastic Model Updating
and truss members shown in figure 4. The bonded connection was modelled with special shear
elements. The shear modulus of these elements represent important monitoring parameters.
We will present in the following the concept and some results of a structural health
monitoring (SHM) procedure which is based on continuously measured modal data (called
monitoring data in the following) taking account of the effect of unavoidable, natural variations
of these data with time which might be caused by temperature and other environmental effects
but not by structural damage. It is the key challenge of all vibration based SHM procedures to
distinguish the natural variations of the modal data from those changes which might indicate
the onset of structural degradation.
This concept leads to a set of signature parameters of the healthy structure, which might be
the result of monitoring the state of the bridge over typically one year. These signature
parameters are obtained from adjusting preselected characteristic parameters of the Finite
Element model to the continuously measured modal data using interval parameter identification
techniques. With this innovative technique it is not only possible to identify the mean values of
the signature parameters but also their upper und lower bounds calculated from the standard
deviations of the monitored modal data. It should be noted that in practice the signature
parameters do not only reflect the structural properties due to damage but also due to other
modelling uncertainties which makes it more difficult to distinguish the damage effects from the
modelling uncertainties.
It is expected that the signature parameters of the actual monitoring state which exhibit
significant deviation of the healthy state parameters shall indicate the onset of structural
degradation. This would initiate another modal test and subsequent updating of the initial
reference model to be used to assess the type and the severity of the degradation.
In addition to dynamic data static strain and displacement data and also physical data like
temperature and humidity are also used for monitoring permitting to relate the experimental
modal data to environmental conditions and to directly monitor the state of the adhesive bonded
connections.
Figure 3: Finite Element model.
947
Figure 4: View on the bridge underside
2 Adjusting Finite Element (FE) model parameters to experimental test data

by computational model updating
The reference FE- model represents the structure in its initial healthy state and should not only
include all the parameters which are likely to change over the time either due to damage or due
to changing environmental conditions but also those modelling parameters which must be
assumed to be uncertain due to modelling simplifcations.
To find optimal reference values for these parameters our in-house parameter identification
software UDATE_X which is based on the theory described in [4]- [6] was applied. This
software permits the minimisation of an objective function
J wT w min
(1)
where the residual vector
w Wv vm v (p) ,
(2)
defines the weighted differences between the measured quantities vm (in the present
application we used eigenfrequencies und mode shapes, Wv denotes a weighting matrix) and
their analytical counterparts v(p) which are a function of the parameters p to be updated.
For the bridge application a recently developed extension of the classical model updating
technique was applied. The extension addresses the assumption that the Finite Element
modelling parameters as well as the test data are no longer treated as deterministic but as band
limited stochastic variables.
The technique is based on the inverse sensitivity method where in each iteration step the model
parameter changes in vector p are calculated from the overdetermined equation system
( GT G W p ) p GT ( zexp zana ) wW p p
(3)
The matrix G zana / p contains the sensitivities of the analytical modal data (natural
frequencies and mode shapes contained in vector zana ) with respect to the model parameters
948
p in the preceding iteration step. Vector zexp contains the experimental modal data
corresponding to the analytical modal data. W p represents a weighting matrix which permits to
restrain the parameter changes p whereas the factor w permits to restrain the magnitude of
the parameters over the iteration steps.
The updating parameters, p [ ; ] [ 1 ... nK 1 ... nM ]T (np= nK + nM = number of
parameters), are defined as dimensionless factors on selected submatrices, K i and M j , of the
overall stiffness matrix K and the overall mass matrix M , so that the updated overall system
matrices and parameters can be expressed by
Kup K a inK1 i Ki
Mup Ma nM
j 1 j M j
(4a)
The updated parameters are calculated by
pup pa p
with
pa [ a ; a ]
and
pa [ a ; a ]
(4b)
K a and M a represent the system matrices and pa the parameter vector at the actual iteration
step.
The numerical method is an elementary application of interval arithmetic which does not
need to make an assumption on the type of the probability functions. Instead the experimental
data vector zexp on the right hand side of equation (3) above is assumed to represent an
interval vector defined by estimated upper and lower bounds of the experimental data.
The solution of the equation system then yields upper and lower bounds of the parameter
changes,
pu
and
po , which are used to calculate the central
(mean) values
pm ( pu po ) / 2 . The central values are used to calculate the sensitivity matrix G and the
analytical modal data zana used in the subsequent iteration step.
After convergence at the end of the iteration the procedure yields the central values of the
parameters together with their upper and lower bounds. It should be noted that the widt h of the
parameter bounds which characterizes the parameter uncertainties is not only affected by the
experimental data uncertainties but also by the parameter sensitivities.
Finally the results are validated by calculating the analytical modal data from a number of
parameter sets which were generated by Monte Carlo simulation within the identified
uncertainty bounds. This simulation does not only permit to check if the generated analytical
modal data fall within the experimental uncertainty bounds but also to compare the correlation
of the experimental frequencies with that of the analytical frequencies.
3 Parameter identification using pre- monitoring modal test data

In ref.[3] we reported about the parameter identification for a FE model which was adjusted to
the modal data obtained from the pre- monitoring test with artificial excitation. These data
consisted of 13 natural frequencies and the corresponding mode shapes at 96 locations. For
monitoring purposes the ambient vibration response was only measured at a subset of 10 of the
96 measurement DOFs shown in figure 2 so that the spatial resolution of the extracted mode
shapes was significantly reduced. In addition the evaluation the ambient vibration response was
focused on a reduced number of 6 resonance frequencies selected according to the results of
949
the pre- monitoring modal test. For comparison purposes with the monitoring data of the
following years the pre-monitoring modal data set was reduced accordingly and used to
generate a reference FE- model based on the reduced pre- monitoring modal data set.
Statistical parameter identification was not possible in this case since only one modal data set
was available from the pre- monitoring test.
The initial FE- model of the Gaertnerplatz Bridge was used to study the most relevant
parameters to be monitored continuously over time. This study led to the selection of the
following 9 parameters to be used as indicators for the structural status of the bridge:
P1:
P2:
P3:
P4 - P6:
P7:
P8 - P9:
shear stiffness parameter assigned to the substructure K1 composed of the

bonding elements connecting the deck and the upper cord,
parameter assigned to the bending stiffness of the UHPC cords
the geometrical stiffness parameter for the UHPC cords due to the prestress
force
parameters assigned to the longitudinal, horizontal and vertical stiffness of the
pier bearings
parameter for the non- structural mass (resulting from the parapet and the deck
coating)
parameters for the torsional and bending stiffness of the deck.
The comparison of the experimental and analytical eigenfrequencies depicted in table 1 is

restricted to only those experimental modes and measurement degrees of freedom (MDOFs)
which were used for monitoring purposes as mentioned before, i.e. the modal data present a
subset of the full measurement set described in ref.[3].
The comparison reveals quite a satisfactory agreement. The experimental frequencies are in
average a bit higher than the initial analytical frequencies with an error between 0,64 and 7,02
%. The modal assurance criterion MAC was used to compare the corresponding mode shapes
(MAC = 100 % indicates perfect correlation. The MAC value is calculated from the square of
the cosine of the angle between the experimental and the analytical eigenvector). In practical
applications any value beyond 80% must be considered as a satisfactory agreement. After
computational parameter updating the test/analysis differences of the natural frequencies were
reduced significantly (max 0,16 % for the 4 th frequency in table 1). An excellent agreement of
the fundamental mode no.1 (MAC = 98,5%) can also be observed from the spike plot in figure
5(a) where the measured and analytical eigenvectors are plotted over the ten monitoring
sensor locations shown in figure 2 . The correlation is still good for a higher mode like the
torsional mode no. 6 with MAC = 87,4% in figure 6(a). The corresponding FE modes are
shown in figures 5(b) and 6(b). The good convergence behaviour of the parameter identification
over the iteration steps is shown in figure 7. The reference parameters identified in the last
iteration step are given in the last row of table 1.
4 Parameter identification using modal data obtained from continuous

monitoring
For long term monitoring sensors were installed on the bridge for recording acceleration data
from ambient excitation as well as temperatures. The time domain response data are analysed
after data decimation based on triggering to specified treshold values, to day time and ambient
temperature. The evaluation of these data was focused on a number of resonance peaks
selected according to the results of the pre- monitoring modal reference data in table 1.
950
Continuous recording of this data permitted to correlate the resonance frequencies to ambient
temperature.
Table 1: Comparison of modal test data 2007 / analysis
Eigenfrequency number
Experimental eigenfrequencies [Hz] from modal test 2007 used for updating
3.49
5.01
7.32
8.05
9.40
10.92
Initial analytical eigenfrequencies [Hz] before parameter updating

3.47
4.94
7.10
7.83
10.21
Initial Prediction error test/analysis [%] before parameter updating

0.64
1.31
3.13
2.77
7.02
Prediction error test/analysis [%] after parameter updating

-0.09
0.07
-0.14
0.16
0.05
MAC [%] test/ initial model before parameter updating

98.3
95.8
97.9
94.9
78.2
99.1
87.4
MAC [%] after parameter updating

98.5
96.7
87.6
Identified reference parameters

p1
p2
p3
p4
p5
p6
p7
p8
p9
1.06
0.50
0.43
0.00
-0.04
0.59
-0.52
0.36
-0.15
measurement DOFs for monitoring

(a) spike plot of test (+++) and FE mode
(b) monitoring DOFs on FE model mode
Figure 5: Bending mode no.1.
measurement DOFs for monitoring

(a) spike plot of test (+++) and FE mode
(b) monitoring DOFs on FE model mode
Figure 6: Torsional mode no. 6 .
951
(a) modal test data 2007
(b) monitoring test data 2008
Figure 7: Evolution of parameter identification over iteration steps using modal test data 2007(left)
and monitoring data 2008 (right).
One of the six monitored natural frequencies is plotted in figure 8 for the years 2008 2011
versus the bridge temperature measured below the bridge deck in the center span close to the
location of the adhesive bonded connection (plots of the other monitored frequencies look very
similar). The data of the years 2009 2011 are always plotted on top of the data of the first
monitoring year 2008. The data show the systematic decrease of the resonance frequencies
with temperature and their variability. In particular it is observed that the data clouds of the
years 2008 - 2011 cover the clouds of the reference year 2008 and do not exhibit a systematic
or a sudden decrease which is also confirmed by the evolution of the mean values over the 4
years. Also, the standard deviations are very small. Therefore, it can be concluded that no
structural degradation of the bridge has happened during the monitoring period. It must be
expected that the FE- model parameters identified from the monitoring test data should also
reflect this conclusion.
952
Structural Health Monitoring of the Gaertnerplatz Bridge over the Fulda River in Kassel Based on Vibrat ion Test
Figure 8: Natural frequency at about 3.5 Hz monitored in the years 2008 2011 including mean values
and 1 standard deviations (horizontal lines).
Comparison of FE- predictions and modal data obtained from continuous monitoring
Figure 7(b) shows the evolution of the parameter identification results based on the monitoring
data of the year 2008 (see corresponding data clouds plotted in figure 8) in comparison with
figure 7(a) where the parameter identification based on the pre-monitoring modal data of the
year 2007 is shown. The differences of the identified parameters between the two years are
within tolerable limits in view of the differences between the two experimental data sets caused
not only by the variability of the 2008 data over the year but also by differences arising from the
application of different experimental modal analysis methods used to extract the modal data
from the dynamic response due to artificial excitation in 2007 and from ambient excitation over
the year 2008.
Figure 10 shows the evolution of the identification for parameters p1 and p3 not only for the
mean values (black) but also for the upper values (green) and lower values (red) which is the
result of the extended identification technique described before in chapter 2 where we
intoduced the mean values and the 2 - values of the experimental frequencies and mode
shapes. This figure shows an excellent convergence behaviour of the identification procedure.
In particular it can be noticed that the magnitude of the parameter bounds can be quite different
depending on the magnitude of the parameter sensitivity and of the test data uncertainties. The
results for all the parameters at the end of the iteration are shown in figure 11.
Applying the identification for the monitoring data of the years 2009 and 2010 gives an idea
of the evolution of the parameters and their upper and lower bounds over the years which is
shown in figure 12. The parameter variation is not significant except for parameters p2 (cord
stiffness) and p3 (cord prestress force) which exhibit a higher band with and a trend to
reduction.
953
Figure 10: Evolution of parameters p1and p3 including upper and lower parameter bounds over iteration
steps using monitoring data 2008.
Figure 11: Parameters including parameter intervals at iteration end using monitoring data 2008.
Statistical evaluation of test and analysis data

In order to assess the parameter variability in more detail we compared the statistical properties
of the Finite Element (FE) results with those of the monitoring data of the year 2008. The
parameter statistics of the 9 FE parameters was generated within the identified upper and lower
bounds of the parameters shown in figure 11. 200 samples were generated by Latin Hypercube
sampling. The histograms of the parameter factors 1-3 and the estimated gaussian probability
densities are presented in figure 13.
The 200 FE runs were performed using the 200 parameter vectors to calculate the statistics
of the analytical natural frequencies and mode shapes. These data allowed a comparison of the
experimental and the analytical data clouds for the frequency pairs f i/fj (i,j = 1,5). Two of
them, for pairs f1/f2 and f2/f5, are shown in in figure 14. These plots reveal a strong correlation
of the analytical frequency pairs (blue) resulting in correlation coefficients between 88% and
100%. These strong correlation arises from the fact that the source of the analytical frequency
variations was completely assigned to the stiffness and mass parameters. It is obvious that any
variation of such parameters will more or less affect all natural frequencies. The experimental
frequency pairs exhibit only weak correlations in the range between 21% and 56%. Therefore, it
was concluded that the experimental frequency variations were not caused by stiffness
degradations but by other sources coming from environmental effects or unavoidable
measurement errors.
954
year
07
08
09
10
07
08
09
10
07
08
09
10
Figure 12: Evolution of parameters over the monitoring years 2007 2010.
Figure 13: Probability densities of modification factors (1+p1) - (1+p3) within upper and lower parameter
bounds.
Figure 14: Comparison of test (red) and analysis (blue) for frequency pairs f1/f2 and f2/f5.
955
5 Summary and conclusions

In the paper we presented the methodology of vibration monitoring applied to the Gaertnerplatz
Bridge in Kassel which is characterised by the following steps:
(1) Establishment of a reference FE- model representing the healthy structure in its initial
state. This model was generated by computational model updating using experimental modal
data obtained by artificial impact excitation of the bridge after completion of the construction.
The updated model results show very good agreement with the experimental data.
(2) Bridge resonance frequencies and mode shapes were extracted from ambient excitation
response over the years 2008 to 2011 and analysed with respect to their variability over the
bridge temperature. These primary data did not indicate any structural degradation of the bridge
over the monitoring period.
(3) The monitoring data were used to identify the parameters of a Finite Element model
reflecting the variability of the test data by upper and lower parameter bounds. The identified
parameters did also not give an indication of structural degradation of the bridge.
(4) A statistical correlation analysis of the Finite Element modal data and the corresponding
monitoring data revealed a strong correlation of the analytical data and a weak correlation of
the experimental data which led to the conclusion that the scatter of the experimental data was
not caused by structural degradations.
References
[1] Fehling E., Schreiber W., Bunje K., Schmidt M.: Brcke aus Ultahochfestem Beton in Kassel ber
die Fulda. Bauingenieur, Bd. 79, Juli/August 2004
[2] ISSPA Manual, University of Kassel, Instiute of Statics and Dynamics, 2005
[3] Link M., Weiland M. and Hahn Th.: Structural Health Monitoring of the Gaertnerplatz Bridge over the
Fulda River in Kassel. Proc. of the 2nd. International Symposium on Ultra High Performance
Concrete. Structural Materials and Engineering Series, H.10, No.10, Kassel University Press, March
2008
[4] Link, M., Updating of Analytical Models Basic Procedures and Extensions. Proc. of NATO
Advanced Study Institute, Sesimbra, Portugal, May 1998 in "Modal Analysis and Testing"(J.M.M.
Silva and N.M.M. Maia (Eds.), Kluwer Acad. Publ., London , 1999
[5] Friswell M.I. and Mottershead J.E., Finite Element Model Updating in Structural Dynamics, Kluwer
Academic Publishers, 1995
[6] Mottershead J.E., Link M. and Friswell M.I.: The sensitivity method in finite element model updating:
a tutorial. Mechanical Systems and Signal Processing, Vol 25, No 7, 2011, p.2275-2296
[7] Link M. and Weiland M.: Structural Damage Identification model based or not ? ICEDyn2011,
Proc. of International Conference on Structural Engineering Dynamics, Tavira, Portugal, 2011
956
Life Cycle Cost Analysis of a UHPC-Bridge on Example of

two Bridge Refurbishment Designs
Siemon Piotrowski, Michael Schmidt
Life cycle costs of buildings, e.g. bridges, are not only determined by the costs of construction, but especially by its maintenance. The service life of bridges made of materials such as UHPC is significantly
longer than that of standard bridges. The entire investment made during technical lifetime can be considerably influenced by the maintenance and user costs. The cost relationship will be exemplified in this
comparative study of the Eder-Bridge in Felsberg on two alternative construction designs made of different materials. The economic advantages of UHPC lay particularly in the considerably long service life
and the longer durability. In order to determine the most economical option, the material and the implementation costs must be compared to the future maintenance. However, it is important to ensure that the
future investments or savings are calculated separately from the construction costs and that the future
value of investment will be determined by the net present value (NPV).
Keywords: life cycle costs, UHPC-Bridge, net present value
1 Introduction
Description of the Bridge
The Eder-Bridge was built in Felsberg-Lohre in 1948. Initially, it was used by pedestrians and
cyclists, and was a part of a 180 km bike path. Moreover, the bridge served agricultural traffic
as well and became of great economic importance in the region. Since then the Bridges condition has been deteriorating so that in last years the maximum vehicle weight was restricted to 6
tons and all agricultural traffic had to make detours. Municipal authorities of Felsberg decided to
renovate the bridge partially.
Two different renovation designs were developed in the frames of a joint cooperation project
between the engineering firm Fehling und Jungmann and the Department of Structural Concrete of University of Kassel. The first design was developed for normal concrete construction
with external prestressing whereas the second design contains UHPC and normal concrete
units. Both designs were developed allowing to use old bridge piers, i.e. three given piers and
four single span beams with the total length of the bridge of 51,55 meters. The superstructure of
the UHPC design significantly differs from that of normal concrete. The cross-section of the
UHPC-bridge consists of UHPFRC box girders filled with lightweight concrete. The boxes are
precast elements (between 10,46 and 15,7 meters long). The surface of the bridge is made of
in-situ UHPC. The 2 cm thick wear layer is reinforced with PVA Fibre, whereas the 4 cm thick
base course is reinforced with steel fibres. The normal concrete design, on contrary, is a traditional prestressed concrete bridge.
Preliminary Evaluation of the Life Cycle Costs: Comparative Analysis
Within the scope of this work, an economic efficiency analysis was carried out including the
costs of construction. The analysis, based on the cost calculations conducted by the Engineering firm Fehling und Jungmann, considers only the superstructure of the bridge and compares
only some single parts of the construction. The costs of the other parts of the bridge such as
caps and bearings are not taken into account because they have similar traits and characteristics in both presented designs. The economic analysis considers only the prices per unit; all
prices are listed in EUR netto. The imputed costs such as general business expenses or profit,
etc. are not considered. The analysis assumes that no new equipment (for the UHPC produc-
957
tion) has to be purchased for the project; the staff is aware of both operational methods and has
experience of working with both types of materials. The following table shows the masses of the
UHPC-design.
Table 1: Quantities of the UHPC-design [1].
Structural element
Quantities
UHPC in the precast element
32,70 m
In situ UHPC
11,75 m
light-weight concrete
26,10 m
Unbonded prestressing
4,30 t
steel bars in the precast element
6,50 t
steel bars in the in-situ concrete
3,83 t
steel bars in the light-weight concrete
0,37 t
It is necessary to exclude the named indicators in order to increase comparability of both designs. Moreover, the continually growing experience of working with the UHPC and rapid development of the high performance materials will decrease the importance of those indicators in
the evaluation of life cycle costs. The restriction of the study is that UHPC costs used for the
current analysis were taken from few available literature sources on structural engineering but
not from the sources describing existing UHPC projects or enterprises working with ultra-high
performance materials. More exact data could have enhanced the accuracy of the analysis but
the novelty of the project and relatively low level of experience in this field make the precise
data unavailable when dealing with UHPC.
The result of the economic efficiency analysis shows that the design applying UHPC units is
approx. 23% more expensive than that of traditional concrete (costs of normal concrete:
149.359,00 ; costs of UHPC: 183.225,20 ). It is noteworthy to mention that considerably high
expenditures are expected when dealing with novelty of design and material. Labour costs as
well as shuttering works will increase up to 39% and 26% accordingly in relation to the total
costs. These costs tent to decrease during the construction period in view of increased experience and completeness of the project [1]. The calculations of both designs are compared and
summed up in the following tables.
Table 2: Calculation of the normal concrete [1].
Structural element
Costs
Concrete superstructure
41.420
Reinforcing steel superstructure
30.400
span steel superstructure
24.000
supporting structure (proportion of superstructure)
34.000
Preparing concrete area bridge deck
2.250
Sealing bridge deck
2.700
Sealing layer welded asphalt sheeting bridge deck
3.150
Asphalt protective layer with a thickness 3,5
6.222
Surface layer
5.217
Sum
149.359
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Life Cycle Cost Analysis of a UHPC-Bridge on Example of two Bridge Refurbishment Designs
Table 3: Calculation of the UHPC [1].
Structural element
Costs
Precast UHPC elements
25.210,55
Lightweight concrete filling
5.268,67
in-situ UHPC supplement
13.277,38
Formwork
56.957,60
Reinforcing steel precast elements
19.638,00
Reinforcement on the construction site
28.872,00
Transport and assembly
34.000,00
Sum
183.224,20
2 Economic Efficiency Analysis Using Life Cycle Costs of a Bridge

Life Cycle Costs of a Bridge: Basic Principles
Any decision about the bridge construction or renovation is connected to the estimations of different stages of its life cycle. The figure below (fig. 1) shows that the economic efficiency analysis, which is traditionally focused only on historical and construction costs, also includes other
expenditures on the other stages of the life cycle. Usually the costs for the financing of the projects are assessed before the construction procedure. These expenditures, however, are not
taken into consideration in the current study for the reason that they have minor effects on the
decision-making about the choice of construction materials and therewith on the choice of the
design. Apart from historical costs, consequential expenditures are also a part of the life cycle.
Consequential expenditures are all costs that occur during the bridge age throughout its life
cycle. User costs include expenditures on bridge preservation, maintenance and reparations [2].
The calculation of the costs must include estimations and approvals which permit the most realistic assessment of the future cash flows. Consequential expenditures also include decommissioning costs. Considering that the service life of bridges is conventionally considered to last at
least one hundred years, the evaluated decommissioning costs were excluded from the current
analysis for the reason that they do not influence the decision-making about construction materials.
Figure 1: Cost structure [3]
Dynamic Investment Calculation

The analysis compares the sums of the final values of given designs including both construction
and user costs. A method for using the time value of money to appraise this long-term project
should be applied in order to compare the life cycle costs at different points of lifetime. The future cash flows should be estimated and discounted to give their present values. Theoretically,
959
the time period between the present moment and the future cash flows can be used for deposit
accounts with capital market interest rates [4]. The net present value (NPV) method takes into
account this appraisement: it considers the investments as series of cash flows and appraises
their value in different periods of time. The NPV is expressed in the following formula:
(1)
D = deposit; P = payoffs; i = permanent interest rate at perfect capital market; C0 = cash value;
t = time period; n = number of last payment
The formula may be simplified in case the payments are constant [5]:
1
0
1
1
(2)
In order to use this formula in the life cycle costs analysis it has to be applied to the two given
bridge designs: the deposits from the first formula turn into annual maintenance costs (Mt) and
the first cash flow in the series of cash flows turn into the investment costs (I) of the bridge construction. The modified formulas for the life cycle costs analysis of a bridge is presented as follows [6]:

1
1

(3)
(4)
1
1
1
1
The annuity method is another technique used to calculate the value of future cash flows. This
method is related to the net present value method. The annuity is series of cash flows with
equal payments at certain time intervals [5]. The formula below can be adapted to the calculation of life cycle costs as well:
1
1
(5)
The annuity method makes it possible to estimate the annual user costs throughout the whole
life cycle of the bridge. This method is particularly useful when comparing different lifetimes of
bridges and other investment projects [6].
3 Life Cycle Cost Analysis: Case Studies

Advantages of Using High Performance Concrete in Bridge Constructions
Apart from the well-known strength of high-performance material UHPC, there are some other
advantages, e.g. its durability that can lead not only to cost reduction but also increase the lifetime of constructions. The high-performance material has particular advantages over the normal
concrete throughout the lifetime of the bridge: the maintenance and reparation costs of UHPC
constructions are lower than those of normal concrete.
960
Pelke [7] marked out advantages of high-performance concrete durability:

Improvement of freeze-thaw resistance
Reduction of carbonation
Improved protection against chloride contamination
High abrasion resistance
The effects of the material durability on the lifetime and the maintenance costs of the construction units are particularly important for the life cycle analysis of the bridges. According to [8], the
UHPFRC acquires waterproof protection of the surface due to its low permeability, so that the
damaging chloride ions cannot easily enter into the first millimetres of the concrete body even
after 100 years of exposure. Due to this feature the chlorides do not cause any corrosion of the
steel [8]. Bouhaya assumes that the UHPC became an ultra-durable material because of low
porosity and that it does not need any maintenance for 100 years which is considered to be the
expected lifetime of a span bridge. Moreover, he supports this thesis by another statement
made by Resplendino that a UHPC light construction doesnt need any maintenance or reparation throughout these years [9]. In view of the aforesaid, it is possible to assume that the UHPC
gains an advantage over normal concrete in regard of the life cycle of the bridge and saving of
the maintenance costs. Moreover, it makes possible to conduct scenario analysis.
Calculation of Life Cycle Costs
The most important factors for the life cycle costs calculation of a bridge besides the construction costs are the lifetime of the bridge, the annual maintenance and operational costs and the
inflation-adjusted interest rate needed in order to discount the future payments. The interest
rate used for the calculations is 3%, according to the Directives for the preservation of civil constructions [4]. Moreover, Heitel [6] refers to the dissertation of Radlbeck (2006) in which the
calculation interest rates in state and private building projects are located between 2,5% and
3%. The life time of bridges, on contrary, varies more according to the lifetime of both bridge
designs. Assuming that a bridge is a perfect construction with faultless building design then its
user lifetime lasts 100 years [6]. The superstructure of the bridge which is analysed in this study
has, according to [10], a lifetime of between 80 and 100 years. There is a general consensus
among the experts that the lifetime of bridges is located in this timeframe. Nevertheless, it has
to be mentioned that the average lifetime of the existing bridges lasts de facto for about 25
years [3]. The lifetime of the UHPC design, on contrary, will last at least for about 100 years.
Moreover, in view of the aforesaid advantages of the UHPC in the bridge building and on base
of the research results obtained by Dept. of Structural Materials and Construction Chemistry of
the University of Kassel one of the possible scenarios is that the UHPC construction will serve
twice longer than that of normal concrete. Based on construction costs, the maintenance expenditures of a bridge with 100 years lifetime make up between 0,6% p.a. [11] and 1% p.a. [12]
where the superstructure of the bridge out of steel reinforced concrete makes up 0,8% p.a.,
and the one out of prestressed concrete makes 1,1% p.a. [2]. In view of aforesaid, it is possible
to assume that the UHPC has lower maintenance costs between 0,3% p.a. and min 0,1% p.a.
of construction costs. The latter percentage (0,1% p.a.) stands for the technical servicing and
inspections of the bridge [13]. Based on the mentioned assumptions and using the net value
method the following results were obtained:
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Figure 2: Capitalized life cycle costs
Figure 2 shows that the life cycle costs of the normal concrete construction are lower than those
of UHPC considering short lifetime (e.g. 50 years). However, it is important to mention, that the
longer the normal concrete bridge is used the more significantly increase its life cycle costs so
that in the end they become much higher than those of UHPC construction. At the latest after
100 years, the UHPC construction will gain over the normal concrete under existing conditions
of the bridge servicing that the UHPC maintenance costs will be 1:4 to 1:3 of the normal concrete bridge. In the later years of use (over 100 years) the UHPC design will be the most costefficient solution mainly because the normal concrete bridges do not reach this age and should
be built again. Bearing in mind the usage costs only, the difference between the given designs
is essentially bigger. The following figure (Fig. 3) shows the alteration between the two designs
and their lifetimes. That shows the advantage of the usage time and lower maintenance costs of
the UHPC.
Figure 3: Comparison of maintenance costs
962
The annuity method is another option of life cycle costs comparison of given designs. As mentioned before, this method makes it possible to estimate the annual user costs throughout the
whole life cycle of the bridge.
Figure 4: Annuities in life cycle
The figure above (fig. 4) shows that the annuities of UHPC in the chosen scenarios are competitive with the normal concrete. The prognosis showed that the UHPC is more cost-efficient
than normal concrete in case of short-term usage of the normal concrete bridge (e.g. 50 years)
and long-term usage of the UHPC bridge (over 100 years). Moreover, the UHPC has to possess
higher durability so that the maintenance costs should be trice higher than those of normal concrete.
Summary and Outlook
Having compared both designs in regard of their life cycles it is possible to conclude that the
UHPC-bridge is more economically efficient than the normal concrete one. Considering that the
normal concrete bridge must be replaced or renovated throughout 100 years of usage or in
case the bridge has average or higher maintenance costs during this timeframe, as it was expected, it is possible to conclude that the life cycle costs of a normal concrete bridge are in 100
years higher than those of UHPC. The UHPC-bridge, on contrary, has longer lifetime and significantly low maintenance costs than those of normal concrete, as it was proven in the study.
Considering the average lifetime of normal concrete bridges as well as planned lifetime and the
durability of the UHPC, it can be expected that the construction costs will be not only compensated but also meaningfully saved. Given that the UHPC design of the bridge is a composite
construction made of both UHPC and normal concrete, not all potentials in the construction and
the durability of the bridge will be reached. This type of mixed construction is still necessary for
the development and the first UHPC pilot projects because otherwise the constructors will not
take the risk of investment into innovative materials projects and the UHPC will not be able to
gain their trust. Further optimisation of UHPC manufacturing processes, precast production as
well as in-situ UHPC may increase saving potential so that the construction costs will decrease
and the advantage of the user costs will be fully used.
963
References
[1] Hillebrandt, M: Entwurf des berbaus einer vierfeldrigen Straenbrcke. Master thesis. Department
of Structural Concrete of the Kassel University. 2011.
[2] Kuhlmann, U.; Pelke, E.; Hauf, G.; Herrmann, T.; Steiner, J.; Aul, M.: Ganzheitliche Wirtschaftlichkeitsbetrachtungen bei Verbundbrcken unter Bercksichtigung des Bauverfahrens und der
Nutzungsdauer. Stahlbau (Stahlbau) 76, p 105116, 2007.
[3] Waltner, R.: Ein Brckenleben lang Lebenszykluskosten von Brcken aus Hochleistungsbeton.
Brckenbau - Fertigteile auf neuen Wegen, p 50-54, 2005.
[4] Bundesministerium fr Verkehr, Bau und Stadtentwicklung: Richtlinien fr die Erhaltung von Ingenieurbauten - Richtlinie zur Durchfhrung von Wirtschaftlichkeitsuntersuchungen im Rahmen von Instandsetzungs-/ Erneuerungsmanahmen bei Straenbrcken, Ausgabe 2004.
[5] Stttner, R.: Investition und Finanzierung, 2005.
[6] Heitel, S.; Koriath, H.; Herzog, C. S.; Specht, G.: Vergleichende Lebenszykluskostenanalyse fr
Fugngerbrcken aus unterschiedlichen Werkstoffen. Bautechnik (Bautechnik) 85 (10), p 687695,
2008.
[7] Pelke, E.: Neue Bauweisen im Ingenieurbau aus der Sicht der Hess. Straen- und Verkehrsverwaltung. Ultra-hochfester Beton - Planung und Bau der ersten Brcke mit UHPC in Europa ; Tagungsbeitrge zu den 3. Kasseler Baustoff- und Massivbautagen Heft 2. P 69 77, 2003.
[8] Brhwiler, E.: Planung und Bau der ersten Brcke mit UHPC in Europa; Tagungsbeitrge zu den 3.
Kasseler Baustoff- und Massivbautagen. Der Tagungsband Seminar der Vereinigung der Straenbau- und Verkehrsingenieure in Hessen e.V.. p 25-48, 2006.
[9] Bouhaya, L.; Le Roy, R.; Feraille-Fresnet, A. : Simplified Environmental Study on Innovative Bridge
Structure. Environmental Study on Innovative Bridge Structure 43 (6). p 20662071, 2009.
[10] Empelmann, M.; Heumann, G.: Entwicklung lebensdauerorientierter Entwurfsstrategien fr Brckenbauwerke. Institut fr Baustoffe, Massivbau und Brandschutz der TU Braunschweig Materialprfanstalt fr das Bauwesen Braunschweig, 2008.
[11] Mehlhorn, G.; Aigner, F.: Handbuch Brcken: Entwerfen, Konstruieren, Berechnen, Bauen und
Erhalten. 2007.
[12] Schah, R.; Otto, J.; Hupel, M.; Fritsche, M.: Lebenszykluskosten von Brckenbauwerken. Bauingenieur Band 81, 2006.
[13] Graubner, C.-A.; Knauff, A.; Pelke, E.: Lebenszyklusbetrachtungen als Grundlage fr die Nachhaltigkeitsbewertung von Straenbrcken. Stahlbau 3, p 163171, 2011.
964
Material performance control on two large projects: JeanBouin stadium and MUCEM museum
Dominique Corvez 1, Patrick Mazzacane2
1: Lafarge Ductal, Paris, France
2: Bonna Sabla, Consolis Group, France
In 2013, two larg-scale buildings by architect R. Ricciotti and making use of UHPFRC will open in France:
MUCEM museum in Marseille and Jean Bouin stadium in Paris. Industrial production of large quantities
(3500 tons of UHPFRC for those two projects) requires specific material control during premix production
and batching in order to lower the mechanical performance variability as required by the design
specifications. In particular, post cracking behaviour assessment in design, particularly at ULS, requires
suitability testing procedures to calibrate the K factor (fibre orientation factor) on full scale elements with
strict industrial casting procedures and quality plan.
On those two projects, UHPFRC is used for several different structural functions: large structural
prestressed columns, Pi shape prestressed footbridge girders, ribbed reinforced shells, perforated
panels. It allows for a comparative presentation of the material performance control of various structural
elements with different geometries and functions.
In a first part, mechanical properties of different UHPFRC mixes used for those two projects, including
fire resistant UHPFRC mixes will be presented as the reference state for industrial control. Tensile
properties will be extracted from a dedicated back-analysis software recently developed for beam and
plate specimens. In a second part, suitability testings, performed to assess fibre orientation according to
industrial casting procedures, will be compared according to structural functions and internal forces.
Keywords: suitability testings, fibre orientation
Figure 1: Jean Bouin stadium rendering (R. Ricciotti Architect).
965
Ductal has been used for structures in infrastructures like bridges, footbridges, airport
runways [1]. With Jean Bouin and MUCEM projects, both by Architect R. Ricciotti, and with
Ductal metallic fibres, LR.Ing and SICA, two innovative engineering offices, have taken the
challenge of making the first large buildings in UHPFRC [2]. On both projects, Bonna Sabla [3]
and Lafarge [4]. were selected by Leon Grosse and Vinci to manufacture the precast pieces.
Figure 2: MUCEM under construction (October 2011).
The structural innovations in the design phase have been thoroughly presented during the 2009
Marseille UHPC Congress [2]. This paper will focus on the material aspect during the
manufacturing of the pieces.
In France, performance control of UHPFRC material is described in the Interim
Recommendations AFGC/SETRA [5] published in 2002.
Three main phases are described:
Material Study with definition for an industrial premix of an Identity Card with relevant
characteristics (especially mechanical, durability, dimensional stability)
Suitability testings to confirm fibre orientation through K factor
Routine Control checks every 10m3
In this paper, a focus will be made on tensile properties in the post-cracking state to
emphasize fibre orientation reliability.
1 Mechanical properties in tension

Ductal UHPFRC with metallic fibres Identity card
To assess tensile properties, a specific analysis is conducted on the premix used. This is
compared with the behaviour law used during the schematic and detailed design. The postcracking stress, after thermal treatment is constant at 7,5 MPa until a crack opening of 0,3 mm
in both projects.
A back-analysis on 70 x 70 x 280 mm 3 notched specimen under three-points bending test is
performed. The method developed by G. Chanvillard, P. Rossi and P. Casanova is detailed in
[8 & 9]. The bending moment versus crack opening curve is then analysed to get the post-
966
Material performance control on two large projects: Jean-Bouin stadium and MUCEM museum
cracking tensile behaviour with an isotropic fibre content of 2%. The results of this material
study on 6 specimens confirm the value given during the design phase. (see Fig.3)
Back Analysis - Ductal G2 FM - 70 x 70 x 280 m3 specimens
16
14
Stress (MPa)
12
10
8
6
4
2
Mean
0
0,00
Characteristic
0,05
0,10
Characteristic Behavior law for Design
0,15
0,20
0,25
0,30
0,35
Crack Width (mm)
Figure 3: Back-analysis prism according AFGC-SETRA.
For practical reasons, on site, the routine checks are done through four-points bending
unotched tests compared with a reference and characteristic value realized on 6 specimens
tested in four-points bending done during the material study.
On the MUCEM project, a specific mix called Ductal AF (for Anti Fire), containing
polypropylene fibres is used to avoid concrete spalling. The vapour entrapped in the matrix can
be released through a continuous network of voids created by the melting of the polypropylene
fibres. This mix is used for all the Y shape columns.
Tensile properties in case of plates
The same material has to be characterised differently for plate elements to take into account
the improved properties for those type of structures. The fibre orientation is no more 3D
isotropic but more 2D isotropic. This leads to better performances. A UHPFRC plate is defined
as an element of thickness less than 3 Lf (Lf = fibre length). In our case, it means less than 40
mm. Plate elements are treated with a specific plate analysis developed by G. Chanvillard and
S. Rigaud. The cracking concept is not introduced explicitly. The crack distribution is considered
constant over the constant moment in a four point bending test. This allows developing a
mechanical model based on the assumption of a constant curvature between the two loading
points. Strain can be then used in replacement of crack width. The third cinematic relation in the
classical back-analysis is simplified in the two Newton equations (N and M equilibrium). The
resolution can be done by an iterative method [6] or by a new explicit method that will be
presented in French AFGC Interim Recommendations (expected 2012). The results with this
new method (with exact deflection consideration) for Jean Bouin typical plate element thickness
are presented in Fig.5. done on typical equivalent bending stress vs. deflection (Fig. 4). The
characteristic behaviour law for the design of roof plates has been chosen as an elastoplastic
curve with a plateau of 10 MPa up to a strain of 0,4%.
967
Suitability testings - Oct. 2011

Ductal(r) FM w ith therm al treatm ent
4 points Bending - Plate
45,0
40,0
35,0
Stress (MPa)
30,0
25,0
3956-12
20,0
3956-13
15,0
3956-14
3956-15
10,0
3956-16
3956-17
5,0
0,0
0,00
1,00
2,00
3,00
4,00
5,00
6,00
Deflection (m m )
Figure 4: Flexural behaviour of Jean Bouin roof plate elements.
Stress (Mpa)
25
20
M14
15
M13
M12
M17
M14 exact
10
M12 exact
M13 exact
M17 exact
0
0
0,002
0,004
0,006
0,008
0,01
0,012
Strain
Figure 5: Direct Strain Stress Tensile curve from an explicit back-analysis (G. Chanvillards method).
968
2 Suitability testings: key learning and particular strategies to assess fibre

contribution
AFGC/SETRA interim recommendations [5] define a systematic general approach for assessing
fibre orientation. This is critical because of the behaviour law defined in part 1 is related to
isotropic (3D or 2D) distribution of fibres. Specimen cutting and flexural comparisons allow
simple definition of the K factor. This approach is adapted in most cases. Nevertheless, in
some parts of the projects, it is necessary to use a full testing approach.
MUCEM footbridge: process variation
The MUCEM footbridge elements have been produced with the same mold as the Pont Du
Diable footbridge by the same contractors (Bonna Sabla, Freyssinet, Lafarge). External and
internal are slightly different and prestessed cables do not allow to introduce a concrete
injection pipe in the bottom of the mold. For the MUCEM footbridge precast elements, the
introduction was performed by a pouring method using gravity. Analysis of K factor in the webs
have shown an increase from K= 1.26 to K=1.65 (30%) with that pouring method using gravity
compared to the injected one. Injection is actually a more efficient to maintain a 3D isotropic
orientation compared to the gravity one which strongly orientates the fibres.
Figure 6: Specimens cutting in MUCEM footbridge precast girder.
Building Columns: Y MUCEM Columns

The Y shape columns of MUCEM are cast vertically. Fibre
orientation is assessed by the cut prismatic specimen
method. Nevertheless, due to spiral rebars near the
anchorages, it was not possible to cut specimens of a
regular size. In those parts, a fibre counting method was
chosen with optical data acquisition to literally count the
fibre. This complementary method was particularly relevant
to check potential fibre segregation with a comparison on
specimens cut at the top and bottom of the Y column.
Larger specimens have also been analysed. For instance,
in the final global structural design of MUCEM project, a
central concrete core carries the lateral solicitations of wind
and more critical seismic lateral forces. The columns are not
Fig. 7: Y MUCEM columns.
969
there to carry the lateral forces. A specific hinge have been casted to reduce lateral forces on
the column. They are called Freyssinet UHPC Hinges since they are derived from the classical
Freyssinet Hinges. In a small hinge area, the UHPC is highly compressed around a
postensionned cable. For practical reasons, diffusion of this precast UHPC hinge, placed during
the casting of the entire column is made with spiral rebars confinement. The diffusion has been
checked through a dedicated compressive test.
Large Perforated cladding: MUCEM & Jean BOUIN
On both projects, vertical facades consist of perforated panels (perforation ratio: 50% or more).
The fibre orientation has been checked in the branches. This have given excellent results (K<1
in longitudinal). The risk is then concentrated in the nodes where fibre flows can meet. In
those zones, fibres from one flow do not penetrate in the other flow which leads to a drastic lack
of fibres in the section defined by the meeting region of the two flows.
To correct this, a specific casting path has to be followed by the operators, especially near
the nodes. On Jean Bouin, a full piece has been successfully tested in flexure to detect any
weak node.
Fig. 8: Jean Bouin perforated panels.
Structural ribbed panels: Jean BOUIN roof panels

Ribbed roof thin panels are an interesting case study for which two strategies were adopted.
For the planar regions, without any reinforcement, 9 plates are cut in a sacrificial piece
corresponding to 9 critical zones (blue elements in Fig.8) according to structural internal forces
to analyse fibre orientation. The results in flexure (4 points-bending un-notched) are then
compared to the specific flexural capacity of a plate with the behaviour law defined for plates
(1) to assess K.
Fig. 9: Jean Bouin Roof elements an cutting pattern.
970
Various processes have been tested including injection in a closed mold from the top of the ribs
and opened casting process in an open mold that is closed after the pouring of the material
around the glass elements. With an open mold, it is possible to correct flows which is not the
case in a closed mold. During trials, with close mold, K factor up to 1.7 can be observed in the
flow meeting zones therefore it has been recommended not to use the process.
Shear strength of the reinforced ribs is assessed with short beams testings. Six portions of
beams have been cut and tested in shear (orange elements in Fig.9) and fibre contribution in
interaction with real rebar placing (see Fig. 10 right) can be then analysed indirectly. Safety
factors is assessed directly in comparison to design internal forces. This testing has
demonstrated that the design in shear with the process used will not lead to failures in shear but
in flexure.
Fig. 10: Jean Bouin ribbed elements and cutting pattern.
An additional global testing was performed by the CSTB has confirmed a global safety factor of
5 for the ribs. This testing has shown a high ductile behaviour observed in Fig.11 that could be
used for future projects to calibrate lower safety factors.
Fig. 11: Global testing made at CSTB.
971
3 Conclusions
This paper on material performance control on the two first large buildings made with structural
UHPFRC in France has focused on the tensile properties in the post-cracking state. Suitability
testings according to AFGC/SETRA interim Recommendations using cut prismatic specimens
are a good and robust approach to analyse fibre distribution. It has to be strongly highlighted
that a wrong placing process can lead to weak cross sections where no fibres are active. This
has to be carefully avoided with a comparison between UHPFRC placing methods (injection,
pouring by gravity method, etc.).
In some cases, practical approaches have been performed in addition to the cut prismatic
specimen approach leading to global structural testing and global safety factor. It has been
observed systematically ductile collapse mechanism with a high redistribution between
elements (ex perforated panels). Non linear numerical software have to be systematically used
during design phase to take advantage of this ductile behaviour in complex shape. Future
performance based design approaches for UHPFRC components should take into account
those non fragile behaviours to calibrate appropriately safety factors with engaged and
innovative authorities.
References
[1] Batoz, J.-F.; Behloul, M.: UHPFRC development: Experience with Ductal over the last two
decades. Proceedings of Designing and Building with UHPFRC, State of the Art and Development,
Marseille, France, pp. 4362, 2009.
[2] Ricciotti, R.; Lamoureux, G.; Ricciotti, R.: The Jean-Bouin stadium. Proceedings of Designing and
Building with UHPFRC, State of the Art and Development. Marseille, France, pp. 101108, 2009.
[3] Patrick Mazzacane, Intervention Bonna Sabla, dbats AFGC, juin 2011.
[4] Dominique Corvez, Intervention Lafarge, dbats AFGC, dcembre 2011.
[5] AFGC/SETRA, Btons Fibrs Ultra haute Performance, Recommandations provisoires, 2002.
[6] Rigaud, S.; Chanvillard, G.; Chen, J. J.: Characterization of bending and tensile behaviors of ultra high performance concrete containing glass fibers. Proceedings of High Performance Fiber
Reinforced Cement Composites 6, Ann Arbor, MI, USA, 2011.
[7] Behloul, M.; Bernier, G.; Cheyrezy, M. (1996): Tensile behavior of reactive powder concrete (RPC)
Comportement en traction des btons de poudres ractives (BPR). 4th International Symposium on
Utilization of High-Strength/High-performance concrete, Paris, 1996.
[8] AFREM (1995):Les Btons de fibres mtalliques. Sminaire Annexe 1, 6.12.1995.
[9] Chanvillard, G.: Characterization of fibre reinforced concrete mechanical properties : A review,
plenary conference, Fifth International Rilem Symposium on Fibre Reinforced Concretes,
BEFIB2000, Ed. P. Rossi and G. Chanvillard, Lyon, France, pp. 2950, 2000.
972

Simon Hoffmann1, Hermann Weiher2
1: mageba SA, Blach, Switzerland
2: matrics engineering GmbH, Munich, Germany
Bearings represent one of the most sensitive and demanding links for the load path in bridge structures
with one of the highest requirements regarding reliability and performance in structural engineering.
Therefore design in this field has been very conservative with few innovations in decades. Some
manufacturers of these components worked constantly to overcome this stagnation and presented much
better performing sliding materials about 5 years ago (e.g. RoboSlide [6]). The most striking benefit of
these innovative materials is its much higher durability regarding accumulated sliding path. As such this
new generation of sliding bearings is able to stay in service for 50 or more years and bring into question
all other elements. The paper will point out how single steel elements of sliding bearings can be
substituted by UHPFRC and demonstrate their high performance. Based on extensive testing, different
fiber types/ratios, bursting reinforcement and dimensions are analyzed. Requirements regarding surface
quality for sliding purpose are also discussed. Particular benefits like specifically designed indication of
overload and service failure are demonstrated. The presented innovation has the potential to pave the
way for other mechanical engineering like components made of UHPC workshop made elements with a
high degree of standardization.
Keywords: UHPFRC, bridge bearings, innovative design, durability, ductility
1 Scope
Ultra high performance (fibre reinforced) concrete as available nowadays has properties that go
far beyond ordinary mass concrete (e.g. C30/37 according Eurocode 2 [1]). Especially, strength
characteristics are several times higher and come close to heavier and more expensive elastic
steel (e.g. S235JR according to EN 10025-2 [2]) with regard to compression. Of course, that
does not apply for all properties, i.e. tensile strength, E-modulus or time-dependent behavior.
However, this allows using this material for applications replacing massive steel components
that are mainly exposed to compression. In addition to benefits due to material properties the
concrete can be cast at ambient temperature in quite flexible shapes and in contrast to cast
iron steel that might be economic even if production numbers are small or product diversity is
high.
In the civil sector there are some well suited applications of the material that fulfill the
following characteristics:
-
mainly stressed in very high compression

complex geometry
high diversity (many different sizes)
notable numbers
These are for instance:

-
anchor zones of pre-stressing cables or ground anchors

bridge bearings
973
For anchor zones extremely high forces of pre-stressing or stay cables or ground anchors need
to be transferred from the stressing element to the poor structure, e.g. concrete C20/25.
Usually this is done by massive steel plates. Composite solutions as the Hybridankertechnology are combining the high compressive strength and free geometry of UHPC with
different tensile materials like steel or carbon to create a prefabricated external anchor zone [3].
For bridge bearings not only high bearing compression forces need to be transferred. In
addition to that movement and/or rotation need to be allowed. Especially for spherical bearings
where a lot of effort is necessary for creating the shape in steel use of concrete might have a lot
of benefits.
2 State of the art spherical bearings

In the sixties of the last century Fritz Leonhard, Wolfhart Andr and Willi Bauer [4] invented the
basis of modern bridge bearings, which still is applied in many aspects of current standards like
EN 1337 [5]. At that time these bearings used pure PTFE as low friction sliding partner,
lubricated with silicon grease and in contact with high polished austenitic steel plates.
It took about 50 years to find and establish higher performing sliding materials and apply
them to modern state of the art bridge bearings. Nowadays high performance sliding material
based on UHMWPE (Ultra High Molicular Weight polyethylene) is available for state of the art
bridge bearings by European Technical Approvals like the one by the company mageba for
spherical bearings [6]. The benefit from this new material is provided by significant higher wear
resistance, combined with double pressure resistance (twice compared to PTFE), while allowing
lower friction coefficients. In this way such bearings suit especially innovative and slender
structures with a need for most compact and small bearings capable to resist permanent and
fast movements with high accumulated sliding paths, like e.g. modern high speed railway
bridges. Figure 1 shows such sliding material lubricated and installed in the calotte of a
spherical bearing during assemply in the workshop.
Figure 1: ROBOSLIDE disc installed in the calotte of a spherical bearing.
974
3 Basis and motivation

Low wear and low friction of the high performance sliding material requires suitable sliding
partners. Austinitic steel plates and hard chrome have been used for decades for PTFE sliding
bearings and have been applied successfully as well for the new high performance sliding
materials. Especially hard chroming the spherical shaped calotte (used to provide the rotation
capacity of the bearing) is very time consuming, cost intensive and error prone. Development
aimed at alternatives to this process like powder coatings [7] have been tested within a
European research project [8] and cooperated on by different European bridge bearing
suppliers. In parallel the company mageba was able to test successfully another type of sliding
laquere which was favourable regarding application and sliding behaviour. It is intended for
coating steel surfaces which were formerly hard chromed. This coating system passed through
corrosion protection tests according DIN EN ISO12944-6 [9] and has been proven during 480 h
of salt spray test C4 corrosion protection performance.
Furthermore, sliding tests were conduced on test steel specimens based on general
procedures provided in EN 1337-2 [10] and adapted to the high performance sliding material
ROBOSLIDE. The positive results of such tests encouraged the conduct of such tests as well
on UHPFRC specimens coated with the same sliding laquere system. This gave the initiative for
calottes of spherical bearings made of UHPFRC as such application of UHPFRC would have
been impossible by hard chroming and impractical by powder coatings. Figure 2 shows a
ROBOSLIDE disc and sliding lacquere coated UHPFRC specimen after sliding test.
UHPFRC has been choosen for this element as other tests on non cementious and polymer
only based matrix material has shown insufficient ductility and provided sufficient total load
capacity, but failed in terms of service at a fraction of the desired load level. Furthermore it was
expected that UHPFRC concrete can be designed to specific behaviour, which was proven in
the following.
Figure 2: ROBOSLIDE disc and sliding lacquere coated UHPFRC specimen after sliding test.
975
4 Test Program
All tests have been conducted at the Technische Universitt Mnchen. Regular two and four
columned test rigs of 6 and 10 MN maximum load capacity have been used for the testing.
Experts of the Department of concrete structures of the Technische Universitt Mnchen and
experts in the field of sliding bearings of the Material Testing Insitute University Stuttgart (MPA
Stuttgart) have surveyed the last set of tests to confirm proper testing and positive results.
All tests have been conducted with calottes only made of UHPFRC, while all other parts of
the tested bearings were standard components made of S355J2+N. All made used of the high
performance sliding material ROBOSLIDE in combination with regular silicon grease
according to standard application. The design and dimensions of the bearings followed basically
the requirements and guideline provided by ETA-08/0115 [6].
In a total of three consecutive test series several parameters have been analysed regarding
their effect on the behaviour of the overall system, which can be summarized as the following:
-
different detailing and application of the sliding lacquer system

different surface properties of the mould
different height of the UHPFRC calotte
different dimension and design load of the entire bearing incl. the calotte
different ratio, shape, material and strength of the fibre reinforcement
different ratio, shape, material, strength, location and detailing of reinforcement
During all tests the following parameters have been recorded for several load steps:
-
development of compressive strength of the UHPFRC

compressive strength of the UHPFRC (maximum 1h before test has been started)
load applied to the bearing
deflection measured at test rig
deflection measured at several points on the calotte
transversal spreading of the calotte at several points
cracks including width, length and location
Most tests have been kept on design load level for at least one hour in order to allow evaluation
of the stability of cracks on design load level and/or delayed cracking. Furthermore, some tests
have been stopped before maximum load level and failure of the calotte in order to allow
inspection of the sliding surface and evaluation of its integrity and serviceabilty.
Figure 3: Spherical bearing instrumented and installed to the test rig.
976
5 Test Results
A profund overview of the influence of the single parameters was gained by the wide range of
applied details and variations. Finally it was possible to find a stable, economical and practical
combination allowing the required stiffness of the overall system crack stability and load
restistance level of calotte. Figure 4 shows an example for one design adjusted almost exactl y
to the maximum compressive resistance of the high performance sliding material equal to 180
MPa. In this way the failure of the sliding material is on the same level as the UHPFRC calotte.
The related deflection is recorded at the test rig and shows well the development of the stiffness
providing allowable decrease only and sufficient ductility at the same time. It was possible to
design the behaviour of the calotte very precisely by adaption of single parameters.
Figure 4: Load deflection curve measured at the entire bearing.
Probably more important has been a precise design of the crack behavior of the calotte. In this
way crack widths could have been limited to less than 0.1 mm for certain load levels and the
cracks could be used as a load indicator of the bearing. For instance, allowing cracks of more
than 0.1 mm provide a permanent mark of an overload, when the calotte is designed to show
such cracks at design load level. The cracks will not loose significant width when the load
decreases again and keep clearly visible. In order to keep serviceability of the bearing it is
important that the crack keeps at the outer vertical face of the calotte, which is easily accessib le
for inspection. It could be shown that a proper design of the calotte could prevent the cracks
from reaching the curved and sliding lacquer coated surface of the calotte. Also, the cracks
showed no influence on the performace of the sliding and service behaviour of the calotte.
Increasing the load further caused a higher number of cracks and widths of single cracks.
Based on this a degree of overload could be evaluated. The sliding surface kept undamaged
even at alarming crack widths at the outer vertical face of the calotte and allowed full function of
the bearing.
977
6 Long term effects

The testing program investigated in detail the short term static behaviour of a concrete calotte.
However, bearings are often used for bridges subjected to a long lasting service under heavy
traffic. So it is very important to know more about fatigue and static behaviour under permanent
compression.
For the latter subject reference is given to one of the latest research results published by
Deutscher Ausschuss fr Stahlbeton DAfStb (German Association for Reinforced Concrete),
[10]. UHPC with steel fibres shows very little creep. Although there is not much experimental
experience, permanent compression capacity can be taken as 90% of short-time compression
capacity as usual for normal concrete (see [10], chapter 7.2.1.3.).
For fatigue behaviour reference is given to a similar product Hybridanker. For anchoring
spherical nuts UHPC is used as bedding material surrounded by a tension ring. So the bedding
UHPC is mainly stressed in multiaxial compression similar to the UHPFRC-calotte.
The contact area between steel nut and UHPC-filler is initially only a circle line. When
applying load the pressure on the UHPC theoretically is infinite. Due to local platicization the
contact area increases. So contact pressure is always close to compression capacity of UHPC.
Fatigue compressive testing has been done according to ETAG 013, [11], for a threaded bar
with nominal tensile strength of 2,53 MN with the following conditions:
-
2 million load cycles

upper load 65% F pk = 1,65 MN
bottom load = 52.5% Fpk = 1,33 MN (stress range 100 MPa)
Displacement gauges
Strain gauges
5 mm
a
a
5 mm
Figure 5: Set-up of fatigue test with Hybridanker for thread bar with spherical nut (courtesy of matrics
engineering GmbH).
978
After that capacity testing has been done with the fatigue tested specimen and an identical
specimen that had not been loaded before. As shown in Figure 6 no different behaviour could
be detected but a slightly smaller slip for the specimen that had been loaded in fatigue prior to
the capacity test.
4000
3500
3000
Load [kN]
2500
2000
1500
1000
500
10
12
Displacement [mm]
no fatigue loading history
fatigue loading history
Figure 6: Load-displacement-diagramme of static compression tests with and without fatigue loading history.
7 Conclusions
The paper showed the single elements required for the design of high performance spherical
bridge bearing with UHPFRC calottes. Substituting steel and hard chromed calottes with sliding
lacquer coated UHPFRC elements can provide a cost effective and favourable process for the
production of spherical bearings. The general performance and specific design requirements
were analysed in an extensive test program. Suitable performance could be established and
proven by full size tests. Long term effects as permanent static load and fatigue loading are not
limiting the capacity significantly. Moreover using UHPFRC instead of steel avoids corrosion
protection problems of the calotte and allows a powerful monitoring system of the bearings load
history. Cracks at the calotte can be used as a clear, visible, alarming and permanent indicator
of overload of the bearing. Such extra value of the bearing comes without drawbacks regarding
load resistance and service performance of the bearing.
979
References
[1] EN 1992-1-1:2004 + AC:2010: Eurocode 2: Design of concrete structures - Part 1-1: General rules
and rules for buildings.
[2] EN 10025-2:2004: Hot rolled products of structural steels - Part 2: Technical delivery conditions for
non-alloy structural steels.
[3] Weiher, H.; Schulz, J.; Rohringer, M.; Zilch, K.: Concrete filled steel tubes for anchoring bars and
starnds concept and prototype testing. Proc. 3rd fib International Congress, Washington 2010..
[4] Andr, W. Leonhardt, F.: New devolpments for bearings of structures, rubber- and rubber-pot
bearings. Die Bautechnik 39 (in German), p. 37, 1967.
[5] EN 1337-1:2000: Structural bearings - Part 1: General design rules.
[6] European Technical Approval ETA-08/0115: mageba ROBOSLIDE L2 Spherical bearing
Spherical bearing with special sliding material, issued 2008.
[7] Patent WO 2009/071051: Bearing of a structure, issued 2008.
[8] Wenzel, H.; Forstner, E.: MOBILE - Moveable Bearings Innovation Launch in Enlarged Europe. Pro.
IABSE Symposium, Weimar 2007.
[9] EN ISO 12944-6:1998: Paints and varnishes - Corrosion protection of steel structures by protective
paint systems - Part 6: Laboratory performance test (ISO 12944-6:1998).
[10] Deutscher Ausschuss fr Stahlbeton: Heft 561, Sachstandsbericht ultrahochfester Beton, Berlin
2008.
[11] European Organisation for Technical Approval: ETAG 013 Guideline for European Technical
Approval of Post-Tensioning kits for Prestressing of structures, Brussels 2010.
980
Study on the Application of UHPC for Precast Tunnel

Segments
Norbert Randl1, Arnold Pichler2, Walter Schneider1, Joachim Juhart1
1: Carinthia University of Applied Sciences, Austria
2: G. Hinteregger & Shne, Baugesellschaft m.b.H., Salzburg, Austria
The use of steel-fiber reinforced Ultra-High-Performance-Concrete (UHPFRC) in the double shell

segmental lining system is investigated. Serving as reference object is the Tunnel Chain Perschling
(TCP) currently under construction which forms part of the four track west railway route extension
between Salzburg and Vienna in Austria. The aim of the analysis is the design of an alternative UHPFRC
exterior shell with minimum thickness while maintaining the deformation limit specified in the tender
design with its C40/50 reinforced concrete segments. The calculation basis was an elastic foundation
model, the radial foundation being represented by compression only springs. For the UHPFRC
(Ceracem BFM Millau (2,5 Vol.-% of steel fibers)) a non-linear material law was used with a stressstrain curve according to the French guideline AFGC/SETRA (2002) and the material characteristics in
accordance to experimental investigations carried out at CUAS.
Keywords: UHPC, UHPFRC, steel fibers, design, precast tunnel segment
1 Introduction
Segmental lining in tunneling
Tunneling in soft ground or at shallow depth (as the case is in the present study) requires
immediate support by a stiff lining. For shield driven tunnels precast concrete tubbings may be
used according to a single shell or a double shell segmental lining system (Fig. 1). In a single
shell system precast concrete elements erected within the protection of the shield have to
secure the structural stability of the tunnel as well as the serviceability (impermeability,
durability) and specified quality requirements. In a double shell system the precast elements of
the exterior shell only need to provide structural stability [1]. Sealing against water, i.e.
waterproofing sheets, may be positioned between inner and outer ring.
Double Shell Lining
Single Shell Lining

waterproofing
cast in place
concrete lining
precast segment lining

Figure 1: Segmental lining in tunneling.
981
Reference project Tunnel Chain Perschling

The Tunnel Chain Perschling (TCP) is part of the four track west railway route extension
between Salzburg and Vienna in Austria. TCP serves as reference project for subsequent
considerations. The lining of the TCP tunnel consists of a single precast element in the invert
and a double shell system along the remaining circumference in which the exterior shell again
consists of precast concrete elements (Fig.2). The element width measures 1,80 m. The ring is
composed of 6 elements (5 regular + 1key) made of normal strength concrete (NSC) C40/50
which are placed without seal and couplers. Waterproofing towards the inner shell is provided
by a double layer of impermeable membranes. The internal tunnel diameter is 11,50 m and the
thickness of the precast elements 0,30 m (Fig. 3).
Annular gap filling

Precast segment
concrete lining
Waterproofing system
Cast in place concrete
lining
Continuous
longitudinal joints
Figure 2: Standard cross-section of TCP [2].
Figure 3: Transport of tubbings at TCP.
UHPC in tunneling technology

Potential advantages of segmental lining elements made of UHPFRC are based on the
enormous compression strength of approximately 200 MPa. The tensile strength of the
uncracked matrix, however, compared to normal strength concrete, increases only subproportionally to a value between 7 and 15 MPa. The achievable tensile strength is mainly
determined by the fiber content and geometry and also by the distribution of fibers in the
material and their compound behavior [3, 4]. Contrary to conventional steel fiber reinforced
concrete with fiber contents of around 0,5 Vol.% (or less) the fiber content in structural elements
made of UHPFRC rises to 2 Vol.% and more. The use of fibers may substitute conventional
steel reinforcement bars and minimize spalling risks and tensile splitting forces.
In addition, ultra high performance concrete shows extraordinary durability properties. The
high material density makes UHPC particularly resistant against all kinds of external exposures.
Due to reduced segment thicknesses further economical advantages (reduced excavation
diameter and volume, reduced material quantity, reduced transport volume and mass with
subsequent reduced construction duration) will be achieved.
2 Modeling
Static System
Computation models typically may be continuum models (FEM), bedded frame models and
analytic models respectively. The continuum model computes with finite elements a perforated
plate in a two or three dimensional situation. This model is preferably used for deep tunnels with
a ratio h/d 3 where full compound between tunnel lining and ground is assumed. It delivers
982
internal force variables and deformations of ground and tunnel support as well ([5], [6], [7]). The
present analysis assumes a shallow tunnel (h/d 2) with lost bedding capacity of the ground at
the tunnel crown. A partially bedded model is applied where the effects of the ground are
simulated in a simplified matter by applying elastic springs. Radial bedding is neglected at the
tunnel crown due to local deflection of the shell and a possible subsequent loss of foundation in
that area.
Contrary to the continuum model only deformations and internal force variables of the shell
can be computed but not those of the enveloping ground [6, 7]. The circular profile of the
statically indeterminate structural system of the lining ring is approximated by a polygonal
framework consisting of 46 interconnected beams (see Fig. 7). A longitudinal twist of the joint
socket is enabled constructively (convex-concave joint) and eventual rolling effects caused by
eccentricity in the contact zone of the longitudinal joint may be valued as marginal. Therefore
the model considers an articulated joint with a torsion stiffness of zero in accordance to [2].
The work analyzes a tunnel strip of 1 m width.
The radial resistance is characterized by the bedding modulus kr. It is composed of the
constrained modulus Es of the ground and the radius r of the tunnel profile. As the ground
represents an inhomogeneous continuum it is difficult to define its exact characteristics. For
rock mass stiffness of TCP a constrained modulus E s = 250 MN m-2 was derived from ground
exploration. The radial bedding modulus is approximated by:
-> kr = 250/6 = 41,7 [MN m-3]
kr = Es/r [MN m-3]
(1)
The radial foundation is represented by compression only springs. According to current

experience the tangential bedding k t can be set to kt = 0,5*kr at first estimation [5]. Neglecting
the tangential component (k t = 0) principally leads to a conservative result since that approach
increases the bending moments. In the present case, k t was assessed at 12,5 % (= 5,2 MNm -3)
of the radial bedding, a value in-between above mentioned reference values for the regular load
case [2]. The tangential springs act on tension as well as on pressure forces.
Material Law for UHPFRC
For theoretic modeling of precast tunnel segments made of NSC, it is usually necessary to
account for the non-linear behavior of concrete in the pressure zone, the crack development in
the tension zone and the contribution of the concrete between the cracks (tension stiffening) as
well as the linear elastic ideal plastic behavior of the reinforcement steel [5, 9].
For applying a non-linear approach with UHPFRC, the stress-strain curve according to the
French guideline AFGC/SETRA (2002) [10] is used. The German Sachstandsbericht
Ultrahochfester Beton [3] also recommends the use of the stress-strain curve according to
AFGC/SETRA. The present survey is based exemplarily on an UHPFRC-material called
Ceracem BFM Millau, produced by the Sika Corporation. It contains 2,5 Vol. % of steel fibers
according to the formula given in [11], where test data concerning compression and bending
tensile strength are published. Apart from literature, experimental investigations were
undertaken by the Carinthia University of Applied Sciences in cooperation with the Graz
University of Technology [12] with the aim to investigate the influence of different fiber content
and of inhomogeneous fiber distribution. Tensile tests were performed at cores (50 mm)
drilled in two orthogonal directions (IB/QZB) from UHPC-prisms (100/100/400 mm) with 2 and
2,5 Vol.% of steel fibers, half of them afterwards being notched. Unnotched specimens are
suitable to investigate the tensile strength of the cement matrix (represented by a first maximum
in the stress-strain diagram after a linear-elastic ascent of the curve) due to the quite uniform
stress distribution at the first crack when the load is introduced without eccentricity (Fig. 4).
983
Figure 4: Cracked notched

and unnotched
specimen after uniaxial
tensile test [12].
zentrische
Spannung-Dehnung
an 4 Probekrpern
ceracem 06-11-28 IB und QZB (in/quer Betonierrichtung)

12
Strain softening behaviour
[N/mm 2]
Spannung
[N/mm]
stress
10
IB04 gekerbt
IB06 gekerbt
QZB04 gekerbt
QZB06 gekerbt
6
4
2
0
0
10
12
14
16
Dehnung
[ o] ]
strain [%
Figure 5: After-peak behavior with notched specimen (test result with 2 Vol.% of steel fibers) [12].
Notches lead to a concentration of the tensile stresses in these zones, however, the crack is
well defined so that the after peak behavior, i.e. the effect of the fiber pullout, can be studied.
Fig. 5 shows the results from uniaxial tensile tests with notched specimen containing 2 Vol.% of
fibers, depicting a strain-softening behavior where the strength related to pull out of the fibers is
lower than the matrix strength.
Based thereon and following the AFGC/SETRA guideline [10], the characteristic stressdeformation diagram for the tension and pressure zones of the Ceracem-UHPFRC with
2,5 Vol.% of fibers was established (Fig. 6, further details in [11, 12, 13] ). The Strain Softening
Law is used according to Fig. 6; however, the loss of strength in tension in reality is often more
articulated in cracked zones than presented by the used stress-strain diagram [14]. In
accordance with Fig. 6, the applied software STAB2D-NL [15] models the UHPFRC material as
a polygonal framework for the tension and pressure zones. In cross sections where the load
bearing capacity of the UHPFRC material is exceeded under tension forces the addition of steel
reinforcement bars is envisaged. The computing program reflects a composite effect between
UHPFRC material and reinforcement steel as derived from the state of the art knowledge for
normal strength reinforced concrete.
984
Rectangular stress block for

tension (approximation)
Material law as per
AFGC/SETRA (design-level)
Material law as per AFGC/
SETRA (characteristic level)
Figure 6: Used stress-strain diagrams for

UHPFRC Ceracem.
Figure 7: Structural system of tunnel ring.
Load Case approaches

During construction stage varying load case situations occur due to segment production,
storage, transport and erection as well as due to feed pressure or pressure from the circular
gap injection etc. [1, 8]. As permanent loads, the rock pressure, the water pressure, a possible
swelling pressure and the dead load need to be taken into account. Depending on the height of
the overburden also the load of buildings and live loads at the surface may require
consideration. Additional impacts may be caused by structures and traffic loads acting within
the tunnel, temperature changes, shrinkage, creeping and excess air pressure. Extraordinary
forces due to an accident scenario within the tunnel, like fire, earthquake etc., principally need
to be accounted for on a project specific basis [1, 8].
In the present case according to the reference project TCP, seven governing permanent
regular load case combinations have been identified. Those comprise of load cases D1-D3 for
large overburden (Fig. 8), D4-D6 for shallow overburden and load case C representing reduced
ground pressure above the tunnel (Fig.9). In addition an accidental load case considering
complete bursting of the ground above the tunnel at a certain critical overburden is analyzed. All
of those load cases are superposed with the dead weight of the segment rings.
3 Computation and results

Computation Approaches
Three different approaches are performed for the analysis of the structural behavior, all of them
based on the semi-probabilistic concept of partial safety factors. Linear and non-linear material
laws are analyzed and the results compared. Approach 1 follows by approximation a linearelastic material law. Related bending stiffness is defined as the one at non-cracked Stage I.
Load effects are imposed at their characteristic level. Resulting internal force variables finally
need to be multiplied with the relevant partial safety factors. Approach 2 reflects a non -linear
material behavior according to Fig. 6 at its characteristic level. Resulting internal force variables
are multiplied afterwards with relevant partial safety factors (SG,k * G + SQ,k * Q). Based on the
non-linear material law and load effects at the characteristic level, the deformations at the limit
state of serviceability have also been calculated. The deformation limit as specified at the TCP-
985
project was also obeyed for UHPFRC. Approach 3 follows EC 7 [16] and analyzes the load
effects using the design loads (G k * G).
The bedding modulus is taken for all calculations at the characteristic level. The analysis is
performed with the program STAB2D-NL [15] and is limited to a 2D-framework model. The
calculation shows that due to the non-linearity, an increase of loads up to design-level results in
higher bending moments compared to those derived from the analysis with loads at the
characteristic level and multiplied afterwards with partial safety factors. The maximum
deformation derived on the basis of approach 2 is shown in Fig. 8. The enveloping curve of
internal force variables due to regular load case C by using the nonlinear approach 3 is
presented in Fig. 9.
umax = 31 mm
cmkNm
Figure 8: Load case D3 and according maximum deformation (Model 2 characteristic level).
Design
The design value of the compression strength bc,u (fcd) of UHFRPC for regular and
extraordinary load cases is derived in accordance to AFGC/SETRA [10] and equals with its
format the approach for reinforced normal strength concrete as per EC 2 [17]:
bc,u
0,85
f
b cj
bc,u
0,85
180 117,7
1,0 1,3
MPa
(2)
Coefficient for the duration of load effects (1,0 for loads acting longer than 24h)
fcj
Characteristic value of cylinder compression strength
b
Safety coefficient: 1,5 under normal condition and 1,3 for precast elements (here)
The factor 0,85 accounts for long term effects.
Cross-sectional design of the UHPFRC-segments was performed on the basis of the stressstrain diagram as per AFGC/SETRA [10]. For design purposes, the load bearing behavior under
tension forces is represented by a stress-strain relation similar to the characteristic stressdeformation diagram used for the structural analysis (Fig. 6). The main difference is the
introduction of partial safety factors ( b = 1,3 for regular load cases, 1,05 for the extraordinary
load case [10]). For the sake of simplification, a rectangular stress block is introduced in the
stress-deformation curve at the tension side. The same approach is used in the Austrian VBBguideline for fiber reinforced concrete [18] where the maximum tensile strain is limited to 10 .
Following that approach from 0 to 10 tensile strain, a constant stress value is introduced in
the stress-deformation diagram at the tension side (Fig. 6). The distribution of stresses over the
986
cross section is then calculated by iteration with this material law, starting with a chosen strain
distribution.
Results
Load case C is decisive for design (Fig. 9). Load cases D1-D6 cause mainly compression
strains and therefore do not require any addition of steel reinforcement bars. Load case C
however leads to the maximum related eccentricity e/h of the internal normal force which
implies high bending loads at the cross section. The extraordinary load case with reduced
safety levels on load- and resistance-side is evaluated separately.
For load case C, cross-sectional design leads to the requirement of additional steel bar
reinforcement of 7,75 cm for a precast element width of 1 m. For the full width of the precast
element (1,8 m), this results in an amount of 13,95 cm reinforcement. The extraordinary load
case requires 14,12 cm/m of reinforcement (further details are shown in [19]).
Nzugh,d = -369 kN
Mmax,d = 137 kNm

knkNm
Figure 7: Load case C and enveloping design moment / corresponding normal force (Model 3).
4 Conclusions
Compared to conventional precast RC-elements of identical geometry, UHPFRC precast
elements show an increased stiffness due to the higher E-modulus. In the present study, the
thickness of segments made of UHPFRC is reduced until the defined deformation limit (from the
reference project) is reached, thereby decreasing the segment thickness from 0,30 m to 0,22 m
which corresponds to about 25%. The analysis was carried out with non-linear approaches on a
partially bedded beam model.
Looking at reference objects of very long tunnels with large excavation diameters and
segment thicknesses of 0,50 m and more, the authors expect even higher reduction
percentages for segment thicknesses by the use of UHPFRC. The rather high material costs
may be compensated for by savings in the element production and construction process. The
extraordinary durability also will reduce life cycle costs, especially regarding objects built with
the single shell lining system. The advantage of the increased load bearing capacity of
UHPFRC elements compared to conventional precast steel reinforced segments may be used
in particular where compression forces govern. Therefore smaller diameter tunnels with large
overburden or shaft structures will be particularly interesting for further investigations.
987
5 Acknowledgements
The authors wish to extend special thanks to all those involved in the reference project TCP, in
particular to the owner sterreichische Bundesbahnen (BB), to the design companies ILF and
ViglConsult and to the contractor STRABAG AG for the provision of information and all support
granted. Further thanks are directed to Dr.Ing. Uwe Pfeiffer for providing the computation
software STAB2D-N which enabled the numerical analysis.
References
[1] VBB Richtlinie Tbbinge aus Beton: sterreichische Vereinigung fr Beton- und Bautechnik,
Version 17 Grndruck (2009).
[2] BB Infrastruktur Bau AG, Baulos TKP - Tunnelkette Perschling, Documentation of Baulos 3
(2004-2005).
[3] DAfStb Sachstandsbericht Ultrahochfester Beton, Deutscher Ausschuss fr Stahlbeton, Berlin
Wien Zrich, Beuth Verlag GmbH, 1 st Edn (2008).
[4] Fehling, E., Schmidt M. et al.: Entwicklung, Dauerhaftigkeit und Berechnung Ultra-Hochfester
Betone (UHPC), Forschungsbericht DFG FE 497/1-1, in: Schriftenreihe Baustoffe und Massivbau,
Heft 1 (Kassel University Press, 2005).
[5] Hemmy O., Zum Gebrauchs- und Tragverhalten von Tunnelschalen aus Stahlfaserbeton und
stahlfaserverstrktem Stahlbeton, Institut fr Baustoffe, Massivbau und Brandschutz, TU
Braunschweig, Vol. 170, 2003.
[6] Girmscheid G., Schildvorgetriebener Tunnelbau in heterogenem Lockergestein, ausgekleidet mittels
Stahlbetontbbingen, Teil 2: Aspekte der Vortriebsmaschinen und Tragwerksplanung, Die
Bautechnik 2/74 (1997), 85-100.
[7] Ahrens H., Lindner E., Lux K. H.: Zur Dimensionierung von Tunnelausbauten nach Empfehlungen
zur Berechnung von Tunneln im Lockergestein, Die Bautechnik 8/59 (1982), 260-273.
[8] Duddek H.: Empfehlung zur Berechnung von Tunneln im Lockergestein, Die Bautechnik 10/57
(1980), 349-356.
[9] Pfeiffer U., Quast U.: Nichtlineares Berechnen stabfrmiger Bauteile, Beton- und Stahlbetonbau
9/98 (2003), 529-538.
[10] AFGC/SETRA: Btons fibrs ultra-hautes performances. Recommandations provisoires.
Documents scientifiques et techniques. Association Francaise de Gnie Civil, Setra, Bagneux Cedex
(2002), 1-152.
[11] Maeder U, Lallemant- Gamboa I., Chaignon J., Lombard J. P.: Ceracem, a new high performance
concrete: characterisations and applications, Schriftenreihe Baustoffe und Massivbau, Heft 3, Kassel
(2004), 59-68.
[12] Juhart J., Freytag B., Experimentelle Bestimmung der Zug- Spannungs- Dehnungslinie an
zylindrischen Proben aus UHPFRC, Research Report 2006_01, CUAS Baulabor (2007). URL:
http://www.fh-kaernten.at/bauingenieurwesen-architektur/bachelor/bauingenieurwesen/publikationen.html
[13] Morak M., Design einer integralen einfeldrigen Plattenbalkenbrcke aus ultrahochfesten
faserbewehrten Betonhalbfertigteilen, (Diploma Thesis TU Graz, 2005).
[14] Leutbecher T., Fehling E., Rissbildung und Zugtragverhalten von mit Fasern verstrktem Stahlbeton
am Beispiel ultrahochfesten Betons, Beton- und Stahlbetonbau 6/104 (2009), 357-415.
[15] STAB2D-NL: Programm zur nichtlinearen Berechnung ebener Stabwerke, Version 2.80,
www.u-pfeiffer.de, 2008.
[16] NORM EN 1997-1 EC 7: Entwurf, Berechnung und Bemessung in der Geotechnik Teil 1:
Allgemeine Regeln, Edn 2009-05-15.
[17] NORM EN 1992-1-1: Eurocode 2- Bemessung und Konstruktion von Stahlbeton- und
Spannbetontragwerken, Teil 1-1: Allgemeine Bemessungsregeln und Regeln fr den Hochbau, Edn
2009-07-01.
[18] VBB Richtlinie Faserbeton: sterreichische Vereinigung fr Beton- und Bautechnik, 07/2008.
[19] Pichler, A., Randl, N., Juhart, J., Schneider, W.: Untersuchungen zur Anwendung von UHPFRC Tbbingen bei der zweischaligen Tunnelbauweise, Die Bautechnik 1/87 (2010), 19-32.
988
Architectural Concrete with UHPC for faades and interior

design-recent application in Germany
Thomas Drssler
Benno Drssler GmbH & Co. Bauunternehmung KG, Siegen, Germany
The building company Benno Drssler has been using UHPC as a building material since 2009. This
paper includes a report on three projects which are recent examples of the application of UHPC.
1. New construction of the headquarters of the Ferchau company in Gummersbach. In this project, about
900 m of UHPC fair-faced concrete elements have been installed in a curtain wall construction. These
concrete elements are about 4 cm thick and 3.0 m long, with the height spanning from floor to floor.
2. Cloakroom steles in the Bible Museum Frankfurt, Main
These cloakroom elements, which measure 2.95 m x 1.05 m x 0.05 m, had to be clad in fair-faced
concrete allround, which was achieved by casting the concrete into the vertical formwork gap from the
narrow 5 cm wide side.
3. Staircase exhibit by Dyckerhoff AG made of white UHPC for the Bau 2011 trade exhibition in Munich:
The angulated structure of this staircase, which is only 29 mm thick, has been produced using white
UHPC. Subsequently the precast concrete elements were bonded between two laminated safety glass
cheeks using an epoxy resin adhesive.
Keywords: faades, structural analysis, design, production
1 New construction of the Ferchau headquarters in Gummersbach: fair-faced

curtain wall in UHPC concrete
Design
The design for the new Ferchau headquarters on the old Steinmller site in Gummersbach was
produced by Gerber Architects, Dortmund, and features a basic rectangular footprint. The
rooms are grouped around a central inner courtyard, which is open at the top, and an enclosed
four-storey entrance foyer. The openness on the inside contrasts with the austere glass and
fair-faced concrete element patterns of the faade. The fair-faced concrete elements consist of
approx. 3.0 m high pilaster strips and approx. 1.50 m long parapet elements, with a total of
about 1,120 individual parts (the area measures about 900 m in total), forming the main design
element of the outer faades as well as the faades around the open internal courtyard and the
entrance foyer (see Figures 1 and 2).
Figures 1 and 2: Elevation of north faade and inner courtyard.
989
Concept and detailed design

The architects Ahlbrecht, Felix, Scheidt, Kasprusch were in charge of the faade design, the
overall detailed design and site supervision. According to the scheme design, the faade
specification called for a conventional curtain wall faade with a thickness of up to 12 cm. The
grey colour of the fair-faced concrete was intended to blend in with the neighbouring buildings
on the Steinmller site, which were also built in fair-faced concrete.
However, during the initial discussions with contractors, the following difficulties emerged:
Firstly, it is very difficult to reach the inner courtyard and, especially, the covered four-storey
foyer which has conventional, and hence very heavy, precast concrete components.
Secondly, the space available for the faade panels on the very slender shell structure is
very limited and is further encroached upon by bonding work at the window areas. This makes
the installation of precast concrete curtain wall faades with conventional fixing systems very
difficult.
One solution to the problem is to minimise the thickness of the concrete panels in order to
facilitate the installation in the areas with difficult access (the inner courtyard and roofed -over
areas) and in order to reduce the width required for fixing the panels on the supporting
structure. Having seen sample panels, the architects and the client opted for a design with 4 cm
thick elements made of smooth, grey UHPC with an identical surface finish as conventional fair faced concrete (see Figure 3).
Figure 3: Elevation of roofed-over entrance area (internal).
Technical details
The faade elements are produced and monitored in accordance with DIN V 18500. The
structural calculations for the faade and supporting structure are based on DIN 1055 and DIN
18516. In order to comply with structural requirements, the concrete material must have high
bending tensile strength and be tested accordingly. In this case the the structural calculation
demanded a present bending tensile strength >3.1 N/mm according to DIN 18516-3, 12.99
including a 75% statement of probability and a triple factor of safety which was verified by a test
990
Architectural Concrete with UHPC for faades and interior design-recent application in Germany
certificate according to DIN V 18500 and DIN EN 12390-5. No reinforcements or fibres were
used. The elements are fixed to the shell structure using anchor pins and specially dimensioned
holding and supporting brackets in stainless steel (see Figure 4).
Figure 4: Faade fixing detail.
Production
Owing to the large number of elements required it was possible to produce 20 to 30 elements
per production day. The elements are cast in prefabricated forms which are placed horizontally
on steel tables. Once the panels have been removed from the forms using vacuum lifting
equipment, they are placed in specially designed boxes and stored where they are protected
from the weather. Then they are secured for transport and shipped to the building site.
Characteristic properties of UHPC
Self-compacting UHPC is a very sensitive construction material which during mixing and in
production requires nearly constant environmental conditions and production processes. The
very dense surface shows a very accurate imprint of the formwork surface. Furthermore, some
tests with different forming oils have revealed reactions with resulting discolourations of the
concrete surface. The average tensile strength and compressive strength of the UHPC / HPC
varies according to the composition of the concrete recipe and the requirements of the special
projects. For the structural calculation of faades elements according to DIN V 18500 and DIN
18516-3, 12.99 the bending tensile strength and the ultimate anchor load are relevant and
verified by test certificates.
Installation of elements
Once on site, the holes for the anchor pins are drilled, the elements are lifted into place on
heavy-duty scaffolding, using suitable lifting apparatus, and they are then fixed manually to the
shell structure with the anchor dowels. The reduced weight of the elements made it much easier
to reach and clad the faades of the inner courtyard and the roofed-over four-storey entrance
foyer (see Figure 5 to 7).
991
Figures 5 and 6: View of corner installation and completed corner.
Figure 7: View of north-western faade corner.
Project details:
Building owner: FFI Frank Ferchau Immobilien GmbH
Scheme design: Gerber Architects
Faade design, detailed design and site supervision: Ahlbrecht, Felix, Scheidt, Kasprusch
Structural calculations, production and installation: Benno Drssler GmbH &
Bauunternehmung KG
992
Co.
2 Cloakroom steles in the Bible Museum Frankfurt, Main

Design
As part of the re-design of the new reception and cloakroom area in the Bible Museum in
Frankfurt, Main, the architect Peter Harroider included 8 concrete steles measuring 2.95 x 1.05
x 0.05 m with a fair-faced finish on all surfaces (see Figures 8 and 9).
Figures 8 and 9: View of extension to the Bible Museum and Interior.
Technical details and production

The architects requirements (thickness of only 5 cm and fair-faced finish on all sides) can only
be fulfilled with self-compacting UHPC concrete. The material is filled into the vertical formwork
from the 1.05 m high and 5 cm wide side. The 5.0 cm wide side, which is used for filling, is
slightly larger; this makes it possible to grind down this side and thus achieve an identical
appearance to the other sides with the smooth formwork pattern. Originally, the design called
for a very dark, anthracite-coloured surface. During production tests it was discovered,
however, that the pigmented UHPC is very prone to form pores and cavities when cast in
vertical position. It was therefore decided to produce the steles with a nano-scaled white
cement in natural white. The mixture does not contain reinforcements or fibres (see Figure 10).
Figure 10: Interior view of detail.
Projects details:
Building owner: Frankfurter Bibelgesellschaft e.V.
Design: Peter Harroider, Dreieich
Distribution and structural certificates: durcrete GmbH, Limburg
Production: Benno Drssler GmbH & Co. Bauunternehmung KG, Siegen
993
3 Staircase exhibit by Dyckerhoff AG made of white UHPC for the Bau 2011
trade exhibition in Munich
Design
The design of the staircase exhibit by Luis Ocanto-Arciniegas (Ourstudio Architecture and
Design) is intended to demonstrate the capabilities and yet lightness of the new material UHPC.
The monolithic angulated structure of this filigree precast concrete staircase is only 29 mm
thick. The angulated structure of the stair flight and landing have been bonded between two 20
mm thick staircase cheeks of laminated safety glass. The exhibit is 4.0 m long and 2.0 m high
and comprises three parts: the lower flight, the landing and the upper flight.
Technical details and production
The intention was that, if possible, the angulated structure of the staircase and landing would
have a smooth surface like that of the formwork. This meant that the steps of the staircase had
to be cast in vertical position, with material poured in from the 29 mm wide side and the face on
that narrow side being ground smooth afterwards. As the opening for filling in the concrete was
very narrow, a new mixture of self-compacting UHPC had to be developed. Using the Nanodur
Compound 5941 (white), a fine-grained mixture with a proportion of 1 volume % of micro steel
fibres was developed. The micro steel fibres are intended to increase the ductility of the
material and counteract stresses in case of cracking. In this fine-grain mixture, the 0/2 mm pit
sand and 2/5 mm split material is replaced by < 0.5 mm quartz sand.
The material is cast monolithically in vertical formwork (see Figure 11).
Figure 11: Vertical concrete casting process.
Bonding the glass staircase cheeks

The required tensile bending strength is reached after a curing period of seven days. After that
period it is possible to attach the laminated safety glass cheeks with epoxy resin in order to
stabilise the staircase and provide a safety structure.
Load test
In order to verify the loadbearing capacity of the structure, which was calculated as part of a
theoretical feasibility study, a load test was carried out on a test sample. For this purpose, a
load of 100 kg was applied to each step and a further weight of 100 kg was suspended from the
left-hand and right-hand glass cheek (see Figures 12 and 13). Once this load test had been
passed successfully, a further test was carried out in which the test sample was loaded until
994
breaking point was reached. To do that, two precast concrete components with a total weight of
approx. 7.4 tonnes were placed on a timber structure which was installed on 4 steps. Even
under this weight of 7.4 tonnes, the staircase did not develop any cracks in the angulated
concrete structure or the glass cheeks or show any failure of the bonded joints (see Figures 12
and 13). Meanwhile another load test was carried out at the TU Dresden where the glued
connection collapsed under the weight of approx. 10.8 tonnes (approx. 2 tonnes per step). The
scientific analysis is not yet completed.
Figure 12: Load test with weights.
Figure 13: Load test with precast concrete components.
Exhibit at the trade fair

The three staircase elements were assembled to form the staircase at the trade fair stand. With
its combination of UHPC and glass it offers attractive design options for the future, especially
using the new bonding technology for joining (see Figure 14).
995
Figure 14: Staircase exhibit at the trade fair.
Project details:
Idea and Nanodur Compound 5941: Dyckerhoff AG
Design: Ourstudio, Dortmund
Structural considerations: G.tecz, Kassel
White laminated safety glass: Schott AG, Mainz
Prefabricated staircase components and bonding:
Bauunternehmung KG, Siegen
Benno
Drssler
GmbH
&
Co.
4 Conclusions
The examples of UHPC concrete applications given here are only a small part of the visionary
potential of this material. However, further research and development will be required in order
to develop the full potential of UHPC and make it a realistic choice for commercial and industrial
applications. Further standardisation of applications will only be possible with the close
cooperation of research establishments, together with representatives from industry and users.
996
The First Architectural UHPC Faade Application in North

America
Peter Seibert1, Vic Perry1, Gamal Ghoneim2, Gerald Carson2, Raafat El-Hacha3, Ignacio
Cariaga4, Don Zakariasen4
1:
2:
3:
4:
Lafarge North America Inc. Ductal, Calgary, AB, Canada

DIALOGTM, Calagry, AB, Canada
Dept. of Civil Engineering, University of Calgary, AB, Canada
Lafarge Canada Inc. Precast Division, Calgary, AB, Canada
In North America, precast elements manufactured using ultra-high performance concrete (UHPC) have
been in use in the bridge industry for many years. The use of UHPC is starting to enter into the building
industry with The Atrium project in Victoria, BC as the first building in North America to have an entire
architectural UHPC faade application. The close collaboration between the building owner, building
architect, precast panel designer, precast manufacturer, and UHPC material supplier resulted in highly
durable, attractive, thin, textured and curved UHPC panels that are part of a unitized curtain wall system.
This paper will present a project overview, the impact to the building industry, fundamentals of the UHPC
technology, precast element details, manufacturing, casting procedures, installation ,and the importance
of a strong collaborative effort when introducing highly new innovative solutions are included. The UHPC
precast panel design and validation tests will be reviewed and discussed.
Keywords: UHPC, architectural precast elements, ductile, durability, fiber-reinforced, impermeability
1 Background
Ultra-High Performance Concrete (UHPC) has been in use since the mid-90s and for the last
decade. In North America, it has been gaining popularity in highway and pedestrian [1] bridge
applications [2] in the form of precast girders, full-depth bridge deck panels [3] and in-fill deck
joints [4] [5] [6]. This paper presents The Atrium in Victoria, British Columbia, which is the first
building in North America to have a UHPC faade. This unique project involved the close
collaboration between; panel designer - DIALOGTM, precast manufacturer/UHPC material
(Ductal) supplier - Lafarge Canada Inc., and panel testing agency - Department of Civil
Engineering, University of Calgary. A result of this collaboration is the customized design and
creation of highly durable, attractive, ultra-thin (15 to 20 mm) UHPC cladding panels for a
unitized curtain wall system.
2 Project Highlights
Comparison with the Existing & Conventional Practice
For building facades, architects, building officials and owners traditionally prefer natural
materials such as stone, granite and marble or manmade materials like brick or concrete block.
Exterior Insulation Finishing Systems (EIFS) are also common in the commercial sector but not
suitable for buildings with openings or for integration with other wall units. Natural materials can
resist compressive loads but have limited flexure resistance, no tensile resistance, and are not
suitable for producing curved panels eliminating the need the assembly of multi segments of
straight panels with complicated backing frames. Introducing an irregular surface texture on
panels made of such materials is possible but not practical and would be labor intensive,
extremely costly and result in walls about four times thicker and heavier than the UHPC
cladding utilized in the Atrium project. Additionally, since this project is located in a seismic
zone, the heavier panels penalize natural products.
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Understanding the characteristics of UHPC; very high compressive strengths (up to 250
MPa) associated with ductility, flexural behavior and tensile properties -- in addition to its
superior durability characteristics and flowability/mouldability, made UHPC the logical choice for
use in the seven-storey buildings cladding panels.
Collaborative Team Approach
From the early stages of this project, through to completion, it was important to establish and
maintain an open, strong collaborative team approach, with a high level of trust (between the
owner, architect, designer and fabricator) in order to complete prototyping, obtain approvals and
avoid delays or problems with the project schedule. This team approach is core basis and
key requirement to ensure a successful completion of UHPC projects especially due to the
lack of design guidelines and codes in North America. From this team approach and this
project, several advantages are anticipated to positively shape the North American industry.
Impact on Building and Construction Industries
In a world of increasing challenges, innovative thinking and sustainable leadership, UHPC
architectural cladding provides a superior solution for The Atrium that will be appreciated by the
community for generations to come. As a first of its kind in North America, this project is truly
innovative and offers a positive, new approach for building and construction professionals with
respect to the:
architects creative designs and expectations with unlimited demands on shape and form;
structural engineers ambition for providing safe, durable and maintenance-free structures
and elements of structures;
clients or owners aspiration for a building that is attractive, Green, safe, operable,
economical and profitable (including life cycle costs);
contractors demands for economical designs that can be constructed efficiently and safely
in a timely manner and;
precasters/erectors concerns for ease of construction - making all the above possible.
In addition, UHPC building facades, when associated with proper choice of colors, can
improve building envelope performance with increased potential for sustainability and energy
efficiencies. Furthermore, UHPC will allow reduction in wall thicknesses and overall savings in
material weights and quantities.
3 Project Description
The Atrium building is close to 18,600 m 2 of Class A commercial/retail space, located in
downtown Victoria, British Columbia, Canada (see Fig.1). This seven-storey structure, with an
open atrium at the buildings centre, is targeted to achieve Leadership in Energy and
Environmental Design (LEED) Gold rating through the Canada Green Building Council. Its high
efficiency building envelope, which utilizes UHPC panels designed to be as thin as possible, is
one of the major elements in this consideration.
To reflect the vibrant nature of downtown Victoria and its nearby waters, the building
architect (DAmbrosio Architecture + Urbanism) wanted to create surface texture on the panels
(see Fig. 2), and curved panels at the corners of the building and into and out of the atrium
perfectly utlizing the characteristics of UHPC.
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Figure: 1 Atrium, Victoria.
Figure 2: Surface Texture of all UHPC panels.
4 Circumstances for UHPC Selection

The following circumstances influenced the selection of UHPC for construction of the building
faade:
1. Importance of sustainable construction and life cycle. Most sustainable construction projects
are based on the environmental impact of the employed materials at the time of their
production and construction. Some natural materials have low environmental impact at the
time of production but have a short-term life. For the Atrium project, the goal was to achieve
a balance between this and the life cycle. Considering that concrete is the most common
manmade building material on the planet and a source of industrial emissions, minimizing
the quantities of concrete is a step in
the right direction. Using Ficks law for
ion transportation predictive modelling
(Fig. 3) and results from tests in salt
water exposure, it is estimated that it
would take 1,000 years for UHPC to
have the same level of chloride
penetration as HPC would have in
less than 100 years. With the
expected increase in service life,
sustainable construction is obtained
by utilizing minimum amount of
materials for the intended function.
Figure 3: Predicting Service Life with Chloride Ion
Transportation Predictive Modeling: UHPC vs HPC [7].
2. Minimize weight of the building exterior walls in order to:

a. minimize initial cost as UHPC is more expensive by comparison to normal or high
performance concrete;
b. reduce the seismic forces on the support structure as the City of Victoria has one of
the highest seismic ratings in Canada and;
c. permit ease of assembly into the unitized curtain wall system at an offsite location
and ease of installation on site. Conventional precast panels would have involved
swinging large, heavy panels through the air to pin them on a previously erected wall
system. This process was eliminated since the panels were preassembled into the
wall system.
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3. Maximize panel dimensions to limit the number of joints between the panels and reduce the
number of bridging components to obtain a highly effective building envelope with smaller
wall thickness in comparison with conventional walls.
4. Use a material at the building corners and into and out of the atrium (where curved panels
are required) that allows freedom to form monolithically tight radial curves instead of
smaller, segmented and stilted flat panels which would create more seams and openings,
potentially reducing the buildings energy efficiency.
5. Minimize potential corrosion issues and/or rust stains on the building faade by not allowing
conventional reinforcing steel bars or concrete mixes with steel fibers. For this reason, a
UHPC product containing polyvinyl alcohol (PVA) fibers and no metallic reinforcement was
used resulting in low impermeability.
6. Use a white color UHPC mix to enhance the energy efficiencies and have the panels reflect
the suns heat energy to reduce the cooling load during service life.
5 UHPC Panel Geometry and Design

The faade design utilized 690 precast panels of flat, curved and partially curved panels. All
panels were 1,300 mm high and varied in width from 750 to 2,150 mm with majority 1,300 mm
wide (typical panel shape is depicted in Fig. 4). The surface texture or face ribs, which are
roughly 5mm deep and vary in width (10-20 mm), are 10-20 mm apart in irregular form as
shown in Figure 2.
Figure 4: Typical Panel Elevation and Side View
Principal stresses and strains were used in the section design and the finite element method
was used to predict the panel behavior and take into account the different thicknesses of each
panel. Thin shell elements were used to model the panels and obtain the internal forces and
principal stresses [8] [9], which were then. compared to the UHPC mechanical properties [10]
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[11]. The lateral displacement of the panels was limited to span/600, which played a major role
in selection of the panel thickness due to connections with the glass units.
Another factor that played a role in the geometry and thickness design of the panels was the
need to thicken the panels around the perimeter to allow for proper sealing of the vertical joints
between the precast panels and the horizontal joints between the precast and the zinc and
glass panels. The increased perimeter thickness and surface texture caused a ribbing effect
that enhanced the behavior of the panels after cracking and in the inelastic range of the
behavior, which was apparent from the exhibited ductility during load testing.
The panels in their final position support their self weight as well as wind loads and transmit the
seismic forces to the backing frame. In addition, due to the different thicknesses within the
panel and the configuration of the face and back ribs, in-plane forces develop from arching
action. To reduce such forces in-plane movements and volume changes due to temperature
effects were accommodated in the support angles that are part of the backing frame; designed
by the curtain wall manufacturer. The connections (Fig. 5) to the backing or support system
were simplified through the use of bolted connections, utilizing commercially available inserts
placed in the thickened perimeter of the panels. The inserts, located 30 mm from the top and
bottom edges of the panel, are used for attachment of the zinc and glass panels. Fig. 6 depicts
curved panels during construction and fully installed.
Figure 5: Precast Panel Connections.
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Figure 6: Curved Panels during Construction and Fully Installed.
6 Validation of UHPC Panel Design [12]

Due to the limited experience of using UHPC with PVA fibers in structural applications in North
America [13], the structural design of the panels was validated via full scale testing at the
University of Calgary. Fig. 7 shows a schematic of a panel testing arrangement and panel under
wind pressure and under wind suction loads. After successful validation of the wind and suction
loading, the panel was loaded to failure as shown in Fig. 8. The testing concluded that panel
design could safely be carried out using elastic finite element and section design can be b ased
on material models that rely on manufacturers and published data.
Figure 7: Testing Schematic.
Figure 8: Failure of Typical Panel.
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The amount of ductility exhibited by the panels during testing as shown in Fig. 9 indicate the
panels can safely support much higher loads than required however the lateral displacement
would not be acceptable for connections with the glass; one of the main factors in the selection
of the panel /rib thicknesses.
Figure 9. Lateral Displacement of 1700 mm wide Panel.
7 Manufacturing, Formulation and Casting of UHPC Panels

Manufacturing at Lafarges precast facility in Calgary involved a displacement casting method in
order to produce a total of 690 panels of flat and curved shapes. The surface texture on the
panels was replicated from the architects own hand-scored pattern in the master mould.
Lafarges Ductal-AN1300FW UHPC [14] formulation was tailored for use in manufacturing
the precast faade panels. This formulation consisted of Ductal Premix B3 (2075 kg/m3),
water (156 kg/m3), superplasticizer (39 kg/m3) and 12 mm Polyvinyl Alcohol (PVA) fibers (55
kg/m3). Fine silica sand, cement, silica fume and ground quartz are blended into the Ductal
Premix B3. PVA fibers were used instead of steel fibers to avoid any possibilities for rust
stains. Organic fibers were also preferred from a handling point of view for handling/safety point
of view as steel fibers may cause injury and scratches. From structural point of view, UHPC with
steel fibers would have been preferred as it exhibits better tension stiffening effects and
increased ductility after cracking in comparison with concrete produced with PVA fibers. Fig . 10
shows one panel during casting and the PVA fibers are visible as the thin white lines in the mix.
Figure 10: Panel Casting and Forms.
The front face texture of the panels was created by allowing the project architect to reflect his
creativity by hand-scoring a clay panel which was then used to produce a negative plug and use
as form face on all panels. This process allowed the architect to replicate his vision of the
building faade into the panels. The surface texture replication was possible due to the
mouldability, flowability and self consolidation properties of UHPC. Casting of the panels utilized
displacement process [15] and all the panels produced on this project appear to have been
hand carved (Fig. 2 ). For economical reasons, simple, non-complicated formworks were made
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using plywood panels and rigid insulation. Steel formwork and other casting techniques have
been used to successfully produce complicated shapes [16].
8 Conclusions
The innovative UHPC cladding solution, as successfully demonstrated by the Atrium, is
expected to lead the way towards utilization of similar panels in future building facades and
efficiently utilize UHPC material properties in architectural design. This project is the frontier in
shaping the building industry and shows the required ground work required of having a close
collaboration between the building owner, building architect, precast panel designer, precast
manufacturer and UHPC supplier. The result will be long-lasting and sustainable structures that
require less materials and unique designs with ultra-thin panel systems, complex forms,
textures and shapes.
References
[1] Ghoneim, G.A.M.; Perry, V.H.; Carson, G.: Ultra-High Performance Fibre Reinforced Concrete in
Footbridges. Proceedings of 8th International Conference on Short & Medium Span Bridges, CSCE,
Niagara Falls, Canada, Paper 346, pp. 1 11, 2010.
[2] Perry, V.H.; Seibert, P.J.: The Use of UHPFRC (Ductal ) for bridges in North America: The
Technology, Applications and Challenges Facing Commercialization. 2nd International Symposium
on UHPC, Kassel, Germany, pp. 815 822, 2008.
[3] Aaleti, S.R.; Sritharan, S.; Bierwagen, D.: Moore, B.P.: Precast UHPC Waffle Deck Panels and
Connections for Accelerated Bride Construction. PCI & 57th Annual National Bridge Conference, Salt
Lake City, Utah, 2011.
[4] Perry, V.H.; Weiss, G.: Innovative Field Cast UHPC Joints for Precast Bridge Decks Design,
Prototype Testing and Projects. AFGC Designing and Building with UHPFRC: State of the Art &
Development, Marseille, France, 2009.
[5] Rajlic, B.; Murray,P.; Dykstra, D.; Krisciunas, R.: The Eagle River Bridge Superstructure
Replacement. Proceedings of 8th International Conference on Short & Medium Span Bridges,
CSCE, Niagara Falls, Canada, Paper 105, pp. 1 9, 2010.
[6] Perry, V.H.; Royce, M.: Innovative Field Cast UHPC Joints for Precast Bridge Decks (Side-By-Side
Bulb-Tees), Village of Lyons, NY Design, Prototyping, Testing and Construction. PCI & 56th Annual
National Bridge Conference & 3 rd fib International Congress, Washington, DC, 2010.
[7] Thomas, M.D.A, Performance of Reactive Powder Concrete in a Marine Environment, ACI Annual
Conference, Chicago, IL, USA, 2010.
[8] CPCI Design Manual 4 Precast and Prestressed Concrete, Canadian Prestressed Concrete
Institute, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada, 2007.
[9] National Research Council of Canada, National Building Code of Canada, Ottawa, Canada, 2005.
[10] SETRA, Association Franaise de Genie Civil (AFGC), Interim Recommendations Ultra High
Performance Fibre-Reinforced Concrete, 2002.
[11] Gowripalan, N., and Gilbert, R.I.: Design Guidelines for RPC Prestressed Concrete Beams, School
of Civil and Environmental Engineering, The University of New South Wales, 2000.
[12] Ghoneim, G., El-Hacha, R., Carson, G., and Zakariasen, D.: Precast Ultra-High Performance
Concrete Replaces Stone and Granite on Building Faade, Proceeding of the 3 rd Fib Congress in
Washington, D.C., Precast/Prestressed Concrete Institute, Chicago, IL, 2010.
[13] Vicenzino, E.; Culham, G.; Perry, V.H., Zakariasen, D., Chow, T.S: First Use of UHPFRC in Thin
Precast Concrete Roof Shell for Canadian LRT Station, PCI Journal, September, 2005.
[14] D-AN1300FW, Material Data Sheet by Lafarge Precast, Calgary, Canada, 2009.
[15] Perry, V.H.; Seibert, P.J.: Equipment and Production Techniques with UHPC, CPI (Concrete Plant
International), Issue 2, April, 2011.
[16] Henry, K.A., Seibert, P.J.: Manufacturing UHPC Architectural Products, CPI (Concrete Plants
International), Issue 5, October, 2011.
1004

Rogier Friso van Nalta1, Tommy Bk Hansen2
1: Pieters Bouwtechniek Delft, The Netherlands
2: Hi-Con A/S, Denmark
The first Dutch project to be realized with Hi-Con Balconies, the housing project Amber in Delft for
Woonbron Ontwikkelbedrijf by architectural firm Change.NL in cooperation with Mecanoo, introduces
very thin cantilevered balconies (65 mm) made from Compact Reinforced Composite (CRC) on the Dutch
market. The structural design of the balconies was made in cooperation between Pieters Bouwtechniek
and the Danish producer Hi-Con, based on Hi-Cons extensive experience with thin CRC balconies in
Denmark and adjusted by Pieters Bouwtechniek to fit Dutch codes and construction praxis.
The balconies are pre-fabricated in Denmark, and connected to the main structure through small
consoles in-situ cast into a typical Dutch tunnel segment (walls and ceiling of an apartment cast in-place
in one cast) by the contractor Era Contour. This is the first time Hi-Con CRC balconies are used in this
way and the basic principles are explained.
Keywords: CRC, UHPC, balconies, full scale test
1 Introduction
The housing project Amber in Delft, consisting of 159 appartments, is the first Dutch project to
be realized with Hi-Con Balconies. These are very thin balconies made from Compact
Reinforced Composite (CRC). CRC is a concrete mixture designed for use in pre-cast
elements, combining high amounts of conventional reinforcement with large amounts of steel
fibers. This results in a concrete that is not only very strong but also very ductile and durable.
The structural design of the balconies has been made by Pieters Bouwtechniek in
cooperation with the Danish producer Hi-Con who has extensive experience with thin balconies
in Denmark. The Danish principles have been adjusted by Pieters Bouwtechniek to fit the Dutch
building codes and construction praxis.
Compact Reinforced Composite
Compact Reinforced Composite (CRC) is an Ultra High Performance Concrete (UHPC)
developed by Aalborg Portland A/S in 1986 [1]. CRC has high compressive strengths (between
100 and 400 MPa) and is extremely durable. With CRC concrete, pre-cast elements can be
reinforced with high percentages of conventional reinforcement in combination with large
amounts of steel fibers (between 2 and 6 vol. %). The concrete is not only very strong (hence
not simply an Ultra High Strength Concrete, or UHSC), it is also very ductile and durable. CRC
structures can therefore be designed with very small sections, and still provide higher safety
and longer service life than conventional concrete.
The composition of CRC can be varied by applying various kinds of additives and fibers.
CRC has been tested and researched in several international research projects [2,3,4,5,6,7]
regarding bending, shear, fatigue, corrosion, fire, creep and shrinkage behavior. The type and
amount of fibers is determined per project depending on the desired ductility and design of the
elements. For the Amber housing project, corrosion resistant steel fibers were used.
Using this material, Hi-Con has more than 10 years experience in designing, manufacturing
and supplying ultra-thin balconies, staircases, columns etc. in Denmark. The application outside
Denmark has been limited however.
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2 Dutch balcony design

Traditional Dutch balconies have drainage pipes and a slope towards the facade. However, to
minimize the thickness of the balconies it was beneficial to direct the slope outwards, which is
the typical design in Denmark. Although everyone was skeptical at first it turned out to be
possible within the Dutch rules and resulted in some extra advantages such as the avoidance of
clocked drainage pipes. Because of the inverted slope the balconies could be designed with a
thickness of 90 mm at the faade and 65 mm at the balcony fronts.
Dutch building method
The structure is built using a tunnel formwork, which is one of the most widely used building
methods in The Netherlands. In this building method the walls and ceiling of an apartment are
cast in one cast. Then the form work is extracted the next morning. By applying heat the
concrete reaches a strength of 14 N/mm 2 after approximately 8 hours.
The balconies are connected to the main structures with 600 mm wide consoles spaced
approximately 1,8 m apart. The structure of the building consists of 250 mm thick concrete
C28/35 walls and 300 mm thick floors spanning 7,2 m.
At first a design was made in which the balconies could be connected and adjusted after
construction of the main structure. However because of the tight budget the connection was
simplified to a connection that was cast directly into the floor. To create the transition from high
strength to low strength concrete the consoles were designed with a CRC transition ridge. The
consoles were also used to raise the balcony to the desired finished floor level (see Fig. 1).
Because of the cast in place connection, the balconies had to be cast simultaneously with
the floors and walls. Usually casting stiff prefab element directly with the tunnel i s avoided to
make sure the floor is not supported by the prefab instead of the other way around. In this case
the balcony was designed with a high stiffness in the cantilevered direction but a lower stiffness
in the transverse direction. Therefore the balconies could follow the deflection of the tunnel form
work and the floor after extraction of the form work without supporting the floor. The tunnel
formwork was elongated to accommodate the placement of the balcony.
In this way, the Danish and Dutch construction preferences were merged into a new system
suitable for application in Holland.
Two basic types of balconies were used in the project, both using the same principle of castin 600 mm consoles. The largest have a cantilevered length of 2.6 m.
Adapting to dutch building code
There are no codes for designing with ultra high strength concretes in The Netherlands. Even
so, the balconies have been calculated according to the Eurocode including specific rules from
the Dutch NAD with some exceptions because of the specific material properties of CRC. The
structure of the building has been calculated according to the Dutch code NEN6720.
Translating the Danish experience from practical use into documentation acceptable to the
Dutch authorites has been a major part of the work related to the process of introducing Hi-Con
balconies to the Dutch market. Only through close cooperation between Hi-Con and Pieters
Bouwtechniek has this been possible.
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Figure 1: Principle section of the Hi-Con balconies adapted to Dutch building style.
3 Balcony Test
To practice construction of the balconies, the contractor, Era Contour, decided to make a test
apartment. To have more advantage of this test it was decided to use it as a load test as well, to
proof the strength, stiffness and safety of the balconies and the connection to the floor a full
scale test of the new building system and the balconies.
Two full size test balconies, each 7.2 m in length and a 1.875 m cantilevered length, were
cast into a traditional Dutch tunnel segment and tested. The balconies were succesivly loaded
with sand bags each weighing 1500 kg. The first balcony was loaded to 5 times the design live
load of 300 kg/m2 (see fig. 2). Then a section with a single console of the second balcony was
cut free and loaded with 8 times the design live load. Even this extreme loading did not result in
failure of the balcony or the connection to the tunnel segment, although cracks started to
appear in the consoles and the deflection became noticeable.
Figure 2: Test balcony loaded with 121.5 tonnes sand bags (18 tonnes total load), or 5 times the design load.
1007
The deflection of the floor and the balcony was measured from start of construction up unto and
through the loading of the balconies. The measurements even showed how the structure
deflected during construction. Because of the heating at first the floor actually deflected
upwards due to the elongation of the steel formwork.
The measurements were compared to a Danish and a Dutch calculation according to the
Eurocode (see fig. 3). The main difference between the two calculations is the way in which
they incorporate the effect of shear force on the deflection. The measurements showed good
correlation with the calculations, both regarding the general behavior of the structure and for the
balconies isolated. Both methods overestimate the deflection and the Dutch method is a little
more conservative then the Danish method.
Figure 3: Comparison of measured and calculated deflection.
Balustrades
The balustrades are connected to the balconies with stainless steel inserts in the 65 mm thick
front edge of the balconies. To proof the strength of these inserts a series of pull out tests were
performed in connection with the full scale test of the balconies. Instead of the calculated
design load of 30 kN normally applied by hi-Con, the inserts failed at app. 90 kN.
This means that even with the very limited material thickness of the balconies, balustrades
can be fully and safely supported using only a few fixtures along the edges, allowing for slim
and elegant balustrade designs.
4 Construction process
With different practices in Denmark and Holland, mutual expectations between Hi-Con and the
contractor Era Contour had to be established. Through a constructive dialoque in the initial part
of the project and continued close cooperation between Hi-Con and Pieters Bouwtechniek,
solutions to the various practical obstacles that arose were found, such as maximum transport
sizes of the elements, reinforcement assembly between pre-cast and in-situ cast concrete, etc.
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Allignment of the balcony front edges

In typical 30 cm thick balconies in Holland, a height difference of 1 or 2 cm is hardly visible.
With Hi-Con balconies of only 6.5 cm, this is accentuated because of the small thickness at the
edge. To minimize height differences the balconies are therefore coupled with a steel plate right
after extraction of the tunnel form work to align the balcony edges, when necessary.
Even though the tolerances are limited, the balconies are generally very well aligned directly
after demoulding (see fig. 4). This precision casting is only possible due to the combined
calculations of Pieters Bouwtechniek and the experienced and skilled crew of Era Contour.
Because of the creep development behavior of CRC, the forces on the foot plate relatively
quickly decrease with time. After 2 to 3 months, the temporary couple plate is replaced by the
permanent foot plate of the balustrade, ensuring that the balconies remain aligned throughout
the service life of the building.
Figure 4: Balconies after completed casting into the tunnel segments with aligned 65 mm thin front edges.
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5 Conclusions
Through close cooperation between Pieters Bouwtechniek and Hi-Con, it has been possible to
adapt proven calculation and construction practices of ultra-thin Hi-Con balconies in Denmark to
the current Dutch codes and building practices, and in doing so creating a new balcony system
suitable for application in Holland.
Close cooperation with Dutch contractor Era Contour throughout planning and design has
resulted in a successful merging of the Dutch tunnel casting system and pre-cast UHPC Hi-Con
balconies.
The strength, stiffness and safety of the balconies and the system in general has been
proven through full scale testing, as well as extensive calculations.
References
[1] Bache, H.H.: Compact Reinforced Composite, Basic Principles, CBL Report No. 41, Aalborg
Portland, 87 pp., Aalborg 1987.
[2] Nielsen, C.V.: Presentation of Cyclic Load Tests of Rebars Anchored in Steel Fiber Reinforced HighStrength Composite, Fatigue of Concrete Structures (ed. L.P. Hansen), Department of Building
Technology and Structural Engineering, Aalborg University, pp. 65-71, Aalborg 1993.
[3] Andrade, M.C.; Frias, M.; Aarup, B.: Durability of Ultra-High Strength Concrete: Compact Reinforced
Composite, BHP96 Fourth International Symposium on Utilization of High-Strength/HighPerformance Concrete, Paris 1996.
[4] Nielsen, C.V.; Olesen, J.F.; Aarup, B.: Effect of fibers on the bond strength of high strength
concrete; BHP96 Fourth International Symposium on Utilization of High-Strength/High-Performance
Concrete, pp. 1209-1218, Paris 1996.
[5] Klinghoffer, O.; Aarup, B.: Effect of Microcracks on Durability of Ultra High Strength Concrete, 4th
International Symposium on Corrosion of Reinforcement in Concrete Construction, Cambridge 1996 .
[6] Aarup, B.; Jensen, B.C.: Bond Properties of High-Strength Fibre Reinforced Concrete, Bond and
Development of Reinforcement, ACI-publication SP-180, pp. 459-472, 1998.
[7] Juvas, K.; Jumppanen, U.-M.; Aarup, B.: High Performance Concrete at High Temperatures,
Proceedings of Nordic Concrete Research Meeting, Reykjavik 1999.
1010
Precast thin shells made of UHPFRC for a large roof in a

wastewater treatment plant near Paris
Gilles Delplace, Ziad Hajar, Alain
Eiffage TP, Neuilly s/ Marne, France
Simon
In order to upgrade the existing waste water treatment plant of Achres, near Paris, a construction project
was attributed by the owner SIAAP to the firm Eiffage TP, after a call of tender. The extension plant project
includes a particular process of water biologic treatment called Biostyr, a large tank in which water is
filtered by micro-balls made of polystyrene. Due to its exceptional mechanical and durability properties, the
BSI, the UHPFRC developed by Eiffage TP, was chosen for the designing of thin architectural structures in
such an aggressive area. Not less than 180 precast and pre-stressed thin shells were necessary to cover
the whole 3500m of the Biostyr tank, according to the drawings of high waves imagined by the architect
Luc Weizmann.
This article presents the main steps of the project: the designing of the different structures, the suitability
tests performed to validate the casting method of the elements and to verify the K coefficients (real fibres
orientation) taken into account, the concreting and pre-stressing of the elements in the precast factory, and
finally the implementation methods of the structure on the construction site of the waste water treatment
plant.
Keywords: Ultra High Performance Fibre Reinforced Concrete, thin shells, mechanical behaviour, presstressed elements, K factor, suitability tests, durability properties.
1 Introduction
The Seine Aval sewage treatment plant operated by SIAAP is located on the banks of the Seine
river downstream of Paris. To have it upgraded to the standards of the European Commissions
UWW Directive, SIAAP awarded a design-and-build contract to a consortium made up of
Eiffage TP, OTV, LWA, and BG Ingnieurs Conseils. The upgrade is based chiefly on use of the
Biostyr biological aerated filter and Biosep separation technologies for biofiltration and
treatment respectively. It will increase the plants treatment capacity to 1,700,000 m3 per day.
The roofing over the new tanks, totalling 3500 m, was designed to be built using ultra-highperformance fibre-reinforced concrete (UHPFRC). The post-tensioned precast shells were
made with BSI, an UHPFRC developed by Eiffage TP. Architect Luc Weitzmann chose
UHPFRC because it meets three important criteria: high strength, allowing structural
slenderness, superior durability, a particularly important criterion given the aggressive
environment (the vapour above the Biostyr units has high H2S concentrations); and aesthetics,
achieving a hard, mineral appearance.
This paper describes the detailed design of the roofing which consists of a large number of
precast UHPFRC units: waveform shells, flat shells, framing supporting the shells, and screen
elements at the sides.
2 Description of the precast units

The tank roofing consists of a total of 260 precast units: 160 curved, waveform shells, 20 flat
shells, and 80 structural frames supporting the curved shells.
The plan-view dimensions of the curved shells are 11.83m x 1.8m, and their longitudinal
profile is a wave form with an amplitude of 2.81 m. Structurally, their static design is that of
statically determinate beams with a span of 10.63 m. In their typical cross-section (see Fig. 1)
each shell consists of a thin (5 cm-thick) flange and a central rib with a downstand of 20 cm,
which represents a structural slenderness of 1:42 and an equivalent depth of 81mm.
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Figure 1: Cross-section of curved shell.
The inherent strength of UHPFRC, and particularly its ductility under tensile force due to the
steel fibres it contains, means that no passive reinforcement is used. Moreover, each unit is
prestressed longitudinally with a DSI 3T15S system comprising 3 greased and sheathed
monostrand tendons wich follows the curve of the shell. The both ends of the shells, where the
prestress is introduced and distributed, called for very careful study. The design of this area is
particularly complex since that is also the location of the end cantilever transmitting the load of
the shells to their bearings (see Fig. 2), and therefore subject to support reactions.
Figure 2: End block of curved shells.
The top end of each curved shell is supported by a UHPFRC portal frame (see Photos 13 and
14 ). These 80 precast units contain no reinforcement, neither passive nor prestressed. The
vertical members of the frames are 2.8m high, with a cross-section measuring 120x180 mm.
The 20 flat shells (slabs) are to the same plan dimensions as the curved shells and share the
same static design. However, they must withstand higher service loads than the curved shells
for they are trafficked by maintenance staff and machines. Their cross-section is that of a
double-ribbed slab with a total depth of 370 mm and a 50 mm-thick flange (see Fig. 3), which
represents an equivalent depth of 119 mm. Each rib is prestressed with the same DSI 3T15S
system of greased and sheathed monostrands.
Figure 3: Cross-section of flat shell.
1012
Precast thin shells made of UHPFRC for a large roof in a wastewater treatment plant near Paris
In addition to the elements already described, 70 white BSI sidescreen elements were
manufactured to wall in the Biostyr building (see Fig. 4). They consist of two beams with
vertical members between. Three elements are joined together to make a screen having the
length of the shell elements (10.63 m). The upper beams, which carry the horizontal forces
exerted on the vertical screen members, are connected by steel assemblies designed to
transmit the flexural moments induced by
horizontal actions, and the assembly of
three units is secured at each end by the
frames supporting the top ends of the
curved shells. The lower beam rests
directly on the perimeter wall of the tanks.
.
Figure 4: Layout of screen units.
It was to simplify precasting and transport that the sidescreens were divided into three panels.
All three types were cast from a single mould.
3
BSI concrete
BSI is an UHPFRC developed and patented by the Eiffage TP group. Previous projects built
with BSI include the two pioneering Bourg-ls-Valence bridges [4], the canopy over the Millau
Viaduct toll gates [5], and the Pinel and Sarcelles road bridges [6].
The main characteristics of the BSI mix used for this application are as follows:
Ingredients of BSI (for 1m3)
Premix (*):
2296 kg
Superplasticizer
39.6 kg
Water
185 kg
Steel fibres (Lf=20mm; = 0.3mm)
195 kg
The steel fibres are straight and made from very high tensile steel
* The premix is a combination of all the dry ingredients (cement, silica fume, sand, coarse aggregate).
Mechanical characteristics of the BSI mix

Density
2.75 t/m3
Characteristic 28-day compressive strength
fc28
165 MPa
Characteristic 28-day tensile strength of concrete matrix
ft28
8.8 MPa
Characteristic 28-day tensile strength of fibre-reinforced

concrete
bt-28
8.04 MPa
Mean Youngs modulus at 28 days
Ei28
57 GPa
Autogenous shrinkage strain at infinite time
re-
550 m/m
Drying shrinkage strain at infinite time
rd-
150 m/m
Basic creep and drying creep (loading time t1=48h)
Kfl
1.00
1013
The diagram in Figure 5 shows the design

constitutive law for the UHPFRC, and how it takes
account of tensile strength. It can be seen that
post-cracking behaviour (after the tensile elastic
phase) is expressed not as strain but as widening
of the crack.
(strain)
Figure 5 : Constitutive law of BSI.
4 Construction-design studies
All the verifications of the units are based on the 2002 interim French recommendations for
UHPFRC published by an AFGC-SETRA work group. In the case of the shells, since the
structure is prestressed only longitudinally, different verification principles apply, depending on
whether transverse or longitudinal behaviour is addressed.
The verifications for longitudinal behaviour are based on the French BPEL code [2] (limit
state design of prestressed concrete structures), considering class II for limit stresses of the
materials. Normal tensile stresses at SLS are thus limited to the tensile strength of the matrix
(see Table 1).
Table 1: Prestressed elements
SLS normal stresses limited.
Compressive
stress
smax [Mpa] =
32.17
< 81
Tensile stress
smin [Mpa] =
-4.98
> -7
Compressive
stress
smax [Mpa] =
25.61
< 99
Tensile stress
smin [Mpa] =
-6.19
> -8.8
Interim phases
Rare SLS
Top face
Bottom face
The ultimate resistance bending moment (see Fig. 6) are calculated using the characteristic
constitutive law of the cracked concrete, with a partial safety factor bf = 1.3 for tensile stress.
Mresistant
rsistant[kNm]
[kN.m] // Ouverture
de fissures
[0,1mm]
M
Crack width
[0.1 mm]
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0
10
12
Figure 6: Resistant moment of the typical section of a shell versus crack width.
Transversally, since forces are taken solely by the fibre-reinforced concrete, the verifications
refer to Class IV of French UHPFRC recommendations [1], which means the tensile behaviour
of the concrete can be taken into account even if there is no active or passive reinforcing steel.
A feature of the curved shells is that they do not bear on their ribs. At each end they have an
unprestressed cantilevered bearing section where the flange is simply thickened. This design,
which is unusual in that there is no reinforcement at all in such a critical zone, was necessary
1014
because of the very limited freeboard of the tank walls and the difficulty in shaping them to
house the ribs. It was the strength contribution of the steel fibres which made this cantilevered
bearing design possible. Verification of the cantilever included finite-element modelling of the
end block. Moreover, the design was validated by laboratory tests on specimens sampled from
a prototype shell as part of the suitability testing procedure.
The absence of any reinforcement in the area of introduction of prestress was validated by
testing; laboratory tests on a BSI anchor block demonstrated a safety factor of 3 for failure of
the block.
Suitability testing
Application of French AFGC-SETRA recommendations
[1] [3], means a number of preliminary tests must be
carried out to check that the materials and equipment
used under actual site conditions are consistent with
the design assumptions. Consequently a representative
sample of the actual structural element was built (see
Fig. 7) to validate concreting methods and equipment
and to measure K factors representing the distribution
and orientation of fibres in the structure.
Prisms sawn from the trial specimen served to verify
the performance of the concrete in two characteristic
zones (see Fig. 8). The principles for prism sampling
are presented below.
Typical section
Figure 7: Trial element after test prism

sampling.
Bearing cantilever
Figure 8: Representative model - sempling positions.
1015
The K factor values determined by flexural strength testing (6 tests for each zone) are given
below.
Typical
section (Rib)
Bearing
cantilever
Default AFGC
values
Global effects
K = 1.20
K = 1.35
1.25
Local effects
K = 1.65
K = 1.55
1.75
Table 2 : K factor values.
In comparison, the default values in the AFGC-SETRA recommendations are K = 1.25 for
global effects and K = 1.75 for local effects.
5 Precasting of BSI units

The architects desire to have a high-quality finish to both the top and bottom surfaces of the
flange, the curvature of the elements, and the fact that BSI is a self-compacting concrete
meant horizontal casting was not an option for the curved shells. The units were therefore cast
vertically, on edge. Given the large number of times the mould was to be used, plus the
geometrical accuracy required, a steel mould was built (see Fig. 9).
The concrete was placed without vibration and was not heat treated. The mould was
removed as soon as the cylinder compressive strength reached 35 MPa, i.e. after about twenty
hours in cold weather. With temperatures of 20C or more, the strength reached 60 MPa after
20 hours, so a daily casting cycle was possible.
Figure 9: Steel mould for curved units.
Figure 10: Handling after form removal.
The strength of the BSI at the time of mould removing was sufficient for shells to be handled
and moved to the storage yard (Fig. 10). The shells were prestressed in the casting yard, in the
vertical position in the case of curved units (Fig. 11). The compressive strength required for
prestressing was 130 MPa.
Figure 11: Storage before prestressing.
Figure 12: Flat shell with textured top face.
1016
The flat shells were cast horizontally, but upside-down since the top surface is to be
trafficked and is therefore textured. Using a turning lifting beam, they were turned over and
removed from the mould once the concrete compressive strength had reached 50 MPa.
The screen panels of the Biostyr building
walls were cast in two identical
polyurethane moulds cast from the same
reverse mould. The panels were
produced by placing stop-ends at
predetermined points in the polyurethane
moulds.
The moulds could be removed as soon
as the compressive strength reached
75 MPa.
Figure 13: Removing a screen unit from the mould.
6 Erection of precast units

The curved shells were carried to the construction site by truck. There a cradle turned them into
the horizontal position (see Fig. 14 and 15) and a crane with a special lifting beam (see Fig. 16
and 17) lifted them into place on the building.
Figure 14: Unloading from truck.
Figure 15: Curved shell on turning cradle.
:
Figures 16 and 17: Erection by crane with lifting beam.
The flat shells were transported face-up. The supporting frames and screen units were also
transported in the horizontal position and turned to the vertical by means of a lifting sling placed
around their top beams.
1017
Figures 18 and 19: Erection of screen panels.
Figures 20 and 21: Precast BSI shell roofing over Biostyr tanks.
7 Conclusion
The roofing-over of Biostyr tanks with precast BSI units is another pioneering development
demonstrating that UHPFRC provides new solutions combining lightness, durability, and quality
aspect.
References
[1] Btons fibrs ultra-hautes performances, Recommandations Provisoires, AFGC-SETRA, January,
2002.
[2] BPEL 91 rvis 99, Rgles techniques de conception et de calcul des ouvrages et constructions en
bton prcontraint suivante la mthode des tats limites, Fasc. 62 (Titre premier, s ection 2 du
CCTG), avril 1999.
[3] SIMON A. : Designing and building with UHPFRC State of the art and development, Edited by
Franois Toulemonde and Jacques Resplendino. (ISTE and WILEY) pp.723-741, 2011.
[4] Hajar Z., Simon A., Lecointre D., Petitjean J. : Construction of the first road bridges made of UHPC,
3rd International Symposium on HPC, Orlando, 2003.
[5] Thibaux T, Hajar Z, Simon A : Thin shell structure over the Millau Viaduc tolls gates, Symposium
FIB, Naples 2006.
[6] Thibaux T.: UHPFRC Prestressed beams as an alternative to composite steel-concrete decks The
example of Pinel bridge, Symposium FIB, Amesterdam 2008.
1018
Design of Grouted Connections for Offshore Wind Energy

Converters and Composite Structures using UHPC
Steffen Anders
Institute of Structural Engineering, Department Construction Materials, Universitt Wuppertal, Germany
Grouted Connections are a well known connection technology for offshore applications. Design
approaches of existing standards allow for a valuation of the maximal load-bearing capacity but will not
answer the question about stresses in the steel members. For this reason nowadays complex finiteelement calculations are made for Offshore Wind Energy Converters. The following contribution
introduces a design model and compares it with experimentally determined values, allowing for the
estimation of stresses in shear-keys, pile and sleeve depending on the compressive strength of the used
grout materials and the connection geometry. It is discussed, which currently open questions should be
addressed in order to improve new designs and which questions should be answered in order to
successfully transfer this grouting technology to composite structures onshore.
Keywords: Grouted Connection, Design Model, Offshore Wind Energy, High-Performance Grout
1 Introduction
In many fields Grouted Connections are an established construction method for connecting
steel tubes using grout material. The biggest field of successful application of Grouted Joints or
Grouted Connections is the offshore oil- and gas industry where application started in the
seventies (70s) of the last century. In comparison to the oil- and gas industry, Grouted Joints for
Offshore Wind Energy Converters are firstly constructed with a lower radial stiffness of the
steel-tubes and secondly the fatigue loads are more important.
In the 90s this connection technology has been transferred to Offshore Wind Energy
Converters, see Figure 1. The monopile in Figure 1a) illustrates that besides axial loads the
connection can be subjected to bending moments as dominating load. Due to a reduced radial
stiffness compared to structures of the oil- and gas industry in combination with the slim design
and low dead weight of Offshore Wind Energy Converters fatigue loads increase, specially
alternating loads.
The following contribution presents an enhanced design model for grouted connections,
based on experiences of the oil- and gas industry and own tests. It allows for the estimation of
the stresses in the shear-keys, pile and sleeve depending on the compressive strength of the
grout material.
2 Load-Bearing Behaviour of Grouted Connections

Fundamentals
The load-bearing behaviour is influenced by three major parameters: the geometry of the
connection, the used grout material and the loads. As the following article presents a design
model to evaluate the load-bearing capacity of statically loaded connections, the effects of
fatigue loadings are not considered. Figure 2 shows different types of failures and the loadbearing behaviour of a grouted connection, depending on the design. In the connection on the
left hand side without shear-keys failure is caused by exceeding the shear strength in the
interface between grout material and steel tube. As the shear strength is more or less
independent of the compressive strength, the quality of the grout material is of minor
importance. On the right hand side of Figure 2 is shown the usual design of grouted
connections for Offshore Wind Energy Converters with predominantly axial loadings. The
1019
corresponding stresses are transferred by compression struts between the shear-keys on pile
and sleeve which lead to a multiplication of the transferable loads compared to the connections
without shear-keys [4]. If the multiaxial compressive strength of the grout material is exceeded
on the stressed side of the shear-keys, irreversible deformations occur and a void will form
behind the shear-key. This goes along with considerable relative desplacements between the
steel tubes. The strength of the grout material is therefore an essential criterion for the loadbearing capacity and failure of these connections.
Sealevel
Sealevel
Sealevel
seabed
seabed
a) Monopile
seabed
b) Tripod
c) Jacket
application
of grouted
connections
Einsatzbereiche
von Grouted
Joints
Figure 1: Examples of applications of grouted connections for Offshore Wind Energy Converters according to
Schaumann [2].
Effects of shear-keys and the radial stiffness

Further influences on the load-bearing capacity are the tubes radial stiffness, represented by
the ratio of diameter to wall-thickness (d/t) and the geometry of the shear-keys, represented by
the ratio of shear-key height to spacing, compare Figure 1. With a rising radial stiffness the
confining pressure of the steel tubes on the grout material increases and activates its multiaxial
compressive strength. According to [5] the load-bearing capacity of the connection increases
linearly with an increasing radial stiffness.
Concerning the effect of the shear-keys a linear increase of the load-bearing capacity with an
increasing h/s-ratio of the shear-keys is assumed in [5]. However, own experiments
documented in [1] show that with higher h/s-ratios the increase of the connectionsload-bearing
capacity is reduced. Further information on the load-bearing capacity may be found e.g. in [1, 6,
14].
The radial stiffness can be calculated according to current regulations used for the design of
Grouted Connections. They are published by the American Petroleum Institute [7], Health and
Safety Executives (HSE) [5] and Det Norske Veritas (DNV) [8]. As an example the radial
stiffness of the connection according to HSE is given in the following equation:
1020
Design of Grouted Connections for Offshore Wind Energy Converters and Composite Structures using UHPC
E Dg
K HSE S
Eg t g
D p Ds
tp
t s
(1)
In this equation D denotes the diameter, t the wall-thickness of the steel tubes whereas the
index p denotes the pile, the index s the sleeve and g the grout. E s and Eg denote Youngs
moduli of steel and grout respectively.
Figure 2:
Types of failure of grouted connections a) without shear-keys and b) with shear-keys [1].
In Figure 3 the pile shear strength of the connection is plotted against the compressive strength
of the grout. The pile shear strength is calculated by dividing the applied load by the contact
area between pile and grout. Some interesting aspects concerning the radial stiffness, the shear
key height and the compressive strength of the grout f cu become obvious in this figure. Firstly,
the pile shear strength seems to increase linearly with the grouts compressive stren gth,
whereas the slope grows with an increasing radial stiffness. Secondly, the effects of higher
shear-keys can be seen when comparing experiments with h/s-ratios of 0.056 (black
rectangular symbols) and tests with h/s-ratios of 0.013 (grey triangular symbols). Again, it
becomes obvious that especially a high radial stiffness offers the possibility to effectively exploit
the compressive strength of the applied high-strength grout materials.
Thirdly, the effect of the radial stiffness can be seen, when comparing the tests reported in
literature to the tests documented in [1]. The literature tests were conducted with specimens
having a radial stiffness of K HSE ranging from 0.015 to 0.025, whereas the tests in [1] had K HSE
values ranging from 0.07 to 0.09. If one compares the difference between the dotted lines for
the tests with h/s = 0.013 of [1] to the tests in literature with h/s < 0.013 the differences in pile
shear strength are caused predominantely by the radial stiffness.
1021
40
eigene
Versuche
own
tests
h/s=0 h/s=0
eigene
Versuche
h/s=0,013
own
tests
h/s=0.013
eigene
Versuche
h/s=0,056
own
tests
h/s=0.056
Literatur h/s=0
literature
tests h/s=0
Litertur h/s<0,013
literature
tests h/s<0.013
literature
tests h/s<0.056
Literatur h/s<0,036
Pile
shear strength[N/mm]
[MPa]
Verbundfestigkeit
Verbundfestigkeit[N/mm]
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
0
50
100
150
200
grout
compressive
strength [N/mm]
[MPa]
Druckfestigkeit
Vergussmrtel
[N/mm]
Druckfestigkeit
Vergussmrtel
Figure 3: Pile shear strengths of experiments documented in literature e.g. [4] and in [1] plotted against the
compressive strength of the grout. Effects of fibre-modifications are mathematically corrected.
3 Design models to estimate the load-bearing capacity

The existing design approaches can be divided in simplified equations for the determination of
the load-bearing capacity, analytical models as well as finite element calculations. Existing
regulations in the offshore oil- and gas industry are primarily based on experiments [4, 5].
Further tests especially with fatigue loading were added later in Norway. These regulations are
published by [5, 7, 8]. Det Norske Veritas is the only organization having published a specific
code for the design of supporting structures for Offshore Wind Energy Converters [10]. Due to
recent problems with monopile connections in the North Sea this code was partially withdrawn.
Figure 4: Mechanical model for the estimation of the normal and friction forces in a compression strut
according to Lamport [6].
1022
Analytical models are published e.g. by Paslay Inc. [11], Chilvers [12] and Lamport [6].
Lamports model is the most developed and most accurate. He uses a plasticity based
approach in order to describe the behaviour of the concrete on the stressed sides of the shearkeys. Lamport simplifies the connections to some respect. He assumes that all compression
struts carry the same load, no bending moments are present and the radial stiffness is assumed
to be infinite. Nevertheless, these simplifications enable Lamport to develop a mechanical
model for one compression strut, as displayed in Figure 4. By assuming an infinite radial
stiffness of the steel tubes the loads transferred by friction F R (3) as well as the normal forces
FN (2) can be calculated. These forces are the reaction-forces in the connection due to the load
FSR,v.
FN
t g tan
FSR , v t g h
FR FN
(2, 3)
Finite-element methods were mainly used for the calculation of grouted connections for
Offshore Wind Energy Converters [14, 15]. Essential advantage is the possibility of taking into
account the radial stiffness and that local stresses within steel members can be estimated. One
problem of the finite-element approach is that only few experiments exist, which are appropriate
for calibrating the calculations [14, 15].
4 Design model for stresses in the steel members

The advantage of the presented model is an easy estimation of the stresses in the steel
members shear-keys, pile and sleeve depending on the compressive strength of the grout
material. This model is based on the model published by Lamport, thus the same limitations are
valid.
As input variable an expression for the maximum load transferred by the shear-keys is
needed. In this case an approach published by the American Petroleum Institute [7] is chosen
which defines the maximum load being 2.5 times the compressive strength of the grout fcu. This
factor can also be seen as a factor for the grouts multiaxial compressive strength.
(4)
f SR ,v 2,5 f cu
Basing on the loading defined in equation (4) the stresses in the shear-keys as well as pile and
sleeve are developed in the following.
In order to estimate the stresses in the shear-keys, the area connecting the shear-key to the
steel tube has to be considered. Obviously, this area differs with the way of fixing the shearkeys to the steel tube. If the shear-keys have a circular or rectangular shape and are welded to
the steel tube, the welded area has to be considered. In each case w denotes the width of the
welded area. For the specimens applied in experiments in [1], the connecting area is calculated
using the shear-key width (w) and the circumference of the tube. The resulting stresses SR are
then given by:
SR
2,5 h D p h 3
w Dp
(5)
f cu
Failure in the steel tubes, pile (index p) and sleeve (index s), is defined, as soon as the
equivalent stresses in the steel tubes exceed the yield strength of the steel. Herewith the
normal stresses have to be added to the hoop tensile stresses in the sleeve and the hoop
compressive stresses in the pile respectively.
1023
For the estimation of the hoop tensile stresses in the sleeve r,s the forces in the compression
struts are used. The hoop stresses themselves are calculated in analogy to vessels subjected
to inner pressure. The geometry of the connection as displayed in figure 4 is represented in the
constants c1 and c2 which are calculated in accordance with equations 9 and 10. The hoop
stresses in the pile r,i are calculated as follows:
Dp t p
r , p c1 c 2
2s Dp t p
f cu c 3,p f cu
(6)
In these equations Dp and tp equal the diameter and the wall-thickness of the pile respectively.
The relevant normal stresses have to be taken from the structural design values. In order to be
able to compare the normal stresses to the tests described in [1], a simplified equation was
developed to estimate the load-bearing capacity of the tested specimens. The normal stresses
are denoted l,p for the pile and l,s for the sleeve:
1
L
l,p c1 1 c 2 1
s
t
p
p tp
f cu c 4,p f cu
(7)
Adding the normal stresses and the hoop stresses according to the van-Mises hypothesis, v,i
for the pile can be defined as follows:
(8)
v,p f cu c 32,p c 24,p c 3,p c 4,p
In the before mentioned equations c 1 und c2 equal respectively:

c1
f SR , v,p
f cu
2,5 h D p h
c2
t g h
t g tan
(9, 10)
If one assumes that the forces transferred in the connection cannot exceed the forces
transferred by the pile, the stresses in the sleeve can be estimated using the same equation s (6
to 8). Only the geometrical values have to be changed from values for the pile Dp, tp to the
values of the sleeve Ds, ts.
5 Comparison with Experiments

The values calculated using the model described in the previous chapter were compared to own
experiments described in [1]. These experiments have the advantage that the steel tubes were
stiff, compared to steel tubes used in literature. The steel used in the specimens was an S 355
grade; the measured yield stress equalled 391 MPa. The wall-thickness of the pile was
9.75 mm, with h/s = 0.056 and h = 1,25 mm.
Figure 5 shows the degree of utilization defined by the ratio of the calculated stresses in
relation to the strength of the different steel members. Having a look at the calculated stresses
in the pile and the shear-keys, failure is predicted at a compressive strength of the grout of
about 170 MPa. However, in the experiments no yielding in pile or sleeve was observed up to
grout strengths of about 190 MPa. However, when this grout material was used, one of the
shear-keys failed and was sheared off.
1024
1,6
Pile
pile
degree
of utilization
Auslastungsgrad
Auslastungsgrad
1,4
Sleeve
sleeve
Schubrippen
shear-keys
1,2
1,0
0,8
0,6
0,4
0,2
0,0
0
50
100
150
200
250
Druckfestigkeit
Vergussmrtel
grout
compressive
strength
[MPa]
Druckfestigkeit
Verguss
fcu[N/mm]
[N/mm]
Figure 5: Degree of utilization of the shear-keys, pile and sleeve calculated for a specimen with h/s = 0,056
plotted against the compressive strength of the grout.
6 Future Research Needs

As already mentioned, in recent years problems occurred in large connections for monopile
structures without shear-keys. This is one of the reasons why future research is needed on the
development of improved material and design models for the grout itself and grouted
connections in Offshore-Wind-Energy Converters.
Deformations as well as the load-bearing capacity of connections with shear-keys depend on
compression struts, which are highly stressed close to the shear keys. A better understanding
of their fatigue behaviour and the ability to describe the long-term deformations would
significantly improve the design of grouted connections. Another material related question is the
multiaxial compressive strength of the grout close to the shear keys. It is not known in detail in
which way the confining pressure of the steel tubes affects the grouts compressive strength,
which in turn is crucial for the load-bearing capacity.
At the beginning it was mentioned that the radial stiffness is one of the key-parameters for
the load-bearing behaviour. It would be helpful to have a better and mechanically based
understanding of its effect. Closely linked to this question are effects of bending on the loadtransferring mechanisms. The existing, simplified equations do not take the corresponding
stresses and deformations into account, because they were developed for axially loaded
connections only. The low radial stiffnesses projected for Offshore-Wind Energy Converters
demand models that take these effects into account.
Furthermore, stress concentrations at the beginning and the end of a grouted length of the
connection have not been addressed in detail yet. This is especially important for long
connections. One should expect stress concentrations at the ends, which are well known from
welded or bolted connections in steel structures.
Besides offshore structures, conventional composite structures are assumed to be a large
area of application for grouting technology with comparable open questions concerning material
and design models. In addition, combinations of normal forces and bending moments vary to a
greater extent. Other open questions are whether and in which way eccentricities of the load
affect the radial stiffness and the load-bearing behaviour. Furthermore, the cross-sections of the
steel tubes used onshore are more variable. Onshore not only circular cross-sections are used
but also rectangular profiles or the cross-sections of pile and sleeve differ, meaning that forces
1025
have to be transferred from a circular tube e.g. to a rolled I-profile. In these cases, new
approaches for the characterization of the radial stiffness would be needed.
7 Summary
In this paper a design model for the estimation of the stresses in the steel members of grouted
connections is described. It bases on the dominating effect of the shear-keys on the loadbearing capacity due to compression struts which develop between pile and sleeve. Based on
an analytical approach, the equivalent stresses in the steel tubes resulting from normal stresses
und hoop stresses can be estimated. Using the presented model, the stresses in the steel
members can be calculated depending on the compressive strength of the used grout material.
The comparison between the design model and experiments has shown a good estimation of
the stresses in the shear-keys. In contrast to the prediction of the stresses in the steel tubes in
the experiments no failure or yielding of the steel tubes could be observed, The approach
seems to be conservative for the design of pile and sleeve.
Finally, major open questions are addressed which should be answered for a better
understanding of the load-bearing behaviour of grouted connections for Offshore Wind Energy
Converters and in order to be able to transfer this technology to composite structures onshore.
The most important questions are related to better material models especially for the highly
stressed grout close to the shear-keys especially in fatigue loading, the effect of the radial
stiffness as well as the effects of bending moments of the tube on the load-bearing behaviour.
References
[1] Anders, S.: Betontechnologische Einflsse auf das Tragverhalten von Grouted Joints. PhD-Thesis,
University of Hannover, 2008..
[2] Schaumann, P.: Bautechnische Forschung fr Offshore Windenergieanlagen. Contribution to the 44.
Research Kololquium of the DAfStb, 07./08.10.2004, Hannover, 2004.
[3] Schaumann, P.; Lochte-Holtgreven, S.; Lohaus, L.;Lindschulte, N.: Durchrutschende GroutVerbindungen in OWEA Tragverhalten, Instandsetzung und Optimierung. Stahlbau, Ernst & Sohn
Verlag, 9/2010 Seiten 637-647.
[4] Department of Energy: Report of the Working Party on the Strength of Grouted Pile / Sleeve
Connections for Offshore Structures Appendix B. Offshore Technology Paper, OTP 11, 1982.
[5] Health & Security Executives: Pile / Sleeve Connections. Offshore Technology Report 2001/016,
Norwich, 2002.
[6] Lamport, W.B.: Ultimate Strength of Grouted Pile-to-Sleeve Connections. PhD-Thesis, University of
Texas at Houston, 1988.
[7] American Petroleum Institute (API): Planning, Designing and Constructing of Fixed Offshore
Platforms. Washington 2007.
[8] Det Norske Veritas: Rules for fixed Offshore Installations. Det Norske Veritas, 1998.
[9] DIN EN ISO 19902: Erdl- und Erdgasindustrie Gegrndete Stahlplattformen. 2007.
[10] Det norske Veritas (DnV): DNV-OS-J101 Design of Offshore Wind Turbine Structures. Hrvik
2007.
[11] Paslay Incorporated: Development of an Analytical Model for the Ultimate Capacity of Axially
Loaded Grouted Pile to Jacket Connections. Final Report to the American Petroleum Institute, 1980.
[12] Chilvers, G.A.: Analysis of the Structural Behaviour of Grouted Pile / Sleeve Connections for
Offshore Structures. Ph.D.-Thesis, The City University of London, 1984.
[13] Germansicher Lloyd: Status of requirements for the certification of the Q7 Monopile Design.
Research Project Opti-Pile NNE5/2001/245, Hamburg, 2004.
[14] Schaumann, P.; Wilke, F.; Lochte-Holtgreven, S.: Grout-Verbindungen von MonopileGrndungsstrukturen Trag- und Ermdungsverhalten. Stahlbau, Ernst & Sohn Verlag, 9/2008,
Seiten 647-658.
1026
Compressive Strength of UHPC in Bottle-Shaped

Compression Fields
Torsten Leutbecher, Ekkehard Fehling
To investigate the load-bearing behavior in bottle-shaped compression fields, an extensive test program
has been initiated including series on ultra high performance concrete (UHPC) as well as on high
strength (HSC) and normal strength concrete (NSC). In bottle-shaped compression fields transverse
compressive stresses arise directly below the concentrated load while tensile stresses act at a slightly
larger distance from the load introduction area. The tensile strength may limit the bearing capacity if there
is no transverse reinforcement. The experimental tests, presented in the following, showed that splitting
was the governing failure mode in all cases. The fracture behavior was brittle for UHPC and HSC
specimens without fibers. By using fibers, the load bearing capacity could be increased significantly. Also
a more ductile behavior at ultimate load could be observed.
Keywords: bottle-shaped, stress field, biaxial, tension, compression, concentrated load, splitting
1 Introduction
Applying a concentrated load to a structural concrete member often results in a bottle-shaped
compression field in the load introduction zone (see Fig. 1). By deflecting the stress trajectories,
compressive stresses arise in transverse direction at the bottle neck (directly below the
concentrated load) and tensile stresses in a slightly larger distance from the load introduction
area. A typical example for the formation of a bottle-shaped compression field is the
introduction zone of the pre-stressing force in pre-stressed concrete structures.
stress distribution in
transverse direction
Figure 1: Bottle-shaped compression field under concentrated loads.
Usually, the transverse tensile stresses in structural concrete members are covered by
transverse reinforcement. If this is not wanted or not possible, the compressive stresses under
the concentrated load normally have to be limited to ensure that transverse tensile stresses do
not exceed the value of the concrete tensile strength. An application is the use of high strength
and ultra high strength concrete for so-called grouted connections in offshore power plants.
In these connections, the concrete makes it possible to transmit the load between the steel
foundation pile(s) driven into the seabed and the upper steel structure of the tower (see Fig. 2).
Compared to a pure steelwork connection, the grouting of the annular gap between these two
parts with (ultra) high strength concrete offers the advantage of an easier compensation of
1027
tolerances (especially deviations of the pile relative to the vertical axis). To prevent slippage in
cylindrical connections, so-called shear keys are used. They are usually designed as
circumferential weld beads. Besides the dead load, a part of the bending moment caused by
wind and wave loads may be split into a couple of vertical forces and carried by the shear keys.
The introduction of the concentrated forces from the steel tube into the concrete via shear keys
results in a bottle-shaped compression field in the grouted connection. The question of
designing these connections was responsible for initiating a test program, that is presented in
the following.
principal
compressive
stress
shear key
(weld bead)
bottle-shaped stress
field
inner steel tube

(foundation pile)
exterior
steel tube
(part of the
upper steel
structure)
(ultra) high strength concrete
Figure 2: Offshore power plant of the wind farm Global Tech I in the Northern Sea (on the left) and FE -model
of the grouted connection (on the right).
2 Cracking load of two-dimensional bottle-shaped compression fields

According to Schlaich and Schfer [1], the cracking load represents a lower limit of the loadbearing capacity of two-dimensional bottle-shaped compression fields. The cracking forces can
be determined by linear-elastic analysis using finite elements for plane stress state. It should be
noted that the cracking stress may differ from the uniaxial tensile strength as a result of the
biaxial tension-compression stress state within the compression field.
In Fig. 3a Schlaich and Schfer provide a diagram for the determination of the compressive
load leading to cracking of bottle-shaped compression fields. The compression field is
characterized by the width a of the concentrated load, the maximum width b that is available for
the compression field in the structural member, and the distance l between the load introduction
and the section in which the stress trajectories run parallel. For structural members with very
large or unlimited width, the total width b is to be replaced by the effective width bef according to
Fig. 4 when evaluating the diagram. This takes into account that the compressive stresses
acting on half-height of the compression field are not distributed equally along the total width.
As an example, the cracking load is calculated for the case that the uniaxial tensile strength
fct is equal to 1/15 of the uniaxial compressive strength of the concrete fc and for a failure
criterion under tension-compression loading according to Fig. 3c. The result is represented by
1028
the thick solid line in Fig. 3a. The further graphs in Fig. 3a are obtained for compression fields
with transverse reinforcement (see Fig. 3d) depending on the mechanical reinforcement ratio .
As experiments have shown, the actual failure load is often higher than the cracking load
[2-4] due to redistribution of the tensile stresses over the height of the compression field.
2.0
c fc
0.
10
1.8
0
0.
1.6
biaxial compression failure

at the bottle neck
cracked, with transverse
reinforcement
as fy
t fc
uncracked plain concrete
1.4
6
0.0
1.2
1.0
ct
unconfined
4
0.0
0.8
b)
confined
fc 15
c
a
c)
fc
0.5 fc
c a t F
0.6
.02
=0
0.4
0.2
ba
0.0
a)
d)
Figure 3: Two-dimensional bottle-shaped compression field according to Schlaich and Schfer [1].
a) Compressive stress under the concentrated load causing a splitting crack (plain concrete, thick line),
yielding of transverse reinforcement (thin lines) or biaxial compression failure at the bottle neck (dash -dotted
line).
b) Geometry of the compression field.
c) Failure criterion under biaxial tension-compression loading.
d) Strut-and-tie model for the compression field with transverse reinforcement.
a)
Figure 4: Effective width bef of the

bottle-shaped compression field
according to Schlaich and Schfer [1]
a) structural member with small width
b) structural member with very large
or unlimited width.
b)
3 Experimental investigations
Test program and test specimens
On the one hand, high strength (HSC) and ultra high performance concretes (UHPC) differ from
normal-strength concretes (NSC) in increased brittleness and mostly in the use of a relatively
small maximum aggregate size. On the other hand, steel fibers, which can act as transverse
reinforcement in bottle-shaped compression fields, are often added, especially to UHPC.
1029
To investigate the abovementioned influences on the bearing-capacity of bottle-shaped

compression fields, tests on concrete cubes with different compressive strengths were
conducted. Table 1 gives an overview of the experimental program executed so far.
Table 1: Test program executed so far.
Test series
NSC-0
HSC-0
UHPC-0-HT UHPC-1-HT UHPC-2-HT
Uniaxial concrete compressive

strength fc [N/mm]
19.7
131
194
200
201
Gross density [kg/dm]
2.087
2.424
2.314
2.417
2.418
Maximum aggregate size [mm]
0.5
0.5
0.5
Fiber content f [% by vol.]
1.0
2.0
Heat treatment
no
no
yes
yes
yes
As fiber reinforcement straight steel fibers with a length of 17 mm and a diameter of 0.175 mm
were used. They were added to two of the UHPC-mixtures with 1.0 % or 2.0 % by volume.
The concrete cubes had an edge length of 200 mm. They were produced in a steel mold and
compacted on a vibrating table. To compact the NSC specimens, an internal vibrator was used.
For each test series four concrete cubes and three cylinders (h/d = 200 mm/100 mm) were
fabricated from the same mixture. The cylinders were used to determine the uniaxial concrete
compressive strength. The NSC and HSC specimens were cured under room conditions after
removing the formwork two days after production. The UHPC series were heat treated (labeled
HT) at 90 C for 48 hours with the result that the final strength of these specimens was
achieved at the age of four days.
Test setup und test execution
The experiments were conducted in a servo-hydraulic controlled universal testing machine in
the laboratory of the Institute of Structural Engineering at the University of Kassel. Fig. 5 shows
the test setup.
(1) Loading plates of the testing machine
(2) Steel stripes for load introduction (here: a = 60 mm)
(3) LVDTs for control of vertical displacements
(4) LVDTs for control of horizontal displacements
35 mm
4
4
35 mm
35 mm
4
35 mm
4
2
Figure 5: Test setup with test specimen and instrumentation.
The test specimens were placed centrically between the two loading plates of the machine. The
upper loading plate was connected via a spherical hinge to the testing machine. The specimens
were loaded perpendicular to the casting direction. The load was applied by means of 200 mm
long steel strips, which were placed centrically at the top and at the bottom of the test
1030
specimen. Because of the smooth concrete surface obtained by the steel mold, the steel strips
could be installed without any interface layer. To obtain different geometries of the compression
field b/a, steel strips with four different width values were used for load introduction (a = 10 mm,
16 mm, 25 mm, and 60 mm). This resulted in ratios b(ef)/a of 10.7, 6.9, 4.7, and 2.3. Hence,
each ratio was applied to one of the cubes of each series.
To measure the deformations in compression direction, four LVDTs were installed, two at the
front and two at the back side of the cube. They were fixed with magnetic stands and measured
against the load plates of the testing machine. In addition, the displacement of the hydraulic
jack was recorded.
The horizontal deformations (in tensile direction) were checked in the area in which cracking
could be expected. They were measured directly by means of LVDTs mounted on the
specimen. At the front and the back of the specimens five gauge lengths of 100 mm were
provided. For some specimens without fibers, two gauge lengths remained vacant on each side,
because it was already known from previous experiments, that meaningful data could not be
gained from these specimens in the post-cracking branch due to the brittle failure.
Displacement controlled loading was performed with a constant rate of 0.01 mm/s
(displacement of the hydraulic jack).
Test results
The test results are summarized in Table 2. The ultimate compressive stresses c,max are
related to the load application area represented by the surface area of the steel strip. As
expected, the ratio c,max/fc increases with increasing ratio b/a. The ratio decreases significantly
with increasing uniaxial concrete compressive strength fc due to the minor ratio between tensile
and compressive strength and the more pronounced brittleness of HSC and UHPC.
Test
series
NSC-0
c,max
c,max/fc
[N/mm]
HSC-0
c,max
UHPC-0-HT
c,max/fc
[N/mm]
c,max
c,max/fc
[N/mm]
UHPC-1-HT
c,max
c,max/fc
[N/mm]
UHPC-2-HT
c,max
c,max/fc
[N/mm]
b/a = 2.3
17.6
0.89
79.4
0.61
78.9
0.41
173
0.87
193
0.96
b/a = 4.7
23.2
1.18
77.2
0.59
74.2
0.38
207
1.04
284
1.41
b/a = 6.9
34.6
1.75
95.3
0.73
109
0.56
256
1.28
334
1.66
b/a = 10.7
48.9
2.48
151
1.15
158
0.81
347
1.73
457
2.27
For some tests, the load-deformation curves are depicted in Fig. 6. All deformations specified in
the diagrams represent mean values of the data obtained at the front and at the back side of the
test specimens. In vertical direction, the elastic deformations of the steel stripes have been
deducted.
Fig. 6a and 6b show the load-deformation curves for the ratio b/a = 10.7. Disregarding some
nonlinearities resulting from the test setup, the load-deformation behavior of the test specimens
was initially linear both in loading and transverse direction.
The HSC specimens and the UHPC specimens without fibers failed suddenly by a splitting
crack (see Fig. 7c) accompanied by a load drop to zero in most cases. Also the NSC cubes did
not show a pronounced nonlinear behavior before reaching the ultimate load. However, for
these specimens the complete softening branch after splitting could be obtained by
displacement control.
1031
a)
b)
NSC-0
HSC-0
UHPC-0-HT
UHPC-X-HT
2.0
2.0
c /f c
c /f c
UHPC-2-HT
UHPC-2-HT
NSC-0
HSC-0
UHPC-0-HT
UHPC-X-HT
1.0
1.0
UHPC-1-HT
UHPC-1-HT
0.0
0.0
0
-1
-2
-3
Vertical displacement [mm]

c) UHPC-1-HT
Horizontal displacement [mm]

d) UHPC-2-HT
b/a = 2.3
b/a = 4.7
b/a = 6.9
b/a = 10.7
b/a = 2.3
b/a = 4.7
b/a = 6.9
b/a = 10.7
c /f c
2.0
c /f c
2.0
1.0
1.0
0.0
0.0
0
-1
-2
-3
-1
-2
-3
Figure 6: Load-deformation curves.

a) Load-deformation curve in loading (compression) direction for the five series and b/a = 10.7.
b) Load-deformation curve in transverse (tension) direction for the five series and b/a = 10.7.
c) Load-deformation curve in loading (compression) direction for series UHPC-1-HT and different ratios b/a.
d) Load-deformation curve in loading (compression) direction for series UHPC-2-HT and different ratios b/a.
For the fiber reinforced UHPC cubes, the load-deformation relationship initially followed almost
that of the corresponding unreinforced specimens. The splitting started at about the same load
level, too. However, this caused only a temporary slight drop of the load. With increasing
deformation, the compressive load could be further increased, while henceforth a nonlinear
relationship between load and deformation was observed. The progressive crack opening could
be detected by the horizontal LVDTs very well (see Fig. 6b). The failure was announced by
more or less pronounced plastic behavior before reaching the ultimate load. The specimens
with large b/a ratio and higher fiber content showed in this context as well as in the post-peak
branch a more ductile behavior (see Fig. 6c and 6d). For small b/a ratios the loading dropped
comparatively rapidly to zero, even for the specimens with a fiber content of 2 % by volume.
1032
Fig. 7 shows the failure pattern of split UHPC specimens. For the specimens with b/a = 2.3,
splitting started from the edges of the load application area due to load concentration there. As
a consequence sometimes two splitting cracks developed (see Fig. 7a).
a)
b)
c)
Figure 7: Failure pattern of split UHPC specimens.

a) UHPC specimen with 1 % fibers by volume
and b/a = 2.3.
b) UHPC specimen with 2 % fibers by volume
and b/a = 10.7.
c) UHPC specimen without fibers and b/a = 10.7.
4 Conclusions and outlook

Fig. 8 shows the ultimate compressive stresses due to concentrated load, which are related to
the uniaxial concrete compressive strength. The results are depicted in dependency of the
theoretical b/a ratio.
The results for the NSC specimens can be approximately related to = 0.09. This
corresponds to a ratio between the concrete tensile strength fct and the uniaxial concrete
compressive strength fc of about 1/10, which is common for NSC. Referring the results for the
HSC and UHPC specimens to the graphs = 0.04 and = 0.03, respectively, the ratios fct/fc
amount to about 1/22 and 1/29. For uniaxial compressive strengths of 131 N/mm and
194 N/mm, respectively, the tensile strengths result in about 6.0 N/mm and 6.7 N/mm.
By means of fiber addition to UHPC the load bearing capacity could be increased
significantly. Already a fiber volume of 1 % was sufficient to achieve compressive stresses
under the concentrated load that were almost equal to the uniaxial concrete compressive
strength. Compared to the ultimate load, the ductility was increased at a lower rate by the
addition of fibers, especially for the specimens with low b/a ratio. Despite the sometimes very
high local stresses at the steel strip, splitting and not compression failure was governing in all
cases.
1033
2.6
c fc
NSC-0
nn NSC-0
nn HSC-0
HSC-0
nn UHPC-0-HT
UHPC-0-HT
ll UHPC-1-HT
UHPC-1-HT
ss UHPC-2-HT
UHPC-2-HT
2.4
0.
10
2.2
2.0
1.8
0
0.
1.6
1.4
See
also legend in Fig. 3.
See also legend in Fig. 3.
6
0.0
1.2
1.0
0.0
0.8
0.6
.02
=0
0.4
0.2
ba
0.0
1
10
11
Figure 8: Test results related to the uniaxial concrete compressive strength and compared with the theoretical
cracking stress according to [1] (see Fig. 3).
Further tests on HSC with fibers as well as on UHPC with low fiber content (0.5 % by volume)
are scheduled. By optically analyzing the fiber orientation in the cubes and by determining the
post-cracking tensile strength (fiber efficiency) in tests on notched prisms sawn from untested
cubes, a relationship to concretes with different fiber content and fiber geometry may be
established. The test results will also be used to calibrate a fracture model for fiber reinforced
UHPC within a nonlinear finite element analysis. Afterwards, this model shall be applied to the
design of grouted connections used in offshore wind turbines. For this, the fracture model is to
be extended so that it is appropriate for three-dimensional stress states.
References
[1] Schlaich, J.; Schfer, K.: Konstruieren im Stahlbetonbau. Beton-Kalender 1998, part II, Verlag Ernst
& Sohn, Berlin, 1998.
[2] Fehling, E.: Zum Tragverhalten von Druckfeldern in scheibenartigen Betonbauteilen - Nichtlineare
Berechnungen und Vergleich mit Versuchen. Materialmodelle und Methoden zur wirklichkeitsnahen
Berechnung von Beton-, Stahlbeton- und Spannbetonbauteilen, Mehlhorn-Festschrift, Faculty of
Civil Engineering, University of Kassel, 1997.
[3] Colombo, M.; Di Prisco, M.: D-zones in HPFRC. High Performance Fiber Reinforced Cement
Composites 6 (Eds.: Parra-Montesinos, G. J.; Reinhardt, H. W.; Naaman; A. E.), Proceedings of the
Sixth International Workshop on High Performance Fiber Reinforced Cement Composites
(HPFRCC6), pp. 197-204, Ann Arbor, MI, USA, 2011.
[4] Pujol, S.; Rautenberg, J. M.; Sozen, M. A.: Compressive Strength of Concrete in Nonprismatic
Elements. Concrete International 33 (9), pp. 42-49, 2011.
1034
1035
1036

Heft 1:
Fehling, E. / Schmidt, M. / Teichmann, T. / Bunje, K. /

Bornemann, R. / Middendorf, B. (2005)
Entwicklung, Dauerhaftigkeit und Berechnung Ultra-Hochfester Betone
(UHPC). Forschungsbericht, ISBN 3-89958-108-9, 18,00
Heft 2:
Schmidt , M. / Fehling, E. (Hrsg.) (2003)

Ultra-Hochfester Beton - Planung und Bau der ersten Brcke mit UHPC
in Europa. Tagungsbeitrge zu den 3. Kasseler Baustoff- und Massivbautagen am 10. September 2003, ISBN 978-3-89958-518-6, 18,00
Heft 3:
Schmidt, M. / Fehling, E. / Geisenhanslke, C. (Hrsg.) (2004)

Ultra High Performance Concrete (UHPC), ISBN 3-89958-086-9,
vergriffen
Heft 4:
Bornemann, R. (2005)
Untersuchungen zur Modellierung des Frisch- und Festbetonverhaltens
erdfeuchter Betone, ISBN 3-89958-132-6, 24,00
Heft 5:
Solyman, M. (2006)
Classification of Recycled Sands and their Applications as Aggregates for
Concrete and Bituminous Mixtures, ISBN 978-3-89958-218-5, 24,00
Heft 6:
Tesch, V. (2007)
Gefgeoptimierte Instandsetzungsmrtel auf Calciumsulfat-Basis fr die
Anwendung im Auenbereich, ISBN 978-3-89958-333-5, 24,00
Heft 7:
Schmidt, M. (ed.) (2007)

Ultra High Performance Concrete (UHPC). 10 Years of research and
development at the University of Kassel - 10 Jahre Forschung und Entwicklung an der Universitt Kassel, ISBN 978-3-89958-347-2, 49,00
Heft 8:
Schmidt, M. (Hg.) (2007)

Nanotechnologie im Bauwesen Nanooptimierte Hightech-Baustoffe.
9. Mai 2007, ISBN 978-3-89958-348-9, 22,00
Heft 9:
Leutbecher, T. (2008)
Rissbildung und Zugtragverhalten von mit Stabstahl und Fasern
bewehrtem Ultrahochfesten Beton (UHPC), ISBN 978-3-89958-374-8,
39,00
Heft 10: Fehling, E. / Schmidt, M. / Strwald, S. (eds.) (2008)

Ultra High Performance Concrete (UHPC). Second International
Symposium on Ultra High Performance Concrete, March 05-07, 2008,
ISBN 978-3-89958-376-2, 79,00
Heft 11: Fehling, E. / Leutbecher, T. / Rder, F.-K. (2008)

Zur Druck-Querzug-Festigkeit von Stahlbeton und stahlfaserverstrktem
Stahlbeton in scheibenfrmigen Bauteilen - Biaxial CompressionTension-Strength of Reinforced Concrete and Reinforced Steel Fibre
Concrete in Structural Panels, ISBN 978-3-89958-440-0, 39,00
Heft 12: Teichmann, T. (2008)
Einfluss der Granulometrie und des Wassergehaltes auf die Festigkeit
und Gefgedichtigkeit von Zementstein, ISBN 978-3-89958-441-7,
24,00
Heft 13: Geisenhanslke, C. (2009)
Einfluss der Granulometrie von Feinstoffen auf die Rheologie von
Feinstoffleimen, Influence of the granulometry of fine particels on the
rheology of pastes, ISBN 978-3-89958-706-7, 24,00
Heft 14: Nldgen, M. (2010)
Modellierung von ultrahochfestem Beton (UHPC) unter Impaktbelastung.
Auslegung eines Hochhauskerns gegen Flugzeuganprall,
ISBN 978-3-89958-862-0, 29,00
Heft 15: Eden, W. (2011)
Einfluss der Verdichtung von Kalk-Sand-Rohmassen auf die
Scherbenrohdichte von Kalksandsteinen,
ISBN 978-3-86219-040-9, 29,00
Heft 16: Stephan, D. (2011)
Nanomaterialien im Bauwesen. Stand der Technik, Herstellung,
Anwendung und Zukunftsperspektiven,
ISBN 978-3-86219-066-9, 29,00
Heft 17: Emami, A. D. (2011)
Kleben von Naturfaserverbundwerkstoffen auf Mauerwerk zur
nachtrglichen Verstrkung erdbebengefhrdeter Bauwerke von der
Werkstoffprfung bis zur Anwendung,
ISBN 978-3-89958-558-2, 29,00
Heft 18: Strz, J. (2011)
Ein empirischer Ansatz zur Beschreibung der Horizontaltragfhigkeit
gemauerter Wandscheiben unter Bercksichtigung der Interaktion
innerhalb der Gebudestruktur
ISBN 978-3-89958-559-9, 29,00
Heft 19: Schmidt, M. / Fehling, E. / Glotzbach, C. / Frhlich, S. /

Piotrowski, S. (eds.) (2012)
Ultra-High Performance Concrete and Nanotechnology in Construction.
Proceedings of Hipermat 2012. 3rd International Symposium on UHPC
and Nanotechnology for High Performance Construction Materials,
Kassel, March 79, 2012, ISBN 978-3-86219-236-6, 79,00
Bestellungen: www.uni-kassel.de/upress
SRBaustoffeNr19_druck 02.02.12 12:25 Seite 1
2012
Edited by
M. Schmidt
E. Fehling
C. Glotzbach
S. Frhlich
S. Piotrowski
This volume thus contains about 120 contributions from many

research disciplines that are influenced by High Performance
Materials and UHPC in particular: material sciences, structural
engineering, environmental engineering, nanotechnology, chemistry, architecture, codification, and economy.
ISBN 978-3-86219-264-9
kassel
university
press
U N I K A S S E L
V E R S I T A T
No. 19
Concrete and
Nanotechnology in
Construction
As an impressive amount of new knowledge could be obtained by

leveraging the growing experience in the fields of nanotechnology
and chemistry, the symposium was rebranded to honor this influence. It now bears the name HiPerMat, derived from Nanotechnology for High Performance Materials in Construction.
Heft 19
To facilitate the fruitful exchange of knowledge and experience

both between international researchers and engineers in the field
was the objective of the 3 rd International Symposium on UHPC
that took place in Kassel on March 7 9, 2012, the proceedings of
which are contained in this publication.
Concrete and
Nanotechnology in
Construction
Ultra-High Performance Concrete (UHPC), with its high compressive strength of more than 200 MPa and an improved durability,
marks a quantum leap in concrete technology. This high performance material offers a variety of interesting applications. It allows
the construction of sustainable and economic buildings with an
extraordinarily slim design. Its high strength and ductility makes it
the ultimate building material for e.g. bridge decks, storage halls,
thin-wall shell structures, and highly loaded columns. Due to its
outstanding resistance against several kinds of corrosion, it is
deemed suitable for new fields of application where concrete has
not been considered viable before. To make use of its superior
properties, special knowledge of production, construction, and
design is required.

3 rd International Symposium on UHPC and
Edited by
M. Schmidt
E. Fehling
C. Glotzbach
S. Frhlich
S. Piotrowski
kassel
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HiPerMat 2012 Kassel

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HiPerMat 2012 Kassel

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SRBaustoffeNr19_druck 02.02.

This volume thus contains about 120 contributions from many

As an impressive amount of new knowledge could be obtained by

Schriftenreihe Baustoffe und Massivbau

To facilitate the fruitful exchange of knowledge and experience

Proceedings of Hipermat 2012

Schriftenreihe Baustoffe und Massivbau

Ultra-High PerformanceConcrete and

Proceedings of Hipermat 2012

Bibliografische Information Der Deutschen Nationalbibliothek

ISBN print: 978-3-86219-264-9

2012, kassel university press GmbH, Kassel

Prof. Dr.-Ing. E. Fehling

Kassel, in January of 2012

Prof. Dr.-Ing. Ekkehard Fehling

We thank our supporters

Scientific Committee for HiPerMat 2012

Michigan Tech Transportation Insitute, USA

Portland Cement Association, USA

Prof. Mouloud Behloul

Prof. Christian Meyer

Columbia University, USA

Prof. Harald Budelmann

Prof. Bernhard Middendorf

Prof. Manfred Curbach

Dr. Christoph Mller

Dresden University of Technology, D

German Cement Works Association (VDZ), D

Prof. Franoise de Larrard

Prof. Harald Mller

Karlsruhe University of Technology, D

Prof. Marco di Prisco

Prof. Aurelio Muttoni

Prof. Rdiger Faust

Dr. Xin Feng

Dr. Serge Rimlinger

Prof. Pietro Gambarova

Prof. Liyi Shi

Dr. Benjamin A. Graybeal

Federal Highway Administration, USA

Prof. Jrgen Grnberg

Prof. Dietmar Stephan

Technical University Berlin, D

Prof. Petr Hajek

Prof. Franois Toutlemonde

Technical University Praque, CZ

Prof. Harianto Hardjasaputra

Prof. Nguyen Tue

Universitas Pelita Harapan, Indonesia

Graz University of Technology, A

Prof. Josef Hegger

Prof. Jan Vitek

RWTH Aachen University, D

Technical University Prague, CZ

Prof. Detlef Heinz

Prof. Joost C. Walraven

Mnchen Technical University, D

Delft University of Technology, NL

Prof. Maria Konsta-Gdoutos

Prof. Alphose Zingoni

University of Cape Town, ZA

Sustainable Building with UHPC - Coordinated Research Program in Germany

State of the art of design and construction of UHPFRC structures in France

An Overview of UHPC Efforts in North America