ABSTRACT

Where am I? Where am I going? Where are you? What is the best way to get there?
When will I get there? GPS technology can answer all these questions. GPS satellite
can show you exact position on the earth any time, in any weather, no matter
where you are! GPS technology has made an impact on navigation and positioning
needs with the use of satellites and ground stations the ability to track aircrafts,
cars, cell phones, boats and even individuals has become a reality.
A system of satellites, computers, and receivers that is able to determine the
latitude and longitude of a receiver on Earth by calculating the time difference for
signals from The Global Positioning different satellites to reach the receiver. System
(GPS) is a worldwide radio navigation system formed from a constellation of 24
satellites and their ground stations. GPS uses these "Manmade stars" as reference
points to calculate positions accurate to a matter of meters. In fact, with advanced
forms of GPS you can make measurements to better than a centimetre! In a sense
it's like giving every square meter on the planet a unique address. GPS receivers
have been miniaturized to just a few integrated circuits and so are becoming very
economical. And that makes the technology accessible to virtually everyone.
Navigation in three dimensions is the primary function of GPS. Navigation receivers
are made for aircraft, ships, ground vehicles, and for hand carrying by individuals.
Precise positioning is possible using GPS receivers at reference locations providing
corrections and relative positioning data for remote receivers. Surveying, geodetic
control, and plate tectonic studies are examples.
Time and frequency dissemination, based on the precise clocks on board the SVs
and controlled by the monitor stations, is another use for GPS. Astronomical
observatories, telecommunications facilities, and laboratory standards can be set to
precise time signals or controlled to accurate frequencies by special purpose GPS
receivers.

EVOLUTION OF GPS :-

The technology evolved from, Mr. Marconis transmission of radio waves. This was
applied for society during the 1920's by the establishment of radio stations, for
which you only needed a receiver. The same applies for GPS- you only need a rather
special radio receiver. Significant advances in radio were bolstered by large sums of
money during and after the Second World War, and were even more advanced by
the need for communications with early satellites and rockets, and general space
exploration. The technology to receive radio signals in a small hand-held, from
20,000kms away, is indeed amazing. Throughout the 1960s the U.S. Navy and Air
Force worked on a number of systems that would provide navigation capability for a
variety of applications In 1973 finally, the U.S. Department of Defense decided that
the military had to have a super precise form of worldwide positioning. And
fortunately they had the kind of money ($12 billion!) it took to build something
really good. In short, development of the GPS satellite navigation system was begun
in the 1970s by the US Department of Defense. The basis for the new system was
atomic clocks carried on satellites, a concept successfully tested in an earlier Navy
program called TIMATION. The Air Force operated the new system, which it called
the Navstar Global Positioning System. It has since come to be known simply as
GPS. The first GPS satellite was launched in 1978 and a second-generation set of
satellites ("Block II") was launched beginning in 1989. Today's GPS constellation
consists of at least 24 Block II satellites. A full constellation of 24 satellites was
achieved in 1994. GPS was originally intended for military applications, but in the
1980s, the government made the system available for civilian use. After the
downing of Korean Flight 007 in 1983 -a tragedy that might have been prevented if
its crew had access to better navigational tools- President Ronald Reagan issued a
directive that guaranteed that GPS signals would be available at no charge to the
world. That directive helped open up a commercial market. Deployment of GPS
continued at a steady pace through the 1990s, with growing numbers of civilian and
military users. GPS burst into public awareness during the Persian Gulf War in 1991.
GPS was used extensively during that conflict, so much so that not enough militaryequipped GPS receivers were available.

1. Introduction :-

GPS (Global Positioning System) is a powerful tool especially when coupled with GIS.
If you collect data in the field, GPS enables you to know precisely the location of
the collected data. With this information, you can import the data into a GIS where it
can be properly queried, analyzed, and viewed in a larger context. Many GPS units
on the market today are both cheap and easy to use, making them a viable tool in
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todays workforce. There are far too many GPS units out there to discuss each of
their features and interfaces. For this exercise, we are going to focus on one readily
available, functional, cost-effective unit, Garmin eTrex Venture HC. Using this GPS
receiver, you will gain proficiency in collecting, downloading, and manipulating an
array of GPS data using a variety of software packages.

2. GPS Basics :2.1 What is the Global Positioning System :-

The GPS is a space-based radio-navigation system consisting of a constellation of

satellites, a network of ground stations, and receivers. A minimum of 24 GPS
satellites orbit the earth providing users with accurate information on position,
velocity, and time anywhere in the world. There are at least five control stations
monitoring the satellites. These control stations continuously track satellites and
update the positions of each satellite. Without them, the accuracy of the system
would degrade in a matter of days. The GPS is operated and maintained by the
Department of Defense. In order to access this system, you are required to have a
GPS receiver.

2.2 What are GPS Receivers?

GPS units like the ones you will be working with today are referred to as GPS
Receivers. They receive the radio signals transmitted from GPS satellites. These
radio signals contain important information that enables a given receiver to
determine the distance between the receiver, and the satellite that is emitting a
signal. If the GPS receiver receives this information simultaneously from three
satellites, then it can calculate the X,Y position of the receiver. If the unit is able to
receive a radio signal from a fourth satellite, it can use the extra information to
calculate the GPS units elevation. Note that the elevation information often is
considered to have at least twice as much error as the X,Y location.

GEOPOSITIONING -- BASIC CONCEPTS :-

By positioning we understand the determination of stationar

y o r moving objects. These can be determined as follows:1.In relation to a welldefi ned coordinate system, usually by three coordinate values and2.In
relation to other point, taking one point as the origin of a local coordinate
system.The first mode of positioning is known as point positioning, the secondas
relative positioning. If the object to be positioned is stationary, wet e r m i t
as static positioning. When the object is moving, we call
itk i n e m a t i c p o s i t i o n i n g . U s u a l l y , t h e s t a t i c p o s i t i o n i n g
i s u s e d i n surveying and the kinematic position in navigation
GPS - COMPONENTS AND BASIC FACTS
The GPS uses satellites and computers to compute positions
anywhereo n e a r t h . T h e G P S i s b a s e d o n s a t e l l i t e r a n g i n g . T h a t
m e a n s t h e position on the earth is determined by measuring the
distance from agroup of satellites in space. The basic principles behind GPS are
reallysimple, even though the system employs some of the most highteche q u i p m e n t e v e r d e v e l o p e d . I n o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d G P S b a s i c s ,
t h e system can be categorized into
FIVE logical Steps

Triangulation from the satellite is the basis of the system.

To triangulate, the GPS measures the distance using the travel time of the
radio message.

To m e a s u r e t r a v e l t i m e , t h e G P S n e e d a v e r y a c c u r a t e clock.

Once the distance to a satellite is known, then we need toknow where the satellite
is in space.

As the GPS signal travels through the ionosphere and the earth's
atmosphere, the signal is delayed.

To compute a positions in three dimensions. We need tohave four satellite

measurements. The GPS uses atrigonometric approach to calculate the positions,
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The GPSsatellites are so high up that their orbits are verypredictable and each of
the satellites is equipped with avery accurate atomic clock.
The Control Segment
The Control Segment consists of fi ve monitoring stations (ColoradoSprings,
Ascesion Island, Diego Garcia, Hawaii, and Kwajalein Island).Three of the stations
(Ascension, Diego Garcia, and Kwajalein) serveas uplink installations,
capable of transmitting data to the satellites,including new ephemerides
(satellite positions as a function of time),clock corrections, and other
broadcast message data, while ColoradoSprings serves as the master
control station. The Control Segment
ist h e s o l e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f t h e D o D w h o u n d e r t a k e s c o n s t r u c
tion,l a u n c h i n g , m a i n t e n a n c e , a n d v i r t u a l l y c o n s t a n t
p e r f o r m a n c e monitoring of the GPS satellites.The DOD monitoring stations
track all GPS signals for use in controllingthe satellites and predicting their
orbits. Meteorological data also
arec o l l e c t e d a t t h e m o n i t o r i n g s t a t i o n s , p e r m i t t i n g t h e m o s t a c c u r
a t e evaluation of tropospheric delays of GPS signals. Satellite tracking
dataf r o m t h e m o n i t o r i n g s t a t i o n s a r e t r a n s m i t t e d t o t h e m a s t e r c o n
t rol st ati on f or p roce s sin g . Th i s p roce s sin g i n vol ve s the c omp u tati o
n of s a t e l l i t e e p h e m e r i d e s a n d s a t e l l i t e c l o c k c o r re c t i o n s . T h
e m a s t e r station controls orbital corrections, when any satellite strays
too farfrom its assigned position, and necessary repositioning to compensatefor
unhealthy (not fully functioning) satellites.

The Space Segment

The Space Segment consists of the Constellation of NAVASTAR
earthorbiting satellites. The current Defense Department plan calls for a
fullc o n s t e l l a t i o n o f 2 4 B l o c k I I s a t e l l i t e s ( 2 1 o p e r a t i o n a l a n d 3 i n o r b i t spares). Each satellite contains four precise atomic clocks
(Rubidiumand Cesium standards) and has a microprocessor on board for
limitedself-monitoring and data processing.

Satellite orbits.T h e r e a r e f o u r s a t e l l i t e s i n e a c h o f 6 o r b i t a l p l a n e s .
E a c h p l a n e i s inclined 55 degrees relative to the equator, which means that
satellitescross the equator tilted at a 55 degree angle. The system is
designedto maintain full operational capability even if two of the 24
satellitesfail. They orbit at altitudes of about 12000, miles each, with
orbitalperiods of 12 sidereal hours (i.e., determined by or from the stars),
orapproximately one half of the earth's periods, approximately 12 hoursof 35

D position fi xes. The satellites are equipped with thrusters whichc a n b e

used to maintain or modify their orbits. The next block
o f satellites is called Block IIR, and they will provide improved
reliabilityand have a capacity of ranging between satellites, which will increasethe
orbital accuracy.

The Space Segment

The Space Segment consists of the Constellation of NAVASTAR
earthorbiting satellites. The current Defense Department plan calls for a
fullc o n s t e l l a t i o n o f 2 4 B l o c k I I s a t e l l i t e s ( 2 1 o p e r a t i o n a l a n d 3 i n o r b i t spares). Each satellite contains four precise atomic clocks
(Rubidiumand Cesium standards) and has a microprocessor on board for
limitedself-monitoring and data processing.

Satellite orbits.T h e r e a r e f o u r s a t e l l i t e s i n e a c h o f 6 o r b i t a l p l a n e s .
E a c h p l a n e i s inclined 55 degrees relative to the equator, which means that
satellitescross the equator tilted at a 55 degree angle. The system is
designedto maintain full operational capability even if two of the 24
satellitesfail. They orbit at altitudes of about 12000, miles each, with
orbitalperiods of 12 sidereal hours (i.e., determined by or from the stars),
orapproximately one half of the earth's periods, approximately 12 hoursof 3D position fi xes. The satellites are equipped with thrusters whichc a n b e
used to maintain or modify their orbits. The next block
o f satellites is called Block IIR, and they will provide improved
reliabilityand have a capacity of ranging between satellites, which will increasethe
orbital accuracy.

Satellite Signals
GPS satellites continuously broadcast satellite position and timing
datav i a r a d i o s i g n a l s o n t w o f r e q u e n c i e s : L 1 ( 1 5 7 5 . 4 2 M H z ) , a
n d L 2 (1227.60 MHz). These frequencies are called carrier waves
becauset h e y a r e u s e d p r i m a r i l y t o c a r r y i n f o r m a t i o n t o GPS receiv ers .
T h e radio signals travel at the speed of light (186,000 miles per
second)and take approximately 6/100ths of a second to reach the earth.
The satellite signals require a direct line to GPS receivers and
cannotp e n e t r a t e w a t e r , s o i l , w a l l s o r o t h e r o b s t a c l e s . Fo r e x a m p l e ,
h e a v y forest canopy causes interference, making it difficult, if not impossible,to
compute positions. In canyons (and "urban canyons" in cities) GPSsignals are
blocked by mountain ranges or buildings. If you place yourhand over a GPS receiver
antenna, it will stop computing positions.Two kinds of code are broadcast on the L1
frequency (C/A code and Pcode). C/A (Coarse Acquisition) code is available to
civilian GPS usersand provides Standard Positioning Service (SPS). Using the
StandardPositioning Service one can achieve 15 meter horizontal accuracy 95%o f
the time. This means that 95% of the time, the coordinates
y o u read from your GPS receiver display will be within 15 meters of
yourtrue position on the earth. P (Precise) code is broadcast on both the L1and L2
frequencies. P code, used for the Precise Positioning
Service( P P S ) i s a v a i l a b l e o n l y t o t h e m i l i t a r y . U s i n g
P c o d e o n b o t h frequencies, a military receiver can achiev
e b e t t e r a c c u r a c y t h a n civilian receivers. Additional techniques can
increase the accuracy of both C/A code and P code GPS receivers.
The User Segment

The user segment is a total user and supplier community, both

civiliana n d m i l i t a r y. T h e U s e r S e g m e n t c o n s i s t s o f a l l e a r t h b a s e d G P S receivers. Receivers vary greatly in size and complexity,
though thebasic design is rather simple. The typical receiver iscomposed of an
antenna and preamplifier, radio signal microprocessor,control and display device,
data recording unit, and power supply.
TheG P S r e c e i v e r d e c o d e s t h e t i m i n g s i g n a l s f r o m t h e ' v i s i b l e ' s a t e l l
i te s(f ou r or more ) an d , h avi n g cal cu l ate d th e i r di st an ce s,
computes
itsown latitude, longitude, elevation, and time. This is a continuou
s process and generally the position is updated on a second-bysecondbasis, output to the receiver display device and, if the receiver
displaydevice and, if the receiver provides data capture capabilities, stored bythe
receiver-logging unit.
GPS POSITIONING TYPESAbsolute Positioning
The mode of positioning relies upon a single receiver station. It is
alsor e f e r r e d t o a s ' s t a n d - a l o n e ' G P S , b e c a u s e ,
u n l i k e d i ff e r e n t i a l positioning, ranging is carried out strictly between the
satellite and thereceiver station, not on a ground-based reference station
that assistswith the computation of error corrections. As a result, the
positionsd e r i v e d i n a b s o l u t e m o d e a r e s u b j e c t t o t h e u n m i t i g a
ted errorsi n h e r e n t i n s a t e l l i t e p o s i t i o n i n g . O v e r a l l a c c u
r a c y o f a b s o l u t e positioning is considered to be no greater than 50
meters at best byA c k r o y d a n d L o r i m e r a n d t o b e + 1 0 0 m e t e r
a c c u r a c y b y t h e U . S . Army Corps of Engineers.

Differential Positioning
Relative or Differential GPS carries the triangulation principles one stepfurther, with
a second receiver at a known reference point. To
furtherf a c i l i t a t e d e t e r m i n a t i o n o f a p o i n t ' s p o s i t i o n , r e l a t i v e t o t h e
k n o w n earth surface point, this configuration demands collection of an errorc o r r e c t i n g
m e s s a g e
f r o m
t h e
r e
f e r e n c e
r e c e i v e r . Differential-mode positioning relies
upon an established control point.T h e r e f e r e n c e s t a t i o n i s p l a c e d o n t h e
control point, a
triangulatedposition, the control point coordinate. This allows for
a c o r r e c t i o n factor to be calculated and applied to other moving GPS
units used inthe same area and in the same time series. Inaccuracies in the
controlpoint's coordinate are directly additive to errors inherent in the
satellitepositioning process. Error corrections derived by the reference stationvary
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rapidly, as the factors propagating position errors are not staticover time.
This error correction allows for a considerable amount of error of error to be
negated, potentially as much as 90 percent

WORKING OF GPS
CALCULATING A POSITION
A GPS receiver calculates its position by a technique called
satelliter a n g i n g , w h i c h i n v o l v e s m e a s u r i n g t h e d i s t a n c e b e t w e e n t h
e G P S receiver and the GPS satellites it is tracking. The range (the range
areceiver calculates is actually a pseudo range, or an estimate of rangerather than
a true range) or distance, is measured as elapsed transit time. The position
of each satellite is known, and the satellites transmittheir positions as part of
the "messages" they send via radio
waves.T h e G P S r e c e i v e r o n t h e g r o u n d i s t h e u n k n o w n p o i n t ,
a n d m u s t comp u te i ts p osi ti on b ase d on th e in f orm ati on i t re ce i ve
s f r o m t h e satellites.
Measuring Distance to Satellites
The first step in measuring the distance between the GPS receiver anda satellite
requires measuring the time it takes for the signal to travelfrom the satellite to
the receiver. Once the receiver knows how muchtime has elapsed, it
multiplies the travel time of the signal times the
speed of light
(because the satellite signals travel at the speed of light,approximately
186,000 miles per second) to compute the distance.Distance measurements
to four satellites are required to compute a 3-dimensional (latitude, longitude and
altitude) position.In order to measure the travel time of the satellite signal, the
receiverh a s t o k n o w w h e n t h e s i g n a l l e f t t h e s a t e l l i t e a n d w h e n
t h e s i g n a l reached the receiver. Knowing when the signal reaches the receiver
iseasy; the GPS receiver just "checks" its internal clock when the signalarrives to
see what time it is. But how does it "know" when the signalleft the satellite? All GPS
receivers are synchronized with the satellitesso they generate the same digital
code at the same time. When the G P S r e c e i v e r r e c e i v e s a c o d e f r o m a
s a t e l l i t e , i t c a n l o o k b a c k i n i t s memory bank and "remember" when it
emitted the same code. Thislittle "trick" allows the GPS receiver to
determine when the signal leftthe satellite.

10

Using the Distance Measurements to Calculate a Position

Once the receiver has the distance measurements, it's basically a problem
of geometry. If it "knows" where the four satellites are, and how far it is fromeach
satellite, it can compute its location through triangulation

1)
The GPS receiver "locks on" to one satellite and calculates the r a n g e t o
b e 1 2 , 0 0 0 m i l e s . T h i s f a c t h e l p s n a r r o w t h e r e c e i v e r location down,
but it only tells us that we are somewhere on
as p h e r e w h i c h i s c e n t e r e d o n t h e s a t e l l i t e a n d h a s a
12,000 mile radius.
2)
Now, consider that the receiver picks up a signal from a secondsatellite
and calculates the range between the receiver and the satellite to be 10,000
miles. That means we are also somewhereon a sphere with a 10,000 mile radius
with the second satellite atthe center. We must, therefore, be somewhere where
these twos p h e r e s i n t e r s e c t . W h e n t h e t w o s p h e r e s i n t e r s e c t , a c i r c l e
i s formed, so we must be somewhere on that circle.3 ) I f t h e r e c e i v e r p i c k s
u p a n o t h e r s a t e l l i t e , s a y a t 1 1 , 0 0 0 m i l e s away, another sphere is
formed, and there are only two points where the three spheres intersect.
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Determining the co-ordinates (Lat/Long Grid)

Grid Systems
Two most common grid systems in use are the
LatitudeL o n g i t u d e ( L a t / L o n g ) g r i d a n d t h e U n i v e r s a l Tr a n s v e r s e M e r c
a t o r (UTM) grid.The UTM grid is a metric grid system based on 60 grid
zones aroundthe globe and a set of values n meters from reference points
of thegrid.Any grid consists of the reference points, units of measurement,
andsome designation of direction to clearly identify a position.

12

13

The horizontal, X axis and the vertical, Y axis are the reference points.The Lat/Long
grid consists of all the same elements. The axes are theequator running in an
east/west circle around the globe, and the PrimeMeridian which is a line running
north and south through
Greenwich.T h e r e a r e t w o u n i q u e t h i n g s a b o u t t h i s g r i d i n t h a t
i t i s s p h e r i c a l instead of fl at and the units of measurement are
ANGULAR (degree,minutes, seconds). In this grid system, we deal with a sphere
where the reference axesare two circles. One is around the center of globe at the
equator, andthe other running vertical or North and South at the Prime
Meridian. Like in the X-Y graph, a point is defined by given distance in degrees,East
or West of the Prime Meridian, and in degrees, North or South of the Equator. But if
we only use degrees, we would not be veryaccurate because one degree of
longitude or latitude at the axis isequal to approx. 60 miles. Therefore, the circle
needs to be dividedinto smaller components to give more accurate coordinates.
Therefore,

14

the
degree
is further divided into 60 smaller segments called
minutes
, which in turn is further divided into 60
15

seconds.
This give small enough increment on the surface of the Earth, onesecond gives the
distance of around 100 feet, much higher level of accuracy. The coordinates for a
given location is the intersection of theMeridian of Longitude, East or West of the
Prime Meridian and theparallel of Latitude, North or South of the Equator.
r

GPS ERROR
There are many sources of possible errors that will degrade
t h e accuracy of positions computed by a GPS receiver. The travel time
of GPS satellite signals can be altered by atmospheric eff ects; when
aG P S s i g n a l p a s s e s t h r o u g h t h e i o n o s p h e r e a n d t r o p o s p h e r e
i t i s r e f r a c t e d , c a u s i n g t h e s p e e d o f t h e s i g n a l t o b e d i ff e r e n t f r o m
thes p e e d o f a G P S s i g n a l i n s p a c e . S u n s p o t a c t i v i t y
a l s o c a u s e s interference with GPS signals. Another source of error is
measurementnoise, or distortion of the signal caused by electrical
interference orerrors inherent in the GPS receiver itself. Errors in the ephemeris
data( t h e i n f o r m a t i o n a b o u t s a t e l l i t e o r b i t s ) w i l l a l s o c a u s e e r
r o r s i n computed positions, because the satellites weren't
really where theG P S r e c e i v e r " t h o u g h t " t h e y w e r e ( b a s e d o
n t h e i n f o r m a t i o n i t re ce i ve d ) whe n i t comp u te d th e p osi ti on s.
S m a l l v a r i a t i o n s i n t h e atomic clocks (clock drift) on board the satellites can
translate to largeposition errors; a clock error of 1 nanosecond translates to
1 foot or0 . 3 m e t e r s u s e r e r r o r o n t h e g r o u n d . M u l t i p a t h
e ff e c t s a r i s e w h e n signals transmitted from the satellites bounce off a
refl ective
surfaceb e f o r e g e t t i n g t o t h e r e c e i v e r a n t e n n a . W h e n t h i s h a p
p e n s , t h e receiver gets the signal in straight line path as well as delayed
path(multiple paths). The effect is similar to a ghost or double image on aTV set.
Geometric Dilution of Precision (GDOP)
Satellite geometry can also affect the accuracy of GPS positioning. Thiseffect is
called Geometric Dilution of Precision (GDOP). GDOP refers towhere the satellites
are in relation to one another, and is a measure of the quality of the satellite
configuration. It can magnify or lessen otherG P S e r r o r s . I n g e n e r a l , t h e
wi de r the an g le b e twee n sa tel l i te s, the b e tte r th e me asu re me n t
.
M o s t G P S r e c e i v e r s s e l e c t t h e s a t e l l i t e constellation that will gi
v e t h e l e a s t u n c e r t a i n t y , t h e b e s t s a t e l l i t e geometry.
16

GPS receivers usually report the quality of satellite geometry in termsof Position
Dilution of Precision, or PDOP. PDOP refers to
horizontal(HDOP) and vertical (VDOP) measurements (latitude, longitude
andaltitude).A low DOP indicates a higher probability of accuracy, and
ahigh DOP indicates a lower probability of accuracy. A PDOP of 4 or lessis
excellent, a PDOP between 5 AND 8 is acceptable, and a PDOP of 9 or
greater is poor. TDOP or Time Dilution of Precision refers to satelliteclock offset.
Selective Availability (SA)
S e l e c t i v e Av a i l a b i l i t y , o r S A , o c c u r r e d w h e n t h e D o D i n t e n t i o n a l l y d
egraded the accuracy of GPS signals by introducing artificial clock
ande p h e m e r i s e r r o r s . W h e n S A w a s i m p l e m e n t e d , i t w a s t h e l
a r g e s t component of GPS error, causing error of up to 100 meters. SA is
ac o m p o n e n t o f t h e S t a n d a r d Po s i t i o n i n g S e r v i c e ( S P S ) , w h i c h w a s fo
rmally implemented on March 25, 1990, and was intended to protectnational
defense. SA was turned off on May 1, 2000.
Factors that affect GPS
There are a number of potential error sources that affect either theGPS signal
directly or your ability to produce optimal results:

Number of satellites - minimum number required

:Y o u m u s t t r a c k a t l e a s t f o u r c o m m o n s a t e l l i t e s - t h e
s a m e f o u r satellites - at both the reference receiver and rover for either DGPS
orRTK solutions. Also to achieve centimeter -level accuracy, remember y o u
m u s t h a v e a fi f t h s a t e l l i t e f o r o n - t h e fl y RT K i n i t i a l i z a t i o n .
T h i s extra satellite adds a check on the internal calculation. Any
additionals a t e l l i t e s b e y o n d fi v e p r o v i d e e v e n m o r e c h e c k s , w h i
c h i s a l w a y s useful.

Multipath - reflection of GPS signals near the antennae:Multipath is simply

refl ection of signals similar to the phenomenon of g h o s t i n g o n o u r
t e l e v i s i o n s c r e e n . G P S s i g n a l s m a y b e r e fl e c t e d
bys u r f a c e s n e a r t h e a n t e n n a e , c a u s i n g e r ro r i n t h e t r a v e l t i
m e a n d therefore error in the GPS positions.

17

Ionosphere - change in the travel time of the signal:Before GPS signals reach your
antenna on the earth, they pass througha zone of charged particles called the
ionosphere, which changes thespeed of the signal. If your reference and rover
receivers are relativelyclose together, the effect of ionosphere tends to be minimal.
And if youare working with the lower range of GPS precisions, the ionosphere isnot
a major consideration. However if your rover is working too far from the
reference station, you may experience problems, particularlywith initializing your
RTK fixed solution.

Troposphere - change in the travel time of the signal:

Troposphere is essentially the weather zone of our atmosphere, anddroplets of
water vapors in it can affect the speed of the signals.The vertical component of your
GPS answer (your elevation) isparticularly sensitive to the troposphere.

Satellite Geometry - general distribution of the satellites:

Satellite Geometry or the distribution of satellites in the sky effectsthe computation
of your position. This is often referred to
asPosition Dilution of Precision (PDOP).PDOP is expressed as a number, where lower
numbers arepreferable to higher numbers. The best results are obtained
whenPDOP is less than about7.PDOP is determined by yourgeographic location, the
time of day you are working, and any siteobstruction, which might block satellites.
You can use planningsoftware to help you determine when you'll have the most
satellitesin a particular area.When satellites are spread out, PDOP is Low
(good).When satellites are closer together, PDOP is High (weak).

Satellite Health - Availability of Signal:

While the satellite system is robust and dependable, it is possiblefor the satellites to
occasionally be unhealthy. A satellite broadcastsits health status, based on
information from the U.S. Department of Defense. Your receivers have safeguards to
protect against usingdata from unhealthy satellites.

Signal Strength - Quality of Signal

:
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The strength of the satellite signal depends on obstructions and theelevation of the
satellites above the horizon. To the extent it ispossible, obstructions between your
GPS antennae and the skyshould be avoided. Also watch out for satellites which are
close tothe horizon, because the signals are weaker.

Distance from the Reference Receiver :

The effective range of a rover from a reference station dependsprimarily on the type
of accuracy you are trying to achieve. For thehighest real time accuracy (RTK fixed),
rovers should be withinabout 10-15 Km (about 6-9 miles) of the reference station.
As therange exceeds this recommended limit, you may fail to initialize andbe
restricted to RTK float solutions (decimeter accuracy).

Radio Frequency (RF) Interference:

RF interference may sometimes be a problem both for your GPSreception and your
radio system. Some sources of RF interferenceinclude:

Radio towers

Transmitters

Satellite dishes

GeneratorsO n e s h o u l d b e p a r t i c u l a r l y c a r e f u l o f s o u r c e s w h i c h t r a n s
mi t e i th e rn e ar th e GPS f re qu e n cie s (1227 an d 1575 MH z ) or ne ar
harmonics

(multiples) of these frequencies. One should also be aware of the

RFgenerated by his own machines.
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Loss of Radio Transmission from Base
:

If, for any reason, there is an interruption in the radio link between
ar e f e r e n c e r e c e i v e r a n d a r o v e r , t h e n y o u r r o v e r i s l e f t
w i t h a n autonomous position. It is very important to set up a network of
radiosand repeaters, which can provide the uninterrupted radio link
neededfor the best GPS results.Following is the list of possible sources of GPS error
and their generalimpact on positioning accuracy.

(multiples) of these frequencies. One should also be aware of the

RFgenerated by his own machines.

Loss of Radio Transmission from Base

:

If, for any reason, there is an interruption in the radio link between
ar e f e r e n c e r e c e i v e r a n d a r o v e r , t h e n y o u r r o v e r i s l e f t
w i t h a n autonomous position. It is very important to set up a network of
radiosand repeaters, which can provide the uninterrupted radio link
neededfor the best GPS results.Following is the list of possible sources of GPS error
and their generalimpact on positioning accuracy.
REDUCING GPS ERROR
Is there a way to cancel out the errors and get better than 15
meteraccuracy? The answer is yes, but the level of accuracy depends on thetype of
equipment used.
Differential Correction
D i ff e r e n t i a l c o r r e c t i o n i s a m e t h o d u s e d t o r e d u c e t h e e ff e c t
s of a t m o s p h e r i c e r ro r a n d o t h e r s o u rc e s o f G P S p o s i t i o
n i n g e r r o r (differential correction cannot correct for multipath or receiver error;
itc o u n t e r a c t s o n l y t h e e r r o r s t h a t a r e c o m m o n t o b o t h r e f e r e n c e
20

a n d moving receivers). It requires, in addition to "roving" GPS receiver,

aG P S r e c e i v e r o n t h e g r o u n d i n a k n o w n l o c a t i o n t o a c t a s a
s t a t i c reference point. This type of setup is often called a
GPS base stationor reference station
. Since the base station "knows" where it is,
itc a n c o m p u t e t h e e r r o r s i n i t s p o s i t i o n c a l c u l a t i o n s ( i n r e a l i
t y , i t comp u te s ti mi n g e rror s) an d ap p l y th e m to an y n u mb e r of
moving

re ce i ve rs in th e same g e ne ral are a. Thi s re q ui re s th at the b ase

a n d rover receivers "see" the same set of satellites at the same time.
Thebase station, depending upon how it is configured, can correct movingGPS
receiver data in one (or both) of two ways.1) In the first method, called real-time
differential correction orreal-time differential GPS (DGPS), the base station transmits
(usuallyvia radio link) error correction messages to other GPS receivers in
thel o c a l a r e a . I n t h i s c a s e , t h e p o s i t i o n s r e a d o n G P S r e c e i v e
r w h i l e collecting data, are the corrected
positions.2 ) T h e s e c o n d m e t h o d , c a l l e d p o s t - p r o c e s s e d
d i ff e r e n t i a l correction, is performed on a computer
after
the moving receiver dataare collected. While one is out in the field collecting data,
the positionshe/she read on his/her moving GPS receivers are uncorrected. It is
notu n t i l h e / s h e t a k e s h i s / h e r r o v e r fi l e s b a c k t o t h e o ffi c e a n d
p r o c e s s t h e m u s i n g d i ff e r e n t i a l c o r r e c t i o n s o f t w a r e a n d d a t a f r o m t
h e b a s e station fi le, that he/she get corrected positions. The base station
fi lecontains information about the timing errors. This information
allowsthe diff erential correction software to apply error corrections to
them o v i n g r e c e i v e r fi l e d u r i n g p r o c e s s i n g . S i n c e t h e b a s e a n
d r o v e r receivers have to "see" the same set of satellites at the same time,
theb a s e fi l e h a s t o s t a r t b e f o r e t h e r o v e r fi l e s t a r t s , a n d e n d a f t e r
t h e rover fi le ends (a base station is normally set up to track all
satellitesin view, insuring that it will "see" at least the four satellites that
themoving receiver is using to compute positions).
ACCURACY OF GPS
The accuracy that can be achieved using GPS depends on the type
of e q u i p m e n t u s e d , t h e t i m e o f o b s e r v a t i o n , a n d t h e p o s i t i o n s o f t h
e satellites being used to compute positions. In general, recreational andmapping
21

grade receivers using C/A code without differential

correctiona r e a c c u r a t e t o b e t w e e n 5 a n d 1 5 m e t e r s . M o
s t m a p p i n g a n d recreational grade receivers with
diff erential correction can providefrom about 1 to 5 meter accuracy. Some
receivers use what is called"carrier-smoothed code" to increase the accuracy of
the C/A code. Thisinvolves measuring the distance from the receiver to the
satellites bycounting the number of waves that carry the C/A code signal.
Theser e c e i v e r s c a n
a c h i e v e 1 0 c m t o 1 m e t e r a c c u r a c y w i t h d i ff e r e n t i a l c o r r e c t i o n .
D u a l f re q u e n c y s u r v e y g r a d e re c e i v e r s u s i n g m o re advan
c e d n e t w o r k s u r v e y t e c h n i q u e s c a n a c h i e v e c e n t i m e t e r t o milli
meter accuracy.There are four basic levels of accuracy - or types of solutions - that
canbe obtain with real-time GPS mining
system:Autonomous Accuracy 15 - 100 metersDifferential
GPS(DGPS)Accuracy 0.5 - 5 meters

Real-TimeKinematic Float(RTK Float)Accuracy 20cm - 1 meterReal-TimeKinematic

Fixed(RTK Fixed)Accuracy 1cm - 5 cmGPS satellites broadcast on three different
frequencies, and eachfrequency (or career wave) has some information or codes on
it.L1 Career L2 Career19 cmwavelength24 cm
wavelength1575.42 M Hz 1227.6 M HzC/A Code P CodeNavigationNavigationMessag
e

P Code :
Reserved for direct use only by the military

C/A Code :
Used for rougher positioning

For Single frequency use only L1 career is used

22

For Double frequency, L1/L2/L3 career is used

The navigation message (usually referred to as the ephemeris)tells us where the

satellites are located, in a special coordinatesystem called WGS-84. If you know
where the satellites are atany given time, then you can compute your location here
onearth.

Why Reference Station?

As is different levels of accuracy in GPS positions, one must have areference
receiver, which is stationary, and a rover, which can bemobile or stationary.The GPS
reference station normally operates continuously, 24 hours aday. The coordinates of
this station must be known before we canbegin using GPS on any of our machines.
First a proper site for thereference station is to be selected, and then a GPS survey
is performedto obtain the known coordinates. This is usually done as part of
theinstallation, either by the installation team or other qualified personal.Once it is
installed, the GPS reference station can perform twofunctions simultaneously:

Receive data from the satellites

Broadcast GPS data to the rovers in the mine

One reference station can support unlimited rovers. The pri

m a r y constraint may be distance, because accuracy may
s u ff e r i f o n e i s working too far from the reference station. This maximum
distance willvary with the accuracy requirements and environment.Selecting the
Reference StationSome of the features of a good reference site are:

Clear View to the Sky

Proximity to your Working Areas : This is both a GPS issue anda radio issue. Remember,
R TX is generally limited to about 10-15 Km (6-9 miles) for reliable
initializations, due primarilyof potential errors from the ionosphere. Therefore, one
shouldselect a reference site that is within about 10-15 Km of whererovers is expect
to work.
23


Absence of RF Interference : Try to place the reference
stationa w a y f r o m s o u r c e s o f r a d i o i n t e r f e r e n c e , w h i c h a r i s e f r o m radio
towers, transmitters, television or other satellite dishes,h i g h v o l t a g e p o w e r l i n e s , a n d a n y o t h e r o b v i o u s s o u r c e o f interference.

Minimal Sources of Multipath : Multipath at the reference

sitec a n c a u s e i n a c c u r a t e a n s w e r s o r i n t e r f e r e w i t h t h e r o v e r ' s ability
to initialize.

Continuous AC / DC Power Source

Stable Antennae Mount: Not only the monument should bestable, but also the GPS
antennae itself should be secure andstable to minimize the movement.

Accessibility of the stationReference Station Equipment:

GPS receiver

GPS antenna

Radio and antenna, Power supply, & Cables

Radios
We have seen that each GPS rover must receive information from thereference
station to achieve accurate positions. To maintain constantcommunication
between your reference station and rover, you need these items at the
reference station and at each rover:

Radio

24

Radio Antenna

CablesT h e r a d i o s a r e c a b l e d d i r e c t l y i n t o t h e G P S r e c e i v e r. Po w e r
m a y b e provided to the radio through the GPS receiver. At the reference
site,G P S d a t a i s b r o a d c a s t t h r o u g h t h e r a d i o . A t t h e r o v
e r s i t e , t h e reference GPS data is received by the radio and routed into
the
roverr e c e i v e r , w h e r e i t i s p r o c e s s e d t o g e t h e r w i t h r o v e r ' s G P S d a t a
ther o v e r r a d i o c a n a l s o d r a w p o w e r f r o m t h e
G P S r e c e i v e r.

25

Repeater Radios: If, for any reason, the reference station transmissioncannot reach
the rovers, then we must use one or more repeaters.
Ar e p e a t e r r e l a y s t h e d a t a f r o m r e f e r e n c e o r a n o t h e r r e p e a t e
r . T h e maximum number of repeaters that can be used depends on type
of r a d i o . R e p e a t e r s d i ff e r f r o m r e f e r e n c e a n d r o v e r r a d i
o s i n t w o important ways: they must have their own source of power,
and theycan be moved as the needs change. The radios draw very low
power,but they require uninterrupted power. Because repeaters may need tobe
moved to accommodate needs, batteries or compact solar
powerunits are normally used. Frequency and Bandwidth: Most radiosused
in GPS fall within one of the following frequency ranges:

150-174 MHz (VHF)

406-512 MHz (UHF)

902-928 MHz (spread spectrum)The lower-frequency radios (150-174 MHZ) tend to

have more power,due to design and legal issues (not Physics), However, the
bandwidth,which determines the amount of data can be transmit, is narrower
int h e s e l o w e r r a n g e s ( a l s o d u e t o d e s i g n ,
n o t p h y s i c s ) . In the nominal 450 MHz and 900 MHz ranges, the
bandwidth is wider.
Radio Range

26

To guarantee steady, uninterrupted transmission over the radio, one should

be aware of some of the factors that affect the radio's effectiverange.

Antenna Height: raising the radio antenna is the easiest andmost effective way to
increase range.

Antenna design: radiating patterns vary, depending on theantenna design.

Cable length and type: radio signals suffer loss in cables, sokeep the length to
a minimum.

Output power: doubling output power does not double youreffective range.

Obstructions: Buildings, walls and even the machines canblock or interrupt

radio transmission. The repeaters should becarefully used to help minimize the
effect of obstructions.
What should be known before acquiring a GPS Receiver?
Before acquiring GPS equipment, it is important to clearly defi ne the needs
in terms of accuracy level required and end results expected.Do one simply want
to be able to navigate in the woods, or want to map out points, lines and areas
that can be differentially corrected
andi m p o r t e d i n t o a G I S ( a c o m p u t e r m a p p i n g s y s t e m ) ? , D o r e a l t i m e differential GPS is needed for any reason?
GPS APPLICATIONS
Global Positioning S yste ms is in f act is av ail ab le to users at
a n y position worldwide at any time. With a fully operational GPS system, itcan be
generated to a large community of likely to grow as there are multiple
applications, ranging from surveying, mapping, and navigationto GIS data
capture.T h e r e a r e c o u n t l e s s G P S a p p l i c a t i o n s , a f e w i m p o r t a n t
o n e s a r e covered in the following passage.

Surveying and MappingThe high precisions of GPS carrier phase measurements,

together
27

witha p p r o p r i a t e a d j u s t m e n t a l g o r i t h m s , p r o v i d e a n a d e q u a t e t o o l f o
r avariety of tasks for surveying and mapping. Using DGPS method
s , accurate and timely mapping of almost anything can be carried
out.T h e G P S i s u s e d t o m a p c u t b l o c k s , r o a d a
l i g n m e n t s , a n d environmental hazards such as landslides, forest
fi res, and oil
spills.A p p l i c a t i o n s , s u c h a s c a d a s t r a l m a p p i n g , n e e d i n g a h i g h d e g r
ee of a c c u r a c y a l s o c a n b e c a r r i e d o u t u s i n g h i g h g r a d e G P S
r e c e i v e r s . Continuous kinematic techniques can be used for topographic
surveysand accurate linear mapping.

NavigationN a v i g a t i o n u s i n g G P S c a n s a v e c o u n t l e s s h o u r s i n t h
e fi e l d . A n y f e a t u r e , e v e n i f i t i s u n d e r w a t e r , c a n b e l o c a t e d u p
t o o n e h u n d r e d meters simply by scaling coordinates from a map, entering
waypoints,a n d g o i n g d i r e c t l y t o t h e s i t e . E x a m p l e s i n c l u d e r o a d i n t e r
s e c t i o n s , corner posts, plot canters, accident sites, geological formations, and
soon. GPS navigation in helicopters, in vehicles, or in a ship can providean easy
means of navigation with substantial savings.

Remote Sensing and

GISI t i s a l s o p o s s i b l e t o i n t e g r a t e G P S p o s i t i o n i n g i n t o r e m o t e s e n s i n g methods such as photogrammetry and aerial scanning,
magnetometry,and video technology. Using DGPS or kinematic techniques,
depending
upon the accuracy required, real time or post-processing will
providepositions for the sensor which can be projected to the ground, insteado f
h avi n g g rou n d con t rol p roj e cte d to an imag e . GPS are
b e c o m i n g v e r y e ff e c t i v e t o o l s f o r G I S d a t a c a p t u r e . T h e G I S u s e r
c o m m u n i t y benefi ts from the use of GPS for location data capture in
various GISapplications. The GPS can easily be linked to a laptop computer in
thefield, and, with appropriate software, users can also have all their dataon a
common base with every little distortion. Thus GPS can help in several
aspects of construction of accurate and timely GIS databases.

GeodesyG e o d e t i c m a p p i n g a n d o t h e r c o n t r o l s u r v e y s c a n b e c a
r r i e d o u t e ff e c t i v e l y u s i n g h i g h - g r a d e G P s
e q u i p m e n t . E s p e c i a l l y w h e n helicopters were used or when the line
of sight is not possible, GPS canset new standards of accuracy and productivity.

28

MilitaryT h e G P S w a s p r i m a r i l y d e v e l o p e d f o r r e a l t i m e m i l i t a r y
p o s i t i o n i n g . Military applications include airborne, marine, and navigation.
FUTURE OF GPS TECHNOLOGY
Barring significant new complications due to S/A (Selective Availability)f r o m D O D ,
t h e G P S industry i s l i k e l y t o continue t o develop i n t h e civilian community.
There are currently more than 50 manufacturers of GPS receivers, with the trend
continuing to be towards smaller, lessexpensive, and more easily operated
devices. While highly accurate, p o r t a b l e ( h a n d h e l d ) r e c e i v e r s a r e a l r e a d y a v a i l a b l e , c u r r e n t speculation
envisions inexpensive and equally accurate 'wristwatchlocators' and
navigational guidance systems for automobiles. However,t h e r e i s o n e f u t u r e
t re n d th a t wil l be ve ry re l e van t to th e GIS
u se rcom mu ni ty, n ame l y, commu n i ty b ase stati on s an d re g i on al re c
e i v e networks, as GPS management and technological innovations that willmake
GPS surveying easier and more accurate.Also
INDIA
in the future will do use this technology, not only in the field of Defense, but
also in civilian community as this is not a scientificluxury but is the need of future.
Bibliography
1.
www.montana.edu/places/gps
2.
Understanding GPSThis document provides a verbal explanation of the
GlobalPositioning System by Diana Cooksey
3.
GPS Systems SegmentsAn article by US Naval Observatory

29