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RHETORIC
AN
RHETORIC
FOR THE USE OF SCHOOLS
THE VERY
REV.
O.S.B.
LONDON
SWAN SONNENSCHEIN
NEW
&
CO.
CONTENT
PART
S.
I.
Chapter
I.
PAGE
Preliminary Notions,
Chapter
II.
Rhetoric,
Chapter
III.
INVENTION.
SECTION
I.
Proofs,
SECTION
Intrinsic Sources of Proofs,
II.
15
SECTION
III.
Chapter
Oratorical Manners,
26
Chapter
THE
Means
to
Move
or
IV.
Touch
V.
PASSIONS.
the Audience,
(V)
qi
CONTENTS.
Chapter VI.
DISPOSITTOX OR ARRANGEMENT.
SECTION
its
I.
PAGE
36
Qualities,
SECTION
The Exordium
Its Different
38
SECTION
How
to
Compose
II.
Kinds,
the Exordium
Its
III.
Sources,
SECTION
45
IV.
49
Chapter
VII.
I.
Proposition,
50
SECTION
II.
SECTION
III.
Division,
Of
the
Use
51
to be
made
of Divisions,
53
SECTION
IV.
Narration,
54
Chapter
VIII.
Confirmation,
58
Chapter
IX.
The Refutation,
62
Chapter
The Peroration,
X,
67
CONTENTS.
Chapter
XI.
PAGE
71
Elocution,
Chapter
XII.
Style,
77
Chapter
XIII.
FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE.
Figures of Words,
80
Figures of Thought,
87
among
Figures of Thought,
g8
Chapter XIV.
DELIVERY.
SECTION
I.
Delivery or Action,
104
SECTION
The
II.
Voice,
105
SECTION
Gesture,
III.
107
Chapter XV.
SACRED ELOQUENCE.
I.
no
Remote Preparation,
SECTION
II.
Proximate Preparation,
114
Chapter XVI.
Different Ways of Preparing a Discourse,
ii6
Chapter XVII.
How
TO Compose
Sermon,
121
CONTENTS.
SECTION
VI.
PAGE
29
SECTION
VII.
SECTIOX
31
VIII.
33
SECTION
IX.
37
SECTION
X.
SECTION
XI.
His Death,
41
His Character,
43
SECTION
XII.
SECTION
XIII.
46
His Speeches,
47
SECTION XIV.
His Philosophical Works,
49
Chapter H.
I.
51
53
SECTION
(i)
(2)
(3)
II.
against Catiline,
jg
SECTION
(i)
(2)
(3)
(2)
(3)
III.
Catiline,
62
65
g^
SECTION
(i)
56
58
IV.
against Catiline,
6g
y
-.
y^
CONTENTS.
Chapter
III.
I.
I'AGE
(i)
Speech
(2)
(3)
for Archias,
77
80
80
SECTION
(i)
Speech
(2)
(i)
Speech
(2)
for
II.
Marcellus,
83
88
SECTION
for Ligarius,
III.
go
94
Chapter
Speech
for Mile,
97
Second
Confirmation.
Third Part,
The
IV.
The
in
Narration,
114
Part,
16
117
Peroration,
iig
PART
LIVES OF ^SCHINES
120
131
III.
AND DEMOSTHENES.
Chapter
I.
Life of .iEschines,
Chapter
II.
(3)
Demosthenes
is
11
" accountable,"
11
13
is
False,
14
CONTENTS.
I'AG E
First
ig
22
in
24
27
Peroration,
,q
Chapter
III.
LIFE OF DEMOSTHENES.
SECTION
I.
3^
II.
Phihp of Macedon,
,1
SECTION
III.
SECTION
IV.
SECTION
\'.
Opposition to Philip,
,j
From
the Peace
till
-2
Cheronea,
rg
SECTION
From Cheronea
till
VI.
SECTION
Style of Demosthenes,
"
63
VII.
The Exordium,
55
6n
71
The Embassy.
{1}
(2)
Formal Reply
to Indictment,
74
_g
Si
g^
g
Oq
CHAPTER
I.
PRELIMINARY NOTIONS.
to obtain its
end
".
?
Cicero was of opinion
any one might become eloquent by a diligent study of
But if we remember that eloquence
the precepts of Rhetoric.
is a faculty, we must confess that rules and precepts cannot
Yet, though
supply that which nature has not given.
Rhetoric cannot give men the faculty which God has refused, it is able to develop any talent for eloquence which
may be latent within them. That which Horace says of
that
poetry
is
"A
it
springs from
RHETORIC.
nature or from
what
For
art.
either study
is
my own
part,
cannot conceive
own blundering
efforts
other,
if left
to its
same effect."
MANY KINDS OF ELOQUENCE ARE THERE
How
three
kinds
AristOtlc
deliberative, judicial,
and demonstrative.
Deliberative Eloquence is employed in all affairs relating to the State, and corresponds to our parliamentary
eloquence.
Judicial Eloquence deals with legal matters, and corresponds to the eloquence of the Bar.
Demonstrative Eloquence
subjects the object of which
for
is
is
used
when we
of
treat
to praise or to blame.
Such,
courses.
Is
This
thought.
constitute
the
and the
is
it
Yes; because,
(i)
(2)
the
just,
viewed
is
good,
audience to which
if
eloquence
it is
is
addressed.
is
He
'
to
him upon
that,
PRELIMINARY NOTIONS.
-to
for
then
we must
we
should have
either praise or
to be
kinds of eloquence.
What
is
The
CHAPTER
II.
RHETORIC.
What
is
Rhetoric
may
be defined to be
its
facult}-
end
".
"That
of eloquence
But as men
may
or,
of Aristotle, Rhetoric
is
".
defined to be
"The
The means of
find-
suades
".
What
is its
ject of Rhetoric
The purpose
or ob-
those
Purpose or Object
is
to develop
and
RhetOric
What
is
Rhetoric is
divided into the above-named parts, because these three correspond to the threefold function of the writer or the speaker.
First, he has to find proofs by which to make good the thesis
or truth of which he wishes to persuade his audience.
It is
the office of invention to discover these proofs.
his audience,
(4)
telling effect
in a suit-
'
RHETORIC.
able order.
To do
ment.
Thirdly, he
to do this.
Hence
It is
division there
order
lastly,
it
is
presented
to
the intelligences
of the
whom
To
it is
addressed.
is
divided, a
fourth
is
of the discourse.
1
Elocution
is
here taken in
its
Rhetorical sense.
CHAPTER
III.
INVENTION.
SECTION
I.
Proofs.
What
is
Invention
either as a faculty or as
course.
As
a part of Rhetoric,
it is
defined to be
"
The
art
which
To WHAT Objects
is
INVENTION.
he
asserts.
that
is to
say,
three principles
When
is
from authority
fact,
or a point
used
The
is
proof
a matter of
the citizen-
we
Example.
What
Deduction
is
therefore," &c.
Deduction
a process or form
is
we draw
particular conclusion.
Example. " All heavy bodies gravitate towards the centre
of the earth
is
How
Enthymeme,
arguments
it
".
?
There
Syllogism
is
an argument
RHETORIC.
8
tion
is
The
called Premisses.
first
proposition
is
called the
Minor
the
term.
which
Example
All
exists
It is
:
men
William
are mortal.
is
man.
Therefore William
William
All men
is
is
is
mortal.
Mortal
is
All vice
must be avoided.
Hypocrisy
is
a vice.
Man
is
George
a rational animal.
is
a man.
Therefore he
is
a rational animal.
loved.
INVENTION.
He
lawful to
It is
kill
away our
to take
life.
it
was
to take
away the
kill
life
of Milo.
Clodius.
What
it
The reason
which
is
Third Rule.
conclusion.
This rule
term
is
is
obvious
introduced,
But
tremes.^
extremes
is
this
made
is
for the
that
it
only reason
may
why
the middle
in the
in the conclusion.
Fourth ROle.
full
extent of
'
its
Another name
for the
RHETORIC.
lO
in-
Fifth Rule.
From two
Therefore,
From two
Seventh Rule.
particular premisses
no con-
may
both be negative, or
fifth
rule,
no
should be universal.
affirmative,
rule,
ought
aforesaid premisses
term
is
But
drawn from the
to be negative.
conclusion a universal
manner that
INVENTION.
II
premisses.
particular
in
the
other negative.
each subject
is
taken particularly.
is
There
negative.
The reason of
when
served that
the
first
become
evident,
if it
be ob-
extreme term with the middle term, and the second premiss denies the agreement of the other term with the middle
term, it follows that the extremes disagree with each other.
Again, if a term which is particular in the premisses be made
its
universal in the conclusion, there will be affirmed in the conclusion an agreement which
is
What
is
Life
What
the second.
RHETORIC.
12
name
thus continued,
takes the
it
Polysj'llogism.
Example
Therefore
What
a Sorites
is
soul.
simple.
is
?
Sorites
is
an argument consist-
first
Example
till
we
free
a brave people.
free.
Therefore the
What is an Epicherema ? An
Epicherema is a syllogism
is accompanied by its
We
to do so
It is
away our
we must
life
examples prove
love virtue.
lawful to
this.
INVKN'TION.
But Clodius
laid
Milo to
What
kill
is
13
his arms, his soldiers,
Therefore
Dilemma
is
A Dilemma
is
is
it
was
lawful
innocent.
a syllogism of
a disjunctive proposition
the minor
opponent.
Examples,
fi)
same meaning,
The two
eliminated
is
if
the
same
them represents a
Soldier
(2)
not
if
gratified, also
Therefore the
not:
he
is
unpatriotic.
Therefore he
is
either inconsistent or
unpatriotic.
The
rules
RHETORIC.
14
Therefore he
"No, he
is
is in
most miserable
not; for
is
it
situation.
might
The
"
must
" If
either give
give
it
up,
lower
my
it.
if
The
and
if
do so in moderation.
Third Rule. All retort must be impossible. The following dilemma offends against this rule
" If I accept the post which is offered to me, either I
shall have to give up a comfortable and lucrative situation,
or I shall miss a better one. To give up my situation will
:
be a serious sacrifice
to
my prospects.
Hence I am much to
judicial to
"
be pitied."
Retort. No, you are not for if you keep your situation,
you have one that is comfortable and lucrative if you
give it up, you will have one that is better.
To WHAT MAY THESE VARIOUS MoDES OF ARGUMENT BE
Reduced ? They may all be reduced to the Syllogism
for the Enthymeme is only a syllogism which has one of its
;
propositions suppressed
ing
its
proof with
Dilemma
ferent wa3's.
it;
INVENTION.
SECTION
15
II.
How
sources of proofs
or the speaker
sideration that
is
is
first,
treating
external to
it.
source, extrinsic.
Of
if
benumb
not
still.
Up
to
To us
When
descent
Who
adverse.
but
and fall
felt
of
late,
rear
We
laborious flight
"
!
Extrinsic Proof
"... Grounds his courage on despair
:
And
Of all
First,
Impregnable
Encamp
oft
are filled
their legions
Scorning surprise."
flight
ii.
RHETORIC.
l6
How
eight
intrinsic
sources
of
proofs
There are
namely,
Definition,
It is
called
when
it
It is called
it
lays
down
an acciden-
Example
different
to
move
"What
it
is
;.
INVENTION.
" It
blooms
in the
young
like
some
and so dazzling.
cate, so fragrant
17
rich flower, so deli-
spirit,
the gentle
in
which
self
has no part
are not
"
?
constituency, the
sum
fireside, gives
circles,
token of this
What
that
is
feature.
(genus),
we must
man."
Acts
Example
From
" Therefore
Species.
2
He
is
the Media-
RHETORIC.
l8
testament
of no
was the
every
of force, after
is
first
otherwise
commandment
it is
Whereupon
as yet
neither
For when
Moses
to
all
water and scarlet wool and h3'Ssop, and sprinkled both the
book itself and all the people, saying This is the blood of
:
The
all
and almost
all
things,
and without
What
effect,
The
cause
is
is
it.
done.
cause
may
of a painting
be
in act, or in
power
to act
thus an artist
is
the cause
INVENTION.
19
make
a statue of the
self
who
Some
to
which the
artist
wit,
the
instrumental cause
his
works,
may
for
reason which
What
is
when
work.
at
The nobly
men
will
He
better,
who
is
prit
"
RHETORIC.
20
to
"
recommend him
and
life.
of Roscius
Was
he,
He
died, indeed,
and loved
so generally esteemed
then,
we
the
for
to overlook
the soul
"
Cicero.
my
my
(i)
"Who
can censure
me
for
abilit}',
are not
blamed
for
"
Pro
Cicero.
A rcli ia
(2) If St.
What
are
Contraries
why
In
who
him be
similarly favoured
Rhetoric
contrasts
and
Contrast
is
means
it
the thing
INVENTION.
21
Cicero.
unlikelihoods, &c.
" Did Milo withhold his hand when the laws, the time, and
the place insured his safety, and strike when the rashness of
report,
tremble at the
idle
of
private
when we
when we
every man that we
suspicion
story
Pro Milonc.
Circumstances ? Circumstances are the
accessories of facts.
These accessories precede, or accompany, or follow facts, and are, therefore, named antecedent,
meet."
What
Cicero.
are
concoDiitant, subsequent.
in the
cur,
it.
Why
How
When
it
that
committed
It was one of the chosen twelve,
since the world began ?
selected by Christ Himself, taught by Him, loved by Him,
perpetrated
this
foulest
RHETORIC.
22
What did he
destined by Him to be a pillar of His Church.
He betrayed the Incarnate God to His deadliest
do ?
enemies that God Who one day shall come in great power
and majesty to judge the living and the dead. Where did
he accomplish this crime ? In that garden which resounded
with the sighs of the Lord which was sanctified by His
By what
prayer; which was fertilised by His blood.
;
means
By
envied
Him who
;
him."
SECTION
III.
To WHAT MAY ExTRINSIC SoURCES OF PrOOFS BE REExtrinsic sources may be reduced to one general
?
DUCED
Authority
human.
and in
is
Divine authority
received
(5)
At present we
authority.
will
second or
human
INVENTION.
23
(i)
maxim employed
whose advantage
Cassius,
'
What
in
the
courts
it?"
loas
'
is
very applicable
here.
very
Clodius,
by the death of Milo, gained this point, not only that when
he became Praetor, the villainy of his conduct would be under
no check from Milo as Consul, but also that he would be
Praetor under the very men by whose connivance, if not by
whose assistance, he still hoped that the Republic might be
betrayed into his frantic projects he further conjectured that
they would not, had it been in their power, oppose his
designs, since they lay under so many obligations to him,
and that they could not, even if they tried, chastise the presumption of an abandoned wretch, now confirmed and
hardened by long perseverance in wickedness." Cicero.
Pro Milone.
;
Memorable Words of the Wise. " It is an uncon" that no man ever made an ill
figure who understood his own talents, nor a good one who
(2)
remember
far as
is
the history of
we can
Samuel
man
his
... He seems, as
eminently qualified
Crisp.
Unhappily he
set
acts
ward.
and
in the
year 1754 the play was brought forfriends of the author filled every box;
The zealous
RHETORIC.
24
the
civilly evasive
lay's
Essays.
Madame D'Arblay.
"
(3)
And
to Him
He saith to them How then doth David in
spirit call Him Lord, saj'ing
The Lord said to my Lord,
Sit on My right hand until I make Thy enemies Thy footstool ?
"
If David then call Him Lord, how is He his Son ?
you of Christ
Whose Son
David's.
He ?
is
They say
St.
(4)
we
we
man
of Newdigate and
Seatonian poetry."
(5)
Admission
level
of good parts
Macaiilay.
here
him
Thou knewest
servant.
that
INVENTION.
25
My
with usury
If
we
And He
said to
esteemed
to the
If
they are
used upon other subjects, they cannot fail to give any one
who applies them, a clear view of the matter about which he
for they will make him define
is going to speak or to write
he will see in what way it resembles other
it and divide it
he will dissubjects, and in what way it differs from them
If it be some matter of
cover both its causes and its effects.
;
fact,
all
the
authorities
followed.
the fact
They
itself,
will
make him
it.
him who
is
said
him
to see all
CHAPTER
IV.
ORATORICAL MANNERS.
".
(2),
Speaker.
Oratorical
manners
This
is
public speakers of
all
In the
of purpose.
If
they
whom
(26)
for
ORATORICAL MANNERS.
27
all haughtiness, all air of superiority, and carefrom his words anything that might wound the
With Respect
to the Audience.
Oratorical manners,
when
he addresses himself
likings
and their
He
wound
and
their
way
to run counter to
which he addresses
presents
On
it,
to
'
'
beardless youth,
Campus
wax
to receive
Martius.
prodigal of his
He
is
money
soft
rough to those
is
as
who
really
high-spirited, amorous,
and
hood seek
after
it is
It
is
sub-
RHETORIC.
28
any
act, the
of difficuhy.
"A man
either
He
is
peevish
whom
he addresses himself.
be different
cultured
manner
An
an audience composed of Scotchand perhaps a trifle more coldwhile an Irish or a French audience
calmly-delivered speech
men
will require
more
it
warmth and
of
logic,
it
the breath
life.
Difference
Governments.
Government has a
forming the character of nations
hence this fact is not to be lost sight of by the orator.
Under a despotic government, the people are without lofty
sentiments under an aristocratic one they are indifferent to
of
powerful influence in
public affairs
ORATORICAL MANNERS.
their energies
all
development.
and noble
Hence
qualities
29
seem
to find a full
One motive
suade.
oratorical precautions.
be
"
The
art
The
first
both of putting
and of say-
done
"
(3)
the persons of
whom he
speaks.
I.
Place.
If the ^';hc is
one of sadness,
RHETORIC.
30
Audience.
dignity, reputation
in
to the persons to
whom
he addresses
himself.
their
character,
their
rank,
their
These
last,
them.
CHAPTER
V.
THE PASSIONS.
Means io Move or Touch
What
passion,
is
Meant
we mean
the Audience.
by Pathos or Passion
By
pathos or
As
Such,
anger, pity,
fear.''
is
opposed.
The
orator
all
common
^
mean
love,
soul.
(31)
may have
stirred
RHETORIC.
32
are different.
many
use as so
move
levers to
The
own
heart.
What
Sensibility.
orator
must have
in
order to
all
pathos.
"
If
me
have
2.
things which
we have
either seen, or
thought.
Thus, Cardinal
Second Spring
Newman,
in
his
sermon
entitled
The
cism
is
of so
little
account.
many
fronts and courts, and long cloisters and corriand story upon story. And there it rises, under the
invocation of the same sweet and powerful name which has
been our strength and consolation in the valley.
I look
more attentively at that building, and I see it is fashioned
upon that ancient style of art which brings back the past,
with
dors,
'
THE PASSIONS.
33
company
is
firm
in
hope."
Discernment.
at all subjects
or not.
Secondly,
before which he
is
it
to speak.
ciated
to
move
their hearts, or
ridicule.
pathetic.
For
this
may
directly,
which
stir
In
ways
RHETORIC.
34
tion, pity,
fear.
whom
he speaks
men who
By showing
and
their hatred
The
to them.
Christian
orator
must never
whom
up his
Only their
stir
he speaks.
Indignation.
As this passion is anger mingled with
contempt and disgust, the means employed to excite anger
will serve to stir up this passion also.
Pity.
This passion is excited by painting before the
minds of the audience a picture of the misfortunes and the
sorrows which have befallen some worthy man, particularly
if these misfortunes and these sorrows are such as may
befall
Hope
is
Joy
is
made
it
is
to spring
mind a
up
is
possible to obtain.
in
when there is
some success or of
the heart
picture of
How
His
first
In
positions
of heart,
the
next
in
THE PASSIONS.
source.
P'or instance,
self-love, or pride
he should
35
whether
whether they have
try to discover
to
hearers.
for
destroying the
effect
against
whom we
speak.
CHAPTER
VI.
DISPOSITION OR ARRANGEMENT.
SECTION
What
is
I.
its
Qualities.
Disposition or Arrangement
Disposition is
He must
to proceed.
audience
first
to consider
divide
his
is
going
if it
needs division
view
finally, a conclusion.
What
(2)
(5)
(7)
it
(6)
the Refutation
these
(36)
DISPOSITION OR ARRANGEMENT.
What
the Exordium
37
its
What
TO Have
1.
it
like
some strange
It
its
stem
texture.
2.
Correct
Style.
in
Because
Modest.
absence of
the
beginning ot
humour, attend
and manner of the speaker, and are impressed
by these either
3.
in
all
in his
critical
There must be
arrogance,
in
the
ostentation,
exordium a total
and vanity.
pride,
The
them
Calm.
shown
in the
It
is
rare that
exordium.
The minds
RHETORIC.
38
make them
interesting
to the audience.
6.
The exordium
ought, both in
the discourse.
its
length and
In length,
it
ought
in style,
it
SECTION
The Exordium
be adapted to
one-eighth of
about
be
to
in its style, to
we
II.
Its Different
Kinds.
These are
There are
those
who
when one
is
about to address
ate anew.''
Demosthenes.
First Philippic.
DISPOSITION OR ARRANGEMENT.
my
" In
(2)
instances
State
opinion, Athenians
39
many
nor
is
this
juncture.
may
duct ion to
What
An
is
shall
Instruction on Meditation.
exordium, as
its
name
implies,
is
an introduction to a
dis-
course,
made by
when he has
all
RHETORIC.
40
your
idols, I
(2)
answer
for
xxvi. 2, 3.
(3)
';
When
In
he
who most
in
what
excels
And
Of
(4)
all
some
dire revenge."
Milton.
" Friends,
ii.
ears
And
it.
an honourable man,
honourable men)
to speak in Caesar's funeral."
(For Brutus
is
So are they
all
Come
CcEsar, Act
iii.
sc. 2.
DISPOSITION OR ARRANGEMENT.
4I
"
-^b'
Lords
is
but small
of
my
life, I
engage
in a
if
find that
it
was he
that first
prompted
me
me
to
in the pursuit
it.
If my tongue, then moulded and animated by him,
has been the means of saving any, surely by all the ties of
of
it
RHETORIC.
42
any sign of
my
pleading
own
which
this
yet
new
must confess
kind of
in
Forum and
manner
me
conducted, strikes
trial is
in
with a
usages of the
observed in our courts of justice.
Your bench is not surrounded by the usual circle, nor is the crowd made up of the
same elements that used to throng around us. For those
guards whom you see stationed before all the temples,
though intended to prevent violence, yet strike the pleader
with terror so that even in the Forum, and during a trial,
though surrounded by guards who are at once protective
and necessary, we cannot be devoid of fear, without some
fear, that is to say, the very means adopted to allay our
Now, if I thought
fears inspires us with apprehension.
that these measures had been taken in order to show op;
position to Milo,
armed force
But the prudence of Pompey,
for his wisdom and his equity,
is
man
no room
for pleading.
distinguished alike
him
me
to leave
never suffer
man whom
nor
me
me of protection they not
inspire me with confidence
thev
my
promise that
fears, but
As
nor
is
Roman
assembly,
on our
that multitude of
DISPOSITION OR ARRANGEMENT.
spectators
whom
part of the
Forum can be
you see on
all
43
any
own
fate,
Milone.
What
exordium that
chiefly
panegyrics,
in
Example
towards you,
funeral
orations,
academical
dis-
like.
we unconsciously
enter upon
life,
because
to merit
served this
grandeur.''
"
same
city
Cicero.
Ye men
with
all
its
posterity,
who has
pre-
of Athens
I pray to all
the powers of
heaven that during this present trial you may manifest to m e
the same affection that I have ever invariably shown to this
(2)
RHETORIC.
44
gods
may
me
to
draw up
by my
would be a hard step indeed, but in
accordance with the provisions made by the laws, and by
your oath, in which, in addition to all the^other equitable
Each party shall
clauses we find also this expressly added
have an equal hearing'. This phrase implies not only that
you will not prejudge the case, not only that you will
show the same impartiality to both, but that you will
my
adversary
me
for that
'
and
full liberty
to arrange
On the
judgment may determine." Demosthenes.
Crown.
What is the Vehement or " Ex Abrupto " Exordium ?
It is an exordium in which the speaker straightway enters
upon the subject, catching up at once the disposition in which
he finds his audience, and both in tone and in language
or his
Examples
(i)
"
My
sentence
More
is for
inexpert,
Contrive
who
need, or
sit
Of
them
open war.
boast not
when
wiles
let
those
the}' need,
not now.
The
sit
signal to ascend,
lingering here
By our
(2) "
How
delay
far,
"
!
Milton.
Catiline, wilt
ii.
DISPOSITION OR ARRANGEMENT.
How
To what
mean
45
of justice?
summoned
our degeneracy
Senate
is
Lives
he shares
cognisant of
traitor lives
Senate
all this
did
say
He comes
it,
The
yet the
Cicero.
I.
CatiL
Oration.
SECTION
III.
The
(i)
audience
From whatever
Its Sources.
(3)
;
when
the subject
(5)
is
the whole
taken,
itself.
it is
always
has been
the reason is, that it will then
thoroughly thought out
comply with one of the conditions for a good exordium, a
condition required by Cicero: "It will spring from the
best
to
compose
it
subject
its
stem
".
RHETORIC.
46
is
his cause.
Examples
Cicero,
Pro Archia.
Demosthenes, De Corona.
(i) " Occupying the post I now do, I feel something like
a Counsel for the plaintiff, with nobody on the other side
but even if I had been placed in that position ninety times
nine, it would still be my duty to state a few facts from the
very short brief with which I have been provided."
C.
Speeches, chap.
Dicketis.
ix.
He
speaker.
Example
"
The
is
atrocious
crime
of
being
a young
honourable
Walpole.
3.
The
ordium
Dispositions of the Audience. When the exdrawn from this source, it may be made by
in a few complimentary words, to their learning,
is
referring,
any
DISPOSITION OR ARRANGEMENT.
47
they are
distinguished.
Example
my client
circum-
in
must needs
have
for
my
profound legal
justice
which
claim
as his due."
4.
The Subject
make an exordium
In order to
Itself.
which
is
Example
"
the constancy,
We
the perpetual
it,
its
changes,
still
though
it
is
ever dying,
it
is
of the material
and transitory as
restless
ceasing as are
renovation
Frail
it
it
abides.
set
is
every
is
elements, never-
its
up
It is
bound
in unit}',
ever coming to
life
to-
and
again.
modes of organisaEach
the parent of a thousand lives.
hour as
secure,
it
comes
how
is
certain
Second Spring.
is
but a testimony
is
how
how
Newman.
fleeting, yet
Cardinal
RHETORIC.
48
Circumstances.
This exordium is drawn
5. Local
from the local circumstances in which the speaker finds himself, whether these circumstances are those of time or of
place.
Examples:
able
in
"It has of
(i)
immense amount
of
public
speaking.
to fall
notice
from the
trees,
that
than
men
of the
know
east,
do know that
but
to
1858.
" Ladies and Gentlemen,
My graciousand generous
America, a welcome which can never be obliterated from my remembrance, began here.
My departure
(2)
welcome
in
this
that
moment
it
is
felt
for
that
am
moments from
me
that, in a
and
very few
all
that
it
Dickens
DISPOSITION OR ARRANGEMENT.
SECTION
49
IV.
What
is
when
it
be applied indifferently to
many
causes, to
An exordium
engaged
is
in a discussion
common, when
might suitably
own case.
Commutable. An exordium is commutable, when with a
few slight changes it may easily be turned against the opemploy
it
for his
posing party.
is
too long,
when
it
contains
subject.
An exordium is foreign to
Foreign to the Subject.
when it does not grow out of the cause or subject, and is not, so to speak, a limb or member of the disthe subject,
Intended.
produced
is
demanded.
An exordium
different
CHAPTER
VII.
I.
Proposition.
What
the Proposition
is
The
proposition
is
that
may be defined to be "A clear and brief statement of the subject of which the speaker is going to treat ".
At the Bar, it constitutes the point contested by the opposing
exordium, and
parties
in the pulpit,
it
dogma
to be viewed.
What
Qualities should Characterise the Proposiproposition should be characterised by clearness, brevity, simplicity, and the absence of affectation.
How MANY Kinds of Propositions are there ? There
are two kinds of propositions, the simple and the compound.
The simple proposition contains only one object to prove
tion
The
the
compound contains
several.
Simple Propositions,
without knowing
(2) "
Act
i.
(3)
it,
that
Well, honour
is
(i)
I
"
What
therefore
preach to you."
the subject of
my
you worship
Acts
xvii. 23.
story."
Casar,
sc. 2.
" But
if it
must beseech
we may
my
Lords
that
if
we have
5I
everything
lost
Cicero.
Pro
Milone.
Compound Proposition.
me,
will
Cicero.
it."
SECTION
Pro Archia.
II.
Division.
What
is
Division
Division
is
and points
which the speaker is
in
in the
proposition.
Examples:
i.
"Let
it
citizens
their liberties.
Some
of
to
them
others are
To both these show a due meed of reverRemember both your oaths and }'our laws and if we
private affairs.
ence.
convict
(i)
illegal,
interest,
(3)
have administered
3'our
public
affairs.
If
with
RHETORIC.
52
to a just
advantage
against CtesipJion.
2.
"In
the
first
gratulate myself
place,
upon
this
think,
any
me
'
'
shall divide
this discourse
PROPOSITION, DIVISION, AND NARRATIOX.
53
What
Mas-
?
The quahties
should be complete, distinct, pro-
it
(2)
Distinct.
members
of which
division
distinct,
is
when
it
when
the several
embraces
it is
Progressive.
member
is,
as
it
division
is
progressive,
and so on.
Concise. A division
cumlocution, it is expressed
A division
(5) Simple.
when
the
the second
to the third,
is
(4)
concise,
if,
avoiding
all
cir-
words possible.
is simple, when from it there is
excluded that multiplicity of subdivisions which was the
in the fewest
Natural.
division
all
is
natural,
when
it
avoids
all
to take delight.
SECTION
Of the Use
to be
III.
Made
of Divisions.
Does every Subject require Divisions ? No oftenit would be even ridiculous to make use of division.
;
times
thought naturally
in itself one,
RHETORIC.
54
What
it
The advan-
assists the
excites attention,
making
the)'
in
may
experience.
some
of their speeches
treated of
some
point of
dogma
or of morality, they
however,
dividing
made
into
to say.
No
seemed
require
to
as an essential
It
was
some
oratorical artifice.
section
IV.
Narratioti.
What
is
the Narration
The
narration
is
that part of
55
a discourse or speech, following immediately after the division, and giving a full statement of the facts of the case
which the orator is going either to defend or to attack. It
is
What
The
it
ought to have
brevity, clear-
Brevity.
1.
narration
when
brief,
is
does not go
it
the case
when
avoids
it
admits no digressions
all
when
superfluous details
it
leaves
much
when
to
2.
likely,
truth
it
to be under-
when
when
it
is
when
it
makes
who
pected
them
the
admirably adapted
favourable
performed
them
;
that
place
the
of,
the
of
Interesting.
narration
is
interesting,
when
it
is
and when it
its ideas, and the pathos of its sentiments
charms them by the gracefulness and pleasing nature of its
;
details.
5.
Convincing or Demonstrative.
when
narration
is
con-
vincing or demonstrative,
the speaker proposes to himself as the object to be proved
when it contains in itself the germs of all the arguments
it
RHETORIC.
56
which he
going to employ
is
for this
it
purpose
when
the
draw
Example
The
mentioned qualities
" In the
all
the above-
know
was obliged
that
to be at
and
it
was
by the eighLanuvium, of
waylay Milo
in his
was on
and his
till
the
House
his shoes
in readiness to
even more
unaccompanied by his wife. While Milo
would-be murderer, who had purposely contrived the
extraordinary
this
still,
little
57
charioteer.
upon
was already
were behind.
while the
rest,
killed, to fall
some
of them,
their
killed,
say
fact to
it
not
Cicero.
Pro Milone.
CHAPTER VIII.
CONFIRMATION.
What
mation
is
is
subject.
The exordium
sets
sition
the Confirmation
it
is
to develop the
the propo-
consider
tion,
it.
important,
essential part.
its
be employed
;'
(2)
they
is
to say,
room
for reply.
He
clear
from
all
He
should care-
fully avoid
;
(58)
CONFIRMATION.
59
with them an over-mastering influence. Moreover, in selecting proofs, he must take into account not only the intellectual
condition of his audience, but also their moral condition,
their passions
and
have a great
most
part,
to strong,
stronger to strongest.
The Homeric
Proofs
experience, &c.
first,
Thus
called transitions.
RHETORIC.
6o
Examples
His division
great".
mercy
Greatness in holiness;
"Vainly did
(i)
The
greatness in duration.
(3)
transition by
(i)
is
Rome and
(2)
greatness
following
third to the
the
is
second point.
vainly
make these
images more precious to succeeding generations.
Of all
their superb monuments, scarcely one has come down to us.
did they exhaust
That which
text the
is
re-
ii.
words
"
And
man
which
Sermon on
that
for ever."
Fl&hier,
written
is
speedily effaced
mains
all
fallen that
all
.
and said
How
(i
is
the mighty
Mach.
20).
ix.
His thesis is "I will show 3'Ou how this might)' man
triumphed over the enemies of the State ". His division is
(i) He triumphed over the enemies of the State, by his
valour
(2) the passions of his soul, by his wisdom
(3)
the errors and the vanities of the world, by his piety.
He thus passes from the first to the second point.
(2) " He was accustomed to fight without wrath, to conquer
without ambition, to triumph without vanity, and to follow
only virtue and wisdom as the rules of his actions. This is
what I am going to show you in this second part," i.e., how
he conquered by wisdom, the passions of his soul.
Is Anything Further Required to Make an Oration
One or of apiece? Besides these transitions which are
chiefly employed to unite the main divisions of a discourse,
there are other means which must be made use of to connect
idea with idea and proof with proof.
:
6l
CONFIRMATION.
What
What
The
result
of this study will be, that the writer or the speaker will clearly
see the end at which he has to aim, and the
he has to reach
it.
He will
way by which
between one part and another and seeing this, he will not
find any difficulty in passing from the one to the other.
How MAY THE ArT OF MoST EaSILV DoING THIS BE
Learnt ? The art of forming plans, of making transitions^
;
most
quence.
They must
the
mind
arrangement
able to say
proves
it
in
in
their order,
and
They must be
in
set be-
their disposition or
be
"
CHAPTER
IX.
THE REFUTATION.
What
is
Refut.ation
Refutation
is
In
tion TO come
The
refutation
its
measure,
is
treating.
The
(2)
when
accompanies and
is
(3)
It
it is
reserved
discussions.
How IS A Fact Refuted ? When a fact is brought forward in proof of an}' statement, it may be met and refuted
by showing that it is not supported by irrefragable testimony
;
that
it
curred
it
is
it,
cannot
lo^^i-
cally be deduced.
fact
must be looked
(62)
it
can be
THE REFUTATION.
refuted
its
it
63
itself,
but with
all
circumstances.
"
As
among
not
the
I,
in
my
them by words
what else could I command ? I had no power over
the life of any one citizen, over the fortune of our soldiers,
or the conduct of our armies, for which matters you are so
all
for
absurd as to
call
which a minister
strict and severe.
me
is
to account.
In every particular in
accountable, in that
let
never decline
it.
will
To watch
the
your scrutiny be
Now, what
first rise
are
of every
RHETORIC.
64
countered in every State
and animosity
unanimity
just rights
them
to rouse
was
this
men
nor can
proved de-
performed
man were
and on
and
to concord
ficient.
which Philip
effected
asked,
most of
neither
commanded nor
directed them.
who
he
and
In this respect
offers a bribe
sells himself, so
conquers
the
Therefore,
As
conquered Philip
when
man who
am
not
to his bribes,
man
for,
as
who
dis-
this State
How
To
IS
concerned,
refute an
reduced to
its
simplest expression
false
lastly,
the
consequences
care
next,
am
Coroiifi.
it
must be
deduced from
these
is
intellect,
logisms.'
1
All
sophisms are based on the matter, not on the form of the syllogism.
form, we have a paralogism an apparent not a
real syllogism.
THE REFUTATION.
How
number
65
many
"
but they
"Their
may
all be
Ignorance of the subject under
(ignoratia elenchi);^ (2) begging the question
(petitio principii);
(i)
(3)
enumeration
(4)
error with
(5)
imperfect
picture, because
it
cost
me
five
is
This
principii).
{petitio
or other
assuming
in
the
its
of Scripture.
man
is
Christ in heaven
" Every
But
man
is
mortal.
is
mortal."
this definition
e.g.
But Christ
in
heaven
The apparent
man
is
is
man.
not mortal
".
Therefore
contradiction would be
RHETORIC.
66
This sophism
in a vicious circle.
differs
in
that
it
assumes
it
only once.
causa).
guests
(5)
".
in
imagining
that
in
elements, the
(i)
"
That
religion
morally corrupt
is
its
chief
evidently bad.
But the Catholic Religion has had such men among its Popes,
its bishops, and its priests.
Therefore it must be bad.
(2) " Whatever produces men that are bad, must itself be
bad.
But every religion produces men that are a disgrace
to the
human
family.
Therefore
all
Ambiguity of Words.
This sophism consists in
using the same word in two different significations, as
" He who permits evil, cannot be just.
But God permits
:
evil.
Therefore
He
in the
cannot be just."
significations.
minor, to suffer
evil to
happen.
it
means
CHAPTER
X.
THE PERORATION.
What
is
the Peroration
the speaker
moment
at
which
To
The
succeed
peroration
in
the con-
is
He must not
nor must he continue
when
would be
him
to finish.
To do
so
effect of all
In
be Made ?
A
by pointing out
the consequences which naturally flow from the proofs by
which the speaker has established his thesis (2) by a short
peroration
is
(3)
They must not introduce into the discourse any new matter.
They must not be presented in a dry, didactic form.
What are the Rules for the Second Method i.e., by
A Recapitulation of the Proofs ? This recapitulation
(3)
If
it is
in order to
RHETORIC.
68
who
and
oratorical effect
may
If
it is
a sermon,
be thrown into
it
more
are
brilliancy
adopting the view of the preacher both may, and ought to be,
suggested and oratorical movements employed, to induce
;
them
to accept
it.
What
discourse
has been
stir
up
" Therefore,
my
such as to
Examples
By Deduction of Consequences.
:
(i)
let
us respect virtue.
graces of heaven, as
means
God
still
set
up to
if
Let us applaud their change of life, if we cannot ourchange let us have the honour of at least
defending them, if we cannot walk in their footsteps. Let
Him.
us honour virtue.
who
THE PERORATION.
them
69
respect for the just, prepare the world one day, without
surprise, to see us ourselves just.
Let us. not by our derision and our censure make human respect invincible that
human
may
it
receive
and
shows
;
it
us not,
it
like
it,
when we owe
it
in order that
itself to us,
let
us not, like
to our brethren
it
when we
let
can-
On the Epiphany.
By Recapitulation. " What is
MassilloH.
(2)
this discourse
that he
is
without
lives
without
God
faith,
that he
is
to be pitied,
the
first
judices
life
the sentiment of
all
if it is
prise
all
ages, a
and of reason, childhood's prethe blood of martyrs, whom the hope of a future
principles of nations
deceive
necessarj' that
the faith of
men
game invented to
human enter-
mere chance
word,
if it is
RHETORIC.
70
more
certain
way
which you
strive not to
"
Would
it,
to heaven,
lest the
O my
my
country
loving kindness of
would
to heaven,
repeat,
that Clodius had not only lived, but been Consul, Praetor,
me from
how worthy
beholding this
calamity.
that
immortal gods
illustrious
man
'
!
By no
means,'
of your care
he
cries,
'
is
the
own
Rome
Shall he
"
Miloiie.
CHAPTER
XI.
ELOCUTION.
to
We
relation to proofs
them warmth,
which
it
and, thereit
in
colouring, and
life.
will consider
that
is in
ent standpoints.
What Means
does
it
It uses
use to Effect this ?
which goes to the
upon each
very roots of things, seizes upon every secondary idea that
the subject, and
is capable of throwing more light upon
reflection
principle, a reflection
(71)
RHETORIC.
72
gathers
all
In
how many Ways may Amplification be used ? Ammay be used in two ways, to augment an idea,
plification
We
augment an
by presenting it to
it has in itself,
thus adding to it by an accumulation of secondary ideas, by
energetic expressions, b}' vivid comparisons, and by contrasts.
We diminish or enfeeble an idea opposed to the end which
we have in view, by exactly the same means, but employed
or to diminish
it.
idea,
contrary way.
Example, (i) Idea to be amplified " Every Christian is
bound to resist the enemies of God ".
" Some have to do it in one way, some in another the war
has to be waged by speech, by writing, by protests, by a,uthority, by active and by passive opposition, by sufferings, and
by various other modes which need not be mentioned in
detail.
No class is exempt from military service in the
great conflict which is perpetually going on
all are called
to the ranks, no matter what their individual temperament
or temptation may be.
The duty lies upon the young just
entering into the maze of the great world, and easily deceived
through their natural impressibility upon the diffident, who
are afraid of too loudly asserting even the truth
upon the
amiable, who shrink from ruffling any person's serenity
upon the ignorant, who are easily silenced by the learning
whether real or assumed of their superiors in general
upon the poor, whose temptation is to bow
education
upon the idle, who are inclined to
down before wealth
give way to almost any usurpation for the sake of peace
and upon the busy, who being too much occupied with
secular cares to apply their minds to the things of the
soul, leave the battle of heaven and of hell to be fought
in a
ELOCUTION.
73
The Pro-
Garside.
phet of Carmel.
(2)
"
mensely numerous,
barbarous,
im-
and abounding in everything that can make war successful. Yet their
own nature and the nature of things made it possible to conquer all these. F,or no strength is so great as to be absolutely invincible, and no power so formidable as to be proof
against superior force and courage.
But the man who subdues passion, stifles resentment, tempers victory, and not
only lifts up the noble, wise, and virtuous foe when prostrate,
but improves and heightens his former dignity, is a man not
to be ranked with mortals but with the gods.
"Therefore, O Cassar the pens and the tongues not only of
Rome, but of all nations, will celebrate your military glory,
and latest posterity will admire your actions. It happens, I
know not how, that these virtues, whether they are read of or
related, seem to be mingled with the shouts of soldiers and
the clangour of trumpets but when we either read or hear
indefinitely discontiguous,
ment
that
foe to counsel, or
when
are
Pro
M arc
What
actions
in
what a passion
when we
romances
"
!
read of
Cicero.
ell o.
The sources of oratorical amplification are reason, imaginaThe chief sources whence reason draws
tion, and sensibility.
matter for the amplification of ideas are the Loci Communes.
Imagination and sensibility draw their
developments or
RHETORIC.
74
matter
Imagination,
(i)
Amplification by images.
the air as
it
falls
How
to the ground.
tom when
the
circle
of
that
'
white light
'
of Carmel.
(2) By comparisons.
v. 9-12.
(3)
By
suppositions.
charity,
am
nothing.
And
if I
should distribute
all
mjr
ELOCUTION.
75
Cor.
xii.
my
body
to
nothing.'.'
1-3.
Sensibility.
Communes which
Loci
other
within
are
the
domain of
reason.
Ex.\MPLE
Eulogium of clemency.
Forum do
who
whose
regard
and
of
Rome
if
it
affections
was
delightful.
Do
not,
beseech you,
This cause
am
may
preserving the
man who
here present."
Cicero.
What
are
is
RHETORIC.
76
This consists
Futility.
and
frivolous details.
It
must be borne
in
must
which
is
all
We
only the accessory idea, and carefully eliminate from our composition all prolixity, and all pretentious
that which
is
ornaments.
Barrenness.
fall
futility,
all
that
mere verbiage,
is
barren.
This defect
talent.
In this case
result of only a
ing, thought,
cause
it
is
irremediable
want of culture,
it is
often
shun
all
become dr)',
from a want of
writers
we
but
when
it is
easily remedied.
the
Read-
will speedily
to disappear.
vine,
to
it is
a sign of fruitfulness.
that
is
barren.
CHAPTER
XII.
STYLE.
What
manner
is
in
of language
How
".
The Ancients
medium or
move.
The simple
style is best
medium
to-
the
style for
or at pleasing, or at
moving
his audience
No
his aim, in
(77)
RHETORIC.
yS
subHme.
discourse.
(4)
strong or ener-
on
which it is employed.
1. Clear.
A style is clear, when we are able immediately
and without effort to grasp the thought of the writer or of
the speaker
when there is in it an absence of vagueness,
ambiguit}', and obscurity.
getic, (5)
2.
Simple.
when both
style is simple,
when
it
is
easily under-
in the
abstruse.
3.
Harmonious.
st3'le is
is
STYLE.
79
words.
Dignified.
style is dignified,
when
it
possesses the
ever noticeable in
in
literary society.
7.
when
Style
is
suitable to the
we wear
it is
CHAPTER
XIII.
FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE.
Meant by Figurative Language ? By figurlanguage, we mean that in which the words are not
What
ative
is
used
to
viously
it
words with a beauty which they of themselves do not pos" Vim rebus adjiciunt," says Quintilian, " et gratiam
sess.
prsEstant, et ex eo nomen duxerunt, quod sint formatse
quodam modo." They add strength, and confer upon things
hence their name, because they are in a
a certain grace
;
way
How
" a
way
IS
a Figure Defined
figure
may
be defined as
How
the word.
Figures of Words.
What
c.
(80)
FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE.
8l
to a
put," e.g.
He
"
"
by
are
sf)eakers,
metonymy,
Catachresis,
The
chief
synecdoche,
fable, parable,
simile.
Example
(by abuse)
"
To
ride
upon a
rail."
Example
(by extension)
" A flash of wit."
" Thunders of applause."
Example
(by imitation)
"
"
Metonymy
This
name.
ways
I.
"
"
"
He
The
{fHT<iivv/ji.La),
is
leaves of a book."
i.e.,
transnmtation,
a figure by which
name
of another.
we
This
put the
may
change
name
of
of one
Bacchns."
6
to the worship
of
rhetoric.
82
2.
" So
He
much
:t
Milton.
i.
92.
"
forth to
you her
hands."
6.
"
Synecdoche
(a-vvKSox>^
figure of speech
we
own
by which
sedan."
comprehension).
This
is
meaning
has a more
give a particular
proper sense,
word which, in its
Or,
again,
which we give a general
meaning.
by
general
meaning to a word which, in its own proper sense, has
It does this in the following
only a particular meaning.
to a
ways
I.
"A
fleet
of
fifty 5ai/,"
"
!
Whole
{hands for
inert).
FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE.
The
"
83
mob," [red-coats
for
soldiers).
2.
made
hat
Part
"
He wore
3.
a beaver,"
i.e.,
is
fond of travel."
"
"
4.
"
"
No
"
Thou
it."
my
table always.''
Kings
ix. 7.
6.
"
He
"
is
made, for
"
"
He
He
took silk,"
Antonomasia
2.
"
"
He
He
"
[avTovofixuTia)
i.e.,
pronominatio.
putting a
proper
1. "
"
he became a Q.C.
sword.
name and
name for
The Apostle teaches us charity," i.e., St. Paul.
The Roman Orator," i.e., Cicero.
The Grecian Orator," i.e., Demosthenes.
sists in
"
i.e.,
He
is
a Nero,"
i.e.,
is
a Judas,"
is
a Thersites,"
i.e.,
a proper
a cruel man.
a traitor.
i.e.,
a coward.
RHETORIC.
84
This is a figure of
word from its ordinary signiThis transfication to a signification which is foreign to it.
the
because
of
between
ference is made
some resemblance
thing signified by the word taken in its proper sense,
and the thing signified by the word taken in its figurative
Metaphor
(/ierac^opa),
speech by which
we
a transfer.
transfer a
sense.
Example
iii.
him
ff
Hamlet,
I.
"
mill,
Titus Andron.
memory
" \\'hile
Hamlet,
i.
i.
5.
Allegory
lian to be
ii.
This figure
(dAAi;yopia).
"A
mode
is
defined by Quinti-
ditur".
Or again: "Allegory
veil
Example
of
its
is
a continuous metaphor,
".
The Skull.
"
Look on
Its
its
broken arch,
its
ruined wall,
foul
hall.
recess of
Wisdom and
of Wit,
FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE.
85
Fable.
"
ii.
6.
Example
"
once
while
carefully
'
'
Example
the other
poor.
to
make
a feast
man's ewe and dressed it for the man that was come to
him." 2 Kings xii. i, 4.
Simile or Comparison. This is a figure by which we
expressly liken one thing to another.
Examples
" As
:
men.
RHETORIC.
86
"
Your
May
"
It
face,
Thane,
is
as a book where
comes
As doth
"
my
He
o'er
Macbeth,
fair
i.
5.
my memory
Othello,
iv. I.
Like a Colossus."
" Like a
v. 2.
men
house
built
Ccesar,
i.
2.
2.
Richer than
all
his tribe."
Othello,
V. 2.
Repetition.
ing the
to
some thought.
ipanner,
it is
Examples
(i)
same word,
in several
times repeat-
When
this figure is
energy
made in a symmetrical
called conversion.
:
now waiting
of
without.
every
rank,
naj-,
The Forum
of every age,
crowded
the
Temples round the Forum are crowded and all the passages to this House are crowded." Cicero.
IV. Catil.
is
is
Orat. cap.
vii.
FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE.
" But on this head, books are
(2)
is full
of barbarism had
still
full
is full
enveloped, had
87
and
it
all
Examples
(i) " For
have neither
C(Esar,
(2) "
iii.
stir
men's blood."
2.
Byron.
Example
"
Figures of Thought.
RHETORIC.
88
the expression.
They agree
in
this,
we
give
that whether
we
Also,
"
if
instead of saying:
we say
"
Thy
"How
tabernacles are
disappears.
What
The
chief
exclamation, prosopopoeia, invocation, imprecation, hypotyposis, irony, hyperbole, litotes, periphrasis, antithesis,
com-
It
tion.
Examples
(i) " What,
:
sword
in the
ranks at Pharsalia
point directed
thy eyes
thy hands
rio.
That comes
(3)
in
"
Ccesar,
i.
i.
FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE.
89
"
ii.
163.
Was
it
and
in a
Flechier.
"
chance
those
it
manner of
Was
it
cabal
He was
one of
duty.''
What
When
?
The practice of our anceshas been known that in this State, persons
not invested with public authority, have often put to death
(2)
tors
their
restrains thee
it
wicked countrymen.
can the
Romans
In
Rome, never
Roman. Dost thou dread the reThen, thou givest a glorious proof of
gratitude to thy country, which, knowing thee only through
plead the privileges of a
proaches of posterity
trust, to her
remiss,
when
all
that
is
Should reproach,
dreadful, render thee
is
threatened
But if thou art to dread reproach, art thou to dread it, more
on account of thy not being destitute of honesty and cour-
RHETORIC.
go
'"
Cicero.
I.
Catil.
Orat.
Apostrophe.
Examples.
"And
(i)
Romulus consecrated by
founded this city
thou
thou,
the
same
whom we
rites
and this empire thou shalt repel him and his accomplices from thy altars, from the temples of the other
gods, from the roofs and the walls of Rome, from the lives
and the property of our citizens." Cicero. I. Catil. Orat.
(2) " Age, thou art sham'd
Rome, thou hast lost the breed of noble bloods."
this city
Ccesar,
"
(3)
Oh
fair region,
thou Pisa
where
shame
make
th' Italian
voice
The mouth
May
(3)
i.
their dwelling
To
i.
"
dam up
"
!
Dante.
to thee
Paradise Lost,
Exclamation.
Is a figure
God
Bk.
iv.
32.
figurative language.
Examples
(i)
"
9i
vanity
their destiny.''
nothingness
Bossuet.
mortals ignorant of
d'OrUans.
(2)
i.
Hamlet,
4.
(3)
"
"
(4)
Woe
to the inhabitants
on
death
iv. i.
memory
of our joy."
Prosopopceia (irpoo-wTTOTTotia). Personification. This is a
figure which by a bold personification causes all kinds of
beings, whether individually or collectively, whether real or
which
calls
Example
me
is
them
;
forth.
" Should
far dearer
than
my
life,
should
all
Italy,
should
all
the
Marcus Tullius,
frame of this constitution thus accost me
what are you about ? Will you suffer my approved enemy,
him whom you see, who, you are sensible, is to be put at the
:
'
citizens
command him
to be
thrown into
fetters, to
be dragged to
RHETORrC.
92
execution, and with
his
guilt
'
Example
" And chiefly
:
Before
all
thou,
spirit,
Imprecation.
Is
any
against
hell or
Example
evil
a figure by which
some
object
i.
17.
we invoke heaven
which
is
or
odious to us.
Whose
Deprive thee
"
The
of.
Hypotvposis
(vTTOTiJTrtoo-is).
Hamlet,
This
is
v. i, 2.
a figure by which a
we fancy
Example
that
it is
manner
"
see before
He
me
the gladiator
hand
lie
FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE.
Climax.
rising, or in
another,
till
or sunk to
its
Examples
93
lowest depth.
(i)
" It
is
a crime to put a
Roman
citizen in
which
Cicero.
I, Catil.
see,
Oral. cap.
iii.
Examples:
(i)
"Thou
(2)
"
Jew
A
I
''
Kings
Daniel,
still
say
for
a second Daniel
teaching
me
word
that
Merchant of Venice,
(3)
"
and
xxi. 7.
"
!
iv. i.
ye
Do as you have
What we propound,
who
appointed stand,
in charge,
vi.
558.
RHETORIC.
94
(4)
The
bard
How
who
mind
makes us wondrous kind'.''
English Bards and Scotch Reviewers.
'A fellow
Byron.
(5)
feeling
of, is
the charge
my kinsman
own
Cicero.
it."
Pro Ligario.
Hyperbole
a throwing beyond.
This is a
which consists in exaggerating anything,
either by adding to it, or by taking from it.
The words
which it employs go far beyond the truth
but they are
brought back to their just limits by the hearers or by the
{virtpPoXr}),
figure of speech
readers.
Examples
(i)
"
Me
miserable
Infinite
fly.
?
Still
To which
{2) "
the hell
seems a heaven."
suffer
Paradise Lost,
Bk.
iv.
73.
Hewn
(3) "
Worn
to a
shadow."
i.
292.
FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE.
95
And
(4) "
That
Litotes
tears shall
Macbeth,
i.
7.
Examples
(i)
"
(2)
"
He is no fool,"
He is not to be
i.e.,
he
is
a wise
despised,"
i.e.,
man.
he
is
to be very
much
respected.
(3)
in
fewer words.
Examples
" The slaves of Milo did^that which every one would
:
(i)
killed
(2)
him.
"
To
do
Cicero.
in
similar circumstances,"
they
i.e.,
Pro Milone.
who
still
retain, in the
among
as-
those lords of
rhetoric.
96
Examples
(i)
Casar might
there
Ccesar,
2.
iii.
parties,
here
here
On
on the
and every vice.
Lastly, the struggle lies between wealth and want the
the force, and the
dignity, and the degeneracy of reason
frenzy of the soul between well-grounded hope, and widelytemperance, courage, prudence, and every virtue
extended despair."
Cicero.
II. Catil.
Orat.
Milo would choose to strike him down with the disappromany ? Can you believe that the man whom he
bation of
scrupled to slay,
justice, in a convenient
so with
full
and with
condemned
to death
"
Cicero.
Pro
Suspension
ping
in
is
a figure
which consists
audience a
moment
to guess that
it
in
is
going
to say.
Example
graces which
"
she thanked
He bestowed upon
God
FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE.
a Christian, and secondly
97
Example
wife,
Communication
the
in
hearers,
Example
engaged
Whatever
the
time, however,
same
which he
(2)
affects to suppress.
Examples
(i)
"
"
As
thou
to
me
when
7
am
entering on
my
"
!
de-
RHETORIC.
g8
me
fence, let
Examples
(i) "
Mad
That we
let
or
rather say,
or rather
it
call
it,
inso-
lent."
EpiPHONEJiA
(tTTK^covTyjua).
Examples
(i) "
Observe, Tubero,
who
and
boldl}'
guilty to
may
pardon me when in
the same manner I venture to mention him.
He is a person
whose application and merit delight me because of my near
facts
young kinsman
Cicero.
(2) "
princes,
(3)
"
will
reflect
Pro Ligario.
History
who
The
is full
power
is
own
tyranny."
Enumeration of Parts.
This
is
an assemblage of
all
FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE
the details and
subject,
all
Example
I
it
in the mind.'
"
As
99
foretold you,
vision.
Tempest,
iv.
i.
sect. i.
who
giv-
100
rhetoric.
Examples
(The war
:
(i)
horse.)
up
The
Wilt thou
He
Above him
quiver
him
He
boldlj',
he
despiseth fear, he
shall
rattle,
lift
is terror.
the
Chasing
To him
He
sleepeth
may
Joh
10-18.
(i)
"
perceived, than
sat,
whom
with grave
pillar of state
And
a
FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE.
Majestic, though in ruin
lOI
sage he stood
Milton.
"
ii.
299.
The
right
and
savage.
left in
He
cultivated.
despised
literature.
He
hated
infidels,
and metaphysicians, and did not very well understand in what way they differed from each other. The business of life, according to him, was to drill and to be drilled.
The recreations suited to a prince were to sit in a cloud of
tobacco smoke, to sip Swedish beer between the puffs of the
papists,
pipe, to play
kill
backgammon
I02
RHETORIC.
trious adversaries, of
whom
The
each other.
like
scholar
in
all
the
it
science of the
won
many
Church
years a perfect
covered with
in fighting for
her against
combat
still
which he had
in his
in his old
youth.
became
rivals
of their intercourse
of humanit}' itself;
to be extinguished with
majest}'
if
Bossnct
et
fill
the
D'Agucs-
Fenelon.
Contrast.
FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE.
(2)'
"
IO3
Look here upon this picture and on thisThe counterfeit presentment of two brothers.
See what a grace was seated on this brow
;
Hyperion's curls
An
eye
and command
seal,
of a
man
mildew'd
Hypothesis or Supposition.
follows
ear,
Hamlet,
This consists
iii.
4.
supposing
either as possible or as impossible, something from which
we draw certain consequences.
Example " If Titus Annius, holding in his hand the bloodin
stained
sword, were
right
single
exclaim
to
:
'
:
Citizens,
we were unable
pray you
his fury,
any laws
arm
it
is
this
my
liberty,
should we have
modesty, chastity, continue in the city
any cause to fear how the State would tolerate these
words ? " Cicero. Pro Milone, cap. xxviii.
'
CHAPTER
SECTION
XIV.
I.
Delivery or Action.
What
Delivery or Action
is
Delivery or action,
movements
when
it
marred and
What
because
is
is
consists
it
its effect is in
is
and
he
it,
will
will be
compelled to read
all
if
he
that he has to
words.
Yes, the
memory
who at
may
first
cultivating
it,
to rival those in
whom
it
seems
to predomi-
THE VOICE.
How
cultivated by exercise.
is
105
Every day a
The memory
number of
certain
committed
new
to
matter,
till
at last several
hundreds of lines
be said
will
till
this
or, in
is
positively injurious
memory.
How MANY Kinds of Memory are there ? There are
two kinds of memory (i) the memory of words, and (2) the
to the
memory
tion
of ideas.
The
first
must be
second
cultivated at
is
the
first, in
memory
This
is
the
memory which
The
the order of the ideas and their connection with one another.
This
is
the
memory which
the orator
must have.
Practice
these ideas.
section
ii.
The Voice.
What
is
ment which
the Voice
the orator
What
who
Qualities
listen to
should
him.
the
Voice
have
The
io6
RHETORIC.
qualities
Intensity.
Every voice has three tones the high, the
medium, and the low tone. The high tone is that which we
use when we speak to those who are at some distance from
us
the medium tone is the one which we employ in conversation
and the low tone is that in which we are accustomed to whisper.
:
It is
and
in
is
to
who
are farthest
If
off.
any
visible effort
that
we have
for
hit
beginning with a
raised to the
volume
medium
tone,
Hence
without
it is
a sign
the necessity
distant auditor.
Distinctness.
It is
suade.
To
for
which he speaks,
To
is to per-
be heard, he
GESTURE.
Latin must be Lat-in, and not Lat'n
107
poem,
po-cin,
and not
poinc.
Variety.
This consists
in
is
words
made manifest
in
to the audience.
section
III.
Gesture.
under a master
who
can, in his
own
assiduous practice
success.
Instruments of Gesture.
of gesture are
The Head.
The
principal
instruments
appearance
if
If lowered,
it
raised upwards,
gives to a
it
man
imparts to him
RHETORIC.
I08
an
air of pride
the
it
left, it
and
self-sufficiency
betokens indolence
manner
if
The head
Admiration.
Fear.
vellous
if
is
slightly raised.
- ,
Refusal.
The head
'
is
or to the
left.
Rejection.
Disdain.
Compassion.
Prayer.
The head
is
slightly bent.
is
Conjuring.
Soliciting.
Affirmation,
Command,
The Face.
read
This
is
may
all
The
"j
Eyes.
hope
in one word,
all
heart.
The Arms.
hands.
(i)
To
out time,
number,
To describe things.
To express passions and
etnotions.
Indicative gestures.
point
Imitative gestures.
GESTURE.
109
honoured
It
is
in the
to strike with
a boxer
to
of
Above all things, the public speaker should stud}never " to o'erstep the modesty of nature," and in his delivery
to avoid all ranting and all 7noutliing of his words.
action.
the
CHAPTER
XV.
SACRED ELOQUENCE.!
Preparation for Preaching.
section
i.
Remote Preparation.
How
There
The
mate.
and
first
in writing
consists
iri
compositions
it to memory.
Reading may be employed for the purpose of
collecting materials, or of forming one's style, or of studying
good models.
Only the best models should be
Choice of Books.
Reading.
may
but
among
the
found
Hemel
fully
;
(2)
Seminaire
Traitc
La
de
in these chapters
developed in
(3)
Newman
la
(i)
Precis
de
Predication,
on Sacred Eloquence,
Rhetoriqiic
par un
Sacree,
ancien Superieur
4'Orl^ans.
(1
10)
will
par
be
Van
de
Eveque
SACRED ELOQUENCE.
Among
Ill
who
How
and then
is
to care-
them.
time,
For
and discover the plan
of it; observe the connection of the proofs with one another;
see whether they tend to make good the thesis with which
the preacher sets out, and account to yourself for each part
by saying " Here, his aim is to establish this proposition,
and he does it by the following reasons there, he explains a
After thus reducing a
truth and applies it to his hearers ".
reflect
piece of eloquence to
how
lished
you
its
mark what
and why
it
that
does
and
is
so.
how
in
it
moves
writing the
teach you to
reflect, to
will
with
read,
the
studies
lectures that
who
tiave
sity, that
they
made
for
in after years.
is
St.
RHETORIC.
112
ject, writes
itself
we
as those of which
is
memory".
To make such
is
collections
letters, write
also.
it is
to be found.
Though
If
mind than
always be
that which
Essays
in
Composition.
memory with
This
may
be done in
is
to take
compared, to see how far the one falls short of the other.
This labour opens the mind, perfects the taste, and imprints
all
composition.
(2)
is
to
SACRED ELOQUENCE.
II3
it,
them as
succeeded.
manner the
Translations.
fourth,
Pindar.
To
good model
ways of expressing
his spirit, so
make
own, that
it
will
seem
to
but take from others only that which will suit your character
and the bent of your mind (4) you must never copy, but
;
RHETORIC.
11^
SECTION
II.
Proximate Preparation.
necessary.
men
it
ex-
Skill
will
men
them
little
trouble
them."
Moreover, by not preparing, they compromise their own
they are irreverent towards the word of God they
dignity
listen to
a negligent
fulfil in
way
their office as
ambassadors of the
their
by not preparing, they envelop them in darkness they withhold from them the bread of life and they
do not pour into their hearts the wine that cools the heat of
souls
but,
passion.
By conduct such
lently',"
that
Therefore,
is
to say, negligently.
let
every one
who
SACRED ELOQUENCE.
II5
from
the
labour of
"
dispense himself
That which
I
have
preached to you," he says, " has been sought out and discovered only at the expense of great labour
may our
labour prove fruitful in you, and may our soul bless the
Lord." '
St. Chrysostom, on the plea that all his time was
preparation.
St.
St.
Even pagan
example.
orators set
us, in
first care-
he had to say, and offering up sacrifice to the gods to obtain their blessing on the oration which
he was about to deliver. Cicero, notwithstanding his skill
fully preparing all that
In Psal.
ciii.
Dc
Leg. Lib.
i.
12.
CHAPTER
XVI.
Ways
of Preparing.
ing a discourse.
There are
These are
six
and learn
(i) to write,
for word
(2) to write, but, in delivery, not to adhere to the
word for word plan (3) to write a full summary containing
;
principal
striking
figures,
(4) to
course, containing
but
these
draw out merely the plan of the disdivisions, its sub-divisions, and the
its
chief proofs
self
all
pulpit
(6)
to
learn
and
deliver
sermons of other
the
preachers.
(i)
to, until
expression.
If
you do not
write,
you
will be apt to
(116)
speak inexactly,
II7
passage
and
for
improvisation
then by extending
it
to another,
at last a
till
improvisation.
the style
is
full
of
RHETORIC.
Il8
when
it
point to another.
The fourth
(4) To Write a Mere Sketch or Plan.
method of preparing a discourse is to sketch out the mere
plan of
it,
A Few Moment's
preparing a discourse
moments'
reflection,
Reflection.
is
to
confine
The
fifth
one's
self
method of
to a
few
If
work upon, he
will be
It
exposes the
onl}- the
merest
Iig
of course, wrong.
frames
therefore, the
These shapes
differ as
bread
'
De
let
him
carefully
study
iv. 62.
it,
penetrate
RHETORIC.
120
himself with
its
thoughts and
its
sentiments,
make
these as
possible
self-laudation.
his
CHAPTER
HOW
The Order
(i)
make
to
sermon
XVII.
TO COMPOSE A SERMON.
to
put
out
is
theme
for the
(3) to
develop
(4) to
it
in
making
portance.
In
^consult his
own
must not
some theme which will
display.
He must rather
this choice
self-love,
and
the preacher
select
oratorical
audience
and among
subjects that are useful, one that will be useful to the greater
number
of them.
bent of his
own
Lastly, he
and
all
one that
we mean
ing at
it
the studying of
on every
it,
By
the probing of
side, to discover
in
it
it,
the look-
addressed.
to find
which
(121)
RHETORIC.
122
them
is
manner
and
his discourse
spiritless
he
will
To
observed,
of view from
which
it
and
lecture,
it
will
on
This
awaken and
fire
mind
fertilise his
with emotion.
(3)
imagina-
After this
it
the
moment
in
memory.
and putting
it
in order
is to
give to
it
those develop-
beautv.
HOW TO COMPOSE
I23
A SERMON.
The
are
first
religious
made only
it.
The second
source oT development is found in the rhetoriLoci Communes, which teach us how to make the things
of which we speak stand out clear before the intelligence, by
enumeration of parts, by contraries, and by circumstances.
Moreover, the use of comparisons gives to our discourse
clearness, interest, and attractiveness.
But they add these
charms to it only when they are drawn from objects well
known to our hearers when they are becoming and suitable
when they are short, and particularly when
to the pulpit
cal
The
which
the preacher puts before the eyes of his hearers their obligations with respect to the subject of which he
is
treating, the
audience.
their reasoning
more
make
solid.
their
It
is
words
by the
wish to speak.
Composition of the Discourse. After fixing the plan,
and the developments by which it is clothed with flesh and
RHETORIC.
124
made
is
to
all
that
If they are
course.
them
move.
strip
of
all
their
power
able to
is
to instruct, to please,
and
to
sible
command
".
If,
of sluggishness or of idleness,
mind be
forced to work.
The
it
must be
best
way
is
the result
resisted,
to
and the
awaken
it
into
first to ask,
the requisite activity is to do two things
" What am I going to say ? " then to imagine that you are
The
first will
inculcate
make you
it.
Three Characteristics of the Composition. The discourse, thus reduced to writing, or, as we say, composed,
should be marked by three characteristics namely, clearness,
and variety. The discourse is clear, when it is lucid
;
purity,
in
when
it
is
grammar.
HOW TO COMPOSE
A SERMON.
varied,
when
the style
is
I25
literary excellence
to cool through
rules of eloquence.
an undue desire
Aim
is
mind
the
and when
once that has been ^one, the style can be attended ta
first
afterwards.
faults of construction
figures will be
mixed
and expresThese
imperfections
be
filled
up
must be removed
that which
is
that
which
superfluous
is
must
defective
must be
cut oif
that
All this
solidity,
Also, in consequence of
it be but mediocre in itself.
being firmly gripped by the memory, it will lose even the
though
RHETORIC.
126
manner
Therefore, the
preacher
learnt, that
the
may
logical
clearly
which follows.
It
some conventional
mark put in the margin, the meaning of which will aid the
mind to recall the substance of the passage thus indicated.
leading idea should be underlined, and
When
actually committing to
memory
Then
the
These
ing.
before
mounting the
pulpit,
it
should be once more carefully gone through. While repeating that which you have written, you should not be disconcerted if the actual word in your manuscript should
escape your memory.
If
another presents
letting
use
it,
that
Should you,
after all
left is
you should
written,
itself
it.
CHAPTER
XVIII.
SECTION
I.
The Sermon.
Definition.
to be:
The sermon,
is
defined
of an oratorical discourse
properly so called,
in
".
(i)
sermons which
or retreats.
When
called a
the
sermon
panegyric
recently died,
it
is
is
when
it
treats
of a person
it
is
who has
sermon properly so
we
will
which ought
called,
speak
first
of the
to be written in a
germ,
all
that
is to
is
It
should, more-
and not a
forced one.
(127)
RHETORIC.
128
If possible, the
in
too long,
it
it
will strike
them as odd,
The Exordium.
(2)
by the audience
only
make
if
If
too short,
singular.
It
very important
is
literal, for
that
all
the
end
is
The
made by
Cicero
" Vestibula
aditusque ad causam
honesta,
faciet
illustres ".'
All haughtiness of
It
must be
proofs,
Thus
it
Nevertheless
between
It
it
it
and the
Simple.
and of
By
oratorical
simplicity
is
movements;
is to
the bodj'.
figures
as at the beginning of a
emotionless, the language should correspond with these dispositions, and be calm, modest, peaceful.
There should be
'
Orat.
i.
^Ibid.
THE SERMON.
in
it
ment would
betray
art,
ornament
little
and
I29
;
a display of orna-
art, if discovered,
would show on
them
An
may always
exception
be
immortal souls.
made when
the audience is
with the great sentiments inspired by the magnitude
of the occasion, or when the circumstances are such that
they call for an exordium ex abrupto.
filled
An
Clear.
when with
exordium has
this
most necessary
it
quality,
way easy
to
and up to the
This is
and as yet unimpressed by
precision,
the words and the action of the preacher, they will listen
with a
critical
introduction,
be in
harmony with
which
is
labour to
make
infuse into
and that
it
it
hearing
it,
it,
his.
discourse, to
interest
It will
have
may
may
evidently worthless.
9
it
is
RHETORIC.
130
To
fault,
they should
when
because
one
it
is
grows.
(3)
The Body
An
of the Discourse.
introduction con-
must be shown
in
lest
it,
is
of the sermon.
come during
Sometimes, however,
the progress
announce
mentioned
in the exordium, lest their multiplicity should alarm the
hearers by the prospect of an interminably long sermon.
it
is
useful to
come the
is
made
a transition to
method
is
the
part
first
divisions
ifi
is
till
succeeding sub-division
all
then
the sub-
is
The second
same
THE SERMON.
it
it
I3I
weakness.
Everything must be
full
of
fire,
passion, earnestness
the
movements
rapid.
It
and the
home
to their intelligences.
may
be brought to a close by a
excites
RHETORIC.
132
Text.
2.
3.
Announcement
4.
of the subject.
Body of
the Discourse.
First proof.
Second
1.
Particular introduction.
2.
Sub-division.
3.
First sub-division.
proof, &c.
Conclusion.
Application.
Sentiments.
Transition.
5.
6.
7.
Same
4.
to the peroration.
Peroratioti.
1.
2.
Practical fruit to be
3.
Exhortation.
4.
Invocation.
5.
drawn thence.
SECTION
A
By
II.
we understand
some
particular branch of
a methodical
bod}' of Chrisit.
I33
all
instructions
way
It
is
of solidly
its
one another. This cannot be done by preaching in a desultory sort of way, first, upon a subject of morality, then upon
a point of Church History, then upon some dogmatic question,
For religion is a science, and consequently
and so on.
must be taught with method and order, beginning with
principles and then tracing those principles through the
whole body of doctrine, showing how it grows, and is developed into that which we call the " Christian System ". It
From the fact of a consecutive
is the most interesting.
course of doctrine being so rare, this method will have the
merit of novelty; it will excite curiosity, and awake attention.
Religion, as a whole, being set before the faithful and unfolded little by little, will present to them a picture, the charm
of which will far excel any advantage that may be had from
detached sermons.
their interest
and
their
willingness to learn.
How
TO
Make
Order
is
may
and order.
be treated of
RHETORIC.
134
in
its
right place,
Clearness
is
necessary to
manner
make the
will bring
it
it
it is
well to interrupt
it.
They
will
return
if it
to the methodical
SECTION
III.
The Homily.
Definition.
A homily is a
from which
preached
in the early
a greater
number and
a greater
it,
than
points.
in the
sermon, which
is
restricted to
made
one or two
THE HOMILY.
135
is
in
which,
will be lost.
rule,
the thread be
if
Added
lost,
hearer, as
it is
in a
do.
Though
easier to
and
insipid.
the text
Practical Applications.
To make
to their dispositions.
RHETORIC.
136
Exhortations.
ing with the subject.
ness, of pathos
They should be
full
and be accompanied by
of
or in keep-
life,
of earnest-
affections
movements.
and p\pus
first,
is
to
make two
is
explained
in the
and applied
In
this
fourth
way
the
preacher
it
the
lesson
section
the
IV.
Iiistructio)!.
The Prone.
tion
This is the name applied to the instrucwhich used heretofore to be given in the nave of the
137
signifies:
It
the
(i)
gene-
faithful
instructions
printed
of the
term
for
taken in
strict
its
is
(3)
tion,
it
is
paraphrasing
or
the explaining of
the Gospel.
It differs
in that
it
it
is
the simple
homily does
subjects, as the
it
it
treats.
the
Prone.
First,
the
prone
if it
to be
qualities spring,
is self-evident.
all
the
duties of a Christian
life.
hideous
dered by
it
(2)
frequenting of the
RHETORIC.
138
but
details
in
should
be
SECTION
v.
zeal
b)-
a pastor eager
in piety
To
make them
giving them, must
as to
and
fruit,
way
for that
questions
productive of
CONFERENCES.
advice, this notice
139
hoping that it
measure my language that it may be just, exact, and clear ? (4) If I were
in the place of my people, in what way should I like these
words to be addressed to me ? "
If he put to himself these questions, he will save himself
from ever giving these warnings, &c., when he is moved by
?
(2)
Is there
(3)
How
ground
must
for
giving them.
SECTION
VI.
Conferences.
This
land,
is
much
experience.
Our ideas of
men
it
we have
not, in
Eng-
as Lacordaire and
Ravignan
long discourses on the Church, on family the sacrathem, rather than sermons.
ments lectures, we might
life,
call
But
ages, as
Cassian.
we
is
In
fact,
RHETORIC.
140
of morality
of
difficult parts
dogma and
means
for
also,
it
is
an excellent
it
the heart
finally,
it is
instruction, yet
it
cause
collection
(2)
No
and
piety.
The way
ducted,
is
in
as follows
it,
and thus
it
will
faith.
is
is
it
into
two or three
freedom to
(i)
He must
address to
CONFERENCES.
I4I
He
(4)
tion, for a
it
after the
answer has
it
and admit that he has been vanquished.
His questions should be made seasonably, according
understood
(5)
when
together that
course.
He may
(6)
which
awaken
will
He must
explain
is
(i)
;
to the audience, if
it
its
remark
plain
witt}'
attention.
and prove
by reason.
To
He must
ex-
(4)
treated,
some
practical conclusions
lie
to put
shows
to
the faithful
them
in practice.
RHETORIC.
142
These
conferences
should
not be
much
them
confine
held
regularly,
interest.
It is
for
best to
Advent.
SECTION
VII.
Allocutions.
An
allocution
is
made
a short address
to
some
one, and
is
It
is
be ridiculous.
Allocution to
to a Bishop
a Bishop.
If the allocution is addressed
on his entrance into the parochial church during
The
The
The
at the
either
modesty or good
taste.
coming of
his Lordship,
and
(2) of a brief
(3) a hint at
account of
the abuses to
be corrected.
When
this
is
made
to
say
little,
but that
little
must go
The
PUBLIC LECTURES.
mended
43
effect
(3)
(2)
the
preceding cases.
tion
perfectly
It
section
viii.
Public Lectures.
We
signifying a reading.
make
a vivid impression
it
is
not their
RHETORIC.
144
will
therefore be short,
do good.
SECTION
IX.
in
Lent or
They
religious houses.
in
Advent
many
but also
parishes and in
refor-
life
tions
for
confession,
amendment,
namelj', contrition,
firm purpose
of
acknowledging all
the sins which can be recollected false shame which has
not the courage to be frank and outspoken general confesintegrity in confession,
i.e.,
sion
flight of occasions
delay of conversion.
those
vices,
cursing,
drunkenness,
&c.
Then they
injuries,
treat of the
I45
the
in oratorical
movements.
retreat.
figures,
in
one
These are
CHAPTER
XIX.
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
SECTION
I.
A rticles.
means for securing a clear and correct
an accurate knowledge of English Grammar,
As one
of the best
English
stj'le is
it
will not,
we
chapter of this
little
We
adverb, the
and
preposition, the
conjunction,
the interjection,
the verb.
Our authority
we
upon a very
tongue.
Articles,
(i)
A must
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
I47
Grammar,
"
p. 7.
tresses steep'd
Say
a happier
man
hyphen
Scott.
a hero.
"
The
or Nicene
Apostles'
Prayer, p. 119.
" The figurative and
Say
(3)
literal
Creed."
sense."
Book of Common
Jameson's Rhetoric.
When
should be omitted
"
The Negroes
are
all
Morse's Geography
"
sybarite
to a
man
of
Brown's Estimate.
Say
Are
all
descendants.
Sybarite
Of a
(4)
was
selfish
applied.
and
factious.
be used
definite article
it
cannot
the one
is to
RHETORIC.
1^8
"
To
p. 52.
would be im-
proper."
L. Murray's Grammar, (i), 218.
" These remarks may serve to show the great importance
of the proper use of the article." Lowth's Grammar, p. 12.
Say
An
ellipsis.
proper use.
SECTION
II.
Stibstantives.
1.
The
plural of substantives
is
2. All
by another vowel, as
tion of
i,
as bees,
lies, foes.
in quy,
change y into
tes,
as colloquy,
soliloquy, soliloquies.
aWy, allies ;
4.
c\X.y , cities
colony, colonies.
o,
preceded by a consonant,
es
halves;
eli,
in fe,
wolf, wolves.
in
the
handkerchief,
mischief, belief,
relief,
brief,
fief,
Chief,
grief,
oaf,
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
waif, coif,
gulf, hoof,
dwarf, wharf,
Nouns
roof,
I49
woof,
proof,
turf,
calif,
scarf,
in jf,
only
Skiffs,
stuffs, gaffs.
6.
The
ceptional
manner:
Man,
woman, women;
tnen;
child,
pea.,
pease or peas.
When
When
it is
the
principal word, rather than the adjunct, that takes the plural
8.
The
is
formed, in the
s,
preceded
SECTION
off.
III.
Pronouns.
pronoun
is
substantive, as
"
RHETORIC.
ICO
and he learns them well ". That word for which the
pronoun stands is called the antecedent.
There are in our language fifty-six pronouns twenty-four
of these are pronouns properly so called thirty-two are but
sons
variations of these.
They may be
As
made
and interrogative.
that mistakes are
will confine our
These
relative
it is
bj'
pronouns
speakers,
we
remarks to them.
pronouns are
"
Who,
soever, whatsoever
1.
".
closel}'
follow as
which serve to bring out clearly before our minds the multiways in which Almighty God makes use of it to move
and to influence the souls of men."
In this sentence the relative which is wrongly placed.
The sentence would read better, if it were thus worded :
" Theologians apply to divine grace a variety of epithets
farious
next to
2.
If
relative
is
should be,
if
possible,
it.
is
it
juxtaposition with
little
interruption, been
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
When,
3.
I5I
we pass from
the
Also,
when
mood or
From
there
is,
is
mostly resumed.
change of
of tense.
"
affirmative to negative.
He was
who did
man who
not think
it
ten-
becoming
4.
that
is
(i)
when
the
"
He was
He was
"
"
that came."
the
first
the
fittest
greatest
reasoners
that
ever
appeared."
(2)
when
is
restrictive.
"
The same
made
Grammar,
"
Who
that
(4) After
(the) participle."
Mur-
antecedent who.
is
two
pronoun and
p. 193.
"
?
require a relative
RHETORIC.
1C2
"
He
much
spoke
men and
of the
seen."
" Either a person
or
made
known."
After an
(5)
antecedent,
unlimited
which the
relative
(6)
it
is,
it
was.
"
It is I
"
It is
"
It
Relative pronouns
5.
to represent
pronominal adjectives, or
Hence
it
which you
is
will learn
"Be
attentive, without
nothing".
learn nothing".
"
(his works).
"You
"
Acts
Lay up
iii.
of
St.
iniquities
"
26.
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
treasure
is,
153
St.
Matth.
vi. 20.
particular districts."
we
SECTION
IV.
Adjectives.
"
An
is
situation, quantity,
Common
(i)
e.g.,
good, bad
".
north, south.
participial adjective is
adventure
(6)
An
exciting
".
A compound
adjective
is
e.g.,
Pronominal Adjectives.
The
RHETORIC.
154
haps
all
neither, one,
following pronominal
The
that, this.
singular.
divers,
many,
fewer, fewest,
nia7iy "
Both,
several, sundry,
these,
those.
The remainder,
like
our
common
to
every, former,
enough,
many, more,
most, much, no, none, other, own, only, same, what, whatever, whatsoever, which, whichever, whichsoever.
Out of
the foregoing pronominal adjectives, the following are some-
first,
for
i)i
for
i)i
a small degree
last, for jk
less, for in a
much,
what, for
smaller degree
what degree ;
little,
least, for
only, for
other, used
as an alternative to somehow.
The
All,
enough,
little,
much, more,
down
as sub-
less.
On Church Government.
it ".
of
the
Locke,
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
most discreet".
sober, the
"
155
The
shall be
Milton.
of
woman."
".
Little-
ton's Dictionary.
The
of Italy
SECTION
V.
It
adjective.
must be borne
in
mind
that this
is
not a partitive
It
individual things.
Hence it
" All of us were present."
is
incorrect to say
number of
Say rather
" We were
"
all
present."
"
Alone.
we say
"
He
alone did
solitary,
it,"
we
booty."
by one's
Hence
self ''.
if
sins, but
fore,
"
it is
He
God only
"
?
Both.
incorrect to say
".
There-
RHETORIC.
356
"
He admired
men were
present."
"
He
He
incorrect to say
".
Therefore,
it
is
not both.
Say
rather
" There
"
"
"
Say rather
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
"
saw no one
Every.
I57
This applies
therefore
it
is
"
sons present."
"
"
He
He
had no
less
Say rather
"
He
Half.
As
rect to say
"
it is
incor-
" He divided the apple into two, giving one half to John
and the other to William " say " giving half to John and
half to William ".
This word is applied to quantity, bulk, and not to
Less.
number. We should not say " There could not have been
less than thirty guests," but ^' fewer than," &c.
:
Only.
This
is
used adverbially
it
is
a word
that
is
proper position is
either immediately before, or immediately after the word
which
it
"
"
He
its
right place.
Its
qualifies.
kilt
when
in Scotland."
RHETORIC.
158
"
case
always put
wrong
in its
wrong
the verb
is
being nearly
place.
of events."
"
He
Say rather
" Not only the verb
:
of tenses
"
He
(is
is
wrong
wrong).
He
champagne, and
burgundy,
beer."
SECTION
VI.
A dverbs.
is defined to be " a word added to a verb, a paran adjective, or to another adverb ''. It expresses time,
place, degree, manner.
An
adverb
ticiple,
"
He
"
A man
"
The
"
He
studied diligently."
doctor
is
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
159
The
1.
".
it
qualifies.
2.
To
3.
verbs.
An
excellent
rule
for
determining
be
"
can take
its
is
to see
intransi-
do unmercifully
He
heartily, thoroughly ?
"
(2)
"All of which
iii.
is
abominable
false."
Barclay's Works,
43.
"
He
Say rather:
"Agreeably
"All which
abominably
false."
most
That incense smells sweetly."
" That dog smells disagreeably."
"That boy looks coldly."
"
He
(3)
"
beautifully."
RHETORIC.
l6o
Saj- rather
"
He
"
(4)
dishonourable act."
"
This
is
suitable rather to
is
comedy than
to be attributed rather to
to tragedy."
madness than
to
design."
In these examples the adverb rather, should not be separated from the corresponsive than.
Say rather
"
He
SECTION
VII.
Prepositions.
preposition
is
some
relation
It
superiority to
most others."
Say, " a
superiority over".
substantive."
"In
respect to
"
The
Say, "with
".
district
'
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
"
The
l6l
king,
this."
"You must pause at the right place, and your pause must
be accompanied with a proper tone of voice." Say, " accompanied by'\
"The
minister
"
The committee
in
all
the
".
Greek."
SECTION
VIII.
Conjunctions.
even, for,
if,
The
as so
ifthen
though or although
To
avoid
whether
either or
neither nor
as as
whether or
yet.
making mistakes
in
their import.
we must
observe
And.
"
conjunction
sentences together."
is
Lennie's English
Grammar.
RHETORIC.
l62
"
conjunction
is
sentences."
" Where the Chelsea or
words or
either
jfudge
are."
Parker.
Or
is
"Where
the Chelsea
therefore
equivalent to "as
it
is
not an adverb;
it
is
men who
are
essentially in
in this
".
always, as
things
not disjunctive;
is
it
apposition
It is
also a relative
In this phrase, as
because
is
"We
is
a comparison of equality
"This church
it is
are."
As.
is
is,
so
but
when
as,
thus
a com-
is
it
not so broad."
"James
is
not so stout."
"
taught
"
in
my
school."
So long as
am
president,
you
impunity."
The only
speaking
cases in which
it is
affirmatively, are:
correct to use so
when
(i)
as,
when
"
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
He
"
2.
cried
so
loud
as
to
be
163
heard
by the whole
assembly."
"
God
How
Son."
"
have been
means
so low as falsehood
"
!
is a pronominal adjective, it
two together, and therefore it is wrong to say,
the
".
As
a conjunction,
it
corresponsive to
is
and.
If the conjunction both is followed
position, or
by that
by both,
its
"Both
the
Old and
by an
article, or
a pre-
the
New
by both.
this."
"
He
We
find this fact stated both in the Old and in the New
Testament."
Even.
This word should be placed next to the word
which it is meant to emphasise.
" He found faults even in the writings of eminent authors."
" He was severe even in cases in which Rhadamanthus
would have been merciful."
" He did not even spare the reputation of her gracious
"
Majesty."
Say rather
eminent authors."
He
Majesty."
Either
Therefore,
or.
it
RHETORIC.
164
hence
it is
not correct to
sa}-
"
either fish, or
vegetables ".
The correct way to write
" You can have fish, or flesh, or fowl,
this phrase would be
flesh, or fowl, or
or vegetables
Either
is
'
corresponsive to or.
When
it
is
used in
dis-
in error."
or,
corresponsive words.
The
respect.
thus
" This
is
either
an after-thought of
the
if
Holy
written,
Spirit,
As
" This
St.
Paul
is
'.
" Either the -writers have not read the whole of what I
have written, or they have," &c.
If
then.
This word if, is the Anglo-Saxon for Gyf,
signifying given that.
Its corresponsive word is, then.
The commonest mistake that is made in the employment
of this word, is the use of it instead of whether
" He asked him if he had any more money."
" He wanted to know 2/ the post had arrived."
"
am
Say rather
"
He
is
right."
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
He wanted
am trying
"
"
to
nor.
know whether
to discover
whether
The word
165
To
use
it
neither,
is
incorrect.
Say rather
"
"
"
Or.
It
nor to Paris."
must be observed
that this
nor to Paris."
conjunction
is
not
" Ireland
Van
Die-
two
"
But
if
He
He
is
able to do
much
in
RHETORIC.
l66
This word
Unless.
only with substantives.
is
The
Except,
will
show
Here "
unless " is
likewise perish
we were to
phrase would be wrong
correct.
all
is
".
therefore
say, "
If
Whether
"
He
or.
letter or
had
not."
SECTION
IX.
Interjections.
An
or
interjection
some sudden
is
They may be
(i)
Of
of wonder, (4) of wishing, (5) of praise, (6) of surprise, (7) of pain or of fear, (8) of contempt, (9) of aversion,
row,
(3)
SECTION
X.
Verbs.
One
grammar
hence,
is
if
that
two
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
or
67
the verb
"-
This
however,
rule,
is
J.
ChroH. i. 12.
" Understanding and wisdom was found in Him."
Dati.
V. 14.
"
not good."
"
Thy
Sam.
me
in the host is
xxix. 6.
children
Zebedee."
are mine."
St.
Matth.
"Among whom
is
xxviii. 56.
also
others."
Acts
xvii. 34.
"
iii.
"
Who
is
My
My
mother and
brethren
"
St.
Mark
33.
St.
James
iii.
16.
confusion and
RHETORIC.
l68
Alexander."
Tim.
20.^
i.
i.e.,
'
synonymous
is
if
if
thing that at
Christ
"
"
is
He
He
God."
w always commendable.''
always impressed upon us that virtue is
its
own
reward."
"
He
sun."
Hence
"
By
faith
xviii. 28.
Subjunctive Mood.
use the subjunctive
which it
page we
is
mood
difficult to
was the
Christ."
Acts
xviii. ^.^
one of which
is
in
Per-
Washington Moon,
Eccles. English.
Revised Version.
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
principle
169
their practice
seems
to be
Some Grammarians
over, which will
many
give
one of the simplest, and one, morehave the merit of making our use of the
subjunctive consistent,
is
the following
When
come
there
in
is,
futurity, as
junctive.
When
there
is
either
mood, as
tive
is
a traitor
The
" If he
was
must be
in the indica-
".
is
is
an exception
when we wish
to
Future Conditional.
It is
Say rather
Repetition of Verb. Whenever in a sentence the nominnumber, the verb must be repeated.
" Benedict
is
George
are not."
'''Joseph does well
at
his
studies,
not."
"
is
more
instruc-
RHETORIC.
170
Grammar, will,
employment of them.
1.
determines
as
if
Booth's
its
accomplishment, will
is
:
"
"
will build a
"
will
"We will
If the
2.
house."
first its
necessity,
speaker neither
determines
and secondly
is
He
"
will be
3.
"
"
its utility."
accomplishment, will
its
auxiliary, as
is
is
Another Rule.
and
will ".
In the
Will.
first
promises or threatens
"
will give
"
will severely
you a watch."
punish you."
He
Shall.
In the
first
want when
it
"
shall find
what
promises, or
"
Thou
Thou
go to London."
or threatens
" Thou shalt have the desire of thy heart."
"
commands,
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
This
for
last rule
when
must be understood
the sentence
\']1
of explicative sentences;
is
place
"
both imply
expressing or
will, either
command.
referring to a
inclination of will.
events.
SECTION
XI.
Miscellaneous.
Abhorrence
tyranny
not for-
o/,
"He
has an abhorrence of
all
".
words".
Accompanied
his son
Adverse
"He
He was
"
accompanied by
".
to.
After,
Agree with.
"
agree
to
your proposi-
tion."
All
o/them, should
be,
"
They
all
did
it ".
to the
word which
it
qualifies.
It appears ".
RHETORIC.
172
As
as
At the
is
Aught,
is
"For aught
Averse from
"
am
know."
Both
of,
is
wrong
" Both of
them
'
both .
"
Beg
to
acknowledge
Besides, after
else,
it
"
"
;
other
Beg
recalls
is
some-
Very best
is
is
superlative.
By
night, by day
this is better
Both, as a conjunction.
In
if
"
five."
if
an
article or a
Caution.
We
must be
latter.
slant.
Therefore,
it
is
more
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
I73
We
from
a place
we go
" In comparison
Comparison.
The
of".
complete,
come
a place.
to
it/j^/i,"
full,
empty, supreme,
We confide
Confide.
Nouns
Congregation.
in,
when
of multitude
signifying a
"
nor
as
either
so
that
or
;
if
though
then.
yet
whether
Couple.
or
as
as
so
hence, to say
"
should
A
be,.
of, is
We
Discriminate.
Distinguish.
for
We make a distinction.
We distinguish one thing from another.
We
Dozen.
people.
This word means every one of a number separtherefore, instead of saying " Each one of
Each.
ately considered
them," say
Either,
means
".
was
a lamp," say
"
On
each
RHETORIC.
174
Ever\',
It
is
would
all,
three persons."
".
We
may, however,
is
"
He
entered
which no part
Fall down.
sa}-,
".
;
down
" is
superfluous.
''
This word is used to denote distance
He
".
than
intended
went farther
he
Few. This word is applied to number less, to bulk
"There were present not fewer than twenty thousand men ".
Farther.
"
Folk.
of
thy often
This word
Further.
signifies
to a greater degree.
parative of "far
Game.
no
should
be,
in-
".
firmities
means
infirmities,"
plural.
is
degree,"
and
".
When
"
It
" intensity,
this
word
it
has
".
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Had
"
I75
This
&c.
a mistake
is
''
the
number
".
ever,
is,
is
in the phrase,
Hence
then
is
it
we need
" If he
was not
present,
" If
it
'
Instead
you.''
of
" knowingly,''
use
the
to
word
wittingly.
are well
:
tion
and
incorrect.
is
We
Necessity.
necessity of".
"
Need.
than need
He
When we
is
better
all
Often.
Old.
is
inaccurate.
This
of.
New.
language
fied
"
all
others,
John
We
is
should say:
the
best.''
"A
pair of
Say rather
others," &c.
ioi frequent
He was
three
years old."
RHETORIC.
176
age
He was
"
three years of
".
up
redundant.
is
Opportunity.
He
Opposite.
"
"
business."
little
He
stood opposite
Or.
"
With
to
after
it
the preposition
to.
the house."
When
Pronouns.
the antecedent
is
This should be
a collective
noun
when
noun conveys
must agree with it in the
" This
It would, therefore, be wrong to say
singular.
people honoureth me with their lips". Say rather "its lips ''.
" My people which is in
Also, it would be wrong to say
Egypt, I have heard their groaning, and I am come to
deliver them "
Say rather " its groaning, to deliver it ".
Propose. This word is wrongly used for purpose.
To
propose, is to set something before some one for his consideration, to be accepted or to be rejected by him, as it shall
seem good to him. To purpose, on the contrary, is to have
an intention, a design of doing something. In the following
example both verbs are correctly employed "I proposed to
the House a scheme of Home Rule but I do not purpose so
with
it
in the plural
the idea of
tinity,
but
the collective
the pronoun
doing again
Properly.
means
".
"
The
that to write
them
is
This
"
The
;
;
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
When
we pass from
177
in a sentence
when we
Spoonfuls.
Square.
Stop.
Strait,
Tautology.
He
says that
That.
ivhom.
The
think that".
(See
" In a sonnet, the
sect,
The.
who, which,
iii.)
rhyme
to
first,
one another
fifth,
so do the
and
second,
third, sixth,
styles
in the
much
".
12
but) thus
RHETORIC.
178
"These
"I treated
Treated.
0/ this subject
Though.
It
is
some
implies
Unless,
opposition.
Therefore, it
" He looked as though
if.
" As though
is
as
of,
He
"
"
should be " as if
us."
"I treated
".
This
allow".
to
".
He
it
expresses,
said that
is
God
at all times
is
able to save
is
always odious."
say, namely.
With.
What.
for that
"
A name
which
Whilst.
is,"
for
what
Say
is."
rather
"
A name
&c.
is better.
"
Say
rather:
"The
XII.
in
this section,
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
179
idle
moments
of his
characteristic
and appropriate
Ibid. p. 232.
Better thus
" Pulso Borsi, who, by a most appropriate and character:
istic charity,
"
How
had the
these
magnificent mediaeval
figures
must
have crowded the little cell, with its one chair and commodious desk, in which the prior lived." Ibid. p. 271.
Better thus
" How these
:
'
magnificent
mediaeval
figures
must
have crowded the little cell in which the prior lived, that
little cell with its one chair and commodious desk".
" He could not paint a crucifix without tears."
Ibid. p.
353Better thus
"
'
He
He
ness of
its
beginning, as a novice."
Better thus
' He entered
all
the fresh-
Ibid. p. 36.
as
its
Franciscan
beginning".
Dante
"
set
himself to expound
".
Roinola, p. 92.
their jest at
much
him and
liberality."
his
little
George Eliot.
l8o
RHETORIC.
Better thus
"The
with
"
much
passengers, with
much
who had
liberality,
died in
Better thus
threw
(or
threw
him," &c.
much
fright as to
Ibid. p. i8o.
immense
satisfaction."
Better thus
" Mr. Barton, with
:
challenge
(or
his
his
challenge to
" She was sponging the aching head that lay on the pillow
with fresh vinegar."
Better thus
"
Adam
Bede,
p. 54.
it
Ibid. p. 87.
Better thus
"...
Socrates himself".
" She would let no one be fetched to help her from the
village." /i/rf.
Better thus
" She would
p. 88.
let
village to help
her ".
" A large family coach with two fat horses in blazing harness, driven by a fat
coachman
in a three-cornered hat
Fair, chap.
i.
Thackeray.
and
Vanity
ENGLISH GRAMMAR.
Better thus
"...
l8l
fat
coachman," &c.
" Isidor, his Belgian servant, sold a grey horse very like
the one which Joe rode, at Valenciennes, sometime during
the
autumn
of 1815."
Better thus
Ibid. p. 38.
Better thus
" Without a diagram,
:
is
not easy
names of
it is
It
"The
five central
in
very
Better thus
" The five central seats are inscribed, in very large letters,
:
with the
priated".
names
PART
II.
LIFE OF CICERO.
CHAPTER
SECTION
I.
I.
the prince of
Roman
orators,
was
fame
The
to the fact of
saw the Hght, was also the birth-place of Pompey, who was
born in the September of the same year, and of Marius, who
was destined to be at once the deliverer and the scourge of
his country.
tion,
'
Some
writers give the year b.c. 103 or 105 as the date of his birth.
T
RHETORIC.
was
He was
unfading renown.
later
on
to
much given
not
to the sports
which fill the minds of most boys, but was fond of books
and was of a very serious disposition, a lad we should think
whom
playground, and the rough, though good-natured companionship of his equals in age.
The
were
verse.
avidity,
Voltaire,
with
much
scend to posterity.'
It
is
it is
LIFE OF CICERO.
it
many
writers
would have us
be-
to be.
upon him
to take
Hence we
find Cicero,
new
life.
felt
which he afterwards,
in his
RHETORIC.
was a
its
noblest citizens.
who
was now
Sylla, in his
LIFE OF CICERO.
his country, fully equipped for his
at the
Roman
tively
trivial
appeared
Bar.
civil
care which
skilful
He made
cases,
time as an advocate
his debilt in
characterised
all
some compara-
conducted
The
his work.
first
case,
advocate
who was
accused of parricide.
was
gonus.
The
carried
he was then
before him.
all
Forum,
excited
among
minor
cases,
of the
was
the arena
practically
then known
left
what might be
world.
called
"the university"
resorted from
Academy, and
Agora.
Its
magni-
RHETORIC.
to
on
the
its
sweets.
tall,
spare,
swarms of honey-seeking
bees, to feast
knowledge came
with the troubles and
after
the anxieties of the past year, and pale with the ardour of his
ceaseless pursuit of learning.
complete
rest.
He was
He came
He
in
total
inactivity.
He
and soon
all
he
was even
then
so
accomplished a master.
away the
six
Thus
months
among
those
LIFE OF CICERO.
a well-trained school of
Attic literature.
It
became the
life
fashion,
and began
to be
appreciated
(900)Cicero had
as
it
now
feeling
for
Rome
a great dearth
RHETORIC.
8
of corn, and he
was
upon
called
was
elected to
fill
a similar post of
On
office,
he returned to
to
Rome
brought
who
for three
and
cruelties.
and
to
him as
trodden
men
appealed
for
Rome
some of
although he had
down-
for his
in
in
LIFE OF CICERO.
Armed with manifest proofs of guilt, he reRome, and, in four of the most scathing invectives
ever devised by the genius of man, impeached the cruel and
rapacious Verres.
Of these orations only two were spoken
arraigned.
turned to
defendants, seeing
how
accused,
made use
means
the
till
the
for
trial
Consul,
of every
when many
ill
it
would
(e.g.
69)-
On
approached, in
RHETORIC.
missioner of Public Works.^
it
His
position, bringing
man
was one
in
him as
which a
in the
way
to power.
Of these he availed himself to the utmost,
and yet with so great prudence and tact, that while conciliating the people, that usually expensive method did not prove
an exhausting drain upon his purse. But Cicero was too
keen an observer of human nature not to perceive that if he
would seat himself in the Consul's chair, he must lean upon
a more solid support than that with which the fickle populace
could furnish him.
There must be on his side and in his
interest the wealthy classes, and the leaders of societ}- among
the nobility.
At the head of these, just at this time, was
Pompey, to whom the orator made it his business to attach
himself He lost no opportunity of attracting his notice and
of winning his favour and for these purposes became the
panegj'rist of his actions, and a sort of partisan to extol, and,
;
if
possible, to further
his
Accordingly when
greatness.
Pom-
it
eloquence.
to aid
Hence we
find
him during
this year
engaged
at
among which
LIFE OF CICERO.
was
that of Cluentius,
II
Caecina.
a civil case.
SECTION
ir.
Catiline's Conspiracy.
On
caused his
name
to be put
upon the
list
Among
those
who
con-
tended with him for this place of honour, was Lucius Cati-
that infamous
at the
concocted, as that
The
men
so desperate
fears aroused
might
by the dread
canvass
for the
high
office to
which he aspired.
For though
RHETORIC.
12
ing, as
aside
it
all
man
was
raised to the
Now,
(e.g. 63
aet.
of
all
43.)
epoch
in very deed,
in his life.
He
Republic, and
crisis
man
of the
such as that
up strength.
He knew
union
among
perfectly well
was
secretly in sympathy',
He
if
therefore
not
first
LIFE OF CICERO.
won him
IJ
own
lot.
He
next, with
consummate
effect,
triple cord
it,
favourable as
it
it
affected himself,
and
that he found
means
to
RHETORIC.
14
Thereupon
Cicero,
Commonwealth
after
sustained no
harm
".
for pillaging
was
life.
this fact,
worm
LIFE OF CICERO.
15
missed than she found her way to Curius, and was soon in
possession of all the resolutions at which the conspirators
Two
days
summoned
Cicero
Jupiter
Stator,
gathered together in
as
if
upon the
company
much for
of those
Cicero.
whom he had
He could not
Plutarch,
Cornelius.
as
l6
RHETORIC.
the hearts of the Senators with joy that at last the con-
had
spirator
got, in
words
measure of his
deserts.'
When
his speech he
cide
Then scowling
"
upon the venerable assembly, on which he then looked for the last time, and
uttering terrible threats of vengeance against all his enemies,
he strode out of the temple. Hurrying straight to his own
!
defiantly
the chief
them
execution,
Rome
band of
On
ruffians.
the
As soon
as they
to that densely
knew
The
first
oration
was delivered
in
the Senate
on the 3rd
December.
fourth,
to
LIFE OF CICERO.
17
it
was
head
measures
it.
a complete victory.
The head
The
trunk,
left
behind in the
the
He
itself.
to hold
it
therefore
in check,
omitted
and prevent
no precautionary
it from working
mischief.
After
of
life
the
departure
of
the
Catiline,
first
indication
By
the
was to stir up
Having sent it out on
tried to
left
Rome.
cavalry, of
powerful Rome.
all-
and
to
him revealed
conspirators.
all
that they
knew
to
the Consul,
who
pruarrest
RHETORIC.
10
By
on
in
the
guiding
spirits
of
the
from those
and
when they
and on their own
persons the
nating documents
were met and captured by the soldiers sent by Cicero to the
On
Milvian bridge, and led back as prisoners into the city.
that very day the Senate was summoned to meet the Consul
Cicero went thither accompanied
in the temple of Concord.
by the ambassadors of the Allobroges, and by Lentulus,
Cethegus, Gabinius, and Statilius, whom he had sent for
from his own house, and who had come at his bidding, without having even a suspicion of the pit into which they were
;
about to
fall.
on promise of a
free pardon,
made
plot.
Vul-
a clean breast of
it,
also
now
like a
others
LIFE OF CICERO.
least,
ig
completely paralysed.
it
When
but
Cicero, there-
to the Rostra,
full
fifth
and
account of
all
of December,
the Senate met once more, to deliberate upon the all-important question of the punishment to be inflicted upon the
prisoners.
tion.
at the
and
gave his opinion that such men could be adepunished only by the penalty of death.
Some
briefly
quatel}'
view but not a few record that Cassar spoke immediately after Silanus, and dissented altogether from the
in this
of them followed
in his
wake.
He
in-
more severe
the only
way
and to
20
RHETORIC.
crush out the impiety which had struck at the majesty and the
life
of the State,
was
to put
them
His courageous
to death.
seeming
to lean
towards that of
Caesar, all the while pleaded for that of Silanus and of Cato.
The
vault below.
Praetors conducted
to
the
same place
same dread
When
penalty.
Roman
formula
"
Vixerunt
".
He then
passed through
who cheered
him, and accompanied him in a sort of triumphal march to
own home.
Every one knows the ultimate fate of Catiline, the chief
conspirator.
When he heard of the execution of his col-
end
thousand
this
for
in
With
twenty
closely
The
Praetor,
Quintus
Metellus Celer, lay with his army in the territory of Picenum, and on the first advance of Catiline seized upon
the pass, thus effectually checking his forward progress.
on
LIFE OF CICERO.
21
conspirator
was
therefore
Roman
and a desperate
Like a
battfe ensued.
Antonius,
chief,
was
in
all
The
was
and
foes,
fell
foremost ranks.
was
still
When
breathing, and
showed upon
sternness and the ferocity that had marked him in the hey-
day of his
life
SECTION
III,
Enmity of Clodius.
By
Republic,
22
RHETORIC.
Consular
The
last
people.
short
them
so
friend.
ment
whose mutual
in public
letters.
It
memoirs of
subject.
glory,
Pompey,
moment, held
abandoned his
In these circumstances Cicero, finding no employclosely
united.
life,
then,
was during
his Consulship,
and
to sing his
own
praises,
till
the
fire
of envy rising
The
LIFE OF CICERO.
first bolt
to strike him.
23
citizen, as
He
at
many
patricians of
aid
of the noblest
lives
he had saved
opposing
parties, or
affairs
execution the
first
from a
^'otten,
He
but Cicero
withdraw
which his great services were practically forand allow his enemies to enjoy their triumph.
it.
preferred to
field in
He, therefore,
left
Rome, and
for
all
Sicily,
After
if
loth to
some time
RHETORIC.
24
resting-place.
Utterly broken in
spirit, in
the profoundest
dejection
now
every sorrow, he
flat, stale,
and unprofitable.
glory, Clodius, in
He
and on the
Liberty.
was put up
who seem
to
but to no
became the prey
to auction
the rest
-in
his
was carried to
him with grief He
The glory
lost all hope, and distrusted even his friends.
which he had won in his palmy days, afforded no balm to
ruffian.
The news
of
all
these misfortunes
He sank so low,
and became so dejected, that he actually regretted not having
perished by his own hand when fortune first deserted him.
While the once powerful and idolised orator was thus
soothe the smart of these cruel wounds.
common-
life,
'
LIFE OF CICERO.
enough
25
fellow-men.
They began
to
audacious
at the length to
which
this
madman
declared that
was
recalled,
SECTION
IV.
these proceedings.
negotiations
26
RHETORIC.
homeward
journe}-,
month
nigh the
of September, he reached
city,
Rome.
As he drew
Way
towards
made
As some
whom
he had to
deal,
nature of the
man
with
LIFE OF CICERO.
2/
slew
led by a cer-
many
him
SECTION
v.
Death of Clodius.
About
Augurs.
He was
was admitted
fifty-four
of
He was
was
RHETORIC.
128
Seeing that
placed in his
it
There
it
was
own
and
litter,
Forum and
laid
inflicted
From
the
Forum
Curia Hostilia,
the corpse
in
was
was
to
and
laid
the
fire
temple.
Basilica,
The
applied.
Spreading
they involved
it
in
On
this the
body
thence to the
fire
neighbouring
By
LIFE OF CICERO.
29
large following
leader,
who had
been instrumental in
had
who had
conducted as
trial,
as well, also,
trials of a similar
This
trial
was
not,
however,
ducted at Rome.
for the
of the advocates.
The
counsel
spoke
first,
and sent
should not
now
be eating these
".
SECTION
VI.
those days,
when
hands
RHETORIC.
30
of
Roman
means
for repairing
by unbounded extravagance.
He also
successfully conducted an expedition against the Parthians,
and captured a mountain stronghold called Pindenissus.
fortune
shattered
all
would
honour,
effort to further
rapacity of
Roman
to the
officials.
much
-subjects,
and deeply as
in
life
Yet,
manner towards
his
it
all
it
political life
now
her liberty.
expired,
he
fatherland.
fatal
in a
made
all
haste
to
return
to
his
beloved
3I
LIFE OF CICERO.
SECTION
VII.
By every
tically, received
Rome, ready
civil
war.
but he
saw
at a glance that
camp
at
Ravenna, surrounded
first
man
in
Rome, but
demanded a
resolute, vigorous
the State,
now
difficult task.
He
therefore
conference,
Pompey saw
quite
On
clearly
the
necessity
for
in dispute,
He
evi-
dently did not count upon the astonishing activity of the con-
RHETORIC.
32
was
too
much
inclined to
deem
By
command
was so dejected
some cohorts
of
Pompey's army.
Separating himself from Cato, he returned to Italy, which,
at that
time,
as Lieutenant of
LIFE OF CICERO.
33
Casar.
To many who have written about Cicero, this
apparent desertion of his friends, and of the cause for which
whom
character.
SECTION
VIII.
law.
made
in the
will
was
the master
felt.
devoted
own
troubles were,
we
Of
and
3*
RHETORIC.
34
up
to
of a nature too
so staunch a Republican
that which, while
Caesar
servile praise.
it
made
of
forth
self
one of his
in
break
pardon
free
no
was
incident, which,
in
and come
which he had buried him-
Cicero
spite
himself,
was
silence,
accorded to
Marcellus,
man had
This
when
this favour
moment when
his friend
was
so generously, so
and
privileges,
and restored,
grievously offended,
we can
too,
by one
all
whom
his rights
he had so
LIFE OF CICERO.
35
But the
dom
The world
his cheerfulness.
it
did
did
upon that
day when the sun went down upon the disastrous field of
Pharsalia, where many of his best friends lay weltering in
when Pompey was in flight and the forces of
their gore
the Republic were scattered far and wide like sheep without
a shepherd.
This renewed life, this transient gleam of that happiness
which had gilded the former years of his public life, faded into
;
when
died (B.C. 45). The blow seems literally to have stunned him.
He gave himself up unreservedly to grief, wandering about
in the
loss.
To
into tears,
and bewail-
calmer mood,
RHETORIC.
36
was
literary pursuits.
De
treatise
his
own
in
mental
He
Then he
tried
what
activity,
wrote, at this
whom
he had
lost.
in
four
books, and
his
Some
funeral
of his
eulogium on
Roman
friends
blamed
this excessive,
read.
The
conspirators,
life.
who banded
together to rid
Rome
of
among
On
Senate met
in the
Curia Pompeii.
March
was
Cicero
there
his colleagues,
LIFE OF CICERO.
37
And at
Which
first
blow
who
it
was about
to be
enacted, were filled'with horror at the great soldier's untimely end, and left, in all haste, the scene of his murder.
SECTION
IX.
RHETORIC.
38
the
This expectation
Senate.
will
possibly
rise
reality,
Cesar's death, his colleague Antony practically held the sceptre which had been wrested from the hands
exist.
For
after
it
for
all
with as
much
he enforced
Cssar's power.
Caesar's laws,
If,
after striking
and
him
new
master.
The
which might
utterly
was black
The
out-
gnawing
at his heart,
in-
To
He began
lost,
LIFE OF CICERO.
39
He
some
little
time to Greece.
all
He
was
these,
was
never delivered.
He
words.
He
young Octavius
to
mere
oppose
man whom
it
was the
To
interest of the
RHETORIC.
40
was
inclined to cling.
that he
was not
We
do not
clear-sighted
But
for a
enough
first
the
moment suppose
see through the
to
young man
aiifected.
but
for
If at this
period there
that
into
struggling to
assert
its
freedom and
dignity, against
its
office.
was gone.
Up
to this
time he had always treated Octavius with at least some outward show of respect, and had even urged Brutus to make
but now he completely
away from him, as the murderer of that liberty which
him was dear as life itself The Triumvirs, as was natural,
broke
to
had each
and of
political
enemies to get
LIFE OF CICERO.
4I
SECTION
His Death
X.
(b.c. 43).
proscription
made haste
Their
flight
was
whence they
their ruthless
Rome, and
therefore, perhaps, to
was agreed
left in
discovered his
that
hiding-place.
The myrmidons
of
Antony
Quintus, warned of
were, therefore, soon upon his track.
They forced their way
their approach, concealed himself
RHETORIC.
42
moved, perhaps, by
first,
their misery,
seized
simultaneously.
fascination
LIFE OF CICERO.
45
Herennius,
stepping
one of
Standing
might
truthfully
for
in
all
all,
have said
shall
"
SECTION
".'
XI.
His Character.
Cicero has had innumerable panegyrists, and also very
but panegyrists.
few
men have
Indeed,
we
been so highly
extolled, and few so bespattered with the mire of malevolent
If we are to believe his admirers^
criticism, as he has been.
might
'
Hamlet, Act
i.
scene
2.
RHETORIC.
44
his
was
greatest
men
most probably
his mature age,
who sincerely
summed up all
to the
will, there-
of antiquity.
fore,
in
we
which
Hcentiousness
if
lie
said of
loved
his
him
"
He was
country".
Augustus,
a good citizen,
In these
They
words
will
is
be the
When
the conspiracy
well to
LIFE OF CICERO.
make
45
to
guided him.
call vices.
which
tell
us
aside,
we
loftiest
tender love for his children, his steadfast friendships, and his
RHETORIC.
46
we
shall be inclined
man who, by
SECTION
written so
much and
is
pardon
XII.
Cicero as a Literary
Among
if
to
these very
Man.
so faultlessly as Cicero.
We
possess
its
beauties.
They go
so far as to put
him on an
re-
vivalists, yet
LIFE OF CICERO.
47
he
those
will
familiar
his
is
the
first
letters,
and philosophical
numerous
his
speeches,
the one
is
of
literary beauties,
literary faults.
SECTION
XIII.
His speeches.
It
is
by his oratorical
TDost widely
efforts
known among
that
Cicero
is
best
and
us.
The
the great oratorical requisites for a perfect speech.
movements
are
natural
the
vigorous
and
just
is
reasoning
all
and vivacious
every art
by turns
and
all
style
gaj-,
and
biting,
these various
most
to
sarcastic,
moods
are
ironical,
made manifest
its
to us in a
pathetic, tender
is
the
us.
RHETORIC.
48
Many
The
faults
which able
critics
in
his
and
way
prolixity in style.
certainly be shocked
terribly straightforward
all
we
tion.
His habit of exaggerating the gravity of facts, and of circumstances connected with those facts, is admitted by all to
be so great, that for the judges, before whom he pleaded,
it must have been almost as difficult as it is for us, to disHis admirers maintain, and
cover where the truth lay.
with every appearance of probability, that he never wilfully
intended to deceive, but that he was carried away by his
ardent temperament, as well as by the excitement of delivery,
to say that which, in cooler moments, he would have regretted as a deviation from the truth.
Of his prolixity, we, in these days, would certainly complain.
He seizes hold of a thought, and twists and turns,
and looks at it first on this side, and then upon that, till we
It is questionable, however, whether the
weary of it.
people, or the senators to whom he spoke, would regard
LIFE OF CICERO.
this as a blemish.
much
all
49
SECTION
XIV.
He
is
mark
all
his speeches.
if
4*
for
for the
RHETORIC.
50
purity
The
sur-
and
same degree of interest.
Nevertheless, even the most unentertaining of them will
reward a perusal, on account of the witching style in which
the great Roman orator presents them to us.
passed.
do not
all
CHAPTER
II.
CATILINE.
I.
The
first
of Cicero against
invective
was
pro-
Cicero
was
Catiline
(b,c. 62),
when
rise to
it,
was
accomplishment of
camped
in Etruria.
places at once.
to take place,
None were
(4)
this, leaders
(3)
Rome was
to
be
fired
in
several
and also of
to be excepted
all
;
was
Pompey were
to hold as
be
hostages, in order to obtain from their father peace and reconciliation.
(5) In the confusion arising from this general
to
spared.
(7)
RHETORIC.
52
been prepared
and Cethegus to
direct
men whom
they
The
vigilance of Cicero
away with
hrs wily
Rome,
till
made
Two knights at
As soon
great
crisis,
first
time
self.
self
53
secure, only
and
He
Catiline.
still
Even
unmask
the conspirator.
and
who were
fold treasons.
Proposition.
.1.
2.
It
that, together
from the
for
the
Republic
city.
Exhortation.
To
camp
city,
of Mallius.
Conclusion.
He
On
b}'
of the Consuls.
1
by the Clarendon
Press, in 1783.
RHETORIC.
54
On
moved by
By
By
By
By
By
He
bare.
He Proves
its
existence.
traitor lives
be put to Death.
Of Scipio, who slew Tiberius Gracchus,
Of Ahala, who slew Spurius Melius.
Of Opimius, who slew C. Gracchus and Fulvius.
Of Marius, who slew Saturninus and Servilius.
Yet Because he Does not put Him to Death, Cicero
BOTH Accuses and Excuses Himself.
He accuses himself of remissness and negligence.
He
and on his
will to
He
He
He
orders
him
55
He
He Exhorts Him
1.
to go to Mallius.
For Catiline's own sake, to whom it would be useful,
inasmuch as the army of Mallius was augmented,
as he had ordered that General to augment it
delightful, on account of the fellowship which it
would afford him of thousands of worthless wretches,
and of the spoils with which it would enrich him
honourable, by reason of the opportunity with
which it would furnish him of exercising himself
in the endurance of hunger, cold, and want.
For the country's sake, for which the departure of
Catiline would in appearance he fatal, since Italy
would be wasted by war, its cities harassed, its
;
2.
RHETORIC.
56
Republic be
made more
secure.
The Conclusion.
To
(i)
the Praetor
fire
to the city.
To
be of good cheer, because of the Consul's unwearying energy, the Senate's influence, the eques-
(2)
trian
order's
unflinching
bravery,
the
citizens'
unanimity.
To
To
all
section
to their
II.
him by
make
conduct.
57
me
the entrance to
all
that
is
high and
honourable.
" Is it, then, for a moment to be supposed that I, a man
of patrician birth, a man whose ancestors have given to the
Roman people so many and so signal proofs of their love and
their devotion, should
but that
all
aim
at the
welfare,
its
all
its
Cicero
pour
out a torrent of abuse upon his vigilant and victorious
erjemy,
cry
when from
" Traitor
Stung
to
all
sides of the
Parricide
madness by
"
!
this
which only
own
in secret
and
to Cato,
him
and
he had ventured
" Sur-
rounded by enemies, and driven headlong by their implacable hate, I will smother the flames of their anger under
Having uttered this threat, he strode
the ruins of Rome ".
hastily out of the assembly.
On reaching home and calmly considering the events of
the day, he saw plainly that it was vain any longer to dissemble.
58
RHETORIC.
after
retinue.
On
This they did with a view to stir up popular indignaand excite odium against Cicero, for having without any
exile.
tion
man
into exile.
Cicero, however,
fabrication, for
was unknown
to the
now
to him.
move
camp
in
of Catiline's
Knowing
left
all this,
by him
in the city
oration.
Part
I.
He
He
him
to death.
Part
59
II.
He
city are
to be feared.
That
go
into exile.
Part
III.
He
He
these.
Peroration.
He
(i)
frees
from fear
all
good
.citizens.
(3)
He
who
(2)
He
in-
the gods.
He Congratulates Himself
line.
On
On
On
He
On
in the conspiracy,
it
who
defended the
and
who
among
the
were inclined
to favour
their friends
conspirators.
2.
On
account of those
who
6o
RHETORIC.
Analysis of the Second Part.
The Soldiers
of the Conspiracy,
Feared
men rustics
spendthrifts men
Because they are old
fleeing from the courts of justice.
The Band of Conspirators in the City are to be
;
Feared
Because of
rule provinces
their
want of money
of the upright
their
their
their ambition to
many and
great vices
their avarice
their
and
their
The Head
to go.
He
The
3.
The
4.
Cruel cut-throats.
5.
Indolent spendthrifts.
6.
Fashionable gallants.
insolently prodigal.
The
The
Roman
people.
6l
Peroration.
I.
Citizens
defend their houses, with guards and with watch:
men.
Not
sufficiyitly
protected
the
by Metellus
for
;
colonies
and the
themselves
the
He Warns those
of
the
Citizens
spirators
in
the
warded
That under
off.
command, war
shall
be changed into
shall be punished.
his
peace.
OF the Republic
On these he acknowledges that he founds his
That they have given signs of heavenly aid.
That by
the
trust.
homes
and
of the citizens.
62
RHETORIC.
SECTION
III.
As soon
as Catiline had
other leading
men
left
making
all
For
all
time
Among
Rome.
a multitude of others, to
whom
their
the AUobroges.^
some
humour with
out of
petition,
were by him drawn into the plot. In return for the splendid
advantages which they were to reap from the overthrow of
the Republic, they promised to win over their nation to
furnish to the conspirators that of which they then stood in
very great need a well-trained and well-equipped body of
horse to aid in the operations of their army.
But, on examining with more mature deliberation the
chances of success likely to attend so hazardous an enterprise, all the difficulties that bristled in its way, and all the
dangers that clustered round it, made them pause in anxious
They
Dauphiny.
is
now known
as
Savoy and
63
with Catiline
to
till
they were in
full
to continue acting
possession of
all
the details of
in
it,
the
leaders,
they insisted upon the necessity for having from them some
documentary evidence, some trustworthy credentials which
have aroused
when
He was
ward journey.
was
fool
wrote a
enough
letter to Catiline,
under his
He
seal,
He
but
RHETORIC.
64
When
own
hands,
to their chief.
it
all
which they were to leave Rome, and the place whence they
were to start. They were to have in their possession their
credentials, and whatever other documentary evidence they
had been able to obtain. About a mile from the city, and
on the Milvian Bridge, they were to be arrested by the two
Praetors, Lucius Flaccus and Caius Pontinus.
These latter
were instructed by Cicero to take with them a strong company of soldiers and of trusty friends
to lie in ambush
near the bridge and to spring out upon the travellers and
effect their arrest before they could offer any resistance.
This programme was most admirably carried out by those
intrusted with its execution.
The whole party was surprised at the Milvian Bridge, and safe in the grip of the stal;
wart
Roman
soldiers,
who
prevented
first
the Senate,
lest, if
damning
65
therefore, in
deemed
it
if
there had
occurred
some matter
of great
pitfall
into
Now
was about
that everything
to
was
5*
The
awe-
guilty complicity in
66
RHETORIC.
who had informed against them, were removed from the temple, and
the Fathers at once entered into debate concerning the state
of the Republic.
The results of that debate were the followor cavil, the criminals, together with those
ing resolutions
(i)
to Cicero, because
orders.
Lentulus, having
himself of his
first
official
The
resolutions which had been arrived at by the Senate.
account of these transactions constitutes the matter of this
third oration.
67
own labours
make known to them,
and
all
(3) docile,
by promising
to
Narration.
This sets before them
spiracy of Lentulus.
Peroration.
Exhorts the people
to give thanks to
God.
To
protect
To pay homage
wretches.
He awakes the
to
making evident
in the preservation
Rome
itself.
city
from incendiaries.
them know all about the conspiracy, the magnitude and the reality of which he
will lay before them the manner in which the inquiry
was made and the capture of the criminals effected.
Docile, by promising to
let
His Diligence.
He
in
68
RHETORIC.
2.
The Conspiracy
3.
The Virtues
of Lentulus,
with the AUobroges and with Catiline.
of the Pr^tors.
Their fortitude and love in undertaking, without
hesita-
tion
Their loyalty
in
bringing them
The Arrest
of the Conspirators,
his con-
federates.
6.
Their Perturbation,
Manifest from their changing colour
their faces
their silence
another.
Second Part of
the Narration.
the conspiracy
the Consul
tinus
The
act
and
who
decree, by
which rewards
a public
thanksgiving to Cicero
and Pon-
of thanksgiving
is
solemn
gods.
(i)
con-
commanding
abilities.
(2)
The
6g
The
without
from a most
These are circumstances which hardly
cruel death.
civil
discord, as is evident
2.
3.
To
in the dissension
city,
and of
all
the citizens.
SECTION
IV.
Catiline.
Though
was not
killed outright.
was
still
RHETORIC.
70
them by
.by
As soon as
somewhat sub-
Cicero.
desperadoes began to
There were rumours that deadly treason
was once more afoot and abroad in the city, that the slaves
were to be stirred up to revolt, and that these, led on by
the adherents of the imprisoned chiefs, were to burst
asunder their bonds, and set them at liberty.
Cicero, nothing daunted by the threatening aspect of
affairs, merely doubled his guards, and pushed vigorously on
to the next stage in the course which he had marked out
for himself.
This was the question of punishment. To
settle a matter of such vital importance, he summoned the
Senate to debate the point in public council.
For each of the members of that august assembly, the
issue of that debate was one of the utmost delicacy.
The
men, upon whose fate they were called to decide, were
sprung from the highest and noblest families in the Republic.
Among them there were men who were personally known to
most of the senators. With some of them they were connected by ties of relationship, or of marriage, or, at the least,
of friendship. Besides these minor considerations, there was
the fact that, to the Roman mind, the idea of capital punishment for a Roman citizen, was revolting and odious. The
sided, the bereaved followers of these
bestir themselves.
supreme
right to
tribunal,
inflict,
in
The
death-penalty.
of a t3rannical abuse.
71
Besides this public sentiment hostile to capital punishment, there were two laws which made the infliction of it in
The
was
any
citizen
Gracchus.
condemned
whose
first
exer-
life
C.
of any citizen,
Hence, as soon
fact that
only the
Accordingly,
when
the Fathers
had assembled, he arose and put the question, and straightway the momentous debate began.
RHETORIC.
72
The
to
first
Praetor-elect,
this question
at last
till
who,
in
it
came
him, the punishment proposed was not by any means adequate to the offence.
It
He came and
grievous miseries.
hearts,
In his eyes
many and
hand on men's
and from that moment there was no longer left beBut independently of
which
after all
was but
new
constitution.
its
was
life,
supreme power
State.
its
ter
was
set a
principles,
was not
to be
apprehended
Any danger
of
73
own method
for dealing
This was to
them
in the various
Now
ever.
The Consul,
debate,
He examined
both views
all
the
that
all
before putting
it,
commended them
and
is
the
skill
But while so
consummate orator,
both.
of a
to turn the
infliction
that
the
Senate could
RHETORIC.
74
when
".
Exordium.
Makes
and
docile.
Proposition.
The opinions
night.
of
Silanus and of
Cassar.
He
In
commends
for
punishing them.
He
Republic.
Benevolent.
He makes the audience
grateful
to
them,
grief
75
Attkntive.
He makes them
measures
attentive,
own
for their
by an exhortation to take
safety
Docile.
He makes them
docile,
who
spirators
He Declares the
(i)
Conspiracy
To
To
(2)
speedily to be punished.
He
lives,
pronian
Law
but as enemies
spendthrift
prisonment
consigns them
and prohibits
all
to perpetual
imever
of their sentence.
(2)
Of
Silanus,
for
who would
conspiracy to
76
RHETORIC.
set fire to the city
seize
He
men
him
in defence of the
Republic
the
knights, the
The
Peroratioji.
Enumeration.
The Peroration contains an enumeration
their
spirators
need
so that they
side,
of the help at
may
An
amplification, in
which he commends
to
them
(i)
glory which
his
contempt of death
he has obtained
the dangers
(2)
which are to come his abandonment of his province and of its honours.
His son, on account of his tender age, and of his
{3)
The
father.
the people
for the
CHAPTER
III.
I.
Roman
citizenship
for
his
share in the
many
privileges
which that
title
everywhere
secured.
In a short time he
reputation, and
possessed a cultivated literary taste, and by those who pretended to possess one. Among those who very early in life
came under
the great
'
his influence
Roman
and
profited
orator Cicero,
who seems
This city stood between the rivers Aciris and Siris, in Lucania,
It was founded by the Larentines, B.C. 428.
(77)
a,
78
RHETORIC.
poetical genius.
by the
great, the
his
certain Gratius,
pired, called
"
Roman
in question
title
trial,
citizen,"
to his assistance,
nemy imagined
His speech on
this occasion
advocate.
But while
extolling the
Competent
he
is
a servile imitator of
fired off,
perhaps, to
amuse
is
8o
RHETORIC.
Synopsis of the Speech.
Exordium.
Conciliates the audience to be berievolent towards Cicero
himself, because of his gratitude to Archias.
Attentive, by promising to
them
pleading.
Docile, by clearly laying before them the proposition
He
tells
them of
and of
his
coming
to
Italy.
Rome.
Confirmation.
He
That,
if
he
is
not,
Peroration.
He begs them
is
is
already a
Roman
citizen.
worthy to be one.
to preserve for
citizenship of
He
he
him
his right
to the
Rome.
Benevolence.
He
master,
who
incited
him
to study;
moulded and
Attention.
He awakens their attention, by a novel kind of pleading,
which will deal with polite learning, and be delivered
before a most learned body of men.
Docility.
He makes them
he
a
is
docile,
going to establish
Roman
citizen
(2)
(i) that
if
he
Archias
not, that
is
is
already
he ought tp
be one.
The Narration.
The Studies
of Archias from his early youth
His Fame
throughout
all
Asia
throughout
all
Greece.
of Lucullus,
His Admission
to
Roman
citizenship by the
fact of domicile,
6*
RHETORIC.
The Confirmation.
Archias
(i)
(2)
(3)
is a Roman Citizen.
He was a citizen of Heraclea,
He made
Praetor, a
moreover,
He was
Rhegium,
He
will,
Roman
citizens
he
made
He
is
Worthy
(i)
On
(2)
Which
life,
in every
Which
breath
by making
venerated by
(4)
On
its
all.
Roman
people, by
over Mithridates
and
was highly
Ennius was by
Therefore, he
He
citizen,
in his rights as a
Roman
He
is
established
He
asks
for
He
named by
He Begs for Himself:
actually so
is
very man}'.
in
afford
may
them
satisfaction,
dissatisfaction.
SECTION
II.
gius
Sulpicius
Rufus.
He was
of
RHETORIC.
84
Among
the land.
famous Marcellus
whom
who
he was named,
at
Nola
Syracuse, and
southern Italy.
He seems
to
was
its
power and
its
dignity,
man
as Csesar.
He
Thessaly
at
Pharsalia, he
was
noble
Romans
seemed
He
which he had
fought, and with the party against which he had fiercely
strife
of
unwilling to accept.
Accordingly,
it
to
others.
Caesar
whom
knew
He knew
the exile.
He
which
man
for
and of philosophy.
He had
re-
knew
full
first,
one
He
fell
into a
86
RHETORIC.
moments was
lost in
thought.
words
in
which the
in
above them all, the deed of mercy which had made that
day for ever memorable. In what we may call the second
part of this splendid harangue, he does his utmost to dispel
the suspicions entertained by Caesar, concerning the hostile
sets
him
that
since
the
that
life
them the
News
lus.
of his pardon
Among
was
carried with
all
speed to Marcel-
we cannot
in
which he
first
Rome
'
These are
7, 8, g,
10,
At! Familiarcs.
ingress.
It
was only
home
wards.
we
should consider to
first
plunged
it
into his
He
seized a
dead by his
side.
(B.C. 46.)
On
88
RHETORIC.
that the
name
Attentive.
He
them
(i) the
by explaining
and
(2) the
reasons
for
tion,
and wisdom.
Benevolent.
He makes them
of Marcellus.
Docile.
He
about which he
is
going to speak.
He
in
multitude
in cruelty
widespread in
innumer-
extent
and
He
8g
cohort or by
company
That clemency
self.
loved by
men
it
is
unto God's.
It is
;
it
is
to the peaceful.
He
He Exhorts
to
Caesar
persevere
in
and in one
unto wise and prudent measures.
Second Part of
He
I.
the Speech.
That there
air, for
Then he
no plot
is
go
RHETORIC.
public confidence
by caring
the population.
II.
He
lives,
not for
his empires
many
He
of his deeds.
those against
whom
wrath.
He
him and
his enemies.
Peroration.
He
thanks Caesar
name of all
own name.
all, his own personal
in
the
the
senators, and
especially in his
He makes known
to
SECTION
exile,
by his joy
III.
SPl'.ECHES
Africa.
who
his chief
was a
discreet one.
Rome.
By
among
it
was
to
till
He was
able
coming,
it
Previously to his
which
fate
seemed
to
have elected
for
him.
was such
that he adhered to it with a fidelity which shows us the
Defeat did not dishearten him
constancy of his mind.
disaster did not extinguish the fire of his hope.
He was
that cause, his character
92
RHETORIC.
accepted the pardon, but never forgave the man who bestowed it upon him.
He remained in hopeless exile for
;
solicit
by
friend
secret
or by kindred.
among
known
in
Although
this
was no
was widely
resolve
and his relatives, were not without hope. Csesar had performed so many magnanimous acts, had given so many
proofs of a soul high above all petty feelings of resentment,
that they determined to make a united appeal on behalf of
the
exile.
Headed by
his
began
tion.
When
all
was
ready, they
made
their supplication to
to defeat the
benevolent intentions of Caesar. Personal hostility to Ligarius was the chief cause of this ungenerous proceeding.
'
Cicero, Epist.
ad Familiares,
vi. 14.
was seeking
demnation
to extinguish
is
said to
the
have
fallen
RHETORIC.
94
The triumph of
to have trembled violently.
was complete. Csesar pardoned Ligarius, and
act added one more instance of magnanimity to the
whole body
eloquence
by that
long list of those generous, noble actions which his great
soul had already performed.
Dictator
of Thapsus.
That
hostilit}', after
smouldering
for
two years,
He entered
and taking the hand of Brutus, said " Speak but the word,
Brutus and if thou hast any action worthy of thyself to propose to me, I am well ".
Being thus confined to his bed, he
was not present in the Curia Pompeii, in which the Senate
met upon the ever-memorable Ides of March. Had he been
there, he would have been one of the first to strike his dagger
:
home
murderers.
46,
when
the orator
was
was
(b.c. 42.)
in the sixty-first
Exordium.
Attentive.
He makes
a crime which
unheard
of.
is
Benevolent.
He
Hostile
to his adversary,
the side of
Pompey.
Narratioi.
He
in
it.
against his
own
will, re-
in Africa.
Confir))iation.
and striving
\^hom he
whom
most
citizens,
designs of the
illustrious
men,
RHETORIC.
96
who was
he took up arms
against Caesar.
Peroration.
He Moves
By
Caesar to Mercy.
reflections
CHAPTER
SPfeECH.
As
is,
IV.
FOR MILO.
on
all
eloquence,
it is
It is for this
reason that
remarks which
will
we
here
These remarks
who gave
shall
rise to the
who
Way
first,
to the personages
orator employed to
great
be confined,
speech
peril
in
extricate
Clodius.
a
Clodius,
man
unfortunate affray.
was Publius
This
his
name
Clodius,
most
son
of
illustrious
Appius
families
roll
Rome.
of
His
that noble
(97)
gS
RHETORIC.
His turbulent
When
used
spirit
displayed itself
very
early
in
life.
all
soldiery, to
For
chief.
and demoralised
and treachery, he
We
disposition
the
liberty, nay,
whom
resentment of enemies,
Rome, and by
himself the
It
his
in
forfeited
even his
undoubted
he
abilit\'
succeeded in gaining
to
for
office of Quaestor.
was during
which
might have
next hear of
this
The
ladies of
Rome
were celebrating
servant,
difficulty
Next day
all
Rome was
The
99
house.
two days.
ferent aspect.
All
that he
have power.
His
self to
and of
Caesar,
who
was
first,
to punish the
triumvirate,
RHETORIC.
Accordingly, with the aid of these two influential
men, Clodius was elected tribune of the people.
His first step was to cause the passing of several laws
which won him immense favour among the people. When
quite sure of their affection and of his own strength, he
brought about, by means of the Consuls Piso and Gabinius,
the enactment of another law, inflicting the punishment of
exile upon any one who, without a formal trial, had put to
This law struck straight at
death any Roman citizen.
The orator at
Cicero, though it did not mention his name.
once saw its drift, put on mourning, and surrounded by a
body of the most illustrious citizens, claimed public protection.
Clodius on his side gathered to his standard a band of
gladiators, and paraded the streets armed to the teeth, and
ready for the commission of any act of violence.
Cicero, seeing that this ruffian was backed by the two
Consuls, and secretly favoured by the triumvirate, resolved
to go into exile, and thus prevent that bloodshed which he
saw was inevitable, if the two parties chanced to meet in the
He accordingly departed, and went to
streets of Rome.
Sicily.
At once Clodius passed a law which condemned
classes.
He
Cicero to exile.
life.
MiLo.
He was
rendered
itself
its
members
brilhant examples.
lOI
He
many
himself
was now
in
Rome a man
of iron,
who would
fearlessly
oppose
him, and give him back blow for blow. After this second
collision with the myrmidons of Clodius, Milo cited him be-
answer for his disorderly, unconstituHis good intentions for the benefit of Rome
were, however, frustrated by the Consul Metellus, who set
fore the tribunals to
tional conduct.
102
RHETORIC.
eluded him, and in that office had one year more in which to
Seeing that he must depend upon his own right arm for
Mile now gathered
around him a trained band of gladiators, and thus prepared
defence against this lawless ruffian,
against
all
eventualities,
calmly
him
set
who
become a
now had
at
defiance.
Rome,
to say
that unless Milo desisted from his attempt to gain the Consulship, he
would
in three
days cease to
live.
way
to Lanuviuni, whither
On
53),
the 20th of
Milo was on
askmg
a haughty, imperious
manner
IO3
was stabbed
disturbance,
slaves.
free fight
on the road.
The
him.
and many
ot,
slaves
them were
of Clodius
left
accounts
hearing,
knowing
that the
that
Clodius had
were utterly
most authentic
be just as severe as
his servants to
death.
There
it
populace
murder.
the
tory
temple
and
While the Curia was still all ablaze, Milo entered Rome,
calm and apparently unconcerned at that which had hapThe mob, goaded to madness by the loss of their
pened.
leader, and urged on by the harangues of the tribunes,
I04
RHETORIC.
off
Senate, after
He
much
deliberation, proclaimed
Pompey
sole
lost
cutors were limited to two hours for their attack, and the
In this
critical
juncture
The
trial.
was
The Forum was thronged in
arrived.
feeling.
Every avenue
When
I05
"
Cicero
if
is
upon
when
a trial
should not
Fact.
was determined
advocate.
The
first
of these
was
accused
Way
was concerned.
circumstance told
aggressor Clodius,
in
He
favour of this
how
pointed out
line,
every
He was on
all
equipped
horseback,
whereas
his wife,
assistance in case
of emergency.
Therefore,
in
slaying
which every
man
for
he declared that he
effect,
io6
RHETORIC.
This was to deny neither the fact of the murder, nor the init was committed
but boldly and without disguise to assert that Milo had slain Clodius, and that
in so doing, he had performed a noble deed, deserving of reward rather than of punishment. This was the argument
which Brutus made use of in a memorial drawn up by him
in defence of Milo.
There is in it a force which at first sight
does not reveal itself
For, though in an orderly State, in
which law reigns supreme, it would be a violation of right
and a usurpation of authority to take the law into one's own
hands, and inflict punishment before either inquiry had been
made or condemnation issued, yet in the case of one who
had set himself above all laws, and had defied their enactments, the checking, and, if need be, the crushing of such a
one by a man who was at once courageous enough to attempt,
and powerful enough to accomplish it, might be regarded as
an act of patriotism, to be honoured and re:ompensed by the
tention with which
With Regard
their
to the Right.
influential
men who
be looked at by
sat in
itself
They maintained
that,
even admit-
to the
full
knew
employ than he himself did. He thereafter showing in the first part 'of his
discourse the great interest which Clodius had in ridding
better
how
fore accepted
it,
to
and
IO7
it forward
would have been employed by
a less able orator.
He did not make it an assertion. He
introduced it by way of a supposition, and after enumerating
all the misdeeds of Clodius, and the merits of any one whoshould crush a foe so dangerous to the Republic, he then
in the
crude
way
which
in
it
of Milo,
to slay him, he
thus, he caused
to listen to
all
it,
gave
it
me
the right to do so
to sink into
and presented
it
"
!
By
acting
acceptance shorn of
assertion.
He
brighter light
Clodius
fell
still
mortally
wounded
Bona
io8
RHETORIC.
own
down
at the very
longer able to
All these
cir-
made
legal,
was done
it
The
(i)
act of Milo
in self-defence.
(3)
(2)
It
It
was
"is
was
sanc-
Arrangement of Proofs.
With these
means
what order
various
the understanding.
Rational
when
men
it is
sufficient to convince
At times,
and catching
cannot see the justice of his remarks, and paralyses the will
so that it is unable to do that which otherwise it would
readily accomplish,
if
it
in their powerful
chains.
lOg.
haughtiness of Milo
who
takes
what way, then, was the orator to present to these men the
means of defence with which he was provided ? He could
not, before persons so disposed, come forward and say that
Milo was the instrument chosen by providence to avenge
the insults offered to the gods by a sacrilegious wretch,
during his
life
had been a
who
honour-
able
not satisfy
Having thus by
several examples,
no
RHETORIC.
arguments
Sy means
fur-
of an
He
and
all
tell
favour of Milo
in
to the
judges
in the light of
out the advantage which the death of Milo would have been
the violence of his
the hatred which he bore him
to him
character his oft-repeated threat that Milo would be slain.
;
the argument
that
it
if
Milo,
entering
Rome
after
the
to
him
as a
a telling
means
effect.
for his
new
Such
is
of defence.
Anything more
artful,
it is
impos-
Ill
it
was
possible for
them
to be
He
how
his
own
interests are
one
with those of the judges, and theirs, again, with those of his
client,
whose whole
life,
though devoted
unrighteous,
is
nevertheless
now
im-
populace.
The Refutation.
These opening words, so easy and natural, couched
style
in a
certain prejudices
which he
all
is
aware
RHETORIC.
112
He
they vanish, as
struck by the
if
wand
He
of a magician.
of them
first
that any
one who has shed the blood of another must himself underAt once there crowd before his
go the penalty of death
mind innumerable examples which prove the falsehood of
such a statement. He cites laws which, in certain cases,
!
them
facts
nature
away
of another's
He arrays before
He brings forward
life.
bosom of each
of us a
who
attacks of those
if
need
be, to repel
commonwealth
all
some way
in
detrimental
to its well-being.
should be made,
it
if
to
an otherwise
justifiable act.
Pompey
to be
Was
it
Having brought
man
made
like Clodius
II3
men
of
Rome, draws an
mad
tribune and
ironical picture of
the good, the brave, the upright, the patriotic, bewailing the
When
which that action might have upon the minds of the judges,
and encouraged these* latter to give a free and independent
its own merits, he reduces the whole
matter coming before them for judgment, to one question
"Which
of these two
the Appian
Way, was
men was
it
The answer
the aggressor?"
on
to that
The Narration.
In order to return that answer, the orator
in the
these facts
to be
excluding
is
now
led to
This he does
could desire
it
unnecessary details it is
clear, observing the order and the time of the events recounted it has an air of likelihood, for in it there is nothing
;
is
it
brief,
all
is
in
8 *
RHETORIC.
114
The Confirmation.
First Part.
The Confirmation,
as
we know,
is
in the thesis
all
which he
Therefore, after
all
of the assassin
It
was the
should
15
Milo, how^
had been devoted to the welfare of
whose whole
the State
and
life
to the defence
of the
through a patriotic
spirit,
made
was
led to seek
Republic.
He
had, so to
it
life
to
citizen.
minds of
gogue.
One by one he
mad
his
for
first
who
has been
made
founded accusations.
the target for the most odious and unWith the utmost delicacy, and in a tone
Pompey had
RHETORIC.
Il6
he argues him
lent his ear to these monstrous assertions
out of any fear which he might entertain with respect to
Milo he reminds him of their former friendship, of the
;
many
services which he
should be done.
Having thus reassured them, disabused them of their premade them hostile to Clodius, and favourably inclined towards Milo, he has put them in the best dispositions
for acquitting the accused.
His aim now will be to wring
judices,
Second Part.
Though
partly convinced,
all
that
the orator had hitherto said, the judges were not yet dis-
in
favour of Milo.
The
atrocious
not
yet
the State?
walls of his
17
dispossessed
ruffians,
him
his
little
garden
up
it
in
such a
courtyard, but of
Having thus
all
way
own
sister,
and
to
access and of
all light to
her house.
which his
country the restoration of law and of justice, the safety of Rome, prosperity,
peace, domestic happiness, and public tranquillity
he makes
to them a very bold proposition
he asks them to imagine
to the bright prospect
that Milo
stored to
self
is
to be acquitted,
life.
They
would refuse
this condition
is re-
Pompey him-
still
and much as
more.
whom, even
power, they would not have the will to call back from the
dead.
Therefore,
Milo
is
deserving of honour,
if
by his
hand, and by his courage, the State has been freed from the
presence of one whom neither the Senate nor the Consul
would wish any longer to breathe the breath of life.
Third Part.
The
last
RHETORIC.
Il8
It had not
is one which he himself put forward.
been suggested to him by any of Milo's friends. It is the
For, if he looked up into the
fruit of his own meditations.
his client,
the
The power
men
all
ing over
its
life.
things ruled
and watch-
well-being.
To
blow.
Then
with
mud and
There,
it
Bona Dea that he received his deathbody was carried, all bespattered
his polluted
gore,
was deprived
the very
to
of funeral
rites,
Yet even
in
down headlong.
who had
hand of Milo
to arrest
him
in his
Human
be absolved from
all
II9
guilt,
and rewarded
The Peroration.
The
eventful
moment,
which
in
to strike the
most im-
has
now
arrived.
to ,his
it
with
all
men
in his situation
he
now depends
for wealth,
and
for
means
and marshalling them
eloquence,
intellect of his
of their hearts.
whom
for all
judges, he
and entreat
him.
of his
now about
is
for
in the store-house
life,
RHETORIC.
I20
of his friend
he
will
now
him
his very
life.
prefer
see
to
alive
high
office
it is
to
condemn
this upright,
who
and
justly.
Exordium.
In his exordium, he
and
tive,
atten-
docile.
Refutation.
He meets and refutes three prejudices, which filled the
minds of those before whom he was about to
plead
(i)
(2)
(3)
Narration.
The ambuscade was laid for Milo by Clodius
laid not any ambuscade for Clodius.
Confirmation. First Part.
From antecedent
had
all
that
Milo
was
ambuscade
for
first,
121
it;
and, secondly,
He complains
of
trial,
is
a protection to
him.
Confirmation.
By reason
Second Part.
of his crimes, he proves that Clodius might
providence
of
by the example
of the Greeks, by
danger
God, by the
to
the
Republic.
Peroration.
He
He
On
at the trial.
rhetoric.
122
He
He
people.
He
He
He
He
fact
for
them than
Refutation.
I.
Prejudice.
unlawful for any
It is
man
This
he
Roman
disproves,
people
of the
of
example
the
of Scipio Africanus
Publius
Servilius
JMarius
life,
by
Senate
the
of
of Ahala
of
of Opimius
and of the gods them-
Nascica
;
selves.
(2)
I23
By
written law.
Prejudice.
Milo has been condemned by the Senate.
assertion.
the hatred
explaining
Prejudice.
Milo has been condemned by Pompey.
He
the
permission granted to
new
inquiry
or of Scipio, or of Papirius
Clodius,
who
Pompey
Pompey had, to
By
and Cicero.
with Milo.
whom he
most illustrious in
and of a Quaestor of unimpeachable
By
the
State,
men
The Narration.
He
On
the Republic.
stand in his
way
was
a desire of harassing
as Praetor.
RHETORIC.
124
take.
departure
from
Rome
On
on the side of
him
to quit very
arrangements.
Concomitant Circumstances.
On
On
wife.
in his carriage.
He
He was
his cloak.
Subsequent Circumstances.
The meeting with Clodius.
party with Clodius.
Missiles
Milo's
first
coachman
cast by the
slain.
The
b}-
(3)
laid the
may
"
i25
Milo.
merely in self-defence.
The
First Part.
Cotijirmatioti.
He conjectures which
of the two
men
laid the
ambuscade
On
account of the
arise.
The
because
if
will to kill
was
free
hand
to
Prsetorship,
On account of
for
the hatred
the
man
only
it
down.
(3)
all
hatred of Clodius
for
and
of glory,
On
Clodius
violent; by force of
was
Cicero from
Rome; he almost
attempted the
life
of
Pompey on
;
arms he drove
slew Hortensius;
lost his life
the Appian
he
Way,
126
RHETORIC.
he murdered Papirius
he oftentimes
tried to put
Cicero to death.
Milo's nature, on the contrary, is moderate for
though he often had the opportunity of slaying
Clodius, he never took advantage of it
and
yet, had he availed himself of these opportunities,
he might have done so with impunity, and have
;
On
order to act in a
(5)
(6)
manner
free
On
and untrammelled.
at which
On
in
who
said that
day
laid
prophecy.
II.
of Milo's
in-
On
his
was brought
architect,
but
to
him
of the death
because he received
lain
villa
of Clodius.
(4)
From
(5)
From
concealed
the place of the rencontre ; this was advantageous for Clodius, but not for Milo.
self
the circiiinstatices in
hampered by
his wife.
his cloak,
From
I27
himself:
He was
cians.
Subsequent Refutation.
(i)
Why
valiant
less.
(2)
Why
(3)
Return
to
tlie
Confirmation,
ambuscade
great
and
for
his fortitude.
for his
rhetoric.
128
He
to
Rome, but
He
praises
him
He wonders
at
He
Milo,
by
his
to
whom
He Reassures the
because
Pompey
customs of
Judges,
is most
their ancestors,
Republic.
Also, he
violence.
He
is
He
one.
judgment maj be a
free one.
The Confirmation.
Second Part.
worse
man
worse
towards
the
Roman
far
citizens,
Nymphs
whom
he
I29
or despoiled
worse towards
laws
and, in
was
and
its
its
about to trouble
to overturn
rights
its
happiness.
of the impious
therefore,
for
man.
From the Providence of the Gods,
who govern the Roman Empire and the world
impelled Clodius to attack Milo
the victory
who
who
who gave Milo
deprived Clodius of
funeral
all
rites.
Peroration.
In
most renowned for his liberality particularly beloved by the Senate and by the people satisfied
;
g *
RHETORIC.
130
with his
own
has procured
it
him.
own Person.
In his
Afflicted
tion
his
life,
undergo
In
which
for
his goods,
for his
his fortune
not refusing to
itself.
Men
defend a brave
man
who
he asks
ought, therefore, to
also in the
it
name
In the
If
should
return
to
life,
and shine
in the dignified
In the
and
with equity.
PART
III.
CHAPTER
I.
LIFE OF .ESCHINES.
iEscHiNES, the great opponent of Demosthenes, was born
His father was a
at Athens in the year b.c. 389 or 388.
certain Atrometus of the Cothocidian township, and, if we
are to beHeve the son, was the descendant of one of the
His mother was named Glaunoblest families of Athens.
cothea, for whom, no doubt, he was able to discover an
His great rival, however, tells quite
equally noble lineage.
a different story of his family connections, and sneers at
him for his lowly birth, and for the lowly occupations in
which he had passed his youth. According to him, Atrometus had no pretensions whatever to noble birth, but was
only a slave, filling the humble office of schoolmaster
;
him
belong to
the upper ranks of society, and for having added two syllathe real
bles to the names of his father and his mother
name
It
RHETORIC.
school,
and
is
fulfilling
how he
the rites of initiation, rubbing the initiated with bran, teaching them to say " I have escaped evil I have found good,"
:
From
the theatre
apparently without
he passed into
that this
is
political life.
office
must
of neces
LIFE OF ^SCHINES.
powerful State.
come
some
to their assistance,
Accordingly
peace was made between the two States, B.C. 352. This so
angered Philip, that he at once made against Olynthus a
demonstration, which had the effect of preventing any
between
and
profitable
resulf from
Athens.
tent
to
bide
mature the
fall
the
alliance
herself
fruit
into his
The
right
to strike the
before him.
that
During
this
Embassy, he did
all
that a
man
filled
with
Philip,
own ambassadors
to Athens, there to
draw up
RHETORIC.
the terms of the treaty which
was
to be the foundation of a
bj'
To
the ambassadors.
possible,
was a matter
of great
moment
to Philip
for, in
who was an
ally of
Athens.
the
war
Seeing
and
at
ambassadors
to
It
was,
LIFE OF ^SCHINES.
on his return to Athens, persuaded the Athenians to acquiesce in the arrangement, assuring them that, though the Phocians were excluded from the
he had Philip' word of honour that they should
not be molested, and that the troops, which were marching
treaty,
in their direction,
to be
employed
in their
fall
he
how
little
completely
his
subjugated
the
Phocians,
while the
Athenians,
move
either
therefore,
it
is
man's
historical account of
nately sprung.
To
telling effect
upon him,
it
RHETORIC.
one.
clearing himself from these charges, which were, unfortunately, but too true, he
committed
foe.
suicide,
In consequence of his
forward
till
man
to
accomplish
service.
fallen
not
come
forth
altogether unstained
by these aspersions
LIFE OF ^SCHINES.
Rumours
the
cit}',
where his
arrival
was
house.
His pleading
caused Antiphon to be set at liberty. The Council of the
Areopagus, on hearing this, had him arrested again, and
put him to the torture, under which he died.
As
at the
part
Philip.
It
who should be
chosen to plead the cause of Athens about the Temple of
Delphi, iEschines was elected by their suffrages to fill that
honourable and delicate office. But as soon as the result of
the election was made known to the Areopagus, they at
once annulled the appointment, and gave the case to the
orator Hyperides.
Unmistakable as were these signs of disapprobation and
the people were consulted as to the advocate
of distrust, the}' did not, in the year B.C. 340, and under the
On
by reason of
Attica.
in the
its
city,
facilities
for
The news
of this catastrophe
evening, and
filled
was brought
to Athens,
RHETORIC.
An assembly was convened upon the following mornand Demosthenes, at the call of the herald, stood up.and
once more gave his advice for prompt and effective measures
to meet and avert the impending calamity.
The danger was
so great, that he saw no other prospect of warding it off than
by a coalition between Thebes and Athens. He was accordingly sent to Thebes, and succeeded in bringing about an
alliance between the cities which so long had been at
nation.
ing,
variance.
which he took,
trampled
Cheronea
Now
under
till
his
at
last
feet
the
on
liberties
the
of Greece were
blood-stained
field
of
(b.c. 338).
that the
his persistent
had been foremost in thwarting every move of Philip towards the attainment of his present eminence. Knowing,
however, the high place which the fallen statesman held in
the popular esteem, he did not dare directly to attack him,
but under cover of a patriotic zeal for the maintenance of
law, prepared to launch against him a shaft, which he
A
thought would prove a death-blow to his reputation.
certain Ctesiphon, it seems, had some time previously proposed a decree " that Demosthenes should be crowned with
a golden crown in the theatre, during the celebration of the
great national festival," alleging as a reason " that he had
always both counselled and done that which was best for
Athens".
Against this man and against his decree, .^Eschines now
brought forward his indictment, hoping that if he could procure the condemnation of Ctesiphon, that condemnation
would indirectly affect Demosthenes, and be a kind of repro-
LIFE OF ^SCHINES.
Unfortunately
was
come
for jEschines,
into Court.
The
therefore
at
his
command, was
forced to go into
exile.
position and that easy fortune which he had lost for ever at
Athens.
He,
therefore,
went
to
Ephesus,
in order to
await
come
for
Alexander had
and died at
career,
Babylon.
Seeing that he must
went
to
now
rely
RHETORIC.
10
eloquence.
The
mean which
it
was long
held be-
Wondering
in
what way
his
seemingly unanswerable
him
to read for
them the
effort
of forensic eloquence.
reply of
Demosthenes.
of
He com-
Thus
life,
CHAPTER
II.
You
can see,
Athenians
how
indeed, should
may
be,
me
Proposition.
I
will, therefore, prove to you that the proposition of
Ctesiphon " to crown Demosthenes, in the theatre, with a
golden crown, because he has both said and done what is
and
(3)
hurtful to
because he
is
I
accountable.
now
proceed to explain
his pro-
12
RHETORIC.
require to be accounted
The
for.
for after
it
calls
them
all
" magistracies,"
Therefore,
let
Demosthenes, of course, in certain cases admits his reand in others denies it but the law accepts
neither his limitations nor his denials.
For all who serve
the State, in any capacity whatever, are responsible to it
priests, who have not the handling of any public money,
trierarchs, who in their office expend their own private fortunes, the members of the Areopagus, sacred as is their
office, even senators, all come under the enactments of the
law.
These enactments impose upon them many other restrictions besides that of responsibility to the State, no matter
whether they have been intrusted with public money or have
not.
Therefore, if Demosthenes says that the sums which
he expended, during the term of his office, were drawn from
his own private resources, the law requires him to prove the
sponsibility,
truth
of his
constituted authorities.
admit of argument.
them
to be accountable magistrates.
The law on
I3
this point
mode
makes an exception in his case. For, if
you put together the two laws " Nominees of tribes shall
enter upon office "
Demosthenes was nominated by a tribe
too general to be set aside by the quibble, that the
is
of his appointment
"
An
official
may
been examined
that
(2)
"
with
Demosthenes
It is
illegal,
shall be
because
manner of
the
his coronation
is
Demosthenes,
presence of
will
however, wishes
visitors
to
be honoured
in
the
How
of Greece.
a sophistical argument.
of the
law which
forbids
this
coronation,
but
is
he will
it.
This,
however,
is
mosthenes
impossible
refers,
for
The
proclamation
is
annex
to our gifts
to our city.
None such
RHETORIC.
14
why
certain
But,
when
citizens,
it is
not
restrictions should be
set
upon
the
their
bounty.
It
(3)
illegal,
is
main point of
".
other.
To
is
false.
advantageous to the
maintain that he does neither the one nor the
make any such statement, -is to falsify our
Ctesiphon writes
decree
his
indictment.
my
In
public records.
them you
is
about what
he has done, and about what he has said. But if you wish
to form a right estimate of his character, you must make it
Of these
need not speak, for j'ou are quite familiar with them. Now
the very fact of your being familiar with them, taken by
scoundrel.
That
political career,
(i) the
understand, he
is
going to divide
(2)
second war
(3)
from the
to be false
"
and
maintain
it
that,
".
reply
furthermore assert
that
upon Greece
"
all
the
ills
analysis of ^schines
First
i5
about the
all
Greece, an honourable peace with
His language against him was violent, hostile in the
extreme, and, deceived by this outward show, you would
never imagine that he was a partisan of the Macedonian
king.
Facts, however, far more convincingly than words,
prove this to be true. These facts will make that truth to
stand out before you evident as the sun in the heavens.
in
concert with
Philip.
When
Philocrates
Demosthenes was
in order to
him
was
his advocate.
way
every possible
RHETORIC.
l6
They were
ruption.
what
result
An
We
Demosthenes and of
but,
on the part of
treason.
Before
ac-
to
complishment of his design, it
He, therefore, so
isolate you from the rest of the Greeks.
contrived matters, as to bring about a meeting upon a day
when it was impossible for you to be present. Yet, though
neither vou nor your allies were at that meeting, he carried
They
evidently did not wish for the alliance, because they spoke
by
reason
of these
hurried
effect
that date,
treaty.
for
an
Demosthenes managed
to
secure
it
for
The
circumstantially
related
in
the
State records.
To
these
I7
What
daughter.
stration
It
does conduct
prove to demon-
like that
is
is
an absence of
unworthy of
trust.
The
seek.
It
is
this.
it
On
was allowed
critical position.
He had
Demos-
quarrelled with
much-vaunted
Theban
alliance.
With
respect
to
this
occasions,
the
way
in
RHETORIC.
l8
aid.
was
foolish
.failed
of Demosthenes, he
was
enough
to accept
When
them, and
fortunate
Oreus.
The
in
was
that Callias
enough
confederation
to
we
field.
splendid army.
But did
it
was
to give
you a
No, it did not. The only thing it did for you, was to empty
your exchequer. For working out this piece of villainy, he
received from each city in Euboea, one talent.
Now, you
will naturally enough ask me, how I know this fact. I know
ig
drachma of
Conduct, such as
it.
Third Period
War
(e.g. 340-338)
TifcL
and men.
Totally disregarding both the one and the other, the Locrians
of Amphissa, encroached
upon
They
cultivated
it
was
my
bounden duty,
at
in
charge.
and wished
to
20
RHETORIC.
that calling to
My
Instead
Amphis-
The matter which I had brought back to their remembrance was eagerly discussed. The resolution arrived
seans.
at was, that
profanation.
On
we went and
lives.
full
act of aggression
was
this
After
managed
to
we
He went so far as even, in unmeasured terms, to denounce it that is to say, he openly defied both the god
and the curse.
When, therefore, the meeting was held,
neither we nor the Thebans took any part in it.
In pur-
ing.
in this
assembly, the
had
to be
ANALYSIS OF ^SCHINES
21
our discomfiture
act
of
we had
in
tunes,
repeat,
Demosthenes.
are deprived
have
fallen
He
the sinner
is
it,
These misfor-
With an
effrontery,
still,
he pre-
Theban
politicians
had
In
my opinion,
was
it
command.
which
sat
he grew so bold as to
insult our Generals, to plunder our exchequer, and to divide
at Thebes.
Having
effected
our forces.
Thirdly,
when
this,
Philip
made
overtures to open
What
was
Boeotarchs
might
so doing
obtain
more
He was
bribes
afraid
than
he
that
the
should.
he pushed us on to our
ruin,
22
RHETORIC.
while he
all
for treating
war.
them
to death
when
indeed,
these,
it
it is
ever will
be given
On
occasions such as
With
battle.
that
who
for
full
praiseworthj' action,
the
same
such as
Be not
so
the reward of
is
mad
as,
by an act
insult.
and
their
about.
fierce
indignation against
To have caused
it
command.
Does not his
whole career disqualify him, and make him unworthy any
longer to hold the helm of the State ?
captain of a ship from any longer holding his
What
then shall
we
say of Demosthenes
public
as a timid school-boy
but,
ANALYSIS OF ^SCHINES
much
23
In spite of
bargained
his
all
for
the
friendship
whom
he suffered to
most implacable
through his fingers three excellent
slip
and, lastly,
when
go over
the
victory
seemed about
to desert him,
and
Spartans.
whom
Yet
he dared to claim for himself, the credit of that which others
were doing in opposition to this prince. Actions such as
theirs he never yet had the courage to perform
but always
shamelessness enough to ask payment for the pretended
doing of them.
;
the Constitution, a
man
should be,
first,
a true-born citizen
he be not, he will hate the Constitution which excludes him from the privileges of citizenship.
Secondly,
his ancestors should have been friendly towards our State,
otherwise he will keep up towards it, the enmity which they
for,
if
RHETORIC.
24
life,
in order to
a good
possible,
if
speaker.
Whole
is
of Athens
Life of Demosthenes.
Demosthenes was
really a
citizen
but
his
What
shall
It
life ?
was
life
of
He was
fortune.
another,
first,
kind of
for
himself
traffic,
In this latter,
and,
most disgraceful
As
for
To
admit
But
disguise his
scandalous profligacy.
That
be, in itself,
crime of desertion.
How
can a
!
man
How
is
of this stamp be a
it
possible to crown
such a one
of merit.
off
than formerly she was, and the citizens are less de-
Yet, in spite of
rare,
now matters
of daily occurrence.
Now,
These two
ills
25
tend
Olympic
prizes were obtained through intrigue, no one
to perpetuate each
other.
just as at the
Games, if
would be at the trouble of training for them, so also, unless
you carefully abstain from bestowing honours, except upon
those who really deserve them, you will put an effectual
stop to
The
competition,
all
great
men
never crowned.
all
emulation.
What
is
Demosthenes,
compared with
if
them ?
The reward
till
Ctesiphon
is
yet
indis-
What
these heroes,
if
wretchedly
an
right
Consider
now
men
of those days.
As
26
RHETORIC.
of which any one might be guilty.
irregularity
days, however,
it
In these
is
Since Demosthenes has influenced these Courts, their decisions are often given upon
some
irrelevant issue.
we now
spirit,
find
cleverly
As an
may
services,
was
him.
He was
know,
is
ever,
a great
many
punishment.
Though Archinus
he did not hesitate to prosecute
stickler for law,
we
instance in point,
refer to
find
Only
given.
in these
favour untreasonable.
it,
or of preventing
it
is
sentence,
from being
trials, j'our
advocates should
On
you, Judges
it
point
able official
it
My
order, then,
is
as follows
first,
then,
against
my
next,
position
clamation to be
bestowed
before
is
you a
illegal,
after that
proved the
mode
picture of
of pro-
gift is to
lastly,
Demosthenes' private
be
laid
vices,
to
27
could
have
little
or nothing to say.
even he
is
ready to affirm that the private vices of Ctesihis defence as difficult, as Ctesiphon proclaims
phon make
commendation of Demosthenes
the
to be,
by reason of his
public corruption.
As a matter
of course,
Demosthenes
is
sure to
make an
28
RHETORIC.
attack upon
my character, on my political
and on my private life.
life,
on
my absten-
With
present prosecution,
it
was begun,
indeed,
respect to the
in
Philip's
" Wh}-,'
time, and not to please Philip's successor.
be asked, " did I not bring it on at an earlier date ? "
it
life-
may
In the
my
dis-
me
itself
To
ing
its
it.
Add
to
disaster at
all
Cheronea furnished
for
of far
Siren's song.
He himself should be the last to talk of the
mischief worked by seductive speech. He does this, through
my
ANALYSIS OF .ESCHINES
could you,
in
the
29
much
its
citizens,
money
but after
So
was it with the Thebans, in the question of joining us.
Demosthenes never ceased to talk of this State. But after
all
King's money,
when
five talents
praise
self-
Far
RHETORIC.
30
better
had
self
You might
it
been,
Ctesiphon,
if
for your-
little
advantage to you
you,
is
in the case of
the fame of
Let
Cleopatra.
Demosthenes so
little
me
ask
known, that
it
?
Peroration.
Therefore,
Judges
deeds of Demosthenes.
Of
this
it
will
rid, if
in his
power, to give evidence of his responsibility. It is a disgrace that private men should assume the dignity and the
power of the
own
life-time.
While in this city law held its due position, all those who
ran away from battle were punished. Will you then acquit
Demosthenes, who was guilty of this cowardice, and, by
acquitting him, declare him to be beyond the reach of the
law ? Will^ou suffer Athens to be committed to his policy,
and committed to it in presence of all Greece, assembled at
the Pythian Games ? Think seriously of your duties. Look
at the very appearance of the man, and of his supporters.
Think of his almost
It is an indication of their habits.
3I
and
CHAPTER
III.
LIFE OF DEMOSTHENES.
SECTION
I.
An
in early
manhood,
left
He
foreign shore.
settled at
who
bore him a
whom
The
girl.
meagre record
Of the
girl,
fruit of their
of the boy, to
whom
union was
written
that
neither
He was
his earl}'
who
equalled,
him
who
in the faculty of a
LIFE OF DEMOSTHENES.
"
33
fill
little
able
In his eagerness
sum
Aphobus was
to
marry
Demophon was
as she
was of
at
man's
estate.
After
making
from
even the possibility of injury, the dying man
peacefully expired.
As soon as decency permitted them, the
guardians realised the legacies bequeathed to them, broke
through the marriage arrangements, and for the next ten
off"
his children
little
children, that
when Demosthenes
him an empty
RHETORIC.
34
sum
equivalent to about
;f 340
of our money.
was
he, a shy,
to set in
make them
their
is
all
this,
have
but to have
This was a conversation which he one day chanced to overhear between his tutor and some of his pupils, in which they
spoke of a very important cause which was about to be
pleaded by Calistratos. Thereupon, he was seized with a
desire to hear the great orator speak, and made known that
desire to the tutor, who promised to take him to the Court
and procure for him a place in which he could both hear and
see the
On
place
to
famous
pleader.
assigned
to
in the
He
which they
called forth,
and
LIFE OF DEMOSTHENES.
35
weapon
its
that this
At once there
possessor.
inflict
with
To
all its
natural brilliancy.
himself.
On
now devoted
toil
he
we
whose
upon
is
very
some
influence
marked, particularly
mind and
is
said to
which
strike
also,
He
to
RHETORIC.
36
sustained
it,
as in our
own
day,
went
to
of breath, gave to
all
As he walked sadly
was accosted by Eunomus, the Thiasian, who had
about, he
LIFE OF DEMOSTHENES.
downhearted.
37
me
of Pericles
but,
in
a some-
it
through softness of
You must
tumult.
Do
not suffer
it
to
fit
it
for the
grow languid
through a
head
in his cloak,
he slunk
home
quite
filled
On this
occasion also,
all
the faults
saw the
tyro,
By
that which
was uppermost
found expression
in speech.
degrees,
mind of Demosthenes
With great bitterness he comin the
whom men
to obtain a patient,
of
and even an
show him
gave
it
forth,
with so
much
RHETORIC.
38
own
He saw
at
acquire that
To
speeches.
recite pieces
in
polish,
it
was
unremitting
glorious
labour,
faculty
trammelled
its
he succeeded
of eloquence
action,
free
at
from
and prevented
its
last
it
in
Thus, by
setting
his
everything that
LIFE OF DEMOSTHENES.
for SO
important an
office,
39
at least,
He
wrote
speeches for others, speeches which they themselves declaimed in presence of the judges, and he is accused by his
enemies, and not without some show of truth, of sometimes
furnishing both plaintiff and defendant with excellent
was probably
that against
it
might be said
a cause which
political.
was both
to be at
one and
His adversary,
Leptines,
it
father,
whose
Chabrias,
it.
He
privileged persons
One
is
that in
itself debarred,
by one of
its
own
laws.
RHETORIC.
40
from rewarding
deemed
in
so worthy of
its
which
it
had
it
deserves to be ap-
two following
Accompan3'ing
and following these, were the various speeches which he
the oration against Androtion
composed
type
Conon and
his clients.
for
not one
is
for the
and
in the
Aristocrates.
They
are
all
of the aggressive
This style
case
His speech
is
an
face.
own
but
it
He
did not
wish to be held up
to the
wounded him
in the head.
He summoned him
also before
LIFE OF DEMOSTHENES.
4I
revenue to him.
SECTION
'
II.
Philip of Macedon.
upon
most
at
he
is
rise
when
of Philip's power.
Through
whom
was
they accounted as
able to
grow
little
might
In the
RHETORIC.
42
for himself.
whose
spirit
He
had
for
but,
that claimed an
undue influence
on his
many
frontiers,
nephew
an upp'er class
and
Nothing dismayed,
;
hostile peoples.
he set about his task, and, before the lapse of two years,
had, by his ability and his energy, put quite a
in
enemies.
that he
new
face
strategic
skill
must have a
which that kingdom had need. To secure this was the aim
of his life.
On calmly examining the obstacles which stood
in his wa}', and the means at his disposal for removing
them, and winning the prize from the possession of which
they debarred him, he was filled with hope, and felt confident of his abilit}' to compass the end which he had in view.
Between him and the sea, there were three powers which
barred the way Athens, Amphipolis, and Olynthus.
A
coalition among these, would put an effectual stop to the
object of his ambition.
But that coalition must not take
place
and to prevent it from taking place was the first
move in the game, which Philip now began to play for
LIFE OF DEMOSTHENES.
He
power.
city
at the
43
mouth
it
had proved
fruitless.
On
garrison
withdrew the
had not
against
it.
the
same time
managed
matters, that, at
announcing
to the
render
it
to the Athenians.
man whom
barbarian.
fall
RHETORIC.
44
themselves.
overtures to
was incensed
oppose
to
his
who showed
encroachments.
a disposition
Philip,
also,
nor
3'et to
Ac-
Thus
knowing whither
the Olynthians, like a bird that looks into the glare of the
serpent's
the
arms of
Philip.
They
garrison
was
sent
help,
howIts
home
That
city.
LIFE OF DEMOSTHENES.
45
session
of
born.
The
RHETORIC.
46
Temple
sures, with
The advantages
position, inspired
him
to threaten
even Athens
herself.
to penetrate
Town
after
his
army
till,
at last,
into
Thrace.
he camped
LIFE OF DEMOSTHENES.
47
now
Of
this
command.
At all
that must be wrested from him.
held the
mediate enrolment of a
force,
made
More
resolutions of a
away
SECTION
Opposition
to
enemy
in the field.
III.
Philip.
it
will
now
frontier.
He saw
so great a
stir
RHETORIC.
48
He marked
was
own
designs.
his steady
calculated
making them
and,
finally,
defeating the
after
tyrants
of Pherse,
and,
had
sufficed to
accomplish
was almost
all
this
and
be-
Onl^'
When,
Philip
fell
back
He showed them
own
LIFE OF DEMOSTHENES.
forth his
hands
to grasp
must be opposed.
ing and checking
The
49
Consequently, he
his
equip a
fleet
of
fifty
triremes, to be
readiness,
The base
cavalry.
in
Lemnos,
in
thousand
of
its
infantry
and
two
hundred
movement contemplated by
Thus, they would be able to strike him first, and
not, as had previously been the case, attempt that stroke
after he had accomplished the ends which he had in view,
thereby imitating the blunders of a barbarian boxing with a
trained athlete.
When struck on one side, he puts his hand
to the place where he has received the blow
when struck
on the other, he transfers it to that but never thinks of
guarding himself, or of planting a blow upon the face of his
as to be able to anticipate any
Philip.
adversary.
After an apparent interval of repose, during which, nevertheless,
to secure
With
professions of peace
upon
his lips,
for help
4+
RHETORIC.
50
during
to
devote the
necessity.
He
Festival
called
own
country.
As
a matter of
actually were
to this purpose.
In consequence of the words of Demosthenes, the Athewe saw, so far bestirred themselves, as to make
nians, as
Whether they
LIFE OF DEMOSTHENES.
5I
assistance,
it
patriotic
purposes.
Fund should
He was
be devoted
easily to advocate this measure, from the fact that his other
Fund
or Festival
be repealed.
Unfor-
its
RHETORIC.
52
SECTION
IV.
This victory, and the terrible severity with which the conquered were treated, seem to have opened the eyes of even
the warmest advocates for peace.
From Athens embassies
were sent out through the various States, to stir them up to
unite in a national war against this man who was threaten-
ing their
liberty.
Though
embassies could not bring the Greeks together into one great
common enemy.
jealousies,
mutual
distrusts, old
tending to a
Some
now
land.
country,
war.
must be
Philip
beaten
willing
to
enter
into
was
verj'
patched with
all
to
LIFE OF DEMOSTHENES.
of the Phocian General Phalaecus,
53
who commanded
the pass.
was
god
to
as
ment of a
The
first
sacrilegious people.
decree
he lost
command
of himself, and,
after a
trust.
them a letter, in which he hinted at cerwhich he was about to perform for the city,
and concerning which he would have been much more explicit
could he have been certain of an alliance with her as well as
The actual terms which he proposed as the basis
a peace.
of this peace, was the maintenance of the status quo each
Philip sent back with
RHETORIC.
54
was
To
it
was
actually in possession
which the two points submitted for delibewas Philip to remain master of that upon
which he had already seized ? and, secondly, who were to be
bly
called, in
ration were
first,
one
side,
the treaty.
to insist
LIFE OF DEMOSTHENES.
55
sign
Athenian
When
came
allies.
he had secured
to Pella to
for
himself
all
that he desired, he
He
himself took
RHETORIC.
56
He
allies.
He
They
them
some
feeble spark
from the embassy, the usual vote of thanks accorded to such deputations
on their return from a public mission. A few days later
jEschines addressed the people, and succeeded in quieting
their agitation.
He assured them that Thebes, and not
Phocis, was the mark at which Philip aimed.
He sard that
the king would hand over to them Euboea, as a set-off against
his seizure of Amphipolis, and finally hinted that he would
restore to them Oropus.
As if to confirm these delusive
of indignation, and caused
to withhold
promises, there
a letter full of
When
that
if
they refused to do
so,
the
LIFE OF DEMOSTHENES.
57
fore that
its
news of the
was brought to
mission,
They were
and their seats in the
Amphictyonic Council were taken from them, and handed
over to Philip. A further honour was conferred upon him
by the fact of being chosen to preside at the Pythian games.
This distinction so angered the Athenians, that they refused
to send a representative of their city to be present at them.
That which they had so earnestly desired to prevent, and
which through their own fault they had failed to prevent,
had now come to pass Philip was admitted into the Greek
inhabitants dispersed in the villages round about.
their votes
Commonwealth.
Demos-
RHETORIC.
58
much
SECTION
From
the
b.c.
Peace
V.
till
Cheronea.
against Philip.
sign of
life
ment of an
power
in
Thessaly
(b.c. 344).
His
next step towards the object which he ever kept in view, was
the support which he gave to Messene and Argos, against
At once Demosthenes saw the drift of this assisand proposed that an embassy should be sent to these
Sparta.
tance,
which
LIFE OF DEMOSTHENES.
in their affairs, would naturally win for
was the leader among those who were
59
Philip.
He
himself
go upon
this mission.
He pointed out to the authorities at Argos
and at Messene, the danger with which the friendship of
Philip threatened them for, he had acted a similar part with
regard to Olynthus and Thessaly, and at last had clutched
them in his tyrannous grasp.
The immediate result of this embassy, was the advent to
Athens of envoys ffom the States visited by Demosthenes.
Their arrival in the city, and their mission, gave him an opelected to
who
This oration
pre)-.
evidently a reply to
about what he
upon
called the
some remonstrances
is
by the Athenians.
It
shows him
Demosthenes seems
for
who
the fatherland,
was condemned
to
death.
Also,
Demos-
Though
unsuccessful in
who had
RHETORIC.
6o
at the
powerful
league against
crown.
most grievously
to
As
air of
usual,
territory
Some such
pretext
is
for this
to Athens.
never hard to
its
greed.
This
had endeavoured to force upon Cardia some settlers,
who by the recent treaty had been included among the allies
of Philip. Naturally enough, he sent them aid, and to punish
this interference, Diopethes made a raid upon those parts of
Thrace subject to Macedon. His action drew from Philip a
remonstrance, to which the creatures of that monarch urged
the Athenians to give heed.
Demosthenes, in his speech on
the Chersonese, told them to pay no attention whatever to it
because though they were not openly at war with the king,
he was covertly warring against them, and that the position
was too important to be given up, now that the cloud of war
hung over, and every moment threatened to burst upon them.
After the lapse of three months, he once again appeared upon
the platform, and delivered a speech which is known as the
Third Philippic. In this, he urged the Athenians to arm
themselves against Philip, and putting themselves at the
head of a coalition formed by the Grecian States, to march
soldier
LIFE OF DEMOSTHENES.
6l
against him.
was promptly
perilous position.
Fund.
All things
seemed
to be
going on well
for Greece,
when
the Locrians of
Instead of marching
upon the Locrians and inflicting upon them the
punishment which he was deputed by the Amphictyons to
administer, he seized upon Elatea^ which commanded the
News of this was brought to Athens in
passes into Boeotia.
the evening, and filled the whole city with alarm.
On the
following day, an assembly was called to deliberate upon the
measures which should be taken to meet and avert the im-
straight
pending calamity.
meeting.
When
report of the
the messenger
was
intro-
RHETORIC.
62
who were hostile to him, and to inspire with confidence those who were working in his interest.
Consequently, it must now be the policy of Athens to forget
any
injuries
critical
the
that
Athenian troops
should
straightway
march
to
the
bassadors
should
to Philip
proceed to Thebes,
that ten
am-
make no demands,
simply assure them
that the Athenian troops were ready and awaited orders to help
them.
The
followed.
line of action
He was one
and succeeded
this mission,
cities.
for
Athens, was
They
till
the
Two
Alexander,
(b.c. 336.)
LIFE OF DEMOSTHENES.
SECTION
From Cheronea
till
the
63
VI.
Death of Demosthenes.
Philip,
patriotic
where
was
naturally
sentiments.
in the
ascendant.
enough obliged
The Macedonian
to
party
hide
its
was every-
His adversary
in the
year B.C.
but, before
it
The
proposal
could be
made
and stopped the proceeding, by announcing that he would file against it an accusation
It was against this man, and against his proof illegality.
position that he now directed his impeachment, which in
reality would affect, not Ctesiphon, but Demosthenes.
The
day of trial came, and ended in a complete triumph for
Demosthenes.
This was, we might say, almost the last
halo of glory that shone round his head for, six years afterinto a decree, j^schines intervened
soil
of Attica which
Fleeing thence, he
RHETORIC.
64
them
but
to survey
their fellow-citizens
and appeared
He
The
Harpalus himself
safe
in
custody.
it
was discovered
to consist of but
men were
At
last, to settle
the
LIFE OF DEMOSTHENES.
65
They discovered
The
Demosthenes.
national
moment
the
readily granted
His friends
a galley
was
at
him back
sent to carry
to the
city, for
so well
raised his
him
came
The
Crannon
utterly
who had
and
to
to
deliver
flash-
battle of
Mace-
up the leading
Philip.
Knowing
Demosthenes
5t
any con-
66
RHETORIC.
named
Archias, to track
him
to his hiding-place,
and there
despatch him.
Following him to ^Egina, he came to the
temple, and tried at first by persuasive words to entice him
Looking
is
at
him
said to have
"
Now
ing from the place where he had been seated, he went into
the inner part of the
temple.
his
perceived
that the
quill
had taken
thus
addressed
effect,
powerful
he
Archias
said
is
"
drug
concealed
by Plutarch
in
to
bit
as
the
have
play
the part of Creon in the tragedy, and cast forth this body un-
But
buried,the better.
while yet
live; as for
I,
(B.C. 322.)
SECTION
VII.
Style of Demosthenes.
All the works of Demosthenes have not come down to us.
About half only has been saved.
Yet, from that precious
LIFE OF DEMOSTHENES.
collection, inadequate as
it
may seem
67
to us to be,
when
to this
judgment we add
we
some
men who
idea of
what
all
we
are
him as a
must
have been, when animated with the energetic life which his
action and his delivery must have breathed into it.
That which first strikes us when studying his speeches, is
the brevity with*vhich he is able to express his ideas on the
most complicated and important questions. Yet, brief as he
is, he is rarely, if ever, obscure.
Notwithstanding his conciseness, there is in every question about which he treats, a
richness of proof and a variety of means capable of satisfying
the most obtuse intelligence, without wearying the best-informed and most quick-witted of his audience. Moreover,
though studiously sparing of words, he is not by any means
niggard of such oratorical developments as are requisite to
make his thought stand out in bold relief But these developments are concentrated in a phrase, sometimes in even a
"We
are
resist.
RHETORIC.
Style of
Thucydides, cannot
fail
to see
left.
how deep an
There
is in
impress
both, the
same
laconic method of compressing into the smallest poscompass the product of their thought, and of giving
There is the same rapidity of
to us only its quintessence.
movement, the same penetrating sharpness, the same vehemence
but, as Denis of Halicarnassus, after pointing
sible
out these
medium
style, Isocrates
and
ANALYSIS
OF
DEMOSTHENES' SPEECH
IN
ANSWER
TO
^SCH
NES
DETAILED ANALYSIS
DEMOSTHENES' SPEECH,
COMMONLY CALLED
if
my
ask,
antagonist
is
is
to dictate the
the equality
advantages
your votes
line of defence,
has over
.lEschines
where,
me two
great
first,
I
vective
is
is
RHETORIC.
72
Had
it
my
illegality, I also
was devoted to my
must endeavour to remove any prejudices
general character,
SPEECH
IN
ANSWER TO ^SCHINES.
why
of me,
it
me
upon Ctesiphon.
For
if
With
73
is
in-
he was afraid
me
is
under the
directing
if
sistent.
is
now
to bring
makes
it
to a trial
all this
noise about
is
levelled at another.
for
That very
fact
he should not be
In thus explaining
how
the peace
RHETORIC.
74
I
posed
it,
nor did
neither pro-
it.
The Embassy.
(i)
After peace
my
which of us was Philip's friend. I proposed that, immediand without the slightest delay, the peace should be
ately
ratified
for
it
was
SPEECH
courtesy,
you
am
IN
ANSWER TO ^SCHINES.
75
However,
this digression
has made
it
necessary.
rest of
RHETORIC.
76
nor the
I had no control, neither you
Greeks would heed the warnings which I gave.
What was the consequence ? The people were first of all
enslaved, and then the leaders who betrayed them were
themselves betrayed.
Philip never either respected or
trusted them
and when he no longer stood in need of them,
causes, over which
rest of the
my
come now
to the indictment.
which that
me. First, as regards my
policy.
The details of the honours voted to me, must be
considered with reference to my deserts, to see whether I
In this part of
reply,
for
Also, they
must be considered
is
upon
my
foreign affairs.
My
men
for
SPEECH
ANSWER TO ^SCHINES.
IN
who
77
keep neutrality,
tried to
Not
have resisted
he had been satisfied with victory, would
but since his
have covered us with eternal disgrace
triumph meant our ruin, our resistance was all the more
necessary and honourable.
Suppose, however, that we waive all question of exsuffered far
Philip,
even
did.
to
if
pediency, what
was
it
city
should do, or
when taking into conwhich she had won for herself, and
for
us .not to surpass
it
The
she could do, the noblest advice that she could follow, was to
This you elected to do, even before I gave you my
resist.
counsel to do
acting,
it.
gave
it
and
me
Philip to control
in
so
urged by
with employ-
But,
ask you,
Eubcea, Megara,
my
advice,
Nevertheless, the
us, but
from him.
it
was her
first
place to
act of hostility
Examine
the decree of
letter.
mand.
thwarted him
in
RHETORIC.
j8
come
did not
sion
to
me
On
my
this occa-
Aristonicus pro-
it
services
couched
is
The
for up to the
had proved to be the best.
Failing in Euboea, Philip next tried to cut off your supply
of corn, by winning over the Byzantines to oppose you. But
when they remonstrated with him, and pointed out that in
making such a demand, he was exceeding the Articles of the
treaty between him and them, he laid siege to their city.
In
You aided the
these circumstances your duty was plain.
Byzantines and saved their city.
I was the agent who
brought about all this, and from my policy you were
crowned by the Byzantines and the inhabitants of Cher-
date of
its
publication,
my
policy
sonesus.
In addition to these advantages, that policy brought out
into
the
generosity of
public, the
He was
He
act
has procured
That
a reward which
for you.
this generosity
up
prove to you.
proposed, only
to the brilliant
They
willingly
SPEECH
ANSWER TO
IN
jESCHINES.
79
They remembered
that
all
men
Again
defended
it
about this
act,
lent
my
aid, but
say
word about it. Your action was most generous, and that
generosity imposed upon me, your adviser, a duty to urge you
to continue to display your generosit}'. Had I given you any
other advice, you would of a certainty not have followed it.
It is necessary for me now to say a few words about the
a
my
next stage of
caused to be
policy
made
for the
rarchs.
To whom,
Was
it
ask,
was
my
Most assuredly
to the
rich
fact that
my
wrong shoulders
policy,
8o
RHETORIC.
told.
I
deserve a
However,
will altogether
omit them.
will at
now remains
to
tion.
in
so
will
now do
this.
With regard
to responsibility,
admit
for
it
him as a
free gift.
Their case
gave
is
sub-
From
I
His combeyond
decree, proves
SPEECH
a doubt that he
IN
knew
ANSWER TO -CSCHINES.
that the matters for
Read
Now
is it
if,
is
my
my
circle of
8l
which
was
accountability.
honour.
sands
who
before
me have
It is
ask
will
reward
for the
undoubtedly
That
lation.
His wish
is
to provoke
this is the
My
by law.
consider that
it
it
is
Now, although
must be met and
In the
first
his personal
in
discrediting
me.
Furthermore,
Athens,
repeat
without
being
able
to
punish
is
no
82
RHETORIC.
them.
(2)
When
my
Antiphon came
to set fire to
trial,
futed him.
Not content with thus showing his zeal for the Macedonian,
he went so far as to hold interviews with Anaxinus the spy.
Here are the depositions which prove these allegations.
On these his various acts of treason, I will not any longer
dwell.
As
if it
to side with
he denies
rendered you.
a proof of
my
this,
let
He was
service that he
that neutrality
is
SPEECH
IN
ANSWER TO ^SCHINES.
83
In the
he ruined Greece,
You
could not,
and you did not, believe that he ruined Phocis. Nevertheless the Amphissian war, which ruined everything, was exclusively his work.
That work he accomplished in the very
teeth of my protest, which unfortunately you disregarded.
Though you would not, in former times, hear the truth when
I spoke it to you, you shall now at least hear it from my
lips, and it will be to you a useful lesson.
For Philip, it was a matter of almost vital importance to
bring both Thebes and Thessaly into conflict with you for
by so doing, he would be able to put an end to the war which
crippled his trade, and therefore seriously damaged the prosSkilful strategist as he was, he saw
perity of his kingdom.
that the war could be brought to a close, only by the invasion
of our territory. Also, he saw that an invasion was impossible, if Thessaly refused him aid, and if Thebes blocked his
passage through the country. To obtain either the one or
the other, he had to come forward as their champion, though
;
ally.
it
your authority.
On
territory in dispute.
RHETORIC.
84
Comprehending the
the Thebans, urged by
They
fell
full
my
you
him
what he needed.
just
He
is
answerable therefore
for all
that followed.
From
the State,
was loud
when
those
who
abetted
him brought
to bear
In proof of what
sucsay,
Thebes.
When
Philip seized
line of action
You
all,
to proffer the
SPEECH
ANSWER TO ^SCHINES.
IN
85
man was
needed
who from
was
fol-
tactics.
that
in return."
the
full
This
and
is
elect ten
summary
made myself
responsible.
proposed.
it,
was because
keeps to results.
Your
plain duty
is
now
to criticise
my
RHETORIC.
85
to oppose.
You
When
we are
upon
dumb
you as we
we
us, then
pains us only
Even
if I
feel
when we
are
my
although Athens
is
doubtedly would
be,
policy
adversity presses
feel
ill.
when
but
all
was the
right
unfortunate, she
one to pursue
for,
is
spirit, I
It
is
in
Thus
far, I
to
SPEECH
fraught with
made
I
IN
difficulty.
ANSWER TO ^SCHINES.
Philip's
a plausible appeal to
Theban
arguments.
you
and
them
first,
After
selfishness.
my
87
By
their children.
their
wives and
your discipline.
?
If he
rejoiced with you, he cannot condemn your policy
if he did
not, he is a traitor.
How
in
in
The
my exertions caused
success of
than
I.
statesmanship.
I
will.
tests of
oa
RHETORIC.
ings
came
condemns
Now,
my action, what
if
at this
imprecations
wavered.
it
was
rupted
in
my
power
to
conquer him
You defended
ever any of
my
I
it.
SPEECH
ANSWER TO ^SCHINES.
IN
8g
a dis-
It is
tinction,
Whether
relatively
good
it
is
is
That
it
is
or
is
always
is
in
no one
observer
the
first is
it is
citizen
interests of
my
country.
life,
How
did
action
into the
you
conduct yourself
As long
as Athens
go
in
RHETORIC.
you came
difficulties,
into
yourself.
By way
of contrast, compare
my
life
with your
Even
own then
;
and in this
trial, the question under discussion concerning me is whether
I am deserving of a reward
concerning you, however, it is
whether you should be expelled from your position, such as
to-day,
As
it is.
for
my
speak of them
my
cerning
private benefactions,
facts
public administration,
to say.
If
is
my
am
it
should be laid to
accusers
is to
fault that
punish crime.
Men, as a
and pity misfortune. .(Eschines, however, is so differently constituted from other men, that he actually holds me criminally
guilty for our ill success
Then, with outrageous effrontery,
he solemnly calls upon me not to mislead you, just as if all
during this contest he had spoken fairly and moderately.
You, O Athenians, are far too intelligent to be led astray by
If in the past I have been able to exert
this paltry trick
over you any influence, I have always employed it for your
good just as an upright man should do, ever putting in the
foremost place the common weal of the State. yEschines,
however, wastes his energy and ability in a private quarrel,
in a mere rhetorical display which has no value whatever,
!
particularly as
it
is
Moreover, he
is
9I
of
it
was
at
When,
it
wished to
chose
my
who had
house
so gloriously fallen
which
in
to
celebrate the
funeral feast.
of ^Eschines,
When
calamities
fell
upon you,
filled
his
with joy.
He
exulted in
them
succeeded.
was not
still.
;
it
He
was
this,
charges
If the truth
real wall,
was
must be
told,
our true
made
fortification,
for
you.
our
did
RHETORIC.
92
my policy
succeeded,
left
it
Though
over Greece.
it
failed,
yet
it
He
prostituted
attacked
to
the
How
different
who were
those
eloquence
his
you supremacy
stain.
He
for
He
patriotic.
of his
service
private
saw
that
it
When
came forward
memory
to insult us.
In
of ancient times;
above
high
me.
fall
As long as
able,
cution, from
loved her.
was
Peroration.
Therefore, ye immortal gods
impious prayers and wishes of
his followers are
reject,
men
If possible, inspire
them with a
better
SPEECH
IN
ANSWER TO /ESCHINES.
93
As
who
death
presence.
for
us
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