Académique Documents
Professionnel Documents
Culture Documents
BY ANKIT JASWAL
CLASS XI- C
NCS DELHI
INDEX
LIST OF TOPICS
TOPICS
PAGE NO.
HISTORY
VARIOUS RADIOACTIVE ELEMENTS
RADIOACTIVE DECAY
CARBON DATING
USEFUL APPLICATION
HARMFUL EFFECTS
LATEST RESEARCH
BIBLIOGRAPHY
In late 1895, a German physicist, W. C. Roentgen was working with a cathode ray
tube in his laboratory. He was working with tubes similar to our fluorescent light
bulbs. He evacuated the tube of all air, filled it with a special gas, and passed a high
electric voltage through it. When he did this, the tube would produce a fluorescent
glow. Roentgen shielded the tube with heavy black paper, and found that a green
colored fluorescent light could be seen coming from a screen setting a few feet away
from the tube. He realized that he had produced a previously unknown "invisible
light," or ray, that was being emitted from the tube; a ray that was capable of passing
through the heavy paper covering the tube. Through additional experiments, he also
found that the new ray would pass through most substances casting shadows of
solid objects on pieces of film. He named the new ray X-ray, because in mathematics
"X" is used to indicated the unknown quantity.
In his discovery Roentgen found that the X-ray would pass
through the tissue of humans leaving the bones and
metals visible. One of Roentgens first experiments late in
1895 was a film of his wife Bertha's hand with a ring on
her finger (shown below). The news of Roentgens
discovery spread quickly throughout the world. Scientists
everywhere could duplicate his experiment because the
cathode tube was very well known during this period.
--------------------
Atoms with unstable nuclei are constantly changing as a result of the imbalance of
energy within the nucleus. When the nucleus loses a neutron, it gives off energy and
is said to be radioactive. Radioactivity is the release of energy and matter that
results from changes in the nucleus of an atom.
Technetium (TC)
- Transition metal
Promethium (Pm)
Polonium (Po)
- Metalloid
Astatine (At)
- Halogen
Radon (Rn)
- Noble gas
Francium (Fr)
- Alkali Metal
Radium (Ra)
Actinium (Ac)
Thorium (Th)
Protactinium (Pa)
Uranium (U)
Neptunium (Np)
Plutonium (Pu)
Americium (Am)
Curium (Cm)
Berkelium (Bk)
Californium (Cf)
Einsteinium (Es)
Fermium (Fm)
Mendelevium (Md)
Nobelium (No)
Lawrencium (Lr)
- Transition Metal
- Transition Metal
Seaborgium (Sg)
- Transition Metal
Bohrium (Bh)
- Transition Metal
Hassium (Hs)
- Transition Metal
Meitnerium (Mt)
- Transition Metal
What is a radioisotope?
It is known that isotopes are variants of an element that, while all having the same
number of protons, have differing numbers of neutrons. These variants are called
isotopes. Because the like charges of the protons repel each other, there are always
forces trying to push the atom nucleus apart. The nucleus is held together by
something called the binding energy.
In most cases, elements like to have an equal number of protons and neutrons
because this makes them the most stable. Stable atoms have a binding energy that
is strong enough to hold the protons and neutrons together. Even if an atom has an
additional neutron or two it may remain stable. However, an additional neutron or
two may upset the binding energy and cause the atom to become unstable. In an
unstable atom, the nucleus changes by giving off a neutron to get back to a balanced
state. As the unstable nucleus changes, it gives off radiation and is said to be
radioactive. Radioactive isotopes are often called radioisotopes.
All elements with
atomic numbers
greater than 83
are radioisotopes
meaning
that
these elements
have
unstable
nuclei and are
radioactive.
Elements
with
atomic numbers
of 83 and less,
have
isotopes
(stable nucleus)
and most have at
least one radioisotope (unstable nucleus). As a radioisotope tries to stabilize, it may
transform into a new element in a process called transmutation.
What is radioactive decay?
Radioactive decay is the spontaneous breakdown of an atomic nucleus resulting in
the release of energy and matter from the nucleus. A radioisotope has an unstable
nucleus that does not have enough binding energy to hold the nucleus together.
Radioisotopes would like to be stable isotopes so they are constantly changing to try
and stabilize. In the process, they release energy and matter from their nucleus and
often transform into a new element. This process, called transmutation, is the
change of one element into another as a result of changes within the nucleus. The
radioactive decay and transmutation process continue until a new element is formed
that has a stable nucleus and is not radioactive. Transmutation can occur naturally or
by artificial means.
Not all of the atoms of a radioisotope decay at the same time, but they decay at a
rate that is characteristic to the isotope. The rate of decay is a fixed rate called a
half-life. The half-life of a radioisotope describes how long it takes for half of the
atoms in a given mass to decay. Some isotopes decay very rapidly and, therefore,
have a high specific activity. Others decay at a much slower rate.
How do you measure the decay of radioactive isotopes?
The basic unit of measure for describing the activity (radioactivity) of a quantity of
radioactive material is the curie, named after Marie Curie. A quantity of radioactive
material is considered to have an activity of 1 curie or 1 C, when 37 billion of its
atoms decay (disintegrate) in one second. In scientific terms, this is expressed by the
equation: 1C = 3.7 X 1010 disintegrations/sec. Each isotope has its own decay
pattern. If the rate of decay is greater than 37 billion atoms in one second, then the
source would have an activity greater than one curie, and if that source had fewer
than 37 billion atoms decaying in one second, its activity would be less than one
curie.
Each radioactive isotope has its own decay pattern. Not only does it decay by
giving off energy and matter, but it also decays at a rate that is characteristic
to itself. The rate at which a radioactive isotope decays is measured in halflife. The term half-life is defined as the time it takes for one-half of the atoms
of a radioactive material to disintegrate. Half-lives for various radioisotopes
can range from a few microseconds to billions of years. The table below lists
radioisotopes and their unique half-lives.
Radioisotope
Half-life
Polonium-215
0.0018 seconds
Bismuth-212
60.5 seconds
Sodium-24
15 hours
Iodine-131
8.07 days
Cobalt-60
5.26 years
Radium-226
1600 years
Uranium-238
carbon dioxide, which plants absorb naturally and incorporate into plant fibers by
photosynthesis. Animals and people take in carbon-14 by eating the plants.
The ratio of normal carbon (carbon-12) to carbon-14 in the air and in all living things
at any given time is nearly constant. Maybe one in a trillion carbon atoms are
carbon-14. Both Carbon-12 and Carbon-13 are stable, but Carbon-14 decays by
very weak beta decay to nitrogen-14 with a half-life of approximately 5,730 years.
After the organism dies it stops taking in new carbon.
How do scientist use Carbon-14 to determine the age of an artefact?
To measure the amount of radiocarbon left in a artefact, scientists burn a small piece
to convert it into carbon dioxide gas. Radiation counters are used to detect the
electrons given off by decaying Carbon-14 as it turns into nitrogen. In order to date
the artifact, the amount of Carbon-14 is compared to the amount of Carbon-12 (the
stable form of carbon) to determine how much radiocarbon has decayed. The ratio of
carbon-12 to carbon-14 is the same in all living things. However, at the moment of
death, the amount of carbon-14 begins to decrease because it is unstable, while the
amount of carbon-12 remains constant in the sample. Half of the carbon-14
degrades every 5,730 years as indicated by its half-life. By measuring the ratio of
carbon-12 to carbon-14 in the sample and comparing it to the ratio in a living
organism, it is possible to determine the age of the artefact.
Radioactive decay occurs in unstable atomic nuclei that is, ones that dont
have enough binding energy to hold the nucleus together due to an excess of
either protons or neutrons.
An unstable nucleus, like tritium will eject an energetic electron (beta particle)
and transform into an atom of helium-3 ( 3He )
e-
Alpha
Fast moving
charge
emission
Gamma
High energy
Electromagnetic radiation
ALPHA PARTICLE
electrons are basically free easy to lose and easy to gain. So normally, an
alpha particle is shown with no charge because it very rapidly picks up two
electrons and becomes a neutral helium atom instead of an ion.
BETA PARTICLE
The Iodine-131 gives off a beta particle (an electron), leaving an isotope with
a mass number of 131(1310)and an atomic number of 54(53-(-1)= 1).
Xenon (Xe) atomic number is (54)
Inside iodine nucleus, a neutron was converted (decayed) into a proton and
an electron, and the electron was emitted from the nucleus as a beta particle.
equation: I Xe + e
GAMMA PARTICLE
Gamma rays have no mass and no electrical charge they are pure
electromagnetic energy. Since there is no mass change associated with
gamma emission, they are referred as gamma radiation emission.
Because of their high energy, gamma rays travel at the speed of light. They
can pass through many kinds of materials, including human tissue.
CARBON DATING
Radiocarbon Dating
Radiocarbon or Carbon-14 dating is a technique used by scientist to date bones,
wood, paper and cloth. Carbon-14 is a radioisotope of Carbon. It is produced in the
Earths upper atmosphere when Nitrogen-14 is broken down to form the unstable
Carbon-14 by the action of cosmic rays. The unstable Carbon-14 is transported
down to the lower atmosphere by atmospheric activity such as storms.
Carbon-14 reacts identically to Carbon-12 and is rapidly oxidised to form (Carbon14) Dioxide. Since all living organisms on Earth are made up of organic molecules
that contain Carbon atoms derived from the atmosphere, they therefore contain
Carbon-14 atoms. The Carbon-14 within a living organism is continually decaying,
but as the organism is continuously absorbing Carbon-14 throughout its life the ratio
of Carbon-14 to Carbon-12 atoms in the organism is the same as the ratio in the
atmosphere. Once an organism dies it stops taking in Carbon in any form. The
unstable Carbon-14 within the organism begins to decay to form Nitrogen-14 by
emitting a beta particle. Over time there is a gradual decrease in the amount of
Carbon-14 and the ratio of Carbon-14 atoms to other Carbon atoms declines.
The half life for Carbon-14 is 5730 years. Therefore half of the Carbon-14 has
decayed after 5730 years. Half of the remaining Carbon-14 then decays over the
next 5730 years leaving one fourth of the original amount. By measuring the ratio of
Carbon-14 in a sample and comparing it to the amount in a recently deceased
sample its date can be determined.
Basic Principles of Carbon Dating
Radiocarbon, or carbon 14, is an isotope of the element carbon that is unstable and
weakly radioactive. The stable isotopes are carbon 12 and carbon 13.
Carbon 14 is continually being formed in the upper atmosphere by the effect of
cosmic ray neutrons on nitrogen 14 atoms. It is rapidly oxidized in air to form carbon
dioxide and enters the global carbon cycle.
Plants and animals assimilate carbon 14 from carbon dioxide throughout their
lifetimes. When they die, they stop exchanging carbon with the biosphere and their
carbon 14 content then starts to decrease at a rate determined by the law of
radioactive decay.
Radiocarbon dating is essentially a method designed to measure residual
radioactivity. By knowing how much carbon 14 is left in a sample, the age of the
organism when it died can be known. It must be noted though that radiocarbon
dating results indicate when the organism was alive but not when a material from
that organism was used.
Applications/Uses of Radioactivity
There are many practical applications to the use of radioactivity/radiation.
Radioactive sources are used to study living organisms, to diagnose and treat
diseases, to sterilize medical instruments and food, to produce energy for heat and
electric power, and to monitor various steps in all types of industrial processes.
Tracers
Tracers are a common application of radioisotopes. A tracer is a radioactive element
whose pathway through which a chemical reaction can be followed. Tracers are
commonly used in the medical field and in the study of plants and animals.
Radioactive Iodine-131 can be used to study the function of the thyroid gland
assisting in detecting disease.
Nuclear reactors
Nuclear reactors are devices that control fission reactions producing new
substances from the fission product and energy. Recall our discussion earlier about
the fission process in the making of a radioisotope. Nuclear power stations use
uranium in fission reactions as a fuel to produce energy. Steam is generated by the
heat released during the fission process. It is this steam that turns a turbine to
produce electric energy.
----------Smoke Detector
Alpha radiation is used in some smoke detectors. The alpha particles from
americium-241 bombard air molecules, knocking electrons free. These electrons are
then used to create an electrical current. Smoke particles disrupt this current,
triggering an alarm.
Seismic and Oceanographic Devices
These unmanned devices are often located in isolated locations, such as on
the ocean floor, which limits the practicality of short-term batteries. Strontium-90 is
the most common material used in these alpha decay batteries.
Uses in Medicine
Radioisotopes -- chemicals that emit radiation -- are widely used in medicine. In a
process known as brachytherapy, beta radioisotopes can be used to irradiate areas
inside a patient to prevent the growth of certain tissues. This approach has been
used successfully to prevent the clogging of arterial inserts called stents. In addition,
the emission of beta particles is used indirectly in the medical scanning technique
known as positron emission tomography (PET).
Cancer Treatment
Alpha radiation is used to treat various forms of cancer. This process, called
unsealed source radiotherapy, involves inserting tiny amounts of radium-226 into
cancerous masses. The alpha particles destroy cancer cells but lack the penetrating
ability to damage the surrounding healthy cells.
Gamma rays can kill living cells, they are used to kill cancer cells .This is called
"Radiotherapy", and works because healthy cells can repair themselves fairly well
when damaged by gamma rays - but cancer cells can't.
Uses in Industry
Beta rays have a number of important uses in industrial processes. Since they can
pass through some materials, they are used to gauge the thickness of films of
material coming off production lines such as paper and plastic film. In another
application, the thickness of various coatings, such as paints, can be deduced from
the amount of beta particles scattered back from that surface.
In the US, gamma ray detectors are beginning to be used as part of the Container
Security Initiative (CSI). Gamma-induced molecular changes can also be used to
alter the properties of semi-precious stones, and is often used to change white topaz
into blue topaz.
Other uses of radioactivity
Sterilization of medical instruments and food is another common application of
radiation. By subjecting the instruments and food to concentrated beams of radiation,
we can kill microorganisms that cause contamination and disease. Because this is
done with high energy radiation sources using electromagnetic energy, there is no
fear of residual radiation. Also, the instruments and food may be handled without fear
of radiation/radioactive poisoning. Radiation sources are extremely important to the
manufacturing industries throughout the world.
HARMFUL EFFECTS
Alpha Particles
External exposure (external to the body) is of far less concern than internal
exposure, because alpha particles lack the energy to penetrate the outer dead
layer of skin.
The greatest exposures to alpha radiation for average citizens comes from the
inhalation of radon and its decay products, several of which also emit potent
alpha radiation.
Beta Particles
Beta radiation can cause both acute and chronic health effects.
Chronic effects result from fairly low-level exposures over a long period of
time. They develop relatively slowly. The main chronic health effect from
radiation is cancer. When taken internally beta emitters can cause tissue
damage and increase the risk of cancer. The risk of cancer increases with
increasing dose.
Gamma Particles
Gamma rays can interact with cells in the body and make them non
functional, they can mess up a cell's DNA and cause mutations when it
divides.
If you lose too many you can get sick or with massive doses, can die.
There is always a small amount of background radiation coming from
cosmic rays from outer space and from radioactive nucleii found in the earth's
environment.
PROTECTION
Alpha Particles
A thin piece of light material, such as paper, or even the dead cells in the outer layer
of human skin provides adequate shielding because alpha particles can't penetrate
it. However, living tissue inside body, offers no protection against inhaled or ingested
alpha emitters.
Beta Particles
Additional covering, for example heavy clothing, is necessary to protect against betaemitters. Some beta particles can penetrate and burn the skin.
Gamma Particles
Thick, dense shielding, such as lead, is necessary to protect against gamma rays.
The higher the energy of the gamma ray, the thicker the lead must be. X-rays pose a
similar challenge, so x-ray technicians often give patients receiving medical or dental
X-rays a lead apron to cover other parts of their body.
pesticides. Radioactive material is also used in gauges that measure the thickness of
eggshells to screen out thin, breakable eggs before they are packaged in egg
cartons. In addition, many of our foods are packaged in polyethylene shrink wrap
that has been irradiated so that it can be heated above its usual melting point and
wrapped around the foods to provide an airtight protective covering.
All around us, we see reflective signs that have been treated with radioactive tritium
and phosphorescent paint. Ionizing smoke detectors, using a tiny bit of americium241, keep watch while we sleep. Gauges containing radioisotopes measure the
amount of air whipped into our ice cream, while others prevent spill over as our soda
bottles are carefully filled at the factory.
Engineers also use gauges containing radioactive substances to measure the
thickness of paper products, fluid levels in oil and chemical tanks, and the moisture
and density of soils and material at construction sites.
The U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) has established limits for the
release of radioactivity from nuclear power plants. Although the effects of very low
levels of radiation are difficult to detect, the NRC's limits are based on the
assumption that the public's exposure to man-made sources of radiation should be
only a small fraction of the exposure that people receive from natural background
sources.
Experience has shown that, during normal operations, nuclear power plants typically
release only a small fraction of the radiation allowed by the NRC's established limits.
In fact, a person who spends a full year at the boundary of a nuclear power
plant site would receive an additional radiation exposure of less than 1 percent
of the radiation that everyone receives from natural background sources. This
additional exposure, totaling about 1 millirem (a unit used in measuring radiation
absorption and its effects), has not been shown to cause any harm to human beings.
Radioactive Drug Research Committee (RDRC) Program
The Radioactive Drug Research Committee (RDRC) program began when the Food
and Drug Administration published a Federal Register notice on July 25, 1975
classifying all radioactive drugs as either new drugs requiring an Investigational New
Drug Application (IND) for investigational use (21 CFR 312) or as generally
recognized as safe and effective when administered under the conditions specified in
the RDRC regulations (21 CFR 361.1).
Bibliography
IAEA, Research Reactors database
https://nucleus.iaea.org/RRDB/RR/ReactorSearch.aspx
http://www.nrc.gov/about-nrc/radiation/around-us/uses-radiation.html
https://van.physics.illinois.edu/
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki
http://chemistry.about.com
https://www.aip.org/history/curie/article.htm
http://nij.gov/journals/269/pages/carbon-dating.aspx
http://www.nytimes.com/2015/04/21/science/digging-up-the-root-of-carbondating.html?ref=topics&_r=0
https://www.ndeed.org/EducationResources/HighSchool/Radiography/discoveryelements.htm
http://www.world-nuclear.org/info/Non-Power-NuclearApplications/Radioisotopes/Radioisotopes-in-Medicine/#
http://chemistry.tutorvista.com/nuclear-chemistry/radioactive-elements.html