Running Head: EXPLORING THE EFFECTS OF HIGH STAKES TESTING

Exploring the Effects of High-Stakes Testing on Children

Emma K. Jones
Texas A&M University-Commerce

Running Head: EXPLORING THE EFFECTS OF HIGH STAKES TESTING

Exploring the Effects of High-Stakes Testing on Children

Are standardized tests putting our students in danger? Every school and nearly every
grade level across the United States uses standardized tests. These high-stakes tests are referred
to as State of Texas Assessments of Academic Readiness (STAAR), Connecticut Academic
Performance Test (CAPT), and Louisiana Educational Assessment Program (LEAP) to name a
few. High-stakes tests, also known as standardized tests are designed to measure and judge the
performance of our nations students and determine their proficiency and academic progress
amongst their peers. High-stakes testing also holds teachers accountable for their students
performance and results.
The educational results and student performance on the high-stakes tests can either create
a positive incentive for educators and schools, or release a wide variety of consequences. The
consequences placed on teachers and schools, due to deficient scores on this form of testing,
could be putting our students in danger.
Statement of the Problem
The abundance of research literature based on whether high-stakes testing is putting our
students in danger emotionally, intellectually, and psychologically lacks in resolution. It is
imperative that the possibility of emotional, intellectual, and psychological effects be concluded.
Due to the primary focus on achieving the highest test results, schools have eliminated many
subject areas such as art, recess, electives, and many other activities that are intended to develop
and promote social, emotional, and moral learning (Kohn, 2000).
Review of Related Literature
Effectiveness of Education. The effectiveness of education and motivation of students in
academics was at the forefront when Federal legislators hastily passed the No Child Left Behind

Running Head: EXPLORING THE EFFECTS OF HIGH STAKES TESTING

Act of 2001 into law (Amrein & Berliner, 2003). High-stakes testing serves as an opportunity
for schools to meet two goals. First, high-stakes testing establishes the schools standards of
performance and goals, displaying the effect of the education being provided. Second, highstakes testing leads the structure and design of the schools methods of instruction and narrows in
on the objectives necessary in the curriculum (Lawton et al., 1991). In order for schools to
achieve the goals sought after, instruction in science, music, art, and physical education have
been weeded out (Lee et al., 2014). Aside from imbalance of curriculum being taught in the
classroom, the high-stakes assessments have discouraged and harmed students from any interest
in academics.
Data collected through tape-recordings and transcribed interview sessions with principals,
12 teachers, and the parents of three students revealed that the relationship between schools and
families was on a downward slope due to the stress and lack of education in specific areas (Smith
& Rabin, 2013). Research findings through qualitative metasynthesis of 49 studies exposed the
narrowing of subjects in order to focus on subject matter for testing, and an increase in teachercentered pedagogies (Wayne, 2007). Therefore, the conditions created by educators are certainly
undermining effective education.
Teacher Performance. Many teachers despise the process and use of high-stakes tests. Teachers

appear to be experiencing emotional, physical, and intellectual consequences. According to one

study, teachers believe there are too many tests[;] the results are not useful to teachers and are
misunderstood by parents and the public (Marchant, 2004, p. 4). Evidence in data collected
from direct observation of classrooms, meetings, and school life in general over a period of 15
months displayed the effects of high-stakes testing on teachers (Smith, 1991).

Running Head: EXPLORING THE EFFECTS OF HIGH STAKES TESTING

Research uncovered that teachers are also feeling alienated and shameful over test scores,
along with loss of esteem and anxiety due to the pressure placed upon them by administrators.
The research collected from past studies and more recent studies also indicate that there are
several areas where teachers have been affected by these assessments (Smith, 1991; Kohn,
2000). First, teachers are being chastised by the public and administration due to the publication
of the scores attained by their students, leaving them embarrassed and feeling guilty. They are
forced to make pass or fail decisions for students based on their performance causing intense
pressure, anger, and having to assume full responsibility for the low test score of their students.
Second, teachers are becoming frustrated with the system and the curriculum being bestowed
upon them in order to achieve such scores. Third, teachers are plunged into ignoring and
inflicting intense emotional damage to their students in order to please the administration and
keep their position. Teachers are also feeling frustrated with the small amount of time allotted to
them for teaching the curriculum that is required for such high-stakes tests, leaving them
incapable of attending to students individual academic needs. Also, teachers are enraged by the
narrowing of the curriculum, which prevents them from being able to diverge, adapt, and create
any other possible curriculum to enrich the learning process. Last, the research revealed that
teachers are feeling deskilled due to the methods of teaching to the test. The high-stakes testing is
a multiple choice test, leading to the decrease in the skills of differential instruction and the
knowledge of many core subjects (Smith, 1991; Kohn, 2000).
This research revealed in detail, the effects of accountability and higher standards placed
on teachers in regards to high-stakes testing. The effects of such stress placed on teachers, has
great potential to destroy the reputation of educators and education as a whole in our country. It
is suggested that further studies be conducted.

Running Head: EXPLORING THE EFFECTS OF HIGH STAKES TESTING

Student Psychological and Physical Effects. High-stakes testing poses many threats to the
wellbeing of students. Students are increasingly dropping out of school and showing mass results
of psychological and physical stress (Amrein & Berliner, 2003). Test results appear to influence
self-doubt in students and create an overwhelming sense of inferiority to others (Kearns, 2011).
High-stakes testing has been accused of causing stress in students according to research
(Landry, 2006). Data collected from this research consisted of an online survey of 63 teachers
and four individual interviews. The teachers that participated in the research study taught in
grades kindergarten through fifth grade. The results of the research surveys propose the need for
alternative methods of testing children to avoid such emotional distress. Teachers were asked to
observe and document the behaviors of students before, during, and after high-stakes testing,
which included 1.058 students. Research provided evidence that when both male and female
students felt anxiety prior to testing, carried over and intensified during actual testing. Teachers
expressed high concerns for students and the intense level of stress being displayed. Behaviors of
students that were observed at substantial levels consisted of self-doubt, fear, abandonment, and
helplessness. Much of the observed behavior raised questions about whether the sterile
atmosphere and climate change were could be a factor in such behavior (Landry, 2006).
A survey of 250 students uncovered that not only are students viewing their achievements
as low, creating self-doubt, but have proved that an estimated 10 million elementary and
secondary students performed more poorly due to the intense anxiety of achieving higher scores
(Lawton et al., 1991). The self-doubt and anxiety created within students, raises high-concern for
their well-being. Recent studies confirm that the results of high-stakes testing is continuing to
damage self-esteem in students, and is decreasing their motivation and engagement in academics
(Kohn, 2000).

Running Head: EXPLORING THE EFFECTS OF HIGH STAKES TESTING

Student Performance. Teachers of all grade levels administering high-stakes tests are
encouraged to shape their methods and classroom around the test in order for the students to
achieve the maximum scores and outperform others (Amrein & Berliner, 2003).. Teachers are
rewarded for the outperformance and maximum scores of their students by merit pay in some
districts. The effects of this instructional method can have a negative impact on students,
although it may provide a reward for the teacher (Smith, 1991). In fact, researchers have
indicated that the pressure of these high-stakes tests encourage teachers to dictate the learning
experiences of their students, in turn eliminating the students from self-directing their learning
(Amrein & Berliner, 2003).
Elimination of self-directed learning does not allow students to broaden their knowledge
in areas of curriculum that interest them most. Research has provided evidence that tests of this
sort indeed increase the drop-out rate of students due to a decrease in the motivation of students.
Research also revealed that student achievement on the high-stakes tests have gone through
critical periods of low scores, in a range of measures that did not improve (Amrein & Berliner,
2003). A valid observation and point made by Breadloaf Scholar, National Writing Project
fellow, and high school teacher Vivian Axiotis stated:
My students have lost faith in the value of tests, faith in their ability to succeed, faith in
the educational system. As a teacher I have lost faith in the value of tests, faith in my
ability to succeed, faith in the educational systemthe system that once worked so well
for me. My students have lost time to write, especially creatively, time to read a poem
alongside the short story were studying, time to integrate other disciplines, ideas. As a
teacher I have lost time to write, especially creatively, time to find, then share a poem

Running Head: EXPLORING THE EFFECTS OF HIGH STAKES TESTING

alongside a short story, time to integrate other disciplines, ideaseven though I know
this is far more important. (McCracken, 2003, p. 30)
Research Questions
Research questions for this study will include:
1. Does high-stakes testing undermine effective education?
2. What is the effect of the accountability and higher standards placed on teachers in
regards to the high-stakes testing?
3. How does the stress of high-stakes testing affect students?
4. Does high-risk testing encourage students to improve academically?
Hypotheses Statement
In exploring the data related to the provided research questions, this research expects to
find that high-stakes effects the educational experience, therefore undermining what is
considered to be effective education. It is the hypothesis of this research that high-stakes testing
has a negative impact on the emotional wellbeing of students and teachers, and discourages
students from improving academically.
Significance of the Study
The significance of the study will promote a more positive emotional, intellectual, and
psychological experience for students and teachers who are required to participate in high-stakes
testing. Detailed information regarding school culture documents, teacher attributes, student
attributes, teacher performance, and student performance will be gathered and analyzed. The
information provided can serve as a foundation of educational needs, and a means to make any
changes felt necessary for the improvement of education. The results of this research will also

Running Head: EXPLORING THE EFFECTS OF HIGH STAKES TESTING

provide state educators and administrators with information to facilitate the process of creating
fair high-stakes assessments in the future.
Method
The research will take the form of a grounded theory approach. Research collected and
analyzed will consist of qualitative data that is compared using an inductive approach in order to
understand the research problem. Results of qualitative data collected will be derived from
interviews, direct observations, and document analysis.
Participants
Samples of this research will include both students and teachers. Students and teachers
will be selected from two local Texas elementary schools. Both schools selected are grades K-6
schools that participate in high-stakes testing. There will be administrator, teacher, and student
samples chosen from each of the schools. Teachers and current administrators will be contacted
via email to request their participation in interviews and observations. The current administrator
will be asked in addition, via email, for the approval to collect data from parent volunteers.
The principals and volunteer teachers from each school will be asked to participate in a
recorded and transcribed interview. Principals will be asked to provide documentation of the
school culture (e.g. motto, mission, vision, and creed).
Parents whom the teacher recommends or invites as volunteers will be asked via email or
phone to participate in an interview that does not follow structured protocol, but begins with a
brief statement of purpose.
Finally, volunteer teachers will be asked to participate in a brief interview. The interview
will provide open-ended questions relating to their personal and instructional experiences inside
and outside of the classroom, regarding high-stakes testing. Teachers will be asked to approve

Running Head: EXPLORING THE EFFECTS OF HIGH STAKES TESTING

observation of class sessions via face-to-face. The data collected from both schools will be
analyzed and compared to determine common attributes found in the provided responses. The
projected teacher sample size will be 42 or more. The projected sample size of students being
observed will be 52 or more. The projected number of classroom observations will be 8 or more.
The projected sample size of parent interviews will be 6 or more.
Instrumentation
Data will be collected by using four different methods of instrumentation. A qualitative
process of review will be conducted to detect and determine similarities using the year 2014
Accountability Summary provided by the Texas Education Agency website for each school (TEA
Division of Performance Reporting, 2015). The results of the summaries derived from the TEA
Division of Performance Reporting, will be compared and analyzed to pinpoint levels of
education effectiveness, academic improvement, and academic achievement.
Volunteer teachers will be given a series of open-ended questions relating to their
personal and instructional experiences with high-stakes testing, both inside and outside of the
classroom. These results will be analyzed and compared with results of teacher interviews on
their personal and instructional experiences from both elementary schools to indicate similarities
and differences in their responses.
In regards to the effects of high-stakes testing on student behavior and well-being,
principals, parents, and teachers will also be given a series of open-ended questions relating.
Observations conducted through classroom sessions, lunch sessions, and one school event to
display some students and teachers behavior before, during, and after high-stakes testing results
and documentation included in the results of interviews.

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Once the data has been collected from all participants and samples and categorized into
tables, I plan to compare the data using a figure created through a cross-category analysis of all
table data. Tables will be created to indicate the behaviors observed of students that appear to be
affected emotionally, intellectually, and physically by high-stakes testing. The tables will include
a list of each documented behavior derived through principal, parent, and teacher interviews,
combined with research observation documentation, the total number of student samples, and the
percent total of students that displayed the behavior. Effects on teachers, described and
documented, through interviews with participating teachers, will be displayed in a separate table.
Finally, documentation of accountability summaries and school culture documents provided by
administration will be compared and contrasted relevant to the research focus.
The results of all data collected, compared, and analyzed will create a larger perspective
of the effects of high-stakes testing in the classrooms across the country. The results will provide
congruence to results within the literature review findings.
Design/Procedure
The research questions in this study will be analyzed using a qualitative approach. A
qualitative approach is beneficial to this study in that it will aid in the process of exploring some
of the complexities of the elementary schools context in order to develop and inform theories
consistent with what has been observed. Account summaries collected through the Texas
Education Agency Division of Performance Reporting will be used to display statistical data in
regards to student achievement, student progress, closing performance, postsecondary readiness,
performance rates, and participation rates. Statistical data displayed will be used in comparison
to schools culture, teacher effects, and student effects to determine a possible need for revision in
high-stakes testing through future research. Interviews will be conducted using a grounded

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theory approach therefore initial interpretations will be cross-checked within data-sets against
other observations made within and across data-sets. Relevant categories will then be derived
using the method of constant comparison to identify thematic categories described in hypotheses
statements.
Data Analysis
Table 1, will show a comparison of results from both schools, derived from teacher
interviews based on the personal effects of high-stakes testing reported. The relationship between
high-stakes testing and the proposed effects on teachers will formulate categories by theme,
based on hypotheses. The categories formulated from the teacher interview data will display
common corresponding responses given. This table will determine similarities in the effects of
high-stakes testing on teachers.
Table 2, will show a comparison of documented behaviors of students provided through
observation notes, teacher interviews, principal interviews, and parent interviews. High-stakes
testing effects on students reported through observation notes will be formulated into categories
by theme, based on hypotheses. The categories formulated through observation notes, will
identify and consist of theme commonalities and similarities. High-stakes testing effects on
students derived from the data collected through teacher, principal, and parent interviews will be
formulated into categories based on a theme. The categories formulated through the interview
data will be broken down to identify and consist of theme commonalities and similarities. Final
categories listed in the table will include all themes, after similar themes are combined. The data
displayed will indicate similarities in the observed and experienced effects that high-stakes
testing has on students.

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Table 3, will display information of account summaries, as well as school culture

information provided by administration in both elementary schools, including school visions,
missions, and beliefs. Data provided in regards to school culture will be analyzed to formulate
categories based on similar characteristic provided. The formulated categories will include and
correlate with the official documents of each schools account summary data provided.
Finally, all tables will be compared and combined based on similarities in relation to the
hypotheses and research questions. Once all of the tables have been combined and there are
established categories based on themes from the responses, the final categories will emerge.
Once the final categories have emerged, I will concentrate upon the relationship between the
final categories using a cross-category analysis. Figure 1 will show a visual interpretation of each
category in relation to the others.
Research Methods Report #1
Quantitative and Qualitative Research Designs
There are several design methods that can be used when conducting research. The design method
chosen for conducting research is reliant on the type of research and the form of data that needs
to be retrieved. Three quantitative research design methods include correlational, causalcomparative, and experimental research (Creswell, 2015, pp. 13-16).
Correlational Design
Correlational research uses statistical techniques to investigate a range of factors within
research data. The statistical techniques are used to determine whether a relationship exists or
how strong a relationship is among two or more variables. In a correlational research design,
there are different methods for examining relationships among observed variables and both
observed variables and latent variables (Correlational Research, 2009). Observed variable

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methods include bivariate correlation, which examines the correlation or relation between two
variables (one independent and one dependent), and provides information about the strength and
the direction of the relationship (positive or negative). The second method is regression analysis,
which is only used when there are one or more independent variables or predictors which predict
a single variable or outcome in the data. The third method is related method (an extension of
bivariate correlation), which represents the correlation between one single dependent variable
and multiple independent variables. An extension to the related method is path analysis. Path
analysis is a method used when there is more than one dependent variable or outcome variable.
Path analysis provides opportunity for more complex theoretical models to be tested while
simultaneously considering relationships among multiple independent and dependent variables
(Correlational Research, 2009). Last, canonical correlational analysis is a method used, with a
linear combination of two sets of variables, to determine the correlation (Correlational Research,
2009). Methods used to observe both variables and latent variables include factor analysis and
principal component analysis. Factor analysis and principal component analysis creates a smaller
set of linear combinations from the original correlated variables. The structural equation model
combines path analysis with factor analysis to test latent variables and their theoretical relations,
while enabling better measurement conditions and allowing researchers to use multiple measures
instead of a single measure of each latent variable (Correlational Research, 2009).
A correlational research design can be advantageous when researching education and
psychology. They can also be advantageous when developing and testing theoretical models such
as factor analysis, path analysis, and structural equation modeling. For example, a teacher has
noticed a pattern that their students who have earn higher grades on their homework assignments
also seem to typically score higher on state assessments. The teacher questions whether there is a

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relationship between the state assessment scores and the amount of time the students are
spending on homework each night. The teacher can then use a correlational research design to
conduct a study based on the possible relationship. The teacher can ask his students to document
and report the amount of time that they spend (in minutes) each evening on completing their
homework. Using the information provided by the students, the teacher can then create a table
with each students name, state assessment score, and the amount of time each student reported
spending on their homework assignments each night. The teacher can then create a scatterplot
using the information provided in the table. The scatterplot will determine whether a relationship
between the two variables truly exists. The relationship of the variables shown in the scatterplot
can be determined by the form of the association between the two variables illustrated. The form
of the association of the variables can either be linear (forming a single line), nonlinear (a U
shaped form), or uncorrelated (scattered/inconsistent form). A positive linear relationship
between the variables can be determined by whether high scores in one variable relate to high
scores for the second variable, or low scores in one variable relate to low scores in another
variable. A negative linear relationship can be determined when high scores of one variable relate
to low scores of the second variable. A curvilinear relationship, or nonlinear relationship, can be
determined if the relationship between the variables differs due to different levels of the variable.
Curvilinear relationships usually occur when another factor is considered when comparing the
first and second variables.
Causal-comparative Design
Causal-comparative research design seeks to find relationships between dependent and
independent variables after an event or action has occurred and must be studied in retrospect.
Causal-comparative design is used to determine reasons, or causes, for the existing conditions,
such research is referred to as ex-post facto, (whether the independent variable affected the

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outcome or the dependent variable) by comparing two or more groups of individuals and one
independent variable (Brewer & Kuhn, 2010). The basic approach to causal-comparative design,
sometimes referred to as retrospective causal-comparative research, begins with an effect, then
investigating to discover the possible causes of the effect on a variable, and is commonly used in
educational research (Brewer & Kuhn, 2010). The comparison groups chosen usually consist of
one experimental group and one control group. The comparison groups may differ in two ways,
one group may possess a characteristic that the other does not, or both groups may possess the
same characteristic at differing degrees or amounts. The differentiating independent variable
groups must be operationally and clearly defined to indicate the different populations. Also, the
random sample cannot be selected from a single population, but from two already existing
populations. (Brewer & Kuhn, 2010)
A causal-comparative design can be advantageous and commonly used when conducting
educational research in search of explaining an educational phenomenon. For example, a causal
comparative design would be advantageous in a study on which type of learner in the classroom
is at disadvantage considering monolingual or bilingual learners. An investigation on the
performance levels in reading comprehension tests of monolingual and bilingual learners in a
mixed classroom. The researcher would develop at least four hypotheses based on the topic to
direct the research. Hypotheses one is that bilingual and monolingual students differ significantly
in reading comprehension scores. Hypotheses two is that there will be significant interaction
between linguality and proficiency in reading comprehension scores. Hypotheses three is that
there will be significant interaction between linguality and gender in reading comprehension
scores. Finally, hypotheses four would be that male and female students differ significantly in
their reading comprehension scores. The researcher would then sample male and female students
of the targeted age group. One group would consist of all monolingual students, 47 male and 30

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female. The second group would consist of all bilingual students, 53 male, and 27 female. The
researcher would then gather information and data based on the students chosen for the groups
using instruments such as a language proficiency test. Next, the researcher would test reading
comprehension in English. Finally, a self-evaluation proficiency scale and background
questionnaire would be given to the samples. The researcher would then use the information
gathered from the study to come to a conclusion.
Experimental Design
Experimental research design seeks to determine how participants are affected to the
different conditions in an experiment, or whether a program or intervention had the intended or
hypothesized causal effect on the participants. There are three key components to experimental
design studies, which include pre-post tests, a treatment group and a control group, and random
assignment of study participants (Shuttleworth, 2008). Experimental research design consists of
two subject groups, an experimental group, and a control group. The experimental group will
undergo the treatment, program or intervention of choice. The control group will be treated as if
they never chose to participate in the study (Shuttleworth, 2008). Differences between the two
groups, based on a particular outcome, are measured using the pre-post design. The pre-post
design requires data on study participants, and their levels of performance, be collected prior to
the intervention taking place, and the same data is collected on the participants after the
intervention has occurred. The pre-post design aids in the assurance that the intervention indeed
had a causal effect in the experiment. Participants are then required to be randomly selected and
assigned to the treatment and control groups in the research design, greatly reducing the chance
of bias in the studies being conducted (Shuttleworth, 2008).
An experimental design is often used where there are not a large amount of variables
which enable the ease of design, such as anthropology, and physics (Shuttleworth, 2008). For

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example, a health and fitness instructor wants to test the effectiveness of a performanceenhancing herbal supplement on students in their exercise class. To create experimental groups
that are similar at the beginning of the study, the students are assigned into two groups at
random. Students in both groups are given a pill to take every day, but they do not know whether
the pill is a placebo (sugar pill) or the herbal supplement. The instructor then gives Group A the
herbal supplement and Group B the placebo (sugar pill). The students' fitness level is compared
before and after six weeks of consuming the supplement or the placebo. Finally, after the data
has been gathered, the instructor will identify any differences shown in the performance ability
and where the differences were found between the two groups, and what the results suggest as a
result.
When comparing correlational, causal-comparative, and experimental research, there are
several differences and commonalities. A significant difference between causal-comparative and
correlational research is that causal-comparative studies require two or more groups and one
independent variable, while correlational studies require two or more variables and one group.
The only difference between causal-comparative and experimental research is that the groups
being compared in causal-comparative research have already been formed, and any treatment (if
applicable) has already been applied. Another key difference discovered was that correlational
research, unlike causal-comparison and experimental research, looks for a relationship within a
single group, rather than the differences between groups. Therefore, another difference emerged
between the two designs, where causal-comparative research allows one to make reasonable
inferences about causation, where correlational research does not. Causal-comparative and
correlational designs are alike in that neither is experimental, involves manipulation of a
treatment variable, and both study relationships. When comparing costs, experimental design can

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be very costly, where causal-comparative designs are less costly in all aspects (Shuttleworth,
2008).
Survey Design
Surveys are a form of instrumentation often used in research design due to value it holds
for assessing opinions and trends in our society which can dramatically change strategies within
businesses and local governments. Surveys are often used because of their easy, accessible, and
low in cost. When conducting a survey there are steps that should be taken to ensure quality
survey design. However, there are no steps to avoid inaccuracy, bias, or to ensure the reflection
of views in data of a genuine cross-section of the population, all due to opinions being very fluid
and the potential for them to change in an instant (Shuttleworth, 2008).

The first step to ensure a quality survey is to establish the aims of research and connect it
back to the design being used. The second step is to attempt to interview a broad base of people
as possible depending on what your research is over (Shuttleworth, 2008). Basically, you will
want to interview an equal cross section of society. Third, know what number and type of
responses needed to make the survey valid and to prevent any inaccurate results by seeking out a
professional about the statistics of the subject. Fourth, decide on a method of conducting the
survey based on the type of participants you are seeking and which will be the most effective.
Decide whether you will use face-to-face, mail, e-mail, online poll, or a different form of
conducting the survey. The final step involves structuring and designing the questionnaire. The
structure and design of the questionnaire will be created based on type of survey and the target
audience selected. One may want to create multiple-choice or rating questionnaires to make the
survey as convenient as possible. Also, it is helpful to participants when the questions about
similar topics are grouped together. Keep in mind that if you are seeking for open-ended answers

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use a rating survey. Any questions asking opinions must also be open-ended. Some researchers
choose to mix up their design and randomize questions for accuracy, and to disguise the nature of
the research, while filtering out preconceptions (Shuttleworth, 2008).

Research Methods Report #2

Quantitative and Qualitative Research Designs
Qualitative research design is used to discover ideas, using general research objects. The
approach used in qualitative research design is to observe and interpret results. The data collected
in a qualitative design are unstructured and are presented in a free form (Creswell, 2015, pp. 1618). Researchers conducting a qualitative study are more intimately involved in their
observations, and the results gained are subjective. Samples in qualitative studies should consist
of a small group, often in a natural setting. When conducting qualitative research there are a few
formats that can be considered. Three of the qualitative research designs that can be used include
narrative, ethnographic, and case study designs (Creswell, 2015, pp. 16-18).
Narrative Design
Narrative design is the process of gathering information through storytelling for the
purpose of research. Narrative design requires the researcher to write about the experience of the
information collected on the samples from the study (Gale & Sikes, 2006). Instruments used in
narrative design studies may include field notes, interviews, or journals to name a few. For
example, a researcher might use a narrative study design if they are conducting a study on the
personal definitions of social status provided by fifth grade females. Instrumentation might
include notes and journal entries provided by the samples, and might also include an interview
with the samples and a period of observation. After this, the researcher would then construct their

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own narrative of the study conducted. The narrative would include what the researcher saw from
the outside looking in, and the thoughts produced from the observations. Narrative design is most
commonly used in many social science areas (Gale & Sikes, 2006).
Advantages of narrative research design include its ability to collaborate and combine
individual experiences and perspectives, to give a voice to the researcher, provide information
that aid in comprehension of others, and finally, its ability to capture relatable current data.
Disadvantages of narrative research include the possibility of corrupt data being collected, and
finally, experiences and information provided may not applicable or appropriate to the study
(Creswell, 2015, pp. 514-515).
Ethnographic Design
Ethnographic design is used when the researcher is conducting an investigation of a
group of samples over a longer period of time. Ethnographic design is based on immersion, and
the ideal participation of the group samples (Creswell, 2015, pp. 465-469). This form of research
provides a detailed exploration and observation of group activity and may include information
about the group, or information provided by the group. Ethnographic design approach consists of
the use of multiple methodologies to arrive at a theoretically comprehensive understanding of the
group being studied. Ethnographic designs are typically used in studies of culture in an attempt
to explain the connections of interdependence of the groups behaviors and interactions. The
obstacle for the researcher is to analyze and interpret how particulars in a given situation are
interrelated. Ethnographic design consists of three categories to consider for research.
Ethnographic design categories include realist ethnography, case study, and critical ethnography.
Realist ethnographies are narratives written in third person, which include an objective summary
and report of the situation and information acquired. An ethnographic case study is used when

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research is conducted over an activity, event, process, or individuals to name a few. A case study
is constructed using a bounded system, which requires that the topic categories that apply to the
research are separated by time, place, or a few physical boundaries. Critical ethnographies are
usually used by someone who is politically driven, and urges to advocate against inequalities or
domination within a group or culture. Types of ethnographic design include realist, confessional,
life history, autoethnography, microethnography, ethnographic case study, critical ethnography,
feminist ethnography, postmodern ethnography, and ethnographic novels A researcher would
want to use an ethnographic design when studying cultural themes, culture-sharing groups,
shared patterns of language, or behavior and beliefs of a culture group (Creswell, 2015, pp. 465469). For example, it would be advantageous for a researcher to use an ethnographic design
approach when studying the characteristic of a culture-sharing group of students in a 5th grade
classroom. The researcher would observe the sample group and analyze the groups behaviors,
beliefs, and language during reading discussions.
A major advantage of ethnographic design is its ability to investigate complex issues of
culture, social interactions, unpredictable situations, and relationships that are too difficult for
quantitative based research to investigate. Additional advantages of ethnographic design include
its ability to allow the subjects of the culture being studied to express their personal perspectives,
and also, its ability to allow outsiders a more accurate perception and deeper understanding of
the cultural group being studied. A key disadvantage to ethnographic design is that it is extremely
difficult to replicate. Disadvantages of an ethnographic design also include its expensive and
difficult alternate data collection methods and analysis, and excessive cost of additional training
required to participate in specific cultural studies. Finally, most researchers that decide against
the ethnographic design are concerned with the ethnic disadvantages. This form of research is

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typically focused on a sensitive culture that does not wish to be exploited, or put in harms way
while being studied. Researchers using an ethnographic design bring their personal perspectives,
experiences, prejudices, and culture to the study and it is critical that they do not interject their
bias into their study, or changing the culture by simply being present in the environment
(Creswell, 2015, pp. 478-479).
Case Study Design
A case study is often referred to during ethnographic studies, but also differs from
ethnography in many critical aspects. Case studies are sometimes used by researchers to study a
program, event, or activity involving a group of individuals, rather than a group of samples with
similar characteristics (Baxter & Jack, 2008). Instead of focusing on a group cultural theme to
investigate before conducting a study, case studies are a detailed study of the case of interest.
There are three forms of case studies which include intrinsic, instrumental, and collective.
Intrinsic case studies are used for studies that appear unusual, and hold factual value to the
information being studied, such as the study of a bilingual school. Instrumental case studies are
used to target a specific area of research within the intrinsic environment, and serve as a means
and provide capability to bring to light a specific issue. Collective case studies are used when a
researcher aims to compare and provide insight to an issue using multiple cases (Baxter & Jack,
2008). For example, a collective case study would be advantageous when researching bullying in
elementary schools. The researcher would observe multiple cases of bullying in different
elementary schools. Bullying would pose as the individual concern for study, and the researcher
would observe and collect data on the each situation, and focus on the key issues of the situation
and then compare and contrast them to the other observation information that was collected.

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There are many advantages to using a case study approach. Case study advantages
include, its ability to create new knowledge about a case or study, ability to solve an issue or
concern, empirical evidence provided to test hypotheses, option of a primary or secondary
approach, and finally, its ability to adapt to either a qualitative or quantitative research design.
Disadvantages of a case study include its inability to control variables and events, and finally, the
possibility of unconsciously guiding subjects to fulfill expected results and damaging validity
(Garger, 2013).
Action Research and Formal Research
Action research is a form of research that is primarily used for professional educational
purposes. When comparing action research to formal research, action research has the ability to
use any of the methods that are also used in formal research (Creswell, 2015, pp. 578-602).
Action research provides the researcher with the ability to collaborate with other professionals to
improve their research. Action research differs from formal research for many reasons. Action
research does not require extensive training, where formal research does. The goal of action
research is knowledge is used to apply to a local situation, and formal research knowledge
produced is generalizable. The method used in action research to identify the problem to be
studied is based on current problems, where formal research reviews previous research problems.
The literature review procedure for action research is more cursory and uses secondary sources,
and for formal research it is more extensive, and is derived from primary sources. The sampling
approach is also different in that formal research comes from representative or random sampling,
and action research samples come from students or clients that they have personally worked
with. Formal research consists of rigorous control and happens over a longer period of time.
Action research changes during the study, and happens in a shorter frame of time, while control
is conducted through triangulation. Measurements procedures for formal research include

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evaluation and pretest measures, while action research consists of more convenient measures or
standardized tests. Another difference in action and formal research is that action research
focuses on practical, not statistical significance (Creswell, 2015, pp. 578-602).
Researchers might choose an action research approach if they are attempting to study a
situation within their current school or classroom (Creswell, 2015, pp. 578-602). A study on a
certain group, subject, or topic that is relevant is advantageous because it allows the researcher to
apply emphasis on practical significance of the study. Action research can improve a researchers
teaching and learning in a particular classroom with the help of other professionals and their
observations and experiences. Action research can also be used for informal sharing,
conferences, and brief reports in educational topics (Creswell, 2015, pp. 578-602).
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