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TOPIC 13

Language Teaching Theories

in the 20th Century.
The Current Approach

For over a century, language educators have attempted to solve the

problems of language teaching by focusing attention almost exclusively on
teaching method. Although the question of how to teach languages has been
debated even longer than that - for over twenty-five centuries - theory development
as a debate on teaching methods has evolved particularly over the last hundred
years.
1- FOCUS, METHOD, TECHNIQUE AND CURRICULUM
When speaking about language teaching theories we have to clarify four
basic terms since these sustain all the conceptual skeleton of what we are going to
speak about.
Focus: It's the group of theories that have resulted from practical and theoretical
discussions in a given historical context. It usually implies and sometimes overtly
expresses certain objectives, and a particular view of language. It makes about
assumptions about the language learner: and underlying it are certain beliefs about
the nature of the language learning process. It also expresses a view of language
teaching by emphasising certain aspects of teaching as crucial to successful
learning.

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Method: the manner of teaching

Technique: the activities in the classroom.
We will understand that a different focus means a different method and of
course different techniques.
To these terms we must add another concept: the curriculum.
Curriculum: It's a document, which contains the design of a concrete teaching and
learning program. The curriculum has three parts according to the objectives
aimed: these are:
-

The concepts: the listing of the elements that one must teach in order to
get these objectives. - The procedures: the materials that should be used
in order to cover these contents.

The attitudes: We have, according to the latest tendencies in language

teaching, to make them appreciate the fact of learning a foreign
language as well as the fact of meeting new cultures, etc.

2- THE EVOLUTION OF LANGUAGE TEACHING.

Humanity has been learning languages for more than two thousand years
but it's especially in the last century when language teaching has evolved. Anyway,
we can distinguish three main schools of thought.
- The first one focuses the attention on leaning the language as a formal
code. It is the result of two important beliefs: one, that grammatical structures until
the early seventies and although they ~ I have begun to disappear, they partly
survive in the design of some textbooks.
- The second one focuses on communication. The great objective is the
development of the student's communicative capacity. The external reality appears
in the classroom through the use of authentic material. From now on the
grammatical code starts to lose its importance as the only element of planning.

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- With the third school of thought, the concept and practice of

communication evolves towards richer forms. With it the task based approach and
the project-based approach develop: the student makes things with English. The
foreign language is now an instrument. Language teaching has to bear in mind the
students characteristics and his way of learning, the task which has to be carried
out, the learning strategies and the attitudes, etc.

2.1 THE GRAMMAR-TRANSLATION OR TRADITIONAL APPROACH

As its name suggests, this method emphasises the teaching of the second
language grammar. Its principal practice technique is translation from and into the
target language.
No full and carefully documented history of grammar-translation exists.
There is evidence that the teaching of grammar and translation has occurred
through the ages but the regular combination of grammar rules with translation into
the target language became especially popular only in the late eighteenth century.
The standard was: a statement of the rule, followed by a list of vocabulary and
translation exercises. But in the final decades of the nineteenth century grammartranslation was attacked as a cold and lifeless approach to language teaching. The
majority of language teaching reforms in the late nineteenth century and
throughout the first half of the twentieth developed in opposition to grammar
translation.
In the nineteenth century translation was considered by practitioners as a
necessary preliminary to the study of literary works and even if that goal was not
reached grammar-translation was regarded as an educationally valid mental
discipline in its own right. Grammar-translation lay no emphasis on the speaking of
the second language or listening to second language speech: it is a mainly bookoriented method of working out and learning the grammatical system of the
language.

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The language is presented in short grammatical chapters or lessons each

containing a few grammar points or rules which are set out and illustrated by
examples. A technical grammatical terminology is not avoided. The learner is
expected to study and memorise a particular rule and examples, for instance, a
verb paradigm or a list of prepositions. No systematic approach is made to
vocabulary or any other aspect of the second language. Exercises consist of
words, phrases and sentences in the first language which the learner, with the help
of a bilingual vocabulary list, translates into the target language in order to practise
the particular item or group of items. Other exercises are designed to practise
translation into the first language. As the learner progresses, he may advance from
translating isolated sentences to translating coherent second language texts into
the first language or first language texts into the second language.
The target language is primarily interpreted as a system of rules to be
observed in texts and sentences to be related to first language rules and
meanings. Language learning is implicitly viewed as an intellectual activity
involving rule learning, the memorisation of rules and facts related to first language
meanings by means of massive translation practice. The first language is
maintained as the reference system in the acquisition of the second language.
In spite of the virulent attacks that reformers made, the grammar translation
or traditional method has maintained itself remarkably well. The first language as a
reference system is indeed very important for the second language learner.
Therefore translation in one form or other crosslingual techniques can play a
certain part in language learning. Moreover, some learners endeavour to
understand the grammatical system of the second language. Hence grammar
teaching, too, may have some importance for them. Furthermore, thinking about
formal features of the second language and translation as a practice technique put
the learner into an active problem-solving situation. Translating forms part of the
"academic" learning strategies. Finally, grammar-translation appears didactically
relatively easy to apply. The major defect of grammar-translation lies in the
overemphasis on the language as a mass of rules and exceptions and in the
imitations of practice techniques, which never emancipates the learner from the

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dominance of the first language.

2.2 THE DIRECT METHOD
As a reaction to the traditional way of teaching foreign languages, early
reformers, who included Henry Sweet in England, Wilhelm Vitor in Germany,
and Paul Passy in France, believed that language teaching should be based on
scientific knowledge about language, that it should begin with speaking and
expand to other skills, that words and sentences should be presented in context,
that grammar should be taught inductively, and that translation should, for the
most part, be avoided.
In the late 1800s and early 1900s, linguists became interested in the
problem of the best way to teach languages. An increasing attention to naturalistic
principles of language learning was given by other reformers, and for this reason
they are sometimes called advocates of a "natural" method. In fact several
attempts to make second language learning more like first language learning had
been made throughout the history of language teaching. For instance, if we trace
back to the sixteenth century, we find out that the Frenchman Montaigne described
his own experience on learning Latin for the first years of his life as a process
where he was exclusively addressed in Latin by a German tutor.
These ideas spread, and these natural language learning principles
consolidated in what became known as the Direct Method, the first of the "natural
methods", both in Europe and in the United States. It was quite successful in
private language schools, and difficult to implement in public secondary school
education. Among those who tried to apply natural principles to language classes
in America were L. Sauveur (1826-1907) and Maximiliam Berlitz who promoted
the use of intensive oral interaction in the target language. Saveur's method
became known as the Natural Method and was seriously considered in language
teaching. In his book "An Introduction to the Teaching of Living Languages without
Grammar or Dictionary" (1874), Saveur described how their students learnt to
speak after a month on intensive oral work in class, avoiding the use of the mother

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tongue, even for grammar explanations. Berlitz, however, never used the term
"natural" and named his method 'the Berlitz method" (1878), and it was known for
being taught in private language schools, high-motivated clients, the use of nativespeaking teachers, and no translation under any circumstances. In spite of his
success, this method lacked a basis in applied linguistic theory, and failed to
consider the practical realities of the classroom.
In Europe, one of the best known representatives of language teaching was
Gouin who, in 1880 attempted to build a methodology around observation of child
language learning when publishing L'Art d'Enseigner et d'tudier les Langues.
He developed this technique after a long struggle trying to learn to speak and
understand German through formal grammar-based methods. However, their total
failure and his turning to observations of how children learn a second language is
one of the most impressive personal testimonials in the recorded annals of
language learning.
According to Richards & Rodgers (1992), although the Direct Method
enjoyed popularity in Europe, not everyone had embraced it enthusiastically. In the
1920s and 1930s, the British applied linguist Henry Sweet and other linguists
recognized

its

limitations. They argued

for the

development of

sound

methodological principles as the basis for teaching techniques. These linguists

systematized the principles stated earlier by the Reform Movement and so laid the
foundations for what developed into the British approach to teaching English as a
foreign language. This would led later to Audiolingualism in the United States and
the Oral Approach or Situational Language Teaching in Britain.

2-3 THE READING METHOD

This method deliberately restricts the goal of language teaching to training in
reading comprehension.
As a creation of the twenties this theory was advocated by some British and

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American educators. West (1926), teaching in India, argued that learning to read
fluently was more important for Indians learning English than speaking West
recommended an emphasis on reading not only because he regarded it as the
most useful skill to acquire in a foreign language, but also because it was the
easiest. He constructed readers with a controlled vocabulary and regular repetition
of new words. The student was given detailed instructions on reading strategies.
The course of study that was developed over a period of decades provided graded
reading materials and a systematic approach to learning to read. The spoken
language was not entirely neglected, but it was the reading objective that received
the main emphasis.
The techniques were not radically different from those developed under the
traditional methods. As under grammar-translation, the use of the first language
was not banned in language instruction. The introduction of the second language
was oral as in the direct method because facility in pronunciation as inner speech
was regarded as an important aid in reading comprehension. Above all, vocabulary
control in reading was regarded as of prone importance, and so was the distinction
between intensive reading for detailed study and extensive rapid reading of
graded. "readers" for general comprehension.
This method had a strongly pragmatic basis. Its educational assumptions
were similar to those current in the American school curriculum of the twenties,
namely to gear educational activities to specified ultimate practical uses.
The reading method grew out of practical educational considerations, not
from a shift in linguistic or psychological theory. It introduced in language teaching
some important new elements:
a) the possibility of devising techniques of language learning geared to
specific purposes.
b) the application of vocabulary control to second language texts, as a
means of better grading of texts.
c) the creation of graded readers.
d) thanks to vocabulary control, the introduction of techniques of rapid
reading to the foreign language classroom,

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2-4 THE AUDIOLINGUAL METHOD

This method of the sixties has several distinctive characteristics:
1) separation of the skills - listening, writing, reading and speaking - and the
primacy of the audio-lingual over the graphic skills.
2) the use of dialogues as the chief means of presenting the

languages.

3) emphasis on certain practice techniques, mimicry, memorisation and patterns

drills.
4) the use of the language laboratory.
5) establishing a linguistic and psychological theory as basis for the teaching
method.
While the principal methods of the first half of the century, the grammar
translation and direct methods, had largely developed in the European school
systems, audiolingualism is in origin mainly American. It was given different names
(aural-oral method, New Key method, etc.), bur whatever it was called, its period of
clearest definition as a distinct language teaching theory and of greatest influence
was quite brief: it lasted from about 1959 to 1966.
In the audio-lingual method the dominant emphasis is placed on the
"fundamental skills", i.e., listening and speaking. While reading and writing are not
neglected, listening and speaking are given priority and in the teaching sequence
precede reading and writing. Like the direct method, audiolingualism tries to
develop target language skills without reference to the mother tongue. Language
learning was viewed as the acquisition of a practical set of communicative skills.
Audiolingualism does not emphasise a presentation of grammatical
knowledge or information as grammar-translation does but it does not taboo it
completely. It does reject the intellectual, the problem-solving approach of grammar
translation and does not favour the isolation of paradigmatic features such as list of
pronouns or verb forms. The use of the first language is not as severely restricted
as it was in the direct method. The learning process is viewed in the audio-lingual
method as one of habituation and conditioning without intervention of any

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intellectual analysis. Emphasis is laid on active and simple practice. The intention
is to make language learning less of a mental burden and more a matter of
relatively effortless and frequent repetition and imitation .The audiolingual method
has introduced memorisation of dialogue and imitative repetition (mimicry) as
specific learning techniques. In addition it has developed pattern drills (also called
structural drills). Such drills were not unknown before, but they became essential
features of audiolingualism. Audiolingualism techniques, therefore, appeared to
offer the possibility of language learning without requiring strong academic
background and inclination.
Audiolingualism reflects the descriptive, structural and contrastive linguistics
of the fifties and the sixties. Skinner in "Verbal Behaviour" applied his theories of
how human language is acquired. He suggested that language is a kind of
behaviour. Stimulus-response-reinforcement. According to Skinner , languages are
made up of a series of habits, and if learners could develop all these habits, they
would be able to speak the language correctly. He also believed that a contrastive
analysis of languages would be invaluable in teaching languages.
In the early sixties audiolingualism had raised hopes of ushering in a golden
age of language learning but in practical terms its hopes were not fulfilled. In the
long run, students were not creative. They repeated things like parrots but most of
the time they didn't know what they were saying Teachers applying the Audiolingual
method conscientiously, complained about the lack of effectiveness of the
techniques in the long run and the boredom engendered among students. Another
problem was that these patterns excluded semantics. In view of these criticisms it
is necessary to remind oneself of the major contributions of audiolingualism to
language teaching. First, it was among the first theories to recommend the
development of a language teaching theory on declared linguistic and
psychological principles. Second, it attempted to make language learning
accessible to large groups of ordinary learners. Third, it stressed syntactical
progression, while previously methods had tended to be preoccupied with
vocabulary and morphology. Fourth, it led to the development of simple techniques,
without translation, of varied, graded and intensive practice of specific features of

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the language. Last, it developed the separation of the language skills into a
pedagogical device. The audiolingual method introduced specifically designed
techniques of auditory and oral practice.
2-5 THE AUDIO-VISUAL METHOD
A visually represented scenario provides the chief means of involving the
learner in meaningful utterance and contexts.
Language learning is visualised as falling into several stages: a first stage to
which the audio-visual method is particularly applicable in which the learner
becomes familiar with everyday language. a second stage involving the capacity to
talk more consecutively on general topics and to read non-specialised fiction and
the newspaper: and a third stage involving the use of more specialised discourse
of professional and other interests. The audio-visual method is intended particularly
for the first stage.
Audio-visual teaching consists of a carefully thought-out but rigid order of
events. The lesson begins with the filmstrip and tape presentation. The sound
recordings provide a stylised dialogue and a narrative commentary. A filmstrip
frame corresponds to an utterance. In other words, the visual image and spoken
utterance complement each other and constitute a semantic unit. In the second
phase of the teaching sequence the teacher through pointing, demonstrating,
selective listening, question and answer explain the meaning of sense groups. In
the third phase, the dialogue is repeated several times and memorised by frequent
replays of the tape recordings and the filmstrip, or by laboratory practice. In the
next stage of the teaching sequence, the developments phase (exploitation or
transposition), students are gradually emancipated from the tape-and-filmstrip
presentation: for example. the filmstrip is now shown without the tape recording,
and the students are asked to recall the commentary or make up their own; or the
subject matter of the scenario is modified and applied to the student himself, his
family or friends, by means of question and answer or role playing. Besides this
thorough treatment of the dialogue situation, each lesson contains a portion for
grammatical drill which practises a pattern or a group of patterns which has

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previously occurred in the context of the tape and filmstrip dialogue presentation.
Grammatical as well as phonological features are practised. No importance is
attributed to linguistic explanations. Writing and reading are delayed but in due
course are nonetheless given emphasis.
The audio-visual method seeks a basis in linguistics. It derives its
grammatical and lexical context from descriptive linguistic studies. But in contrast
to the antecedents of the audio-lingual method, the audio-visual method stresses
the social nature and situational embeddedness of language. The visual
presentation is not an added gimmick. It is intended to simulate social context in
which language is used.
The audio-visual approach represents a distinctive modern attempt to come
to grips with the problem of language learning. It has defined three different levels
of language instruction. it has attempted to place language learning into a
simplified social context and to teach language from the outset as meaningful
spoken communication. The replacement of the printed text of the direct method by
a visually and aurally presented scenario has provided a fresh alternative in
language pedagogy and was a responsive and, at the same time, responsible way
of exploiting technology for the benefit of language learning. The audio-visual
method is open to two major criticisms. Like the direct method, from which much of
its pedagogy derives, it has difficulties in conveying meaning: the visual filmstrip
image is no guarantee that the learner does not misinterpret the meaning of the
utterance. The equivalence between utterance and visual images is often
theoretically questionable, and presents practical difficulties. The other criticism
that can be made is that the rigid teaching sequences imposed by this method are
based The other criticism that can be made is that the rigid teaching sequences
imposed by this method are based on an entirely unproved assumption about
learning sequences.
2-6- THE COGNITIVE

THEORY

This theory or method has been interpreted by some as a 'modified, updated grammar-translation theory' (Carroll 1966.102) and by others as a modified,

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up-to-date direct method approach (Hester 1970; Diller 1971, 1975, 1978). In its
recent forms, as expressed by Diller (1971, I 978) or Chastain (1976), it lays
emphasis on the conscious acquisition of language as a meaningful system and it
seeks a basis in cognitive psychology and in transformational grammar.
No single theorist can be identified as the main proponent of a cognitive
approach. Carroll (1966) was the first to characterise a cognitive theory of
language teaching. Chastain (1969, 1976) gives a helpful interpretation of cognitive
theory and teaching. Diller (1971, 1975, 1978) has contrasted the cognitive and
audio-lingual methods. As a fully-fledged language teaching theory the cognitive
method has not as yet been critically examined. In the early eighties its contribution
has been overshadowed by the increasing shift of interest to communicative
approaches.
As an alternative to the audiolingual method the cognitive theory developed
from the mid-sixties in response to the criticisms levelled against the audiolingual
method. The rediscovery of grammar-translation or the direct method was no mere
turning back of the clock. It was an attempt to bring to language pedagogy the new
insights of psychology, psycholinguistics, and modern developments in linguistics.
Several language programrnes have been published since the early seventies
which claim to be based on cognitive theory. But the practice techniques that this
method has yielded have hardly introduced much that is new. The main effects of
the cognitive theory seem to have been that it has loosened the tight hold that the
audiolingual method had exercised on materials and practice and that it removed
the stigma that had been placed on grammar-translation and direct method
practices.
Broadly speaking, the goal of cognitive teaching is the same as that
proposed by audio-lingual theorists (Chastain 1976: 146-7), but is less differences
in immediate objectives are apparent. Cognitive theory is less concerned with the
primacy of the audio-lingual skills. Instead it emphasises the control of the
language in all its manifestations as a coherent and meaningful system, a kind of
consciously acquired competence. which the learner can then put to use in real-life
situations. Carroll defines the objective in these terms:

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'The theory attaches more importance to the learner's understanding of the

structure of the foreign language than to the facility in using that structure, since it
is believed that provided the student has a proper degree of cognitive control over
the structures of the language, facility will develop automatically with use of the
language in meaningful situations.' (Carroll 1966: 102)

The techniques are characterised by Carroll as follows

.... learning a language is a process of acquiring conscious control of the
phonological, grammatical, and lexical patterns of the second language,
largely
through study and analysis of these patterns as a body of knowledge.'
(Op. cit.)

In other words, the cognitive approach does not reject, disguise or deemphasise the conscious teaching of grammar or of language rules. It does not
avoid the presentation of reading and writing in association with listening and
speaking. Instead of expecting automatic command of the language and habitformation from intensive drill, it seeks the intellectual understanding by the learner
of the language as a system and practice of meaningful material is regarded as
being of greater merit than the drive towards automatic control. The behaviourist
view of learning in terms of conditioning, shaping, reinforcement, habit-formation,
and over-learning, has been replaced by an emphasis on rule learning. Meaningful
practice, and creativity.
Cognitive theory is principally a critique of audiolingualism in the light of
changes in linguistics and psychological theory. It has pinpointed theoretical and
practical weaknesses of the earlier theory and has drawn attention to important
facets of language and language learning which the audiolingual theory had
disregarded or underemphasized, such as creativity and meaning. it has also rediscovered valuable features in grammar-translation and in the direct
method.
2-7 PRESENT-DAY TRENDS: THE COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH
Communicative Language Teaching has its origins in two sources. First, the
changes in the British and American linguistic theory in the mid-late sixties and
secondly, changes in the educational realities in Europe. Therefore teaching

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traditions until then, such as Situational Language Teaching in Britain and

Audiolingualism in the United States started to be questioned by applied linguists
who saw the need to focus in language teaching on communicative proficiency
rather than on mere mastery of structures.
Meanwhile, the role of the European Common Market and the Council of
Europe had a significant impact on the development of Communicative language
teaching since there was an increasing need to teach adults the major languages
for a better educational cooperation. In 1971 a system in which learning tasks are
broken down into "units" is launched into the market by a British linguist, D.A.
Wilkins. It attempts to demonstrate the systems of meanings that a language
learner needs to understand and express within two types: notional categories
(time, sequence, quantity or frequency) and categories of communicative function
(requests, offers, complaints). The rapid application of these ideas by textbook
writers and its acceptance by teaching specialists gave prominence to what
became the Communicative Approach or simply Communicative Language
Teaching.
Beginning in the mid-1960s, there has been a variety of theoretical
challenges to the audio-lingual method. Scholars such as Halliday, Hymes, Labov
and the American linguist Noam Chomsky challenged previous assumptions about
language structure and language learning, taking the position that language is
creative (not memorized by repetition and imitation) and rule governed (not based
on habits). For Hymes (1972), the goal of language teaching is to develop a
"communicative competence", that is, the knowledge and ability a learner needs to
be communicatively competent in a speech community. Halliday (1970) elaborated
a functional theory of the functions of language, and Canale and Swain (1980)
identified

five

dimensions

of

communicative

competence:

grammatical,

sociolinguistic, discourse, sociocultural and strategic competence. Chomsky

levelled some criticisms at structural linguistic theory in his book Syntactic
Structures (1957). He demonstrated that the fundamental characteristics of
language -creativity and uniqueness of individual sentences- were not part of the

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structural theories of language.

This communicative view is considered an approach rather than a method
which provides a humanistic approach to teaching where interactive processes of
communication receive priority. Its rapid adoption and implementation resulted from
a strong support of leading British applied linguists and language specialist, as well
as institutions, such as the British Council. However, some of the claims are still
being looked at more critically as this approach raises important issues for teacher
training, materials development, and testing and evaluation (Richards' & Rodgers
1992).
The Communicative Approach is in fact a set of principles about teaching
including recommendations about method and syllabus where the focus is on
meaningingful communication not structure, use not usage. In this approach,
students are given tasks to accomplish using language, instead of studying the
language. The syllabus is based primarily on functional development (asking
permission, asking directions, etc.), not structural development (past tense,
conditionals, etc.). In essence, a functional syllabus replaces a structural syllabus.
There is also less emphasis on error correction as fluency and communication
become more important than accuracy As well, authentic and meaningful language
input becomes more important. The class becomes more student-centered as
students accomplish their tasks with other students, while the teacher plays more
of an observer role.
2.7.1- Use and Usage
Use is how the language is used in communication: The function of language. This
can be contrasted with usage, which is the grammatical explanation of some
language.
Have you ever . . .
Have you ever eaten fried snake?
Use: To inquire about past experiences.

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Usage: A present perfect question with ever placed in front of the past participle.
2.7.2- Functional syllabus and structural syllabus.
In a functional syllabus functions are the primary organizing feature. The
course content is based on functions not grammatical structures. A typical unit
might be Giving Advice. The content of the unit would include:
I think you should . . .
Why don't you . . .
If I were you, I would . . .
You'd better . . .
This could be a very basic unit taught to beginners even though the the
grammatical complexity of these expressions is quite high (including a second
conditional with subjunctive mood!). This can be contrasted to structural syllabuses
where the syllabus is ordered according to grammatical complexity.
Other examples of functions include: asking for directions, telling stories
about the past, talking about rules, and requesting information

2.7.3- Fluency:
Fluency refers to the ability to produce rapid, flowing, natural speech, but not
necessarily grammatically correct speech. This is often contrasted with accuracy
2.7.4- Accuracy:
Accuracy refers to the ability to produce grammatically correct sentences
that are comprehensible

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3. CONCLUSION - NEW DIRECTIONS ON LANGUAGE TEACHING.

What's now, what's next? The future is always uncertain when anticipating
methodological directions in second language teaching, although applied linguistic
journals assume the carrying on and refinement of current trends within a
communicative approach. They are linked to present concerns on education, and
they reflect current trends of language curriculum development at the level of
cognitive strategies, literature, grammar, phonetics or technological innovative
methods. The Internet Age anticipates the development of teaching and learning in
instructional settings by means of an on-line collaboration system, perhaps via
on-line computer networks or other
technological resources.
A critical question for language educators is about 'What content" and "how
much content" best supports language learning. The goal is to best match learner
needs and interests and to promote optimal development of second language
competence. The natural content for language educators is literature and
language itself, and we are beginning to see a resurgence of interest in literature
and in discourse and genre analysis, schema theory, pragmatics, and functional
grammar propose an interest in functionally based approaches to language
teaching.
Also, "Learning to Learn" the key theme in an instructional focus on
language learning strategies. Such strategies include, at the most basic level,
memory tricks, and at higher levels, cognitive and metacognitive strategies for
learning, thinking, planning, and self-monitoring. Research findings suggest that
strategies can indeed be taught to language learners, that learners will apply
these strategies in language learning tasks. Simple and yet highly effective
strategies,
such as those that help learners remember and access new second language
vocabulary items, will attract considerable instructional interest.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY
-

Jespersen, O; Language: Its Nature, Development and Origin, Allen and

Unwin, 1992, London

Crystal, D; Linguistics, Penguin Books, 1985, Harmondsworth, England.

Richards, J & Rodgers, T; Approaches and Methods in Language

Teaching, Cambridge 1992, Cambridge University Press

De la Cruz, Isabel et ali; La Lingstica Aplicada a finales del Siglo XX:

Ensayos y Propuestas, artculo aparecido en la revista de la Asociacin
Espaola de Lingstica Aplicada (AESLA), Universidad de Alcal, 2201