Chapter19Outline

AgricultureandtheLand
Attheendofthe17thcenturytheeconomywasbaseduponagriculture
exceptforHollandmostofthepeopleinWesternEuropeancountries
drewtheirlivelihoodsfromagriculture(80%)
easterneuropewasanevengreaterpercentage
Productivity
Verylowinmodernstandards
Richregions(PoValleyinnorthernItaly):everybushelofwheat
sownproduced56bushelsofgrainatharvest
Barelyhigherthan1200s/ancientGreece
Harvestspoororfailedevery8or9yrs
themajorityofthepopulationsurvivedabadharvestby
eatinglessandusingtheirreservesofgrain
Butwhenpersistentbadweathercombinedwiththepoorharvests
itturnedintoaterriblefamine
thegrainreservesbecameemptyandthepriceofgrain
greatlyincreased
gettingresourcesfromotherareaswithbetterharvests
washard
Incrisisyears,usedfaminefoods(substitutefood)
Chestnuts&bark
Dandelions&grass
Cannibalismin1600s(17thcentury)
Badfoods=illness
unbalancedandinadequatefoodmadepeopleweakand
susceptibletoillnessandepidemics
Bark/grassledtointestinalsickness
Flu&smallpoxspreadeasily
1690sregionslostupto30%ofpeople
thedeathratesoared
TheOpenFieldSystem
Greatestaccomplishmentofmedievalagriculturedevelopedbyeuropean
peasants
Severallargefieldsinstripswithnofences
Peasantsworkedascommunity
Problem:soilexhaust
whenthecommunitycontinuouslyplantedwheat,itdepletedthe
nitrogeninthesoilwhichcausedcropstofail
Sincetheirwaslimitedmanurefertilizer,theonlywaytoletthe
landtorecover:fallow(leftunsown)
Croprotationsintroducedforlessfallow

ayearoffallowwasalternatedwithayearofcropping(3
yearrotationswereintroducedonmorefertilelands)
ex.ayearofwheatorryethentobefollowedbya
yearofoatsorbeansandthenayearoffallow
Villageskeptcommonlands:thepastureopentoall
Gleanersofcommonlandwascommon
Hardworking,poorwomen
Pickedupleftovergrainthathadfallenduringtheharvest
TheGleanersg
reatworkbyJeanFranoisMillet
Peasantstaxedbynobles
Theageofabsolutismcontinuedtoimposeheavytaxes,andhighrents,
andstrippedthepeasantsofthelittleearningstheyhad
PeasantwereexploitedworseinEasternEurope
Serfsboundtolandlords
Fewlimitationsonamountofforcedlabor
5or6daysofunpaidworkperweekonthelordslandwas
uncommon
Serfdomlastedtill1800s
BetterconditionsforpeasantsinWesternEurope
Noserfdom
InFrance,WesternGermany,&LowCountries:ownedlandand
couldpassittotheirchildren
Moststillinpoverty
EvenbestconditionsinBeauvais,Francestillbad(richagricultural
portionofthecountry)becausetheprivilegesoftherulingclass
stillweighedheavilyonthepeopleoftheland
TheAgriculturalRevolution
Peasantscouldtakeland(thosewhoownedlandbutdidnotlabor)to
improvesituations
Powerfulforcesoftherulingclassreadytostopthis
EuropeanpeasantsmainlyinFrancecouldnotimprovetheir
positionuntiltheFrenchRevolution
Technologicalprogressalsohelpedimprove
Maingoal:decreasethefallow
Ifthepeasantsandthelandlordscouldreplacethefallowwith
crops,theycouldincreasethelandundercultivation(landthatis
preparedforcrops)
Eliminationoffallowcalledagriculturalrevolution
Sincegraincropsexhaustedthesoil,fallowingwasnecessary.To
eliminatethefallowtheyusedcroprotation
Croprotation:grainrotatedwithnitrogenstoringcrops
Includingpeas,beans,turnips,potatoes,clovers,grasses

In1700s:newpatternsoforganizationallowedsomefarmersto
developsophisticatedpatterntosuitdifferenttypesofsoil
continualexperimentationledtomorescientificfarming
EffectsofAgriRevolution
Morelivestock
thenewcropswereidealfoodforanimals
sincethefarmershadmorefodder,hay,androotcropsfor
thewintermonthstheycouldbuildtheirsmallherdsof
cattles
Betterdietswithmoremeat
becausetheirwasmoreanimals
Moremanureforfertilizer
becausetheirwasmoreanimals
Moregrainforfood
sincetheirwasanimaltherewasmoremanuresincetheir
wasmoremanuretherewasmoregrainforbreadand
porridge
Enclosure
Experimentingwithcroprotationneededconsolidatedfields
Tousenewmethodsfarmersneededtoencloseholdingswith
fences
Woulddivide&enclosecommonland
Pricetoohighforpoorwhoneededcommonlandtheyopposed
theenclosure
Riskyfornoblesbecneededinvestment
Mostopposedenclosure
Tillendof1700sonlyfoundinLowCountries&England
TheLeadershipoftheLowCountriesandEngland
TheLowCountries(Holland)
MostadvancedsocietyinEurope
Intensivefarmingwaswellestablishedbymid1600s
Hadenclosedfields
Continuousrotation
Heavymanuring
Widevarietyofcrops
Agriculturewasspecializedandcommercialized
ProducedmostmilkinEurope
Reasonsforfarmingleadership
Denselypopulated:neededmaximumyieldsfromtheir
landstofeedthepeopleandtoincreasethecultivated
areathroughdrainingofthemarshesandswamps
Growthoftowns/cities:goodmarketsforgoods

stimulatedbycommerceandoverseastrade
amsterdampopulationrapidlygrew
thegrowthofurbanpopulationprovidedthedutch
peasantswithgoodmarketsforalltheycould
produceandallowedeachregiontospecializein
whattheydidbest
Leadersofdrainage
Hollandhadoncebeenseaandseamarshandtheefforts
ofcenturieshadmadetheDutchtheworldsleadersinthe
skillofdrainage
Dutchexpertshelpeddrainingextensivemarshesin
england
Neededlandforcrops
CorneliusVermuydenfamousDutchdrainageengineer
Reclaimedland(swampyareasconvertedintothousands
ofacres)
England
CharlesTownsendpioneerofEnglishagriculturaldevelopment
Learnedabturnips&cloverinHolland&usedinEngland
Improvementsinagrionhisestates=higherincome
StartedagricrazeamongEngnobles
JethroTullimportantEnglishinnovator
usedempiricalresearch
Wantedhorses,noroxen(slower)forplowing
Drilling,notscatteringseeds
drillingdistributedseedinanevenmannerandat
properdepth
Improvementinlivestock:selectivebreeding
Result:300%morefoodthanin1700
thenumberofpeopleworkingthelandincreasedonlyby
14%
FoodforEnglandsgrowingurbanpop
TheCostofEnclosure
WhatwasthecostoftechprogressinEngland?
Aristocracybenefittedfromchange
thehigheryieldscouldsupporthigherrentsandtheywereready
tomakeexpensiveinvestmentsinnewtechnology
Somehistoriansstressequalityofchange
Large&smalllandownersget=amountland
Otherssaymoreunfair
LargelandownerscontrolledParliament
HadParliamentpassenclosureacts
Authorizedenclosureofeachvillage

Heavyenclosurecostsdividedamonglandowners
Peasantsforcedtosellout&thelandlesslostcommon
land
muchashalfofenglishfarmlandwasalreadyenclosedby1750,
therefore,theparliamentaryenclosure,whichwasagreatportion
wasenclosedby1760,andparticularlyduringtheNapoleonic
warsintheearly19thcenturyjustcompletedaprocessthatwasin
fullswing
Landlesscottagersandfarmlaborersappearonlyinthelastyears
ofthe18thcentury
neverthatmanylandlesslaborers
Changesinfarmingpatterns
By1700severalgroups
Landlesswagelaborersatlowestend
Indepfarmers
Prosperoustenantfarmers
Largelandowners
Indepfarmerscouldntcompetew/tenant
Tenantfarmerskeytonewfarmingmethods
Financedbylargelandowners
Couldfenceoffland&trynewmethods
improvements:fencedfields,builtdrains,and
improvedthesoilwithfertilizers
theseimprovementsalsoincreasedemployment
opportunitiesforwagedworkers
Hiredwageworkerssomorejobs
Didntforcepeopleofflandbyeliminatingjobs
Deniedaccessoflandlesstocommonlands
Landlesscompletelydependentoncashwages
Proletarianizationtransofpeasantfarmerstowagelaborers
Villagepoorfoundchangeheavy&unjust
TheBeginningofthePopulationExplosion
LimitationsonPopulationGrowth
Populationgrewslowlytill1700
BlackDeathcausedsharppopdropafter1350
Laborshortage
EEuropereinstatedserfdom
SerfsdisappearedinWEuropeby1500
Incstandardoflivingforpeasants/artisans
Popoutstrippedfoodafter1500
Lessfood&foodpricesrosefasterthanwages
InflationfromAmericangold/silver
By1600spopgrowthstopped

Birth&deathrateinbalance
Popgrowthfrom.51%
BlackDeathmostextremeexofabnormalyears
Faminecausedbypoorfarming
Diseasekilledpopweakenedbyfamine
War
Indirecteffectsmorelethal
Spreaddisease
Armiesstolefood&disruptedfoodsupply
TheNewPatternoftheEighteenthCentury
Inthe1700spopbegantogrow
Morebabiesbornbecmarriedearlier
Bubonicplaguedisappeared
Lastepidemic1721inFr
Plaguecausedbyblackratsfleas
Brownratsdisplacedblackrats
Advancesinmedicine
Didntreducedeathsmuch
Inoculationagainstsmallpox,butconfinedtoEng
Improvementsinwater&sewage
Drainageofswamps=fewerinsectstotransmitdisease
Moresuccessinsavingfood
Transimprovementsallowedemersuppliestobebroughtin
Lessdestructivewars:spreadlessdisease
Newfoodslikepotatointroduced
NotenoughworkforgrowingpopinEurope
TheGrowthofCottageIndustry
ThePuttingOutSystem
Landlesspoorneededextramoney,soindustry
Needtoemployproletariansoverpoweredcontrollingguilds
Calledcottageindustry,orindustrydoneathome
Anothernameisputtingoutsystem
Merchantloan,putoutrawmaterialstoworkers
Workersprocessmaterial&returnfinprod
Formofcapitalism
Merchantsneededcapital
Merchantswantedprofit&inccapital
Reasonsforgrowth
Laborerswouldworkforlowwages
Didntneedtomeetguildstandards:experw/production
Spreadofcottageindustry
Startedbefore1500&grewbestinEngland
1762Frlimitedguilds&cottageindusgrew

Ger&LowCountriesgraduallydecrpwrofguilds
Mainexpansionlaterpartof1700s
TheTextileIndustry
Until1800stextilesemployedmostpeopleinindus
Workerscottage
Small,often1room
Loomtookupmostofspace
Loommainlyunchangedfromearlier
OnlyimprovementJohnKaysflyingshuttle
Alsohadspinningwheels,tubs,&cardingpieces
Familyenterprise
Allfamilymembershadajob
Enccottageworkerstomarryyoung/largefamilies
4or5spinnersneededfor1weaver
Spinsterswidowsandunmarriedwomenrecruited
Needforthread=capitalism
Wouldputoutwooltoothercottages&payforspinning
Morethreadkeptweaverbusy
Conflictsbetweenworkers&employers
ClothiersDelight(1700)popularsongaboutcottindconflict
Merchantsaccusedworkersofstealing
Weaverssaidmerchantsdeliveredunderweightbales
Employerscouldntcontrolworkers
Workersworkedinspurts
HolyMonday=inactivity
Ifworkersdidntmeetquota,emplcouldntdoanything
BuildingtheAtlanticEconomy
MercantilismandColonialWars
Mercantilismecosystemthatenrichesthestate
Createdfavorableforeigntrade
Aimedatinccountrysgold
Englishmercantilism
Shouldenrichpeople&thestate
BasedonNavigationActs
OliverCromwellest1stin1651
RequiredtradersgoingintoEnglandwereBritish
Britishtradershadmonopolyoncolonies
Formofecowarfare
DutchecosufferedfromNavActs&Nethfellbehind
FranceBritishrivaltooverseasempire
Leadingmilitarypwr
Monopolizedtrade
British&Frenchwars

1stwasSpanishSuccession
CausedbyLouisXIVclaimingSpanishthrone
ThreatenedEngcolonies
Englandwon&gotNewWorldterritory
WarofAustrianSuccession
CausedbyFredtheGrseizingSilesia
Graduallybecameworldwar
Endedw/nochangeinNAmerica
7YearsWarinEurope
CausedbyMariaTheresatryingtotakebackSilesia
InconclusiveinEurope
7YearsWarintheAmericas
VirginiaforceattackedFrenchsoldiers
WartoconquerCanada
Francevictoriousuntil1758
FrancefocusedonEurope,Engfoughtfortheempire
Britishvictoryin1759ratifiedinTreatyofParis(1763)
FrlostallpossessionsonmainlandNAmerica
LandandLaborinBritishAmerica
Britainlimitedpovertybecpoorimmigratedtocolonies
Immigrantshadaccesstoeasyland
Freewhitesettlersgotfarmseasily
Couldkeepmostofwhattheyproduced
SlaveryinAmericasofAfricansusedbySp,Por,Dutch
Engfollowedexample
BroughtslavestoCaribbeansugarplantations1st
By1700spreadtomainland
By1730largeplantationsworkedentirelybyslaves
NonslavegrownproductsfromNEngsuppliedplanslavefood
PlanownershadexclusiverighttosupplyBritishIsles
Rapidpopgrowthfromfreeland
Didntresultinpoverty
Whitecolonistshadbeststandardoflivinginworld
Verygoodeconomicequality
TheGrowthofForeignTrade
Britprofitedgreatlyfrommercsystem
ColoniesmarketforEngmanugoods
EngslowlylosingEuropeanmarkets
WoolclothmajorexportsinceMidAges
EuropeanSalesdroppedduring1700s
By1750colonialsaleshuge
Englishexportsbecamevaried&balanced
Demandformanugoodsputpressuretoimproveindustry

TheAtlanticSlaveTrade
KeyelementinAtlantictradethroughout1700s
Possibleshipped6.13milpeoplein18thcen
Changesintheslavetrade
After1700lessfightingamongslavetraders
Begantoconcentrateoncommerce
Shoretradingratherthanfortifiedtowns
Incdemand=risingpricesinthe1700s
WarsbetAfricansoverslavesinc
SlaveryinEnglandrare&unsupported
Slave,notowneroftensupported
Courtrulingin1772doomedslaveryinEngland
Bet1778and1782massmovementtoabolishEngslavery
1807ParliamentabolishedBritishslavetrade
RevivalinColonialLatinAmerica
WhenCharlesIIdied,Spainsempirereadytofallapart
Spanishempactuallyrecovered
Reasonsforrecovery
BetterleadershipbyPhilipVbroughtnewideas
ColoniesexpandedtoincLouisiana&California
Silverminingrecoveredafterdeclinein1600s
1800halfworldssilverfromSpcolonies
CreolespeopleofSpbloodborninAmergotrich
WealthyCreolesboughtEuromanugoods
CreolestriedtobecomelikeEuroaristocracy
Ownedestatesworkedbynatives
Nativeskeptbydebtpeonageperpetualdebtbondage
MiddlegroupinSpcoloniesmestizos
OffspringofSpmen&Indianwomen
Couldgainenoughwealthtobeconsideredwhite
Africansusedtoworksugarplantations
AdamSmithandEconomicLiberalism
Negativereactiontomercantilismeventually
SmallEngmerchantsdidntwantmonopolies
Advocatedfreetrade
IdeaoffreedomofenterprisedevelbyAdamSmith
InquiryintotheNatureandCausesoftheWealthofNations
Establishedbasisformoderneconomics
Betterthanmercantilismwasfreecompetition
Governmenthad3duties:
Defenseagainstinvasion
Maintaincivilorder
Sponsorpublicworks&institutions

Usedpowerofreason
Believedhespoketruth,notforaninterest
Wantedpursuitofselfinterest,notforcedchange
Invisiblehandoffreecompetregulatedgreed