TUBULAR STEEL STRUCTURES — Theory and Design by M.S. TROITSKY, D.Se. Professor of Engineering Concordia University MontrealPOONOCNAIHANAGeeAeCeeceecccer Pe Cee cecocecARZE RECINE ¥ ASOCIADOS | INGENIEROS CONSULTORES 1TDAe publisher’s preface [As authors of major works in highly specialized areas of technology know, finding a publisher for the manuscript may be a difficult task, When the subject matter is of Parrow interest and highly cireumseribed, itis outside the province of the commercial publisher, who must realize a sales volume more than enough to cover his costs. The nore comprehensive and scholarly the work becomes — and, thus, the more useful to the technology -- the more difficult is the problem of finding a publisher. When publi- ‘ation requires hundreds of pages and a great mass of art work. ivisusually beyond the Scope of the journals of pertinent technical societies. In such eases. a patron may be Tequired if the scholarly work is to be putin print, hard-covered, and made available to the public Fortunately, there are patrons in most areas of scionce, engineering, and tech~ nology — foundations, associations, endowments, and even individuals who serve to fill the gap in publication possibility. The James F. Lincoln Arc Welding Foundation is such a patron for comprehensive studies pertaining to arc-welding technology and are-welded steel design. As a part of its broad function in providing educational Services that enhance the progress of are welding, the Foundation subsidizes the preparation. publication, and distribution of scholarly works that benefit designers. Fidustrial managements, and others concerned with the technology and engineering of . re-welded steel, De. Troitsky’s monumental Work on “Tubular Steel Structures, —— 7 ‘Theory and Design” fits admirably into this function of the James F. Lincoln Arc Welding Foundation. “The growing importance of tubular steel in the design of structures is well known to engineers. The properties of the circular cross section and the achievements of strength with light weight that can be realized with itare intriguing to the designer. But feven though tubular steel is being used extensively in structures. the technology of its tse is widely distributed through the literature. Dr. Troitsky in this book brings together the scattered information on tubular design and analysis in a well organized manner that should make it a valuable text and reference source. Dr. Troitsky is not unknown to beneficiaries of the James F. Lincoln Are Welding Foundation’s publishing ventures. He is also author of the work “Orthotropic Bridges, Theory and Design’. published under the aegis of the Foundation in 1967. This book, as the present one, also was considered as having too limited outlet possibifities for a ‘commercial publisher — although the first printing of 5,000 copies sold out within a year, Such widespread distribution of volumes of highly specialized interests is. — facilitated by the Foundation’s subsidized distribution policy. which supplements its patronage of the preparation and printing costs. In effect, the Foundation offers the books it publishes at buit a fraction of costs — just a nominal sum to guarantee that the recipient has « real need and interest in the work. t ‘Other well-known design books published by the Foundation include “Design of Weldments” and "Design of Welded Structures”, both by Omer W. Blodgett. In addi- tion, the Foundation has sponsored many other works of more widespread interest, Such as “Metals and How 10 Weld Them”, “Design Ideas for Weldments’, anc “Modern Welded Structures". 5 ee eeeoo Are Welding Foundation was formed in 1936 by the Lincoln Electric Company to provide educational services in the burgeoning art of arc welding nd are-welded steel design. Although expending most ofits efforts on publications, the Foundation has also sponsored various Award Programs to encourage architects. engineers, and designers to use arc-welded steel more efficiently and esthetically in weldment and structural designs. We feel certain that “Tubular Stee! Structures, Theory and Design” will be @ worthy addition to any engineering library, ‘The James F. Lincoln Richard $. Sabo Secretary. The James F. Lincola Are Welding Foundation ‘The serviceability of @ product or structure utilizing this type of information is and must be the sole responsibility of the builder/user. Many variables beyond the control of The James F. Lincoln Arc Welding Foundation affect the results obtained tn applying this type of information, These variables include, but are not limited to weiding procedure. plate chemistry and temperature, weldment design, fabrication methods and service requirements.preface This book is written for the purpose of presenting a simple guideline for the structural analysis and design of thin-walled, large diameter tubular steel structures, such as Stacks, bins, horizontal storuge tanks. pipelines and conveyor galleries. Despite the ‘wide application of such structures in industry. the principles of their rational design and much of their vital information are widely scattered throughout technical litera~ ture. industrial bulletins, appropriate codes and handbooks. One purpose of thistextis fils to consolidate the basic concepts of analysis and design of tubularstructures with respect to industrial practice Tt should be mentioned that for some of the tubular structures treated in this book theve sre standards and codes. However. they do not constitute a design manual for the engineer. Rather. they are to be considered as the minimum requirements for design tinder normal conditions. They do not cover all conditions and the designer must tilize the basic engineering, scientific knowledge and experience to adequately develop his design. In addition to the conventional methods of analysis based on theory of shells. the + treats such particular problems as edge effect and buckling stability, which in some tases are of great importance for the safe design of tubular structures. In all but a few axes. the method of analysis, derivations of equations and formulas have been given. So that the designer will understand the assumptions and limitations involved. Numer- eal examples are included to illustrate adequately the application of the various methods aad formulas, and to make the book useful not only for the experienced designer, but also for the beginner. The content of this book was first presented in a series of lectures on tubular structures given by the author at Concordia University. The information has been brought up-to-date and supplemented with the new data available. For the convenience of the users, the material is presented systematically as follows: ‘Chapter L pcesents an introduction to the subject. Chapter 2 treats the local and overall buckling of cylindrical shells, which is the com- mon phenomenon for all tubular structures, affecting their structural behavior. Chapter 3 provides a detailed analysis of the edge effect for the junetion of tubular shapes of different geometry Chapter 4 considers the problem of thermal stresses in the design of tubularstructures. Chapter § treats self-supported steel stacks. Chapter 6 provides the analysis and design of guyed stacks. Chapter 7 discusses the analysis and design of bins and bunkers, square, rectangular and circular. Chapter 8 is concerned with horizontal storage tanks. Chapters 9, 10 and 11 treat above-ground, underground, and underwater pipelines Chapter 12 discusses tubular conveyor galleries 11 must be recognized that these design guidelines are by no means complete. They do, however. give, in a systematic form as much as possible, the state of knowledge available at the time of the preparation of this text. ‘Since many variables affect the analysis and design presented in this book, the author Would appreciate havingcalled to fly attention any er¢ors that have avoided the author's editing effortsresume MS. Trotsky; D.Sc. is Professor and Chairman of the Department of Civil Engi- neering at Concordia University. Montreal. He has taught at Ecole Polytechnique and McGill University, Montreal. He has varied industrial experience in a full-ticie and consulting capacity and was responsible for the design and supervision of the construc~ tion on several major bridges. He is the author of the books “Orthotropic Bridges ‘Cable-Staved Bridges” and “Suiffened Plates”, as well as of numerous papers on structures and bridge engineering. He is the member of a number of technical societies,—-~ acknowledgemenis In preparing a book in the field of engineering, an author must depend upon the pub- lishing works of many engineers, scientists, mathematicians and engineering firms. ‘The author and publisher of this book gratefully acknowledges the help and coopers tion received from many sources. Special acknowledgement is herewith made to the Canadian Steel Industries Construction Council and Imperial Oil Limited. who have financially supported the preparation of the research reports by the author on some topics treated in this book The author is also indebted to many organizations and individuals for their help. assistance and permission to reproduce the designs. tables and graphs, ‘The author also wishes to thank Mr. G. Korioth for the preparation of the draw ings, and fo. Miss M. Stredder for typing the manuscript ‘Special acknowledgement is herewith given to the Canadian Institute of Steel Construction for whom the author has prepared a number of research reports and which work inspired the author to prepare this book.contents CHAPTER I — INTRODUCTION 1.1 General Concept Ll 1.2 Advantages of Tubular Structures vt 1.2.1 Optimum Utilization of Material... | 1 1 1.2.2 Fabrication 1.3 Structural Behavior of Tubular Structures [3.1 Application of Thin-Walled Shells Theory to Tubular Structures -..ceseeee EZ Stability of Tubular 1.33 Junction of Shells of Different ‘Geom CHAPTER 2 — LOCAL AND OVERALL BUCKLING OF CYLINDRICAL SHELLS I Introduction 2 Overall and Local Buekling 3A Paradox in the Buckling Analysis of Cylindrical Shell under Axial Compression 2.4 Imperfections of the Shell Shape and Edge Effect .. 3 25 Practical Application of Experimental Data. 2-3 26 Allowable Design Stresses .. wea 24 References ~ Chapter 2... 25 CHAPTER 3 — EDGE EFFECT AT TUBULAR STRUCTURES 3.1 Physical Concept wee Bl 3.2. Methods for the Solution of Edge Effect Problems... : 3.2.1 Solution of the Problem by the Force Method ....-- 3.22 Solution of the Problem by the Method of Deformations 33 3.3 Influence of Edge Effect on the Carrying Capacity of the Shell 313 3.4 Local Stresses and Deformations under Internal or External Pressure along the Intersection of Closed Cylindrieal Sttelis «++ 3.4.1 Designations 3.4.2 Rule of Signs - 3.5 Determination of the Stresses under Internal Pressue in the Thin-Waled Shells According to the Membrane Theory «.....+++ 315 3.6 Edge Stresses and Deformations along Intersections of Closed Cylindrical and Conical Shells under Internal Pressure ...-. 17, 3.6.1 Design Loading... 317 3.6.2 Force According to the Membrane Theory 318 3.6.3 Determination of Redundanis X, and X. ‘and Values of M, and H 3s 3.64 Total Local Stresses of Cylindrical Shell {in the Given System) at Level ana, Figure 3.9 (a) 3.18 3.6.5 Summary of the Edge Stresses of the ‘Conical Shell at Level a-a, Figure 3.9 (a) 3-19 3.6.6 The Circumferential Edge Stresses of the Conical Shell 319 3.6.7 Tangential Edge Siresses of the Conical Shell 468 Displacements in the Plane a0 of the Points at the Intersection Line of the Middle Surfaces of the Shells, Directed ‘Along the Radius r from the Axis of the Shell pase B19, 3.69 Twisting of the Section at Level a-a Considering Clockwise Direction as the Positive, Figure 3.11 (b) ..-- +. 319 3.7 Edge Eifectat the Intersection of Closed Cylindrical and Spherical Shells under 319 Internal Pressure, Figure 3.12 .- 319 3.7.1 Design Scheme and Determination of the Forces 319 3.7.2 Summary of the Local Stresses of the Cylindrical Shell in a Given System at Level ava, Figure 3.12 (a) -.-+ - 20 37.2.1 Meridional Edge Stresses of the Spherical Shell .- . 3.7.2. The Circumferential Edge Stresses ‘of the Spherical Shell ....--+++e+0 221 3.7.3 The Increase of the Radius ¢ at a Level a-a, Equal to GR, and-Turn of the Section at some Level Clockwise ¥ 320 Figure 3.12 321 2.8 Edge Erfect of Closed Cylindrical Shells having Stiffening Ring at Their Junction ... 3-21 3.9 Edge Effect at Stiffening Rings of Cylindrical Shells under Internal Pressure P. ve 24 3.10 Edge Effect due to the Eccentric Junction of the Shells peer | 2-05)CHAPTER 4 — THERMAL STRESSES IN TUBULAR STRUCTURE! Relerences — Chapter 3 4.1 Basic Assumptions and Designations 4.2 Thermal Stresses and Deformations in Walls of Cylindrical Shells Uniform Heating — Diagram “" 4.2.2 Stresses and Deformations under Uniform Heating — Diagram 42.3 Stresses and Deformations under Non-Uniform Heating — Diagram “#0 4.2.4 Strevses at Free Edge of Circular Shells under Non-Uniform Heating — Diagram “2” Chapter 42. References CHAPTER 5 — SELF-SUPPORTING STACKS 5.1 Types of Stacks oo 5.2 Desigit Loads ..0.....ceeeeeeeseneeeeee 5.2.1 Dead Load ....- 5.2.2 Live Load 251 2.5.1 Transverse Ocsillations 2.5.2 Effect of Vortex Shedding 2.5.3 Ovalling Oscitlations Earthquake Forces 2.6.1 Base Shear 3 6.2 Distribution of Lateral Forces 6.3 Overturning Moment « 6.4 Supports (65 Erection Conditions... 5. 5 5. 5.2.7 Temperature Influence 5.3 Stress Analysis for Self-Supporting Stacks S34 Dead oad... . 5.3.2 Wind or Earthquake Loads Sf Design of Self-Supporting Stacks SALT Dead Load Stress 5.4.2 Dead Loads and Wind Stresses. 5.4.3 Dead Loads and Earthquake Force Stresses... - 5.4.4 The Allowable Stresses. 5.4.5 Checking of the Wind Induced Oscillations ....... 5.5 Buse Design 3.5.1 Design 01 5.5.2 Base Plate bo 552.1 Base Pate without Gussets 2. 5.2.2 Base Plate with Gussets 5523 praseal Consideration in Designing Base-Plates 5 5.5.24 Design of Gusset Plates for Compression Rings 5 5.6 Approximate Breech Opening Analysis 5.6.1 Conception of the Method 5.6.2 Stresses at the Edge of Breech Opening 5.6.3 Geometrical Properties of the Reduced Cross-Section of the Stack 5.6.3.1 Statical Moment of the Compressed Area chor Bolts = t 5.6.3.2 Statical Moment of Tensile Area 5-20 5.6.3.3 Moment of Inertia of the ‘Compressed Area 5-20 5.6.3.4 Moment of Inertia of the Tensile Area . 5.64 Stresses at Breech Opening: Experimental Tests Rectangular Cutouts 5.7 Design of Stiffeners at Breech Opening 5.7.1 Design of Vertical Stiffeners S.7.1.1 The Load Imposed on each Stiffener by Steel Shell and Lining . 5.7.1.2 The Load Imposed on each Stiffener due to Wind Bending 5.23 Moment 526 5.7.1.3 The Eccentric Bending Moment due to Eccenteicity of Stiffener ..... 5:26 S.2.L.4 The Etfect of the Stiffened Breech ‘Opening on the Strength of the Stack S.7.1.5 Buckling Stability of Vertical Stiffeners 5.7.2 Ring Stiffeners mo 5.8 Rigorous Breech Opening Analysis. 5.8. The Finite Element Program : 5.8.2 Method of Finite Element Analysis . 5.8.3 ANSYS Computer Program ....- Numerical Example No. 1. Approximate Method we S3L Numerical Example No. 2, Rigorous Analysis. Application of Finite Element Method . 37 References — Chapter 5 531 CHAPTER 6 — MULTILEVEL GUYED STACKS 6.1 Parameters-used in the Analysis of Guyed Stack 6.1.1 Introduction «-.- 6.1.2 Guyed Stack Structural System 6.1.3 Support Flexibility . 62 Analysis of the Stack by the Method of Deformation Equilibrium Equations for Span ef 6.2.2 Baulibrium Equation for Spaas e-0 and fg 622.1 Spane-o . 6.2.2.2 Span fg... 6.2.3 Additional Formulas used in the Static ‘Analysis of the Guyed Stack ... 6.3 Buckling Analysis of a Guyed Stack 2.02... 6-7 6.3.1 Introduction ...... ae el 6.3.2 Buckling Load for a Guyed Stack ..... 6-7 6.4 Dynamic Analysis of Guyed Stacks ell 64.1 Introduction + Glt 64.2 Approximate Determination of the ‘Natural Vibrations of a Guyed Stack by the Method of Deformation Gl 6.4.2.1 Moments and Shears for Span f-g veeeeeesevees - 613 6.4.2.2 Moments and Shears for Span e-0 ..... 6-136.4.2.3 Transverse Shear at Stack- Supports from the Cables . 6.5 Forced Vibration of a Guyed Stack 6.5.1 Introduction ..- 65.2 Forced Vibrations from # Harmonic Disturbing Force r Appendix A. Numerical Example f References — Chapter 6 —— * CHAPTER 7 — BINS AND BUNKERS 7.1 Types of Bins « . TP Methods for Classifications of Bunkers and Bins 7.1.2 Structural Systems of Square and Rectangular Bunkers and Bins 72 7.13 Square and Rectangular Bunkers 2 714 Square and Rectangular Bins 4 7.2.1 Bulk Density 72.2 Compressibility 723 Particle Size 7.2.4 Angle of Repose 7.7 External and Internal Angles of Friction .-..-- : 7.2.6 Flow Properties 72.7 Flow 438 Conditions Affecting Flow Properties « 7.28.1 Moisture Content... 2.8.2 Temperature 218.3 Gradation . 2.8.4 Segregation ‘ 7.28.5 Degradation . a 7.28.6 Corrosiveness . 728.7 Abrasion 7.2.9 Flow in Bins 72:10 Pressure Field in Bins. T11. Properties of Stored Materials Functional Design of Square and Rectangular Bins .-..-+.++ 7.3.1 Types of Bins 73.2 Mass-Flow Bins... 7.33 Funnel-Flow Bins 73.4 Expanded-Flow Bins 73.5 Hoppers - 73.6 Outlets 73.7 Archings 7318 Outlets for Mass-Fiow Bins... 713.9 Hoppers for Mass-Flow Bins .... 73.10 Outlets for Funnel-Flow Bins . 73.11 Live Storage 7.3.12 Rate of Discharge Loads TAN Design Considerations... : 7.42 Bin Loading from Stored Material - 74.3 Pressure on Bin Walls, Janssen’s Formula « . 7.4.4 Computation of Static Pressure Lateral and Vertical Properties of Bulk Solids «.-.-.- TH : p 7 7 13 14 7.4.4.1 Janssen’s Method... 16 7.44.2 Reimbert’s Method 77 74.43 Static Pressure on Flat Botioms 7-18 7.4.4.4. Static Forces — Vertical Friction 78 7.4.5 Ovexprssureand-Overprssure Factors, Ca 18 1.46 Static Pressure in Bin Hoppers 19 TAT Design Pressure in Bins - 19 748 Pressures on Bin Walls, Eccentric Outlets 7.4.8.1 DIN Specifications Method 748.2 Imaginary Bin Method 7.49 Lateral Pressure Design Curve 7.410 Limiting the Height of a Bin Wall 7411 Bunker Loads and Forces TA.LI.1 Top Surface of the Stored Material is Horizontal 7.11.2 Top Surface of the Material Sloped 7.4.12 Bunker Design Pressures s Stored | Structural Analysis and Design of Square and Rectangular Bins - oe 7.5.1 General Concept C 75.2 Forces and Moments Acting on the ‘Structural System of the Bin 7.5.3 Vertical Walls, Lateral Pressure 7/54 Vertical Walls, Tension and Bending Moments ‘i . 7.5.4.1 Tensile Forces 542 Bending Moments 5.5 Vertical Walls, Plating : 7.5.5.1 Small Deflection Theory ‘5.5.2 Large Deflection Theory .« 3 Determination of the Plating Thickness tive Width of the 7584 The Plating -.-+ 7.5.6 Vertical Walls, Horizontal and Vertical Stiffeners 1.5.7 Walls Analysis of Multiell Bins 75.8 Hoppers. Determination of ~_Dimensions 731 739 Forces Acting on Hopper Walls rat 7.5.9.1 Design Pressure Normal to the Taclined Walls 132 159.2 Horizontal Tensile Forees 732 759.3 Meridional Tensile Forces at ‘Symmetrical Hopper...» 13 1.598 Meridional Tensile Forces at Unsymmetrical Hopper =.» 734 7.5.10 Hoppers. Design of Plating 7.5.10.1 "Average Pressures on Hoppers’ Panels 134 115.102 Converting of Triangular and ‘Teapezoidal Panels into Rectangular Panels 735 1.5.11 Hoppers. Horizontal ané inclined Stiffeners 36 TS.1L1 Horizontal Stiffeners 7:36 75.11.2 Inclined Stiffeners « 36 7.5.13 Procedure for the Design of Bins «+. 7-36 Square and Rectangular Bunkers. Structural ‘Analysis and Design 137 7.6.1 General Concept 137 7.6.2 Structural Analysis 731 7.6.3 Symmetrical Bunkers ..- 737 7.63.1 Forces Acting on Side Walls... 7-378.1 Introduction : 8.2 Principal Design Codes 8.3 Loads and Design Assumptions .. 8.4 Tank under Internal Pressure . 7.6.3.2 Forces Acting on Hopper Walls 7-38 7.64 Unsymmetrical Bunkers... 738 7.6.4.1 Forces Acting on Walls... 0+. 7-38 7.6.5 Side Wall Design ........0es00s00s. 7-40 7.6.5.1 Side Wall Plating... 7-40 7.6.5.2 Side Wall Stiffeners 740 7.66 Hopper Wall Design en 741 7.6.6.1 Hopper Wall Plating an 7.6.7 Hopper Stiffeners ... 741 7.7 Supports for Square and Rectangular Bins and Bunkers... 742 77.1 Types of Supports 742 7.7.2 Loads Sant 7 173 Wind and Earthquake Loads 10.0... 7-2 7.7.4 Axial Forces in Column under Vertical Loads 742 7.7.5 Bending Moments in Columns under Wind Loading .... ee 7.7.5.1 Hinged Supports cooctg 2) 7.75.2 Fixed Supports Tots 7.8 Circular Bins 744 78.1 Vertical and Horizontal Static Pressures on Cylindrical Wall 24 7.8.2 Determination of Forces and Stresses | 7-15 7.8.2.1 Cylindrical Shell... 785 78.2.2 Conical Hopper Sheil 245 7.8.3 Ring Girder 746 7.8.3.1 Cross-Sectional Area of the Ring Girder under Tension ... + 746 7.8.3.2 Checking of the Compression ‘Ring for Buckling ....... . 746 3.3, Bending Moment in Ring Girder .. .T4T 7.8.3.4 Force System in the Horizontal Bracing Rods at Strut Line . 747 7.84 Columns ee Tas 7.84.1 Tower Bracing Rods 749 7.8.5 Roofs for Circular Bins . 749 ~ 7.8.5.1 General Data . 7.49 78.52 Self-Supporting Conical Root .. 7-49 7.8.5.3 Cone Roofs with Simply ‘Supported Rafters 4 Self-Supporting Spherical Domes 7.9 Circular Bunkers... : 7.9.1 Forces in the Cylindrical Section of a Bunker . 7.9.2 Pressures in Cylindrical Section |. 7.9.3 Meridional Tedision in Cylindrical ‘Section ... 7.9.4 Forces in the Conical Section » 7.9.5 Stresses in the Walls 7.9.6 Ring Beam and Supports Appendix A. Example No. | ‘Appendix B. Example No. 2 References — Chapter 7. a CHAPTER 8 — HORIZONTAL STORAGE TANKS. 8.6 Stability under Axial Compression 8.7 Bending Stability 8.8 Exteraat Pressure Erieet 89 8.10 Approximate Stress Analysis of the Tanks». 8-9 8.11 Stability of Unstiffened Tanks 8.12 Stability of Heads under Uniform External 8.13 Stability of Horizontal Tank wi 8.5 Heads of the Tanks under Internal Pressure 8.5.1 Hemispherical Heads 8.5.2 Conical Dished Heads . 8.5.3 Ellipsoidal Dished Heads 8.5.4 Flat-Plate Heads 8.8.1 The Relationship for the Conditions Beyond the Critical Length... se 86 8.8.2 Instability of Cylinders Shorter than Critical Length -.... 87 8.8.3 The Design-Aliowable Curve for External Pressure .. eo 8.9 Stability of Unstiffened Tanks. Combined Loadings - 88 89.1 Internal Pressure and Axial Compression .. 8.9.2 Internal Pressure and Bending... 8.9.3 Axial Compression and Bending... 8.9.4 Axial Compression and External Pressure 8.10.1. Stresses in the Tank under the Weight of Liquid . 8.10.2 Stress in the Tank under Its Own Weight te 8.10.3 Tank having Rigid Stiffening End Rings. Either Freely Supported or Fixed under the Weight of the Liguid and Its ‘Own Weight foce 8.11.1 Critical Length between Stilfeners . 8.11.2 Collapsing Pressure on Tank with Circumferential Stiffeners - 8 1.3 Design of Circumferential Stiffeners . 8. 8.11.4 Short, Ring-Stiffened Tanks ........ 8 8.1.4.1 Material Failure cea 8 8.11.42 Buckling between Rings 8 8.11.43 General Instability Pressure 8.12.1 Spherical Head 8.12.2 Hemispherical and Torispherical Heads . 8.12.3 Ellipsoidal Head 8.124 Conical Head . ‘Supports ....... References — Chapter 8 CHAPTER 9 — ABOVE GROUND PIPELINES, 9.1 Introduction 9.2 Design Loads and Forces 9.2.1 Dead Load . 9.2.2 Live Load 9.23 Wind Forces - 9.2.4 Icing 9.2.5 Temperature influence 9.2.6 Earthquake Forces... . 9.3 Pipe Stress Analysis .... epee9.3.1 Straight Pipe undeF Titernal Pressure .. 9-2 9.3.1.1 Circumferential or Hoop Stresses = 92 9.3.1.2 Barlow’ Formula asl 9.3.1.3 The Allowable Unit Stress 9.2 9.3.1.4 Longitudinal Stresses . 92 9.3.2 Strewes in Circular Bends 92 9.3.2.1 Ciccumferential or Hoop ‘Seresses : 93 9.3.3 Bending Stresses 903 944 Buckling Stability on Multispan Straight Pipe under Own Weight and Liguid Pressure ..... 9-3 95 Multispan Pipe under Different Loadings ... 9-4 9.6 Buckling of the Pipe due to Ovalling Effect .. 9-6 9.7 Buckling of the Pipe as Beam-Column 9-6 9.8 Buckling Stability of Curved Pipes pee or, 9.8.1 Basic Parameters of the Curved Pipe .. 9-7 9.8.2. Effect of Flattening of the Cro Section during Bending ..... oT 9.8.3 Longitudinal and Transverse Stresses. _— “due to Bending cee 88 9.8.4 Bending of the Pipe In-Plate of Curvature 98 9.8.5 Bendinu of the Pipe Oui-of-Plane of ‘Curvature cee 90, 9.9 Buckling Stability of Stiffened Pipe... 9-12 9.9.1 Method of Solution 91, 9.9.2 Normal Stress Components for Dillerent Loading «=~ 9-12 09.3 Determination of the Critical Buckling Stresses a 9.13 9.10 Temperature Effect upon a Restrained Pipe od 9.10.1 Free Expansion of Contraction of the Pee S913 9.10.2 Stewses Produced by Restraints at Uniform Change of Temperature =... 913 9.10.3 Sirewes Produced by Restraints Non-Catiorm Change of Temperature -. 9-14 9.11 Stresses Produced by Bending and Temperature under Restraint 9.15 Sui Bending Sireses under Weight of Pipe fand Liquid ois 9.11.2 Bending Stresses duc to the Eccentricity of the Axial Restrain Load .. 9-15 lla Axl Compre Sts a6 2 Criveria of Satety for Complex Stress a 9-16 0.13 Loads on Anchor and Buttress Blocks... 9-17 9.13-1 Anchor Blocks 3.17 9.13.2 Buttress Blocks 917 9.14 Buckling of the Pipe at Supports 918 9.14.1 Saddle Supports Tous 9.14.2 Stress Effect due to Saddle Support. 9-18 91142 Ring Girder Supports 9:20 3.14.31 Stress in Pipe Shell as) 9.14.32 Rim Stresses. ot 9.14.33 Stress in Ring Girder « 9.21 9.15 Vibration of Pipeline In oz 9.16 Influence of Imperfections + 9-23 9.16.1 Introduetion . 9.23 9.183 Stabity of the Pipe having Lost Eccentricity =~ . 933 9.16.3 Out-Of-Round Pipe | : see 9.164 Out-Ol-Round Curved Pipe .- References — Chapter 9 - 9.26 9.26 CHAPTER 10 — UNDERGROUND PIPELINES 10,1 Introduction Lo-t 10.2 Types of Loads Wo-t 10,3 Determination of Load 10 10.4 Tain-Walled Pipe Installed with Controlled Compaction . 10-4 10.5 Ring Stress 105 10.5.1 Critical or Collapse Stress 10-5 10.5.2 Selection of Wall Thickness - 0-5 10.6 Stability of the Underground Pipeline 10-5 10.7 Stability of Straight Pipeline... 10-6 103 Stability of she Pipeline at Longitudinal and ‘Transverse Flexure 10-6 10.9 The Determination of Critical Stresses 10-8 10.10 Stability of the Pipeline having Initial Flexure ‘i os 10.11 Stability of Pipeline at Eecentrical Compression 10-10 10.12 Differential Equation of Stability of Straight Pipeline -.-. 1o-t1 10.13 Stability of Underground Pipeline along Straight Section .. 10-12 10.14 Stability Analysis of Deformed Shapes of Pipeline .- 10-13 10.15. Assymptotie Forms of Bulging of | Underground Pipelines 0-1 10.16 Stability of Pipeline at the Bends of Greater Radius ...- 0-15 10.17 Stability of Pipeline at Single Span Crossings... 10-16 10.18 Stability of Underground Ppt at Bends of Small Radius 10-18 10.19: Stability of Pipelines at Branching 10-19 10.20 Stability of Parts of a Pipeline on the Banks of a Crossing 10-20 0.21 Recommendations for Stability Design of Buried Pipeline ... 10-21 10.22 Soil Resistance Against Longitudinal Displacements of Pipelines ......+++ 10-21 10.23 The Resistance Against Transverse Displacements of Pipeline . 10-24 10.24. Determination of Compressive Stresses in ‘a Pipeline . - wees 10025 10,25 The Influence of Internal Pressure « 10-25 10.26 Design of Pipelines for Stability . 10-25 Appendix ...-.- 10-26 Numerical Example No. T 10-26 Numerical Example No. 2 10-27 Numerical Example No. 3 10-27 References — Chapter 10 - 10-29 CHAPTER 11 — UNDERWATER PIPELINES. HLL Introduction «4... tt 112 Pipelaying Memods |. et 11.2.1 Bottom Pull Method Het 11.22 Flotation Method .- I 11.23 Reeled Pipe Method . - 12 1124 Lay Barge Method - 12 11.3 Pipeline Construction 1211.4 Pipeline Coating 11.3 Pipeline Anchoring 11.6 Stability of Pipeline during Construction. 11-6 11.6.1 Lay Barge Method of Construction .. 11-6 11.6.2 Method of Free Launching of the Pipeline na 11.6.3, Stresses in the Pipe during the Lowering ‘of hts End by Filling with Water... 19 11.6.4 Critical Tension and Inclination of a Deep-Water Pipeline Laid from the Barge U1.6.4.1 Natural Catenary Method =. 11.6.8 Stresses due to the Lifting of Submerged Pipeline fee its 11.7 Structural Analysis and Design of Pipeline ...... Hels IL7.1 Stability Requirements vo... lo. Weta 11.7.2 Stability During Construction lel 11.73 Stability In-Place fees Uelt 11.8 Hydrodynamic Forces Acting on. ‘Submarine Pipeline ceo UEIS 11.9 Preliminary Steuctural Design nS 11.10 Pipe Bending Stress and Radius of Curvature Lets HL.LE Concept of Structural Stability 2.0... 1-19) L112 Pipe Strength Problem 119 1.12.1 Buckle Propagation 11.13 Buckling of Pipeline under Hydrostatic Pressure 11.13, Long Unstiffened Pipe 11132 Stiffened Pipe 1113.3 Critical Length between Stitfening Rings ..... 12d 11.134 Collapsing Pressure of Pipeline with Ring Stiffeners 12 11.135 Design of Ring Stiffeners 11-22 L135 Design of Ring Stiffeners 0.20... (1-22 1113.6 Design of Long Pipe having —— : Imperiections .. 11.23, 1.14 Vertical Stability of the Sagging Pipeline 11-23 1.14.1 Criterion for Sinking of the Pipe .. [1-24 11.142 Symmetrical Sag of a Pipeline in Piastically Deformed Sediment ....... 11-24 11.14,3 The Basic Equation of Combined Flexure and Elongation ina Pipe ..... 11-24 11.144 Longitudinal Slippage at the End of the Pipe cesses U6 11.185 The Characteristic Dimensionless Parameters 11-26 11.146 Practical Forms of the Equations for Moments, Slope and Relative Sag .... 11-27 11,14,7 Induced Stresses. L148 The Dimensionless Parameters References — Chapter I CHAPTER 12. — TUBULAR CONVEYOR GALLERIES [2.1 Introduction «...- ee 12.2 Internal Arrangement and Exterior Protection of the Tube 12.2.1 Sluiceway .. 122.2 Thermal Insulation - 12.4 Supporting Structures for Conveyor Gallery 124.1 The Inverted V-Bent 12.42 The Single Post cs 12.4.3 Advantages of Inverted V-Beats and Single Posts over Conventional Supports .. 12.44 Erection of Tubular Galleries 12.5 Fabrication .. 12.6 Loads and Forces (2.7 Structural Analysis and Design 12.7.1 Vertical Loads . 12.7.2 Horizontal Forces 12.73 Temperature Effects. 12.74 Structural Behavior - 8 Stress Analysis an "12.8.1 General Data... 12.8.2 Vertical and Horizontal Loads 128.3 Combined Cases 128.4 Allowable Stresses 129 Stability Requirements 12.9.1 General Data... 12.92 Local Buckling or Wrinkling - 12.10 Overall Buckling... 12.10.1 Tube Under Combined Loading 12.11 Intermediate Stiffening Rings 12.111 Design of the Stiffening Ring 12.12. Ring Girders at Supports 12.121 Analysis and Design of Ring Girder ~ 12.127 Horizontal Loads 12.13 Elliptical Tube for Conveyor Gallery 1213.1 Loads and Forces 1213.2 Stress Analysis 12.133 Vertical and Horizontal Loads -. 12.134 The Principal Stresses 12.135 Horizontal Loads 1213.6 Buckling Stability 12.13.6.1 Bending 12,13.7 Torsion ..- References — Chapter 12 APPENDIX A New AWS Code Specifies the Design of Tubular Structures APPENDIX B Author's IndexCHAPTER i introduction 1.1 General Concept Tubular structures consist of stiffened and unstiffened shells, of eylinders constructed from steel sheets with large diameter-to-thickness ration Dt, Such structures are used for the storage of granular solids. liquids and fgases, transportation of liquids and gases. as supporting galleries for conveyors and for discharge of ool or heated eases. “Tubular steel structures in most cases are space type structures such as: stacks, bins and bunkers. liquid stor~ lage tanks. pipelines and conveyor galleries. Cylinders with large diameter-to-thickness ratios most often are called shells, Typically. shells are stiffened, When a single descriptive term is required. the “cylindes” or “tubular member” is utilized 4.2 Advantages of Tubular Structures ‘Any advantages of tubular structures may be summarized as follows: 1.2.1 Optimum Utilization of Material Structurally, the shell is very efficient, since it is a con- tinuous medium and a high proportion of the material an be used to capacity. The cylindrical shell provides the most efficient cross-sectional shape under axial compres- Sion having equal lateral restraint in all directions normal to the eylinder axis. Yhe material is conveniently distrib- luted along the perimeter and the radius of gyration is ‘Constant for all axis passing through the centroid of cross Section. To insure the stability of compressed section inall directions the circular eylinder isthe best by a comparison fof all other sections and the most economical “The particular advantages of some tubular structures consists in their capacity to perform.technological func- tions and simultancously to serve as a carrying structure, Generally, itis possible to design tubular structures having a minimum weight of metal, simplicity in fabriea- tion and erection, and durability in operation. The second factor permitting the reduction of the weight of tubular structures is substantially smaller aero- dynamic and hydrodynamic resistances under wind and ‘water actions, respectively. For instance. for relatively high tubular structures where the stress often depends by 80% to 90% of wind pressure, the amount of metals in a structure is possible to be reduced more than twice by Comparison with conventionally designed structure, it should be mentioned also that the material of tubu- lar struetures by comparison with the equal cross-section al areas has a minimal perimeter of contact under atmos- pherie influences, Therefore, tubular structures require Patatively smaller quantities of paint or other protective Tneasures. Also, experience indicates that the effect of Corrosion at the exposed area of tubular structuresis from 6% to 30° smaller than at conventional structures. 1.2.2 Fabrication Although the advantages of the tubular structures have been known for a long time, it was the introduction of welding which made its extensive use possible, Welding has facilitated the design and construction of a great vari~ cty of tubular structures due to simplification inthe fabri- cation of joints. Old types of joint connections of tubular members by bolts and rivets were expensive and did not provide simple and safe joints. Fusion welding is the most widely used method of fabrication for the construction of tubular structures. ‘This method of construction is virtually unlimited with regard to size and is extensively used for the fabrication land erection of large-size tubular structures in the field. Often such structures are fabricated by the method of sub~ assembly. In this process, sections of the unit are shop ‘welded and then assembled in the field. Members of tubu~ far structures having a size sufficiently small to permit transportation by trucks, ral, or barge are usually com= pletely shop welded because of the lower cost and greater Control of the welding procedure in the shop. “There are two types of fusion welding that are exten- sively used forthe fabrication of tubular structures, These are! 1. The gas welding process, ia which a combustible mi ture of acetylene and oxygen supply the necessary heat for fusion, and 2. The eleetric-are welding process, in which the heat of fusion is supplied by an electric current,Tubular Steel Structures — Theory anit Design Arc welding is the preferred process because of the reduction of heat in the material being welded. the reduc- tion of oxidation and better control of the deposited weld metal. A wide range of are-welding equipment is avail- able, from the small portable welding units to the la automatic welding machines, Small arc-welding _ma- chines are widely used in welding shops that fabricate small equipment whereas automatic machines are better sultea for the Welding of heavy sections involving the deposition of a large quantity of weld metal One of the most recent and successful developments in the field of are welding is the submerged-are weld process. The process involves submerging of the are be- neath a blanket of granulated mineral flux. In addition to, completely protecting the weld metal from the atmos- phere. this process makes the weld metal virtually free of hydrogen. The success of fabrication by welding is dependent upon the conteol of the welding variables such as experi= ence and training of the welder, the use of proper mater- ials. and welding procedures. A number of codes and standards have been established for control of such weld: ing variables, The American Welding Society (AWS) established the basic standards for qualifying operators and proce dures. These standards of qualification form the basis for most of the standards in the various codes. For practical purposes. therefore. the rules for qualifying welders and welding procedures are essentially the same in the various, codes and standards. Regardless of whether or not the welded tubular structure is intended to meet one of the codes or standards. it is advisable that the welding con: -m to one of the minimum standards, A sariety of types of welded joints are used in the fabrication of vessels. The selection of the type of joint depends upon the service. the thickness of the metal, fab- rication procedures, and code requirements, 1.3 Structural Behavior of Tubular Structures 1.3.1 Application of Thin-Walled Shells Theory to Tubular Structures Tubular structures which have found a wide application, in modern industry consists generally of the cylindrical, conical and spherical shells of their combinations. For the practical analysis and design of tubular structures, we may apply the theory of thin-walled shells, however, with, certain limitations. This is because the formulas for thin- walled shells were developed under the theoretical as- sumption that the ratio t/R is very small, However, in practice. in application to tubular structures, this ratio «/R may have greater values and the results obtained always have an approximate character. Therefore, it is important to find the maximum value of the ratio t/ R when the deviation obtained by the theory of thin shells is, practically permissible, or to determine the limiting value of ratio t/R at which the (ubular structure may be con- sidered as “thin-walled.” We approach this problem under certain considera- tion which may permit us to obtain a practical solution of the problem. . " Let us consider a closed cylinder under internal pres- sure, having internal and external radii, and R respec tively, and (= Rr, is the thickness of the wall, The maxi mum and minimum values of the circumferential stresses applying the theory of thick wall cylinders are 2p; ap But from the theory of thin-walled cylinders. if ris the middle radius of the wall, we have ay Because R= ¢+Land r= aftersubstitting these Values into (1.1), we obtain . a3) min = BE + aan The deviation of the approximate value of o from the exact will be given in per cent by the expressions aay Assirming certain values of tin function or r. we may find corresponding values of a, and a, shown in Table La TABLE 1.1 — Values of Coetficients 0; and a. T @ or | arse | oe oe @ 025 056 0.98 38: a 78 7 235 56 This Table indicates that even att =0.2r the deviation from omax does not reach 1%. Regarding the deviation of, 23.5% from amin. this deviation may be considered as the factor of greater safety. Therefore, for the design analysis of eylindrical shells, used in practice, formulas developed for thin-walled shells. may be applied up to the values of c= 0.2r. For the analysis of cylindrical shells also of great in- terest is the determination of edge forces. These forces basically depend on the deformations at the shell’s edges under external forces. The change of the r< 2 te eg toliowing ormula: ‘on experiments performed by different investiga- fy (2.10) tors (2. A sigificant part of the experiments leads to the values of plying above O18, However, certain values li below this mageitude ad f-separate cases turn out to be 3,300 2 en equal 9006-015. Figure 24 indicatesan evident tend ye 16 T { «| | CT L 4 4 = i ttl Ss J | ] rad | PA Je lela| t | LL, ey) ft Ty | TTT 3 rt 7 s TT s LTT ! ! chalet Ht mannIT s. CUA ON Litt 2 Pi PS ry ad Li | ° TT T itt | al | Lt |_| Ul Li 7 Comin / | WT ry A Loti y Poti thy Lit 2 3456789 > 2 3456789 5 2 3 4 56783, 10 10 r 0 FIGURE 25 —Correlaton factors for unstittened circular cylinders subjected to axlal compression.ee Local and Overall Buckling of Crlindrical Shells eo | fe, BRewson noma BR ecomociss Kt B BUCKLING STRESSES mW , vit + ot Sas = 2 tt an FIGURE 2.6 — The recommended allowable buckling stresses. At yield soint for mild steel Fy = 36 ksi the limits are 2 2.12) 92 < 2« 362 2.12) Formula (2.10) is recommended by the American Iron and Steel Institute [2.28]. Baker etal [2.29] proposed the following formula for the determination of the local buckling stress foreylindri- cal shells of moderate length. 25 Opp = O+6E 2.1) where the values of the correlation factor 7” in the fune- tion of the ratio (R /t}, are shown in Figure 2.5. The corre- lation 7 is introduced to account for the difference be- tween theoretical and experimental results. Wilson and Newmark [2.30] cacried tests using tubu- Jae steel compression members having a large Dt ratio, In the elastic range, the magnitude of the critical buckling stress is expressed as follows 8,000 | xsi. dee = SOE ks: uy) Assuming the factor of safety = 1.5, the allowable rit~ ical stress for local buckling is oo 3338 cx be 1 ksi 15 The recommended allowable stresses for local buck~ ling in the function of D/t are shown in Figure 2.62.31]. Long cylindrical shells must be checked for overall buckling as an Euler column, by the formula (2.6). ‘Buckling analysis of the cylindrical shell indicates that there has been little agreement between theoretical ‘and experimental results for critical loads of shell struc- ture, since apparently, iofinitesimal deviations in bound- ary conditions and in the shape of the shell yield drastic reduction in eritical loads. Itis believed that accurate for- ‘huiation of a problem in terms of nonlinear theory and exact solution of the equations would result in a close ‘agreement bet ween theoretical and experimental results. ‘Ac present, for actual practice, however, this procedure is, prohibitively difficult, Nonlinear theory serves to broad- ‘en our knowledge of shell buckling analysis and to clarity the meaning and limitations of linear stability theory. but at present, it is nota design tool for direct determination ‘of the buckling load. REFERENCES — CHAPTER 2 [2.1] Lorenz, R.. “Achsymmetrische Verzerrungen in dun- wandigen Hohlzylinder”, Zeitschrift des Vereins Deut- Scher Ingenierus, Vol. 52, 1908, p. 1706, (in German). [2.2] Timoshenko, S..“Einige Stablitatsprobleme der Elas- tizitatstheorie”, Zeitschrift fur Math. und Physik. Vol 8, 1910, pp. 337-385, (in German). [23] Southwell, R.V.. “On the General Theory of Elastic Philos, Trans, Royal Soc., London, Series A Vol. 213, 1913, pp. 197-244 [24] Dean, W.R.. Pros. Royal Society. London, Series A, Vol. 107, 1935, p. 734. [2.5] Prescott. J.. “Applied Elasticity", Longmans, Green and Co.. London, 1924, pp. 30-564 (2.8) MoGuire, W., “Steel Structures", Prentice-Hall, Inc. Englewood Cliffs, N.J. 1968.p. 418. [27] Von Karman, Th., Dunn. L.G..and Tsien, H.S.. "The Influence of Curvature on the Buckling Characteristics of Struetures™, Journ. Aeron. Sei. Vol. 7, No. 7. 1940, 276, (28) Von Karman, Th. and Tsien, H.S.. “The Buckling of ‘Thin Cylindrical Shells Under Axial Compression". Journ. Aeron. Sci., Vol, 8, No. 8. 1941. p. 303 [29] Michielson, H.F..“The Behaviour of Thin Cylindrical Shells After Buckling”, Journ, Aero. Sei. Vol. 15. No, 12, 1988 [2.410] Kirste. L.. “Abwicketbare Verformung dunnwandiger Kreiszylinder (Evoluable Formation of a Thin-Walled Ring Cylinder)”. Oester. Ing.-Archiv. Vol. 8. No. 2-3. 1984, (in German). [2.11] Kempner, J..~Postbuckling Behavior of Axially Com- pressed Circular Cylindrical Shells” Jougn. Acro. Sei. Vol 21, 1984, pp, 329-334,NN 26 Tubular Steel Structures — Theory and Design [2.12] Pogorelov, A.V.."Geometric Methods in the Nonalin- [2.22] Stein. M.. "Notes om the fluence of Prebuckling De= ear Theory of Elastic Shells". Moscow, 1967, p.232.(in formations and Stcesses on the Buckling of Perfect Russian. Colinders”. Lecture on the Static and Dynamic Stabil~ ity of Structures, UCLA, Sept. 25-0et. 4. 1963 [2.13] Hutchinson, J. “Axial Buckling of Pressurized Imper- ft cynnurical snot" Atqneurnats Vola Ne @, (228 Obiea, HL. Local Buckling Theory of Axially, Com- 2.14) 13) 2.16) p29) (2.20) Aug. 1965, pp. 1461-1466 Almroth, B.0.. “Influence of Imperfections and Edge Resteaint on the Buckling of Axially Compressed C3l- inders”, CR-432, NASA. April, 1966. Budiansky. B.. and Hutchinson, J.W., "A Survey of ‘Some Buckling Problems". AIAA Journal, Vol. 4. No 9. Sept. 1986. pp. 1505-1810 (Dym, C.L and Hoff, N.J."Perurbation Solutions for the Buckling Problems of Axially Compressed Thin Clindrieai Shells of Infinite or Finite Length Journ. Appl. Meck... Dec. 1968, Babcock, C.D..and Sechler, E.E.,"The Effect of tnitiat Imperfections on the Buckling Stress of Cylindrical Shells”. TN D-2005, NASA. July. 1963. Babeock. C.D.,"The Influence of a Local Imperfection. fon the Buckling Load of a Cylindrical Shell Under ‘Axial Compression", SM-68-4, Feb, 1968, Graduate ‘Aeron. Lab., Calif, Instit. of Technology. *Arboct, J. and flabeoek. C.D.. “Experimental Invest ution of the Effect of General Imperfections 97 the Bucking of Cylindrical Shelis, SM_ 68-7, Feo. 1368, Grad, Aeron. Lab.. Cait. Instit, of Technology Koiter, W.T..“On the Elastic Stability of Elastic Equili= brium®, Thesis, Polytechnic Institute Delft, Translation by the National Aeronautics and Space Administra tion, Washington, D.C.. March. 1967. Koiter. W.T.. “Elastic Stability and Postbuckling Behaviour". Proc. of the Sympos. on Nonlinear Prob- lems, Ed., Langer, R.E, Univ. of Wisconsin Press. 1963, p. 257, pressed Cylinders”, Proc. Eleventh Japan. Natl. Congr for Appl. Mech.. Tokyo, 1961 Hoff, N.J.. and Tsai, C.S.."Buckling of Circular Cylin« drical Shells in Aviat Compression”. N6S=14484, Stan ford University. Dept. of Aeronautics and Asteonau tics, SUDAER No. 204, 1964 Bag Vol'mir, A.S.. "Stability of Elastic Systems”. National Technical Information Service, U.S. Department of ‘Commerce, 19&5 Translation from Russian). pp. 590- SL Donnell, L.H..“A New Theory for the Buckling of Thin Cylinders Under Axial Compression and Bending” Trans, ASME. Vol. 56, 1934. p. 795. Plantema, FJ. “Collapsing Stresses of Circular Cine ders and Round Tubes", Report S. 280. Nat. Luchte ‘saartlaboratorium. Amsterdam, Netherlands. 1946, American fron and Steet Institute, “Specification for the Design of Cold-Formed Steel Sruetural Members Edition 1968. p. 25 “Structural Analysis of Shells” New Yor. 1 Baker, EM et al MeGraw Hi 8 M.. and Newmark, N.M,."The Strength of idrical Shells as Columns” Bulletin No. 285 Mlinois, February. 1933 University ‘Troitsky, M.S..°On the Local and Overall Stability of Thin-Walled Large Diameter Tubular Structures”. Proceedings Canadian Structural Engineering Conter= tence, Montceal, February 22-24, 1976. pp. 1-32. ooCHAPTER 3 edge effect at tabular structures 3.1 Physical Concept Stresses and deformations in thin-walled shell, deter- tried by applying the membrane theory are coreect only rones located at certain distances from the changes of stich geometrical parameters as shape. dimensions and. Mftfness and also {rom the places of sharp changes in act- ing forces ror sections having changes in geometry. apart from forces stresses and deformations which are determined in plving the membrane theory. additional forces. stresses ed ‘Due to the elastic resistance of the adjoining parts the edge effect does not spread too far. but rather acts lupon relatively narrow zones, The edge effect is spread by relatively fast diminishing waves, the general character of ‘shich is shown in Figure 3.1, where at the axis sare ordi- —fuates of the wave curve and-atong the axis y~are plotted Tenaths of the generatrix of the shell, ‘The phisical causes of origination of the edge effect, ‘a, An absence of free deformation of the shell, under membrane stresses in a circumferential direction, b. Sudden changes or eccentricity of the generatrix, which lead under axially-symmetrical loading to the bigin of local forces, distributed along the circumfer~ nce of shell as projections of meridional forces on a plane, normal t0 the axis, or on moments due to its eccentricity. FIGURE 3.1 — Diagram of dlminshing of edge effect. Axis Ox — Tocation of origin of edge effect. Anexample, shown in Figure 3.2illustrates the origi- nal causes of edge effect. ‘At the elevation a-a under free deformation and load~ ing P; an increase of radii may be expressed as follows: For a cylinder For a cone 2) where ‘9, = longitudinal stress os = sircumferemtial stress feybteon = thicknesses of the walls of a cylinder and cone, respectively = Poisson's ratio E = modulus of elasticity of shell materials {In general cases ae 4 OR sing G3) ‘and at the free elastic deformations results in a relative displacement at section a-a. However, the interconnec- tion between the cylindrical and conical shells prevents free deformation at these shells ata level a-a which results in the origin of local bending at this level. Apart from this, the edge effect originates due to a break of the generatrix land the existence of the local circumferential forces in the plan a-a, which are projections of the meridional forces of Conical shell. The presence of these forces cause different ‘deformations and stresses to those of the parts of a shell located relatively at a distance from section ava. This results in the local bending of shells at theie interconnec~ Tiong, Therefore in general, a3 shown in Figure 3.2. he ledge effect is cue to both causes. In particular, at the ratio of a shell thickness toys souk = sins G4) and under internal or external uniform pressure, we have be = oRsing 8sTubular Steel Structures — Theory and Design hs. i K | rN ' N | . | XN | Ra iN aRand erg \ 1 FIGURE 3.2 — Intersection of cylindrical and conical shells. : - J lJ v : FIGURE 3.3 — Intersection ofthe cylinder, cone and stiffening which may be easily obtained rom formulas (3.1) and 2). In this case, the edge effect originates from the second However, it is possible to choose sucha ratio of wall thicknesses of Batt shells at their interseecion, co canes! the edge effect ‘Also, by using the stiffening ring at the intersection, it is possible to prevent free deformations of shells and cancel the edge effect. Figure 3.3 The increase of radius of stiffening ring is expressed by the value as 86) where HytHeone * trusts of the etinder and cone, espec- A = cross-sectional area of the ring The values of thrusts Heyl and Héone may be ob- tained after solving the problem of edge effect. Figures 3.4 (a) and 3.4 (b) show examples of the appearance of an edge effect due only to the first cause of In this case there is no break ofthe generatris, but the deformations are restricted in case (a) due to the presence of the stiffening ring and in case (b) due to the junction of different thicknesses of che walls of hoth shells. which results in unequal Sales the same loading p. ‘The example shown in Figure 3.5 is characterized by the presence of the second cause of the origin of the edge effect. The brake producing the eccentricity of the genera- trices cause the appearance along the ring at level a-a of the local moments due to the eccentricity originating at the edge bending of the shell 3.2 Methods for the Solution of Edge Effect Problem At intersections of the shells, where the edge effects origi- hate, apart from the meridional and circumferential forees, determined by the membrane theory. the bending. of shells’ also originate, accompanied by the bending. moment, shear forsé and additional meridional and cir- cumferential forces, caused by the bending of the shells. These additional forces producing deformations. cannot be determined by using membrane theory only For their determination, it is necessary to apply the moment theory and consider the displacements of a stat~ ically-indeterminate system consisting of connected shells with or without stiffening rings. Itis possible then tosolve the problem of edge effects by applying known methods of structural mechanics, namely a method of forces or a method of deformations 32 Solution of the Problem bythe ForceMethod By the solution of the problem by the force method. we now apply conditions of continuity of deformations(rela- tive displacement, relative angle of rotation and. break ofFe ome Edge Effect at Tubular Structures * FIGURE 2.4 — Schemes of intersections of shells: (2) Cylindrical shell having stent Glferent thicknesses of the walls. FIGURE 3.5 — Scheme of the intersection of shells in the case of Cceentricfunctton of two cylindrical ell the sections are equal to zero), The shell at the place of origin of the edge effect is cut by the plane, normal to the axis of the shell, and therefore, is transformed into the basic statically-determinate system. "To the separated parts of the shell, we shall apply given loadingsand forces, which have been determined by the membrane theory and also any unknown forces namely moments ina meridional direction and forces in i rB | if a Et eal \ p Ca ‘The values of the unit displacements dik and displace ments due to the loadings Ajp are given in Tables 3.1 to 3.12, and Table 3,13. Alter obtaining the solutions and finding the unknown factors, we then determine any stresses and deformations by the methods described below 3.2.2 Solution of the Problem by the Method of Deformations By using the method of deformations we apply the condi- tion of equalization to zero or to the given value of exter~ nal reactive forces acting on connected shells and stiffen- ing rings at the original location of the edge effect, Figure 36. At the location of the edge effect an assumed fixity under twist and displacement is given. The basic equa~ tions of deformations are } G3) Where the unknowns are an angle of twist of the joint y, RRS Sao dha to the axieoP the'shelP-Then--weeonm=nerands displacement.oL-the joint ¥> alang tbe, c24i25.19. S36. struct the usual equations of the force method. In parti- cular, haying two unknowns-moment X, and force X>— the equations are 2 plane normal to the axis of the shell. “The coefficients of equations ain designate a sum- mary ofthe external reactive forces which are necessary 10ot Tubular Steel Structures — Theory and Design ‘TABLE 3.1 — Values of Displacements 6 and «In Basle Systems for the Analysis of Shells by the Force Method. ie System Circular Cylinder Unit Displacements din (METH N= 1) ans SiH OR eRe ans where t= distance betwaen the location of origin of the eage ‘effect ALAR IK b= Poisson's ratioEfe set at Tubular Spructares TABLE 2.2 — Values of Displacements 6 and 2 in Basic Systems for the Analysis of Shells by the Force Method. Displacements due to the loadings 4iP Uniform Pressure Pin the Closed Shell_| Uniform Pressure P in the Open Shell ilangular Loading P in the Open Shel Basic System — Circular Cylinder | ] rc | 4 | os | 5 | sl | Ley | 1 | | 1 | | 1 ' | | | FOR UPPER PART | | | | pe ene SM 3 pmTubular Steel Structures — Theory and Design TABLE 3.9 — Values of Displacements 6 and & in Basic Systems for the Analysis of Shells by the Force Method. Displacements Due to the Loadings Ai Vertical Uniformly Ot buted on ‘Loading Ns, Applied Uniformly Along ‘Surface Loading @ the Generatri Unitorm Heating in t Degrees the coefficient of thermal | | expansion. Ing tie For ste a = G,0co012 er oG |= Ridge Efject at Tubular Structures TABLE 3.4 — Values of Displacements 6 and 4 in a Basic System for an Analysis of Shells Using the Force Method. Basic System ait Displacements — Fin kcular Cone Circular ConeNeen een UEEEEEEEEnae sd Tubular Steel Structures — Theory afi TABLE 3.5 — Values of Displacements 6 and 4 in a Batic System {or the Analysis of Shells by the Force Method. Displacements Due The Loading Sip Uniform Pressure Pim a Closed Shell Uniform Pressure P in an Open Shell 1 | j | | T T - | i | “ 3 | z i | : | co £ | aoidee Effect at Tubular Structures “TABLE 3.6 — Values of Displacements & and 4 in a Basic System for the Analy Diaplacerents Due te the Loading SiP ical Uniformly Distributed on | Vertical Uniformly Distributed on ‘Surface Loading Surtace Loading @ CCieular Cone Circular Cone Truncated Circular Cone TABLE 3.7 — Values of Displacements 6 and & in Basic System for the Analysis of Shells by the Force Method Cements Gin (MH = N= 1) Basie System — Sphere z|x10 Tubular Stee! Structures ~ Theory and Design TABLE 38 — Vales of Dplacements 6 ang in a Basic System forthe Analysis of Shel bythe Force System Displacements Due fo the Laing Sip Unitorm Pressure Pin | Unitorm Pressure Pin | Unitorm Pressure Pin | Uniform Pressure Pin] Triangular Presaure Pin oved Shee Sen Sale (lene) shane | a Over shoes mara oces sont | | | | ‘ . | : Uniform Heating in. : i : "Degrees TABLE 2.9 — Values of Displacements 4 and A in Basic System for the Analysis of Shells by the Force Method, Basic System — . Designa ne Displacements = sites Nea) Unit Displacements — fig (M= EH = N= 1)Edge Effect at Tubular Structures TABLE 3.10 — Values of Displacements 6 and d in 3 ‘TABLE 3.11 — Values of Olgplacements 6 and 4 in a Baan eerie Analyais of Shells by the Force Method. Basic System for the Analysis of Shells By the Force Method. Diaplacenents Boe he Lovana Sip | uni Opiacements plane Circular Plate | ogi H SENN | | | ‘an Open Shall, {Degrees | ey Piste ze ‘TABLE 3.12 — Values of Di Basie System for the Analysis of Shells by the Force Method. Displacements Oue fo the Loading Sip Unitorm Pressure p in| Uniform Heating for '2 Closed Sheil {Degrees aTubular Steel Structures — Theory and Design TABLE 3.13 — Values K.,K.,K., for Formulas in Table 3.1 | Oilerence x gees arom Ls 24.18661 1 12662 sans | 00520 ‘azss01 | Bese iam | eee isatteo mort | eer | rresae zuaagr | 128 gone 00508 Fst seace eset | S3aet0 | 2araea 615600 | azsue0 5.13009 sxe saaee 37820 | | 3h | | Sas | | 2assre | | see = | | 2aossa | | OTe | | 22028 | | o0ees 208199 | 1,84305 1.94930 | 0.11590 | 0.05220 Ls? Peon oor3e stat | = fF Sos heey ; 3 | aors30 oaa021 [2 ese $6293 | o.g7008 0.09860, | seas pszs | goers | casos rer | [este cone | | Gearso ea | | VIS | ease | Goaass 120085 | vazen2 cose | o.c251s | ueraa p2eg) | oos7ae 02801 | tans vaiear (| 205708 eae 135 wiat0 | 121087 oo nae 190 od - 413020 fe rns of 92 REE fe ae 138) spre [Orisa oe fee 20 107619 Hone | ames 208 1108803 siz10 oars | | corer bio 105196 “aves cores | Rae ais e268 erst eaten || caress aS Teed td 0.91188 | ‘01086 235 ‘ess yosese | 01188 pee 330 ‘eset 1 o4se0 nae eee 235 ‘oes + eee a | oe 20 torses Soto cous aa mas ed od 0st oa0se? aso | rovoss ovare dhseo ooosia 255 100856 ots? com cate 280 ‘ore 101199 a cone as | soosie voos0 | Staas oon oo oes pee 0.00187 0205 275 *ona80 {Sout |Bdge Effect at Tuhular Structures Le + ue ® FIGURE 38 — Design scheme for the method of deformation forthe into 1 the unit twist (@) Reaction due fo the unit displacemer {o) Reaction due fuse, Coelticients Ain designat . the external reustive forces of the fixed ends of adjoin- elements under external loading, The coefficients aig ‘jp are called foree coeilicients. Their signs re 60" Gidered as: positive whensthe directions, of-the reactive ng with the given directions of the dis- he dis- » obtaining of positive » fter the solutinn of isplacen salicate that & sulting Re} se i To iMlustrase. let us consid vr the cone. eslinder and stiffening ring. Figure 3.4 under unitirm inzernal pressui The un relation roe eoelficients are determined from the 3.101 ak and, theretora, may be determined from Table 3.1 for she termination of the unit displacements Sig Ds the force thou. The Fores coefficients under loading Sip which are the support reactions under thg loading at the shell ‘and stiffening ring, belonging to the system undér consid eration are determined by the force method. ‘After the solution of Equations (3.8) and the finding of the unknowns y; and 52 We determine the unknown a section joint of cylinder, cone and ring: (a) Basic system: {@) Reaction in the basic system under loading. forces M, and H asthe summary of the forcesin the basic iitem, for instance, as in the case shown ia the example in Figure 3.4 In this case 3.3 Influence of Edge Effect on the Carrying Capacity of the Shell When the shells are designed under the assumption of 27 unlimited elasticity of the material. very often we may Obtain significant local stresses much greater, not ont: the membrame stressesrbut greater than theyieldstresses. » Tn the case when the residual or substantial deforma~ sions cannot be tolerated, the thicknesses of the shells in the area of the edge effect of a shell shall be increased orTubular Steel Structures — Theory and Design FIGURE 3.7 — Schemes of the intersections of the ah id be chosen 1 mm of a shell to the coniigurations of the shells » achieve a smooth (cansler fro other ‘Smoothness in the change of the shape of shells and “the proper choice ofthe sti tive structural mea: ot aa edge ellect The stability of shells under comiaression in zona ot ould he considered separately durin their design. Stability conditions ms ings in areas of an edge cequire the use oi 3.4 Local Stresses and Deformations Under Internal or External Pressure Along the Intersection of Closed Cylindrical Shells We analy7e this problem in the elastic stage for the eases shown in Figure 3.7. For the considered cases, the simplest solution is the force method. Ail solutionsare given or the internal pres- sure, For the transizr co external pressure. it is necessary to reverse the signs of the solutions 3.4.1 The Following Designations are Introduced evlindsr SF sphere rRand§ = are radii of evlinder, cone and sphere. re- spectisels iP. Z.Jnternal pressure in Ibs, in? or atm. t thickness of the wall of the shell 9 membrane stress acting ia a meridional di- rection isa) Intersection of cylinder and cone: (8) I section of cylinder and sphere, 6; = membrane stress acting in the cireumter ential direction = additional uniform edge stresses due te the forges N, and Ny additional bending edge stresses due 1 moments M, and M. ° 9, +0, +0, = thetotal local membraneand due 10 edge effect stress in the meridional direction Z : Gy a+, 79; = total local membrane and duc to edge effect stress in the cireumferential direction N membrane force in the meridional direction per unit length ofthe circumferential section of the shell ®. membrane force in the circumferential di- rection per unit length of the meridional sec- tion of the shell NvandN; = additional meridional and circumferential forces due to the origin of the circumteren- tial sections of the shell of the edge forces My and H M, = bending moment in the meridional direction per unit length of the circumferential section Df the shell M bending moment in the circumferential di- rection per unit length of meridional section of the shell Unknown adge forces per unit length of the circumferen- tual section of the shell atthe location of origin of the edge “effect. which enter into the basié equation’ diiring the: solution of the problem of the edge effect by the Force ‘method in which X, = bending moment inthe meridional direction 2 ®ARZE RECINE Y ASOCIADOS a Fadge Effect ot Tubular Structures }ORES LTDA, Xy = force in the direetion of radius in the plane oo. it normal to the axis of the shell bn ay + EE = eine! sites of 6 Q = transverse force of a shell atthe location of sre origin of the edge effect per unit length of Ate = 08 the circumferential section normal to the ; enerat b= sity the projection of the membrane force Hon the pline of the circumferential section of the shell HHH, = total force in the plane normal to the axis ‘of the shell per unit length of the circumfer. tential section of the shell By Baybee = ate displacements due to the unit unknownsin the basic system which are entering in the basic equation of the force method Ayp.dyp, = displacements under loadings in the hasie ete ystem entering inte the hasic equations of the force method Ausiliary values indicating the lengths of diminishing waves of the local stresses of the cylindrical closed shells, a. Cylindrical shell For steel Poisson's ratio v = 0.3, and from the ex pression (3.12), we obtai Sq, 7 0.78 FEY an) By designating & * E-. we have el Sey 7 0-78 bey ay ». Cone as - te as M0 For v = 0.3, we obtain 8, * 9.78 RES (3.16) ©. Sphere we G0 Fa on For + = 0.3, we obtain 8, = 0.78 Yot, (3.18) Jy + EL = moment of inertia per unit ensth 12(1-v*) of the shell ay Aye 03 ee te ilies 3.4.2 Rule of Signs a. Stresses (tensile stresses and (-) the compressive stresses, b. Forces ‘The transverse forces and loadings in the direction of the radius from the axis of the shell and the production of jis tension are considered to be positive (+). The reverse direction of the transverse forces and the loadings is con- sidered as negative (-). The bending moment in the cir~ ‘cumferential sections of the shell directed outside and the producing tension of the internal fibres and compression Of the external fibres ate considered as positive (+). The Reverse direction of the hending moments isconsideréd as negative () ©. Displacements The displacements in the basic system bin and Aip applying force method are considered as positive (4) i ing the displacement we achieve positive work, oF ‘shen the ditections of the displacements for both indexes coincide. The displacement is considered to be negative Cy when the directions of the displacements for the (wo indexes do not coincide If. as the result of a solution of basic equations of the force method. the sign of the unknown force X, is positive (3). this indicates that the actual direction of X, coincides with that assumed in the design scheme. ‘After solving the basic equiations of the force method and establishing the actual directions and values of the forces X,, they should have signs according to the rule given ahove for the forces corresponding to their actual directions , The forces X,! together with these finally established signs, should he used in all the following chapters 3.5 Determination of the Stresses Under Internal Pressure in the Thin-Walled Shells According to the Membrane Theory “The membrane theory is applied in eases where the bend- ing stresses in the shell are so small that they may be ne- {ected in comparison to the uniform tensile or compres- sive stresses, acting in a tangential direction to the middle surface The stresses in the closed shell. having one axis of symmetry. and clrctimferential cross-sections im the Planes. normal to the axis, Figure V8 (a), will he deter- tnined from the equations of the equilibrium Tet us eut from the shell element at arbitrary level a-a by two sections normal to the axisa-a and by two sections along the generatrix. To find the conditions of equilib tium of this element under the influence of the forces36 Tubular Steel Sructures — Theory and Design At atin li FIGURE 3.8 — Design acheme forthe determination of the membra fatic; (b) Elament othe abell and forces. “applied along the edges and given loading. itis necessary to find components of all the forces along the axis, normal 10 the surface of the shell, Figure 3.8 (b). The equation of equilibrium is 3. s oytan, #2 3.2 pds, dsz= aitds, $4 + optds, SP (21) From this follows, Ly 82) The Equation (3.22) has two unknowns 9, and 0». To obtain the second equations of equilibrium we make section at level a and consider the bottom part as a fF body. Considering the components of all the forces alor the axis x-x, we find the following equation of equilib- buptsin’s = 2npsintsto, (3.23) ov = Bee 3.24) his represents the stress acting in the meridional direction ‘Mice substituting expression (3.24) into Equa (8.23), we obtain on = BE = BH 025) This ts the stress acting in the eixeumferential direction, The values of the membrane stresses for the shells of dif ferent shapes. we obtain as particular cases trom the equ: tions 3.24) and 6.25) 4 Spherical shell In this case prs erse jand by designating the thickness of the sphere as ty. We fobtais frou the equations (3.24) and 3.25) 3 826 b. Colundrical shell, Wiguse 3.9) pres ose FIGURE 3 9 — Scheme of the closed eylindrcal shell under internal pressure,Edge Esfect at Tubular Strwerures From Equation (3.24) we obtain _ and from Equation (3 FIGURE 3.11 — Design scheme fo ct 25) follows Ch ts4 Fe 2.40 — Scheme ofthe closed conleal sheltunder internal a2 raection of eylinder and cone: (a) Given system: (b) Conical shell, (Figure 3.10) presto eR From the Equation (3.24), we obtain PR of tan nd from the Equation (3.25) we have "3 3.29) 3.6 Edge Stresses and Deformations Along the Intersection of Closed Cylindrical and Conical Shells Under Internal Pressure 3.6.1 Design Loading The given system is shown in Figure 3.11 (a) on the fot Towing page. teyt and teqne ate thicknesses of the shellsin the zona of the edge effect action. After cutting the shell fon fine a-a, we analyze a primary system by using the su perposition equations The interaction of the parts which are cut, we substi- tute by the redundants X, and X, and also by the forces NFYE.NFOME and H,, which are found by the membrane theory Tn addition, on each primary part of the cylinder and cone are the acting given load — internal pressure P. ary system,aus Tubutar Steel Suuciuces — Uheory and Design 3.6.2 Forces According tu the Membrane Theory lu the particular ease vomsidering signs according to | The meridional force in the cylinder ts the above example and rule of the signs cyt, pret. Be ee nyt Bot Pe (330) ate aw He x, The meridvonut puree Habe ewe cone, ugle : weone 4. WE wap horigontal prvjestion of this tore jas) jcone Pose ic 2 —- j-—-— i ;_ 3.6.3 Determination of Redundants X, and X,,and Values of My and I The superposition equations are cyt, gcone. srt _ gooney, 4 ove x, (6%! 4 a + xitertt = 650R8) 4 + ne u Sa ae Se ete ratett = 660% oa (GeYt + SOE a TH - 1B ap Oa 63) sand the disphacs Ihe values of the unit displaces iments under the hoadings for their posite 9a Shown in Tables 10 12. We should substitute the d placements 6 and 4 in Equations (333) with the signs indicated in these equations ‘Alter solving Equations (3.33) and obtaining the values an known, itis necessary 10 decept the final sighs, using them according 40 the signs Fale for the forces particular, for the basic system shown an Figure 3.11 (bp and alter solution of the basicequation when we dbtain the positive salves X, and X; (this tadicates that their actual divecinons cosnetde sith those which were thsuoved tn the basic system we obtain the inal signs of theunknown forces: far the cytindecr + XF® and + X8: for oe xFOne and | NFOHE the co Forees tor the wait length of the circumferential cross-section at the location of the origin of the edge effect are as follows. tnihe w ao eee aan _ othe xet eu: of = = xf sins 3.64 Total Local Stresses of Cylindrical Shell (in the given system) at Level aru, Figure 3.9 (4) Fhe merudional edge stresses of the eyhindsie, oct w ML, Si t, r ay eb Ree where Nf¥ and My are GH) cespectively The Forces necessary to substitute in the of stiesses (36) and others given below, con Signs alter Lormula (3.35), Belore term, defor ing stress. the upper sigh relates to the internal part of the srail- and bowom sign 40 the external wall got | Net oan | aiiret | fs the membrane meridional stress in the cylinder, | ihe circumferential edge stresses of the cylindrical | shell ' batt yt gat cele yy oe ° Gy Oe = ae (3.38) ay fet" Fee” ety where nots pr 039) Ihe udditional local eiseumferential force due wo action of M, and HES, is | ete 2E cig woh Bao | eed ce | where M, and H®Y are used after formulas (3.34) and } Gy on | value of ct veh un, 63% I he tangential edge stresses of the eylinds Jen by the formulas (3.30) and sal shell are 830) expressions sidering the ing be ical shell are ee |Edge Effect at Tubular Structures 319 1, + cet aan et bey 3.6.5 Summary of the Edge Stresses of the Conical Shell at Level a-a, Figure 3, 9 (8) Meridional edge stresses of the conical shell of @ Mig Ms ay Feo Fe ek (n.4ay The values of the terms in the formula (3.44) are os aay According to formula + HPcos8 46) and = xf cons 4347) 3.6.6 The Circumferential Edge Stresses of the Conical Shel q a eee eg cer 2 Gall where Nyt er > sine 049) ‘The additional local circumferential force due to My and HF has the value S22 yo (3.50) S22 wy where 8, and 86, equal the unit displacements from the force equations (1.7) and (3.32) which are determined from the Tables 3.1 to X12 M, and HE we find from Fquations (3.44) and (3.95) s.cta8 vie oe ea “The additional local circumferential moment MF due to the forces M, and HE, is expressed by the formula 5,co88 seer’ sn (atytycosst ge “ 037) where scotga (4-0) sgccse(d-v) vee 2g ee sy = 0.78/RE, 3.6.7 Tangential Edge Stress of the Coneial Shell oO, " tere 3.54) 6.8 Displacements in the Plane a-a of the Points at the Intersection Line of the Middle Surfaces of the Shells, Directed Along the Radius ¢ From the Axis of the Shell, Figure 3.11 (b) eb ete ete acl a Be = ach nt + atin, + ASD posh = 82H + xf cosa) - 65, My 7 Me ‘The values Sand 4 should be substituted into formu 1n(3.55). considering itssignsin the force equations(3.33) and forces M. Nand H — considering their final signs for the given case 3.6.9. Twisting of the Section at Level a-a Consider- ing Clockwise Direction as the Positive, Fig- ure 3.11 (b) é Retest Oo uee Arale u (3.56) ze ececeasaee seca et tp 3.7 Edge Effect at the Intersection of Closed Cylindrical and Spherical Shells Under Internal Pressure, Figure 3.12 3.7.1 Design Scheme and Determination of the Forces This problem may he solved by the force method used before The forces in the hasie system in section a-a are deter- mined by the membrane theory wet. BE 0s nts ge 3.58) Hy = Nicos = Ntetgs (39) Force equations (3.7) for the basic system, Figure 3.10 (b) considering signs are(SES 1 xa ratte cte a 20 eee ee as wi(65 768 Ves 58 raha a 0 os oo ae rus Go lu the particular case utter obtaining the positive signs X, and X, after the solution of the force equations (3.36) the final signs of the unknown forces will be The forees per unit fength of the circumferential see- tion a-a at the location of origin of the edge effect are net aN eM ex ee eet uy =x Jie Bon Met * Hoe Hsing Jn the particular ease when divections of the X, and X, coincide with those accepted in Figute 3.12 (b) Tubular Steel Siructures ~ Theory and Design gt etek (3.62) ry of the Local Stresses of the Cli drical Shell in « Given System at Level a-a, Figure 3.12 (4) These st ses are determined as the summary of stresses due to the forces in the baste system, Figuee 3:10 (b) at level asa 3.7.24 Meridional Edge Suesses of the Spherical Shell of a ME, AE, om (363) ay TET RS ek where NP is used alter formula (3.58) and M, after formula (3.00. The additional meridional forceEdge Effect at Tubular Structures 32 and in the particular ease under consideration at signs alter formulas (3.62) WS «-xcoss, (65) eet 1.7.2.2 The Cirewmferential Edge Stresses of the Spherical Shell oe Hag 0m cE ge where wee Be aon ‘The additionat local circumferential force due to the My and He is we = 2osine (My 9 a ny = Zoid Bh sy) oR» S, 7° 0.7858, The additional focal cirenmfercntial moment MS due to the M, and His defined by the formu : S5c088 Sg My we su = v4) Sef my (69) sins ‘The tangential edge stress of the spherical shel is 13.70) 4 The Increase of the Radius r at Level sa, Equal to AR, and turn of the Section at the Same Level Clockwise, 7. Figure 3.12 toe ® om (isnfcosay - 8), Ma > 88 Aas : tp pe ott act ot a ra Her tay om fost omt tmo at 3.8 Edge Effect of Closed Cylindrical Shells Having Stiffening Ring at Their Junction Fete consider shes under internal pressure, having Uilfening rings ac chown in Figure 310 Irie talowing ve consider the solution forthe ease chown in Finite U1 fa sing the force method. Thc eystem i fonetimes still indeterminate. The Foret ft ana NE we determine aplsing the membrane theory forma (430) and (UAT Tie Toros eqvatione (17) fr this ease are FIGURE 3.13 — Schemes of shells having alttening rings: (8) Junction of eyllnder, cone and ring: (b) Junction of cytinder, sphere tnd tng.322 Tubular Steel Structures — Theory and Design N¢ x net FIGURE 3.14 De {heme (bate schema) lorlunction ofthe cylinder, cone and cing 7 ee Bet K« . ‘ Bx ® FIGURE 3.15 — The positive directions of te jorces at cross-sections of the shell: (8) Cyllndsical;(b) Conlcal.Edge Esfect at Tubular Structures 3a Kabra + Xbae # aSsy HSIEH Op wo i8a1 + Xa8a2 + Xaber + LASay # Bay 70 i8s1 Fab ae + Kae HASH H Bay 7 O x8 4H Xabee + Xa8ar t Kees -o an “The force equations (3.7) on the previous page were written considering the basic system and taking into account the signs for the displacements and directions of the forces and also loads in the basic system. are shawn in Figure 3.14 « a (actestty + xa (scbestt $8 ‘ ae catelgty eat ‘ 1 BFE xcose SE my) ot a se = Minato 7 ‘ ety gat 4 gmt HE at acts at 4 at ggt 0 * wet pS Set?” “a cose) tog tae gt ost Nocona (gE)? = “BEATE | so mor *(n{sins) . Ka Cb8E) ee (OMESED 4 CERES ast. - 6%© nScoss-$ + ye Oa au at < a +a <0 Nvfainsy c ‘, xi (8FEBE) + xr (oSEgstgty + t tee? . attst ge) 4 xycatt ott sty 2 + wyotegteae y+ xoCeh 6G wt . wScosa) Using designations from Tables 3.1 t0 3.12, the diss placements from the equations (2.74) are connected by the following equalities ct get, get a get a gct = act, got. get Tie neta st gato gato gat th Sha 7 855% Sanat st ¢ ct. yet a + ARE wieines ah = oGh 1 8Fatne) a at. gat oat “ap 7 “ap “ANP atte att aR neon 1(Fcon8) 9 (e088) art + ARE nein: aSe* Spr OGp + AS seiaingy BM 075 tts I we disregatd the eccentricity + of the application lof the forces Xs. Xs ane! NFeasf, considering these forces ds applied at the level a-a. of at the middle plane of the Stiffening ringst®. and the loadings P. acting on the ring ‘along the small depth te. then the equations(3.74) may be Simplified substantially as follows: en stbeetty en oath east) + xo + at eee =o mi : infsine) et tasty 4 soa = act - Ku (28H) 6 Ry SEED + aD + MABEL = Ap = apt =o 1 Utycoss) eue68ty 4 xno + HEBER DF ROBEY - att oe att + ag, 0 once twieine) tea Tubular Steel Structures — Theory and Design rane SE FOS) HKU st e -6 - 0%, = 0 40ifeoss) ? (3.16) Using Tables 3.1 to 3.12 and Equation (3.75) we miay determine the unknown factors X,..X3. X, and X,. and fifier the forces M,, HH and Q, acting on the separated shells of the basic system, Figure 3.14, in Sections ay-ay and a;-a,, apart from the membrane forces NF¥ and NF. The positive directions of the forces ate shown in Figure 3.5, ‘The forces M,. H and Q per unit length of the circum ferential sections 't-a, and ay-a, ab the locations of the original edge effect, will be determined by the following expressions. In general case. Hoy 2 Xan He he am : Ogg * Heys OL = Hsin In particular cases when the directions of X,. X.. Xyand X, are coinciding with the direction used in Figure 3.14 x Mee xy Hog ae HLH 3.78) Oey * W¥as Q, = ~Kysind When the forces N. M, Hand Q are kaowa. itis possible «to determine the local stresses in the shells using the fo smulas (3.36) 10 3.43) und (ad) to (3.54) The forces acting per unit length of the stilfe in the basic system at the positive dit Figure 3.16, have the following values. ering Js. shown in st gt , 8 FIGURE 3.16 — The postive drections ofthe forces inthe sitfen- lng singe. In the general case N= xi # Xs + ptyy + NC coms In the particular ease with the coincidence of directions of No Xy Neaad N with the directions shown in Figure sh ere cere vores (G80) nO nay = + GeaeyenScose) FE Hvis novessary to remember that ucts wfsing and. theretore, the force acting on the stifle ‘long the axis of the shell (Irom the plane of 0 ‘equal 10 zer0. The displacement in the direction of the radius ¢ from the ais of the shell, Figure 3.14 is ing fing) is Be = oot - actyet ae sn = 62 a1, feos) ~ 5 HY - Sfp The turn of the section at level a-a (positive turn) is accepted clockwise forthe left joint or unclockwise for the right joint ct, eh ohh, + ate # eich styst Be ties Hoe Ae SMT 3.82) 7 MT Sie 7 oe 3.9 Edge Effect at the Stiffening Rings of Cylindrical Shells Under Internal Pressure p This ease is shown in Figure 3.17, 5 The increase of shell’s radius in zona located at some awn tins f the ea ofthe tien sng\ | Edge Effect at Tubular Structures FIGURE 3.17 — Design acheme of eylindrical shell havin artia cag 7 Mid | Hog + OSE = 0 8s) ety qact 4 act mists ngct + act = 0 x6) According to 2A = 0. therefore ables M1 bo 212, AGGyy = A there MiG, = = BAS, ax Mier Substituting inte 2.87) the values 6f 8 fram Tables Atte M12, we obtain Ms us? Sct om eat” eat Irom this it Fotos that as, een 1) CD ere et fie 7 AFB) cam Alter substituting into Equation (186) the valve (2.89), the values from Tables U1 to 212, and the value (2.90). considering also Equations (1) and (8), we 2 prt 20 an Wy +0 and, considering Equation (112), we find rH rt tate + trcram Ee - 22 = 9 (392) FotFct! a From Equations (3.91) and (3.92) we obtain satay y, po PEI MALIHI~ Cog] Bey (AUP) Cty] tel 2S5e AHA NF Meese en At infinitely rigid rings. we may obtain tion (8.92) n= 5c) oon The stresses we may find from the formulas (26) to 8.4}) using We Wy + Xe and 1 Hy 0 13.95) 3.10 Edge Effect Due to the Eccentric Junction of the Shells The valves of the hending moments originating in the cll at an cecentrie junction af separate elements, may’ be Uctermined be the joint solution of the equations Le (3.96 Ben m= summary of the momentsacting in both parts of the shell per unit length which is e aon, aon img = moment per unit length inthe let part of the shell me = moment ner sini leneth in the right part af the shell A = value which depends on the configuration of those parts of the shells at the junction and uused according to Table 3.2, assuming that the twisting angles of hoth parts of the shell are equal3:26 Tubular Sieel Structures — Theory and Desigit TABLE 3.14 — Eccanlee Junctions of Shells ‘Shete ‘Spherical Siete ‘Angles of Twist of ie Sh = Cate of Junction t Right aoa sen re + Bisiske eee iE tse Gsiae Ee 5. » —2 Ba) vr Od 5, = 0,785E (Q-2v) ctga Ws i +05 28 (U-2vpctga Pa Bu pay bar oa) BS) bo REFERENCES — CHAPTER 3 Timoshenko, S, Strength of Materials Past 1 Advanced Theory and Probleins, Jaded, Van Nos and Company. Inc., New York, 1953, pp. 164168 Roark, KJ. Formulas for Suess and Stain, tnd ed. McGraw-Hill Hook Cos Tne, New Vork, 1954 pp. 264-208 Biereno, C.8- and Gramaiel, RE ies, Vol H. Blackie & Son Lid.. Londo 168. wesing Dynan 1956. pp. 66> Timoshenko, S.and Woinowshy-Keieger.S., Theory of Plates and Shells, 2nd ed., McGraw-Hill Hook Com: pany, lnc, New York, 1959, pp. 442-485 Flugge. W .Suicsscs i Shells, Jaded. Spainger-Verlog New York. 1973. pp 346-381 Brownell, LE. and Young. EL Design. - Vessel Design, Joho W pp. H13-119, 126-128" focess Equipment xy & Sons, ne. 196, ba Bal Ba Ly Bau Lewig, E.N., Lileey, A.F. and Sokolov, A.G., “Steet Sheet Structures”, State Edition of Litermture on Con- structions and Architecture, Moskow, 1956, (im Rus- slau), pp. 372-412. ‘Coates, WM, "State of Strsss in Full Heads of Pres- sure Vessel”, Trans. Am. Soc. Mech, Engrs., Vol. $2 Paper No. APM-52-12, 1930, pp. 117-131 Wats, G.W,, and Burrows, W.R., ~The Basic Elastic Theory of Vessel Heads under Internal Pressure”, J Appl. Mechanics, Vol. 71, Masch 1949, pp. 35-73 Gill. SS., Editor The Stress Analysis of Pressure Veo- sels and Pressure Vessel Components. Pergamon Press, Ostard, 1970, pp. 36°50, Watts, G.W. and Lang, H.A., “Stresses ia a Pressure Vessel with a Conteal Head”, Transactions AM. Soc. Mech, Engrs., Vol. 74, 1952, p. 315CHAPTER 4 thermal stresses in tubular structures 4.1 Basic Assumptions and Designations The change of steel temperature is assumed in limits of the constant modulus of elasticity and stresses in the limits of Hooke’s Law. ‘The diagrams of change in temperature are shown in Figure 4.1, where be ' max: nitial temperature re -maximum and minimum tempera- tures, respectively ‘The signs are shown according to the positive change of temperature (heating). Tn the ease of reverse changes of temperature it is necessary to change the signs of the corresponding ordi nates. The average temperature of the shell or ring is +t, nin wn The values of edge ordinates #1 of the diagram of temperature change fram tj(when tj = ta). are as follows erence Cen ttmay’! FIQURE 4.1 — Diagram of the change of temperature: With a change of temperature the deformation may be expressed as . at = atae a where = coefficient of thermal expansion. For steet a hde tos © = dimension of the member At = general increase of temperature The relative deformation is Mow ant (44) At free change of temperature deformations thermal stresses dn not originate in the constructions. However. when the deformations are restricted, then the stresses originate, and according to Nooke's law ot ek > tants as At the two-dimensional state of stress of the shell, we have the known relations (a) Arbitrary change: (b) Linear chany42 ao Pe 286) = € we obtaiN av eo. = 2 Hehe wn The linear relations betwecn the changes of empera- deformations and stcses permit the sperpustion avs temperature changes 4.2 Thermal Stresses and Deformations in the Walls of Cylindrical Shells Let us now consider the influence on the shell by the lia: carly changing temperature, Figure 4.1 (b). The diagram of changeable temperature we resolve ws follows: the t,-diagram represeuting uniform distuib fas defined by the expression (4.1) and the diagram indi ‘cating changeable t along the thickness of the wall, as defined by the expression (4.2). 4.2.1 Stresses and Deformations Under Uniform Heating — Diagram °C Let us consider the sections located Lar Irom the ends. a. The case shen ane end of the shell is free ln this case the deformations are (ree and the stresses es of the displacements and deformations we ie using formulas (4.3) and (4.4) after sub- stituting into At the value 4 and instead of the corres: ponding dimension of the shell (radius. length of the cie- foe the Kength of the yenerstuin.) b. Thecase when thee sternal connections do uot permit the increase of the lengths of the generatrix, but the radius may freely increase The value of the festiamed deformation al generates ts erate ae) ned deformation along the rine eso as) Alter substituting these values €, and €, into the &x- pression (4.6), we obt oye 4.10) av) Ee eee, a) Tubular Steel Structures — Theory and Design The elongation of the gencratrix is equal to zero. and elongation of the tadius is ar + orty ay the elongation of the radii and in the di eweraira there are nu connections As in the previous ease, 4, = O,and the elongation of the genesattix ts aL = bt, 4.2) Restrain of the deformations is cane (3) cae any The stresses ate veat, av) For, aev4) aay 4d. Case of the total restrain of the expansion at heating ev eer = at, 4 Eat, ae) (415) ding to the expressions (4.6) a This is acc an. 4.2.2 Stresses and Deformations Under Uniform Heating-Diagram “47 Let us consider edges of the shells. a Case when the edge of the shell is free The stresses and deformations will be the same as in the case considered above, niimely as at the sections re- ‘mote from the edge at the similar edge conditions, 4.2.3 Stresses and Deformations Under Nonuni- form Heating — Diagram “1” {Let us consider section remote from the edges of the shell, Figure 4.1 liv tis ease there will be no deformations. because the shape of the circular shells and resistance of the adjoining Sections do not permit their origin. The diagrams of Stresses a, and a) will be the same and similar to the dia [erat [he values ofthe stresses of the ede fibers accord ing to Equation (4.7) are meee ee (4.10)Thermal Stresses in Tubular Structures 43 During the linear change of the temperature, Figure 4.1 (h) the state of stress is equivalent to the case of the parallelepided having the dimensions |= 1 t, cut from the shell along two generatrix and two radial sections of, oats cote Se 8 * ater * ain 5 2ato (ary) These moments My and My are acting in two mutn= ally directions on the’ circumferential and meridional ALLA Stresses at Free Edge of Circular Shells Under Non-Uniform Heating-Diagram “#t For the transfer from the case considered above to the cease under consideration. Figure 4.1 (b) and to satisty conditions at the free edge FIGURE 4.2 — Deslgning schemes of the shell ur nese of the wa it is necessary to impose on the hending moment. given by the expression (4.17), the equal moment but having the ‘opposite sign. Ifthe shell is heated from the inside, Figure 4.2, then it is necessary to impose on the bending moment — My, the edge moment + My. Then at the edge will be Mem tm no (4Ry The imposing of the moment + M, will initiate at the edge in the ring’s direction. The appearance of the ad tional moment is equal 10 eM, = My hecause M, = M,.and alsa displacement of the edge out- side and appearance of the additional ring force + NY due to the displacement a. Crlindrical shell, Figure 4.2 (a) According to Table I. the displacement is st 49) % According to Nooke’s law the displacement is ct Oar. fae west = gt. Se (420)44 Be equalizing (4.19) and (4.20), we obtain wy = SeeiEty . ae. aracouty) 7 De 2 2 Sea Seaty a2n eye at vi = = Mev zeiot ae The total ting stsess at the {ree edye ts Pye eae - Bat 4 Bog a (423) land the meridional stress is oro (424) In Equation (4.23) the sign plusis related to the exter nal fibres and sign minus 10 the intecnul. AC the Fe~ versed thermal action signs should be changed ‘AL y= 0.3 the maximum fing stress at the edye ac- cording to formula (4.23) is approximately 25% greater than the stresses determined after formula (4.16) for the sections located far {rom the edyes. b. Conical shells On the basis of si {a), itis possible to find the total st lac consideration as that under ses atthe free edge of Tubular Steel Structures — Theory and Design the conical shell under heating. using diagram tt, 4.1. For the conical shell, Figure 4.2 (b) ait Bs ao Stresses at cylindrical shells having hinged support under nonuniform linear heating. according to diagea 41, Figure 4.1 (b) With reference to the above case itis possible to con- clude that EM, = O and a, = 0. The displacement MSM tion (4.20), it follows that Ny = 0. The bending ring moment and from the Equa- eejat am perature accordin (4.27) at change of te to the scheme in Fig- ure 42. The ring stress ab the edge (4.28) The support reaction at the edge H will be determined n the equation MS yg + Hoy 2 0 429) Reactions H are directed towards the centreat the flow of temperature according to Figure 4.2, and from the centre av the reverse of the flow. The stresses at the points of zona of the edge effect, which ave notat the edge self. we may find by the supet- postion of stresses after the formula (4.16). stresses due to the forces H and M, applied at theedge. The signs of Ht and M are necessary 10 be used accordingly in corres- pondence with the actual direction of the thermal flow. REFERENCES — CHAPTER 4 [4.1] Timosbento, 5.P. and Goodies. J... Theary of ticity, Jed ed. MeGraw-Hll Book Company. New York, 1970. pp. 413-439, [4.2] Lessig. EN. Lileey, AF und Sokolos. AG. Stect Sheet Structures, State Fuition of Hiterature on Con: ituetions and. Atchitectute, Moscow, 1956. (ut Rus ian). pp. 417-419 [43] Kent, C...*Thermal Stresses ia Thin-Walled Cylin- ders”, Transactions of the Am. Soc. of Mech. Engrs. Vol. 75, 1953, pp. 167-180,CHAPTER 5 self-supporting stacks 5.1 Types of Stacks There are two hasic types of stel stacks: self-supporting stacks which together with the foundation should remain stable under all working conditions without additional support. and guyed stacks in which all external applied Toads are not totally carried by the stack shell and for which guys or stays are provided to ensure stability [5.1] ‘Self-supporting steel stacksare usually made with the ‘upper part cylindrical and with the lower part flared or belled. The height of the lare usually varies from 4 10 % in height, Where the height of the flare is the height of the stack, the diameter of the base with conical flare will bes greater than the diameter of the upper part of the stack, The ratio of the diameter ofthe base of the Mare to the diameter of the stack in well designed stacks varies from 4/3 to 5/4 (5.2) Figure 5.1 shows some of the more common types presently being employed Steel stacks are either lined or unlined. Independent self-supporting brick lining should have enclosing steel 40 0 Lag | le z A 5 3 a8 | g z # 3 ® ® hands at regular intervals in its height and, in particular. immediately helow each change in lining thickness. where the weight of the lining above is applied eccentrically to the section below the offset. Brick lining may be support- ced al intervals by shelf angles in the steel shell. Linings of high-alumina cement and expanded shale aggregate have also been ised extensively. This is pneumatically applied directly to the inside of the shell over mesh reinforcement attached by welded studs to the steel shell, Independent: Continuous steel plate linings. using either earhon or cor- rosion-resistant steel, insulated on the outside of th ing may prove quite effective 5.2 Design Loads ‘The stack shell should be designed to resist stresses result- ing from the following loads and forces or their combi tions when they exist [5.2 5.4, 5.5, 56, 5.7, 58, 5.9) ci | | | | STIFFENING RING ANCHOR, BOLTS J BO BASE FG Jo, Lb Jo © +— FIGURE 5.1 ~ Types of set tacks.Tubular Steel Structures — Theory and Design load Live load Icing Wind or earthquake forces whichever are greater €. Temperature effects, both vertically and cireumfer wally Inaddition to these main loals and forees, secondary effects should also be considered. These are stresses re- sulting from support and erection procedures 5.2.1 Dead Load Dead loads are computed on the basis of the unit weights of the materials. Dead load consists of the particular ‘weight of the shell, linings, ladders with safety rings and any permanent equipment. The structure should bedivid- into units or sections for weight tabukations, Divisions ‘can be made at convenient changes in taper, cross-section, ‘or plate thickness, at ining changes, and 30 as (0 avoid any one segment being 100 long 5.2.2 Live Load According to the German Specification DIN 4133 [5.5] live load, including snow load should be 30 psf, consider of the i ing platforms and stairs. In addition, any pa stack, platform and stairs may be loaded with the verti concentrated load of 630 Ibs at locations producing eri cal elfect. All parts of the structure which have projec: tions, such as canopies, which are at an angle of 30 degrees, Or less with the horizontal, with the exception of the lad- der steps or rings, should be designed using a vertical con- centrated load of 220 Ibs, and a distributed loading of 6 psf, acting simultaneously. For the design of horizontal failings. the horizontal uniformly distributed load of 30, tbs/ft should be applied. is ‘suggested that for Amretican conditions. the applied snow load. s, bes = Cg, where Cs is equal to0.8 and g is the ground snow load as specified in American National Building Code [5.10]. S should be used to deter= ‘mine the applied snow load on catwalks, roots. canopies, spiral access stairs, sampling platforms and whatever other structures ate attached (0 the stack and are capable of transferring loads to the stack structure 5.2.3 Leing {In locations where the strongest winds and icing may. ‘occur simultaneously. structural memebers, cables and ropes must be calculated assuming an ice covering based fon climatic and local experience. The total foree, Fg, for the guyed cable as specified in Supplement No, of NBC. [5.9] is given by the following equation Fy Cys Cyi Cyd 6» force coetlicient, depending on the Reynolds’ umber Re which isexpressed by dVq, where dis the diameter of cable in feet and q is the Velocity wind pressure in pst. Figure 5.2 pro- Jes Values of Cy far poles. rods and cables. = CVA, in psf is the velocity wind pressure where C= 00027 if Viv in miles per hour . the gust offset fas theexposure factor forthe appropriate height oof the surface of part of the surface A = de = the projected arca of the cable in cleva- tion 5.24 Wind Forces ‘The stack should be designed forall loads and/ oF deflee~ tions caused by wind on the stack calcilated in accord: ance with ACI 307 "Specification (or the Desig Struction of Reinforced Concrete Chimneys” National Building Code of Canada (5.9}, oF other speé fied wind loads The force of the wind on a stack of circular cross-sec- tion shall be taken as the resultant horizontal pressure on, its projected atea considered as bands of uniform loading, applied to the stack within height zones. This force should ‘not be less than the design pressure specified by the Figure 5.3159] Total wind fosce acting on the stack is Be Gya-Cy-gh (62) where oe force coefficient dq > 2.5, used according to Figure 5.2 the reference velocity pressure 4 Cy = the gust effect factor Cg. = the exposure factor A= dh = the projected arca of the stack in eleva- tion d= diameter of the stack, ft height of the stack, ft 5.2.5 Stack Vibration Stack shells are prone to oscillations due to wind action {511 512. SAR. S14. 5.15. 5.16, 5.17, 5.18, 5.19, 5.20, 5.22, 5.23, 5.24, 5.25, 5.26, 5.27, 5.28, 5.29, 5.30, 5.31] In order to guard against these it is necessary to caleu- late the natural frequency of the shell and 10 compare it with the frequency of wind vortex shedding, inducted either by the stack itsell, or by adjacent structures, at steady wind speeds of the order of 10 to 40 mph. Vibration is manifested in rhythmic swaying to large amplitudes or Wansverse oscillations and in rhythmic ovalling of the chimney, both of which occur at right angles 10 the direction of the wind. This phenomenon auiributed to resonance of the chimney with respect to eddies. called vou Karman vortices, formed ia the ai stream at regular intervals on alternate sides of the echim- rey. I the natural frequency of the stack as a cantilever approximates the frequency: of the eddy formation; reso- nance may lead to major vibrations despite the small mag- nitude of the forces imposed by the vortex trSelf- Supporting Stacks Ud > 100 : FORCE COEFFICENTS TOTAL FORCE FC, a-C,C.A Aedl 25 [225 SMOOTH WIRES, RoDS,PIPES > | 1.2 [0.5 MOD, SMOOTH WIRES, RODS © ine wine castes @ [rz [0s tick wine cases = @ fra}as FIGURE 5.2 — Force cotticiont Cp lor poles, rods and wires TOTAL FORCE F=Cy-q + Cg - Cy: A WHERE Azd-h Cy FORCE COEFFICIENT FOR d¥q>25 SLENDERMESS h/é= —= [25] 7 | 1 CROSS SECT. AND ROUGHNESS Cy | Cy | C, MODERATELY SMOOTH all | finetol_timber,conerete) [07 [0-6 0.8 my ROUGH SURFACE él || rounded ribs h= 2%d) [09 [08 |0.7 “| 3 VERY ROUGH SURFACE (sharp ribs he 8%d) [1.2 | 1.0 | 0.8 O sHoore ‘AND ROUGH surface shorp edges | '¢ | ‘2 | 10 CpeEXTERNAL PRESS COEF FOR dVq>25 AND MODERATELY SMOOTH SURFACE nrafiza | x | 0% | 18°] 30°] 487] 60° | 75°] 90° | 105°] 120°] 135°] 150°] 165° | 180" 2s |5 1.0.8 e041 |-0.9]-19 |-25 |-26|-19 |-09 |-07 |-06 |-08 |-0.5 7 | -17 |-22]-22|-1.7 |-0.8 |-08 |-0.5]-0.5 |-05 + [a fe [oe [par]-on re] [2 [02 [os [-on[- on] on nereteeae cian ce STACK FULLY OPERATING G, te2 pea = Cg Ce STACK THROTTLED _C5j2+08 FIGURE 53 — Wind Coetictents 534 S.2.5.1 Transverse Oscillations British Standards of Steel Chianeys provides the follow Ing data (5.3: So long as the self weight of the stack 1s small co! ~ pated to. loud (ie. the cnuical bue ling load for the stack considered as 4 vertical canuilever without regard to the local buckling of the shell wall) the natural frequency { for a cantilever stack of constant see: tion is given by CAT: t,t 3.3) where £ = natural frequency of stack, eyeles/see kf HH = height of st +E = modulus of elasticity of shell materia at oper ating temperature Ibs/tt? 1 = moment of inertia of stack section, ft W = weight per unit length of stack, tb/tt 8 = gravitational constant, 32 ft/sec Cis a constant depending on the mode of vibration, For the first mode (the natural frequency), c= 3515 Jn calculation for lined stacks the section properties of an equivalent steel section may be calculated using a suitable value for the modular rasio, ©.g Elining The natural frequency is r + (4) r i where W = the dead load weight of the section applied us a lateral load. and j= the deflection at its centeoid, which will be produced if the stack were considered to be a vertical eantiley The natural frequency (Ist mode} Lora stack of vary Ing cross-sections can be calculated by dividing the stack into # number of scctions, Figure 5.4 According to the British Standard [5.3], “Ihe maxi- deflection of steel chimacy shall be limited to 1/200, Jupported length. This deflection shall be cal- the design thickness alone without including the corrosion allowance.” ‘An approximate tormula is given by Dickey {5:32} for uatined stcel stacks of stiight or fared shape at non temperature €, = 2520 DQsid dee, 5.5) where the equivalent height ty Tubular Steel Structures ~ Theory and Design OEFLECTED, Postion DEFLECTED + Postion aS T's Oh 12 Hy Fon GAS, FIGURE 5.4 — Weighs of sections and thelr detiections, 4, way eB, Horny + Beh, te a B= diameter, f {= thickness of shell wall at bottom of straight section, ft The natural frequency of a tapered stack, (b) and 5.1 (c} ean be deter Dockstader (5.33) ied by the formula given by 3.52 Dy Deo "ae | ae 3.) fa = 386 in/sect FE = modulus of elasticity. psi y= unit weight of steel shell = 0.283 Ib/in? He = the equivalent height, ft De = the equivalent diameter, ( The natural frequency is determined by using a straight eslinder of equivalent stiffness, The diameter De and height He of the equivalent cylinder are given by the following equations From Figure 5.4 (b) yo CS . < e) ‘and from Figure 5.1 (€Self: Supporting Stacks ss pip, £, 7170 eR (5.1 =a | where Dye —p2 15%) where fa = frequency of ovaling feyeles seed 5.2.5.2 Effect of Vortex Shedding UF thekness of set 9 R= radins of stack (1 Slender exposed! stetictural elements suchas stacks should he designed to resist the effects of vortex shedding structure may be considered slentler in this context if the fatio of height to diameter exceeds S The critical wind speed at which vortex shedding may occur can he calculated from the following formula ve (19) where f= natural frequency of stack, eveles see D = stack diameter. ft S = 0.20 Strouhal number V = critical wind speed. ft/sec. ‘The resonant wind velocity can be determined by Where a steel stack is lined and the weight of the fin- ing is eatried by the shell, am added mass must he set in vibration by the vortex trail. Since there is no major in: crease in the moment of inertia of the cantilever. the lined stack will have a lower natural frequency than an unlined stack of the same dimensions and will be relevant at lower wind velocities, The approximate natural frequen- ‘oy and resonant wind velocity of a stack with a uniform ‘weight of lining throughout its height can he computed by. Eqs. (5.10) and (5.11) provided the value of wsis property determined. For this purpose. we may be taken as the weight of the shell plus lining. divided by the thickness of the plate, The weight and thickness should be taken at about 1/4 the actual height above the hase. 5.2.5.3 Ovalling Oscillations In addition to swaying oscillations of stacks. vortices also tend to produce diametric oscillations. This phenome- non, referred to as “ovalling” of “breathing”. has been observed with the largest amplitude atthe top of the stack 5.34, 5.35, 5.36, 5.37, 5.38) This type of motion has generally been seen on stacks before lining was in place and consists of a rhythmic change in the circular cross-section ofthe stack where the iameter alternately increases nnd decreases by several inches. This phenomenon occurs separately or in com bination with a bending oscillation. The ovalling has dat twice the wind velocity indicated hy the Strouhal number and may have involved “subharmonic excitation” in which the exciting force acted at twice the frequency of the oscillation. Htivevident that two cycles of ovalling occurred during one vortex eyele According to the British Standard "Stee! Chimneys [5.3]. the frequency of ovalling of a circular stack of con- stant section fs piven by The critical wind speed at which ovalling may occur cam he eacutated from the follossing formula: vet, os wy the critical wind speed V is Tess than or equal to the steady wind speed, then it may be assumed that the shell ‘sill he prone to oscillations A simple practical cute against ovalling i to use stif- ening rings near the top of the stack 5.2.6 Farthquake Forces Stacks in earthquake areas shall he designed and con: Structed to withstand as. minimum the lateral seismic forces, assuming that the forces can act in any direction [5.39. 540, S41, 542,5.43, S44, 5.45, S46}. The project specification shouk! state applicable earthquake coef cient 7 [5.47] With the availability of the high-speed digital com- puter, stacks can now be analyzed for accelerograms of, actual earthyuake records, Although a rational analysis, based on model response calculations is recommended for final design, certain procedures that are adaptable to hand computations are useful in preliminary design hy studied and generally applied earthquake design criteria in the United States are those developed by the Structural Engineers Association of California in 1967 [5.48], The SEAOC Code is of broad seope and has included criteria for “structures other than buildings”. Stacks fall into this category. The Code as applied to stacks provides the basic criteria that define forces, shears, and moments 5.2.6.1 Base Shear The base shear or total lateral force, Figure 5.5. shall be’ computed according to the National Standard Building. Code [5.47] by the following equation V=SUCW of V=zUCW, (5:14 where V = total shear at the base one coefficient for earthquake magnitude from the map of the United States showing the zones of approximately equal seismic probability in the latest edition of the Uni- Form filling Cade. Phiscoeffecient shall not be less than 0} for Zone 1.0.5 for Zone 2, and HO for Zone 3 U = nse factor and varies from 13 to 20. © = nwimerical enefficient for hase shear Which is equivalent to KC in the Uniform Building CodeTubular Steel Siructures ~ Theory and Design 56 v FIGURE 5.5 — Bass w al weight of stack without lini W, = total weight of stack including corbel sup: porting lining. 1b The value of C shall be computed by Equation (3.13) cso. (5.15) The value of the fundamental period of vibration for ‘a cantilevered structure of uniform cross-section may be expressed by the following formula 7 J wa veins JR 6.10 For steel stack this can be ansformed as 3 ys x a0 ht (ES 6.10 where T= fundamental period in seconds He beh = diameter. w= seit per anit eight tbs Fall sickness, inches E = modulus of elasticity. pst oment of ‘of the cross-section, ttt 8 acceleration of gravity = 32.2 t/see! Wf the base of the steel stuck is Mared. the period of such a stack can be calculated by ran (EE os 6 = the calculated deflection in feet at the top of the stack due (0 100% of Hs Weight applied as a lateral load where HW the stack is lined, the weight per foot must include the weight of the lining, and the added stiffness due to the fining must be determined as an equivalent thickness of sicel, The modified thickness of steel then should be used 1m the appropriate formula given above, This has a good, Sorrotaitan mith meusured periods of lined stacks. Gunite fining, for example, € id of steel stack in the order of 15% Mitchell [5.49] developed a form of solution which is especially useful in calculating fundamental periods of eylindsical, tapered-cylindsical, and step-tapered-cyli drical structures pe (fy | 00 see (5.19 reduce the per where 1 = fundamental period in seconds 1 = bight an feet = weight por foot of height over a uni assumed uniform section of the structure in pounds per foot P= comeeatrated toads that may be attached 10 the stcucture at any level, which add mse but do not conteibute 10 the silliness E = modulus of elasticity in pai D diameter of each section in feet 1 = thickness of each section of shel im inches Aa = dilference in the a values between the top and bottom of each section B= constant at the section at which concentrated loads P are attached difference in the 7 values between the Lop and bottom of each sect E = summation of the product of the quantities shown over the height of the structure Values of the a. and 7 in the function of the ratio y/H are given in Table 5.1 FIGURE 5.6 — Diatbullon of basSelf-Supporting Stacks 7 TABLE 5.1 — Values of and tn the function of hx/H te o B ~ oa a 6 Ad 100 2108 ar ‘ra00000 D004 096579 0 boa 00008 basta 098 ie 0000 Socom oar 1863 one Secine 096 Ler oor 2.89661 095 174 00578 ‘09007 om 2 900008 oa Sos? ones 0 1573, 0 990007 O43 Dost ooiasa oe 1508, Sanene Oosoe oats oat 140 8 990009 bose aoe 090 137 9 990082 00005 0.0079 089 1316 evens Saas Sesooe O88 1258 gaan dosnt ‘e001 os 499 Daneme Ooers 67093 om ua 024 oasis 085 1 080 oceie 085105 oe 1038, 00105 0 002 oes 0838 core azo ose 0399 Soro Saino ost 0892 4508 2909576 oor | ose 080 ear aa ‘00455 0.010285, o7o14 on S04 4261 99909, Sooeres O77 on 0162 402 900133, 00726 07602 on 0122 3045 8 90025 00249 07400 076 0.03 8.676 05222 7321 07% 0640 0920085 oom 07355 on aero 389 doseotr Sonssee | corer | dese on O57 3360 ooo7ese Sever | ooeoss | 06800 or 050 3a 997205 Sonus | oosi2s | ossto on O52 30st 0.996689 dooiera | _oou0s | otis 070 04st 2999 0996101 ‘ooo1e85 | oasra | ozor 088 453 3am 8 5434 oooriss | oozsis | 08000 oes 42s dom Scent coos | ooze | 08769 oer 0399 2s ose soos? | doves | Ossie O60 oan base 0.902885 O16 Sovosae | _oorssi_| 05205 085 0.9097 23065 | ose 018 ‘000388 | 001198 | osote oe 0.260 3200 | 0.90068 ou Soooses | coor | o47ea oe Davee aitae | osesne O18 coooiss | ovo6e9 | o4si2 ose 02646 Zoo | 096739 on coooizt | ovosos | 04231 ost 02650 iisose | 0.98600 on Soot | cece: | o3a0 080 0 2404 ‘eose | 090s 010 ‘000081 | oonzaa | 03609 039 0 2208 srior | ose 00 Sooo | comes | o3sa7 O58 ai 080052 208 Soooei7 | coor | 02009 oer 0 1965 097829 oor Sooo | dons | 02659 256 1616 oorsrs 208 dooowne | ocmom | 0.2023 085 01678 097901 005 ‘o0o02 | oono16 | 01968 ost 1e0s Savor oot Sooo | ooocor | oiser 089 ove 96683 om S20 | coon | o1216 ose 0 1905 rt 00 Sooo | ooo | oom ost 0.1106 098973 it oot Sooo | came | one58 5.2.6.2 Distribution of Lateral Forces The following Figure 5.6 indicates ho. shear is distributed up through the stew lateral static forces First, ifthe height-to-width ratio of the structure is than 3. thet pure OF he the design base we as equivalent . maximum, is arbitrarily assigied 40 the top ol the struc: ture. The purpose of this is inctease the shear im the "upper parts of the structure to account for the increasing, participation of the higher modes of vibration in the re~ sponse of taller, more flexible structures. It also recog nized that the fundamental mode deflection curve departs from the assumed straight line as the structure deflection is due more to bending action rather than shear deflec tion. This tends to cause greater shears in the top of the structure than would result from the so-called “Wsiangular distribution.” ., Fy = 0.004 vey (5.20) By Po 0 for Bea (521) My Py 9 KSV for “BF 6.12 (5.22) . wh, Foe W- PI x c ne a Soeeseeee vege t 3.24 eT ay Te eu) yorrt Ee, 5.25) oe ten ee Most stack structures have height-to-width ratios Breater than 6.6; hence, generally, the distribution of the base shear will be 0.15 V as Fy atthe top, with the remai ing 0.85 V distributed in accordance with the triangular distribution formula (5.23). In applying this formula, the structure arbitrarily can be divided into convenient inere- iments, depending somewhat upon the weight distribution but usually not more than 10 sections. The transverse design shear at any horizontal plane in the steuctureis the ‘cumulative sum of the lateral forces above that plane resulting from the distribution of the base shear by the criteria given by formulas (5.20) and (5.23), Formula (5.24) states this for any plane x above the base. giving Vx Formula (5.25) provides the corresponding value at the * base V, which of course, should check the base shear that previously has been distributed and now is re-accumu- lated 5.2.6.3 Overturning Moments Having determined the base shear and the dist that base sheur, the remaining basic design criteria relate ee Tubular Steel Structures ~ Theory and Design sv M FIGURE 5.7 — Overturning moments. to the overturning moment on the structure as a whole ad at any horizontal plane x, Figure 5.7, {5.50} My = J,(0.15V(h -hoy) + EF Py thy-hy)) (5.26) 7 aa AE tha in wish the value 0f Jy is determined fom he ara awe sn where 0.6 a 2 J (5.28) and J shall be not less than 0.45 nor greater than 1.0. 5.2.6.4 Supports Vit is expected that conditions at supports may change. this should be considered at the design stage [5.5] 5.2.6.5. Erection Conditions Loads and forces which may appear under the erection conditions, for instance, temporary supports of jacking. should be considered at design stage (5.5). 5.2.7 Temperature Influence The influence of the temperature variations on the design ‘of steel chimneys is proposed following German Stand- ards DIN 4133 [5.5] a. Permissible temperanur The influence of the te ved in the analysis of shell ifthe temperature er than + 30°C perature should be consid- high- b. Thermal forces Provision shall be made for stresses resulting temperature. The rise of # 35°C and fall of ~35°C in temperature shall be figures from an assumed tem- perature at the time af erection, Jn the case of changes of temperature higher than + $0°C oF lower than ~ 30°C, the difference of both temperatures should be considered in the design.Self-Supporting Stocks $9 5.3 Str Stacks The self-supporting stack may he treated ava vertical ean: tilever beam subjected to toads caused by the horizontal wind presstre and the weight of the stack. It may he ana. Iyved by beam theory for the purpose of determining the resulting longitudinal stresses. The only error introduced in the analysis of stack shell hy the heam theory. as op. Analysis tor Self-Supporting pposed to shell analysis, is the assumption that phine sur Taces remain plane. and the stresses are proportional to the distances from the acuteal axis. However, the efror jntroduced by this assumption is small and conservative “The maximum unit stress is usually compression and occurs dite to the wind load, An allowance for possible earthquake stresses muct be made for the stacks fo he con- structed in certain localities. Indesigninga horizontal joint, the means of fastening must be able to transmit the maximum compressive stresses occurring in any part of the joint without exceed. ing the allowable unit stresses in hearing and shear The Bross thickness of the plate must be able to safely take the Compressive stress, while the effective thickness of the plate must be able to safely take the maximum tensile stress in any part of the joint ‘The stresses in the stack shell are (5.51, 5.52} a. The Compressive Sirest resulting from dead lords including the weight of the shell itself, the weight of the lining and attached equipment. Also, stresses caused by an eccentricity resulting from irregular load distribution. bb. Stresses resulting from bending momen ‘wind of seismic loads acting on the stack c. Shearing siresses due to wind or earthquake. Thermal stresses fe. Stresses resulting from fabrication procedures such as cold forming and welding {Stresses resulting from erection. B. Allowance should be included for higher resulting stresses due to corrosion. caused by 5.3.1 Dead Loads Compressive stresses caused by dead loads may be con. sidered in two parts for convenience: a, Stress induced by shell and lining Weight of steel in chimney having a constant shell thickness in pounds . Ms 5.20) H = height of the stack, ft Weight of lining. in pounds wy teeta 5a The sires due to the dead weight of ining fq 0 aptay P (5.2) where We = weight of ining, ths De = mean diameter of Hining, 1 te = lining thickness, ins He = height of the fining. f Pq = density of lining material, th’ t= thickness of shell, ins bh. Stress induced by eccentric loadings In stacks, externally attached equipment such as: platforms, ladders. pipes, ete., act eccentrically and nay he reduced to vertical loads acting along the shell axis and moments acting eecenteically with respect 0 the shell axis. Ifthe total vertical equipment load is EG, then the combined moment is Me = ZGe and the compressive and tensile stresses due to the eccen- tric loads ave ay ie — , pst (5.39) woe DF (e-e) where fe = uit stress in extreme fiber or the shell. psi © = eccentricity, the distance from the shell axis to the resulting vertical load EG 5.3.2 Wind or Earthquake Loads a, Stresses induced by wind loads In general.a self-supported steel stack may be consid- cred as a vertical cantilever beam subjected to the horirontal wind pressure. According to formula (5.2), the total wind force act ing on the stack is F= Cy“ "Cg" Ce" A. Therefore, the maximum bending moment is My Ee (5.34) and the stress due to wind is 2H fe 2, pat vi pee 635) b. Stresses induced hy earthquake loads ‘According to formula (5.26) the total bending mo- ment tinder earthquake force acting on the stack is We aCoasvOng +E Fp men gy) 630) eT ee ba and the stress due to earthquake is Be 2 Mk foisvin-ny + m wo ec) ou 2 Try the hy) eh L5-10 Tubular Steel Structures — Theory and Design 5.4 Design of Selt-Supporting Stacks 5.4.1 Dead Load Stress According to formulas (3.30), (8.32) and (5.33) Deeg eit te) Wy tH, + 2G aM, 5.38) Oi Ceacleee easter oes S.4.2 Deud Loads and Wind Stresses According to foruulas (3.30), (3.32), (5.33) and (5.35) Coiaws et etes tet eal wee) 639) 5.4.3 Dead Loads and Earthquake Force Stresses, According to formulas (5.30). (3.32). (5.33) and (5.37) fore fot fet fe t te (5.40) Ftd S.44-The Allowable Stresses The allowable buchling stresses lor mid steel are used according to Equation 2.10), At the condition 361, then according to the formula fF = 3333 gi ‘allow ” “D7 According to the German specification DIN lor de: sign of sicel stacks [5.5]. the allowable buckling stress cam, nated by using the following formula oe * KEG) (san where the coefficient K is a a (542) 2+ 5 and “eis the eccentricity of the cross-section of the stack Gus to labeicution ampertes = ppty (20 + pfgd 2 ty dn (543) 5.4.5 Checking of the Wind Induced Osejitations he resonant wind velocity for the stack cont Figure 5.1 (a) and 5.1 (b) is determined according to the formula (3.11) 31 310F, where the first mode of vibration is after formula (5.7) 3.520, For the stack configuration of Figure 5.1 (c) D should be taken Js the actual diameter at 1/8 the height below the op. The critical wind speed at which ovalling may occur is calculated following the formula (5.13) Yor * for35 the critical wind speed V is less than or equal to the steady wind speed, than it may be assumed that the shell Will be prone 10 oscillations. 5.5 Base Design Lo analyze the stresses between the base of the stack and its fou is important to consider the degree of fixity of the base, which depends on the connection de- {ails € i a factor which allows for this degree of fixity and is graphically explained in Figure 5.8. 5.5.1 Design of Anchor Bolts {In designing anchor bolts for a self-supporting steel stack the weight of the lining is not considered as the steel work is usually-buill first and the masonry lining added after- wards. Sometimes a considerable portion of the lining is removed and renewed during the life of the stack. This ‘meuns that the anchor bolts must be large enough to keep. the stack {rom overturning before the lining is removed and renewed during the life of the stack. The lat ating am the stck sans ihr as compressive or tensile load to the concrete fo thvough the anchor bol, The bending moment M and the weight of the stack W results in a loading condition in the concrete footing similar to that as shown in Figure 5.9. In the calculation it isassumed that the bol rings the center of the bearing plate. The moment and weight of theSelf-Supporting Stacks £7075 Age AREA OF CONTACT AND Aye TOTAL FIGURE 5.8 — € 98 8 function of base stack result ina tensite load on the left-side anchor bolts and a compression fond on the right-side [5.5%] Calling xD the distance between the neutral axis and the ircumference on compression side. asshownin Figure 5.10, we have by similar triangles cng ny eT a Bout aRCLE Faure 59 Eros E-0 POSSIBLE AREA OF CONTACT [COMPRESSION ZONE) where gp : n= GE= the ratio of moduli or elasticities of Eel to the concrete. From Figure 5.10. the location of the neutral axis n-n may be defined in terms of angle seme (545) b/2 = xD OE force. Ton the tension side of the section is (rad — _~_—d sina + (n-a)eosa] (5.46) oaay Since any given position of the neutral axis deter= ines a. this equation may take the form a7) in which © is constant for a given position of the neu- tral axis and shown in Table 5.2 The moment of the total tensile force, T, about the neutral axis is (ray x(coss_+ cosa)? of Sette ““Thecoaad 2? w tcrtey qedecey Flealeostat sinacoss + Bx-a J (5.48) Dividing My by T. we have as the distance of the ‘center of tension from the neutral axis$2 Tubular Steet Suuctures — Theory and Design NEUTRAL CONCRETE IN Soneression WIN) = stecun TENSION FIGURE 5.10 — Lgad on anchor bots and beating plate 3 1 ‘ (1-0)costa +} sinacosa + bis-a and the distance of the center of compression {rom the moe z pees neutral ais is [eins + (ra) e080) . 3 1 {acosta = } atnacosa + 40) ay ee Se Similarly, we determine the total compression force Ihe system of forces, as shown in Figure $10, must . bein equilibrium, Hence, aking moment ab out the force Co eytee (Ee ME) © (5.50) Be we may mite * ‘ in which Cp isa constant Jr a given position ofthe neu 1D = M- PD tral axis shown an Table 5.2 The moment ofthe otal comprenive torce Caboml A the neutral ani 6 1 = Cyl Mot (ee 4 8tg) foe! Sosa) : (531) therefore {acosta ~ } sinacosa +} a} z z Cy = MPD Whence 4 Pep TABLE 52 — Values otk, Gp, Cy end ay Funcilon otk The total area of ste! required is A, + 2erty Therefore 4 eee 0 63) com Table 5.1, it may be seen thatthe constant j eanges but slighty fora considerable variation in the position of the neutral axis. Taking== = B for all cases, Equation (5.53) may bé BiSelf-Supporting Stacks S13 (5.54) Applying now the condition that the summation of all vertical forces must be zero, we have Coie Substituting the values of C and T as previously found, we Cpfgk (he tnt y) - Cpfarty 7 P Solving for te, we obtain P+ (pf, ~ Cptendrt, a eee eee ‘The number of anchor bolts for a self steel stack should never be fess than 8 and should prefer- ably be 10 or 12 or more depending on the size of the stack. Generally. for given values of M and P. and assumed number and cross-sections of anchor bolts itis required to determine the maximum stresses in the anchor bolts fx land the concrete under compression fe. The problem is solved by a method of successive trials. since the position of the neutral axis is not known. The procedure is as follows: 1. Assume @ position of the neutral axis, select the con stants accordingly, substitute into Equations (5.54) tind (8.58) and solve them’ fot fy and fe 2. Check the position of the neutral axis as fixed by these values of fs and fe is the same as the position assumed at the start. Ifthe two positions agree, then. fg and fe as found are the actual stresses. 1. If not, a new position of the neutral axis must be as~ sumed, new constants selected, and new values of fs and fe computed. Thus a series of trials must he made cof the neutral axis as assumed is the computed values of fe and fe consistent 5.5.2 Base Plate 5.5.2.1 Base Plates Without Gussets ‘A baseplate without gussets may be assumed to bea uni- formly loaded cantilever beam with fc the uniform load. ‘The maximum bending moment for such a beam occurs atthe netton ofthe sack shell and the baseplate for unit Shewrefereniat length b = 1 in and is equal to 1. fot et tebtcy = 2 where Cis the base plate minus the other radius of the Stacks My, (5.56) ‘The maximum stress in an elemental strip of unit wid A, Snax. ett (55) max “pee tt where tis the base-plate thicknessin inches. Letting fmax. = fail and solving for t, gives £7 ETE (5.58) 5.5.2.2 Rase Plates With Gussets If gussets are used to stiffen the hase plates, the loading. conditions on the section of the plate between two gussets may be considered to act similarly to that of a rectangular Uniformly loaded plate with two opposite edges simply supported by the gussets, the third edge joined to the shell. land the fourth and outer edge free. For this particular case Timoshenko and Woinowsky-Kreiger (5.54) have tabulated the deflections and bending moments as shown in Table. 5.3 To determine the hase-plate thickness from the bend ing moment the Following formula should be used e/a (5.59) and Note that in Table 5.3, for the case where L/b = 0 (no gussets or gusset spacing b = o) the bending mo- ment is reduced to Equation (5.56). and the thickness of the base plate is determined by Equation (5.58). Also when L./b is equal to or less than Y;, the maximum bend ing moment occurs at the junction with the shell because of cantilever action. If L/b is greater than ¥, the maxi- imum bending moment occurs at the middle of the free edge. 5.5.2.4 Practical Considerations in Designing Base Plates Rolled-angle base plates may be used for stacks ifthe eal- culated thickness of the base plates is Ys in. or less. The steel angle is rolled to fit as shown in Figure 5.11 [5.55 Ite required base-plate thickness is Yin. 10 } in, a design using a single-ring base plate may be used as Shown in Figure 5.12, TABLE 5.3 — Maximum Bending Moments In # Bene Plate wth Ou > oR soa o (e987) |e 20”) ° ° “0 some * o.0orateb* 042618 * o20ateb* 02198 % .0sseteb? az27ted 1 arate? 11918, % on2aIgb? -0.124tet | 2 043M b? 10510 3 0 1201¢b* “o.t2stet ® o.1321gb2 0125I68 nap' apaciog (x aection) Inches BEGHREBI Butea vacua mins ‘outside radius ty direction) inchesI Tubular Sieel Structures — Theory and Design FULL FILLET WELD 308 GUSSET PLATE ON EITHER “SIDE. OF ANCHOR BOLTS WC'FLLET weLD 343318 of LARGER BOLT SIZE+ 118° FIGURE 5.11 — Rolled-angle base plate. MW the required base-plate thickness is ¥, in, or greater a bolting “chair” may be used as shown in Figures 5.13 and 5.14 Although the number and size ot bolts required should be checked for each individual design, some typi- cal values of maximum numbers of chairs can be obtained. from Table 5.4 for a given stack base diameter When checking the base-plate thickness for a cen- tered chair, Figure 5.13, the plate inside the stiffeners is considered to act as a concentrated loaded beam with, fixedends. The concentrated load, P, produced by the bolt is equal to the maximum bolt stress multiplied by the bolt root thread area, The maximum moment in the base phite occurs on the line of symmetry centered inside the ehairand is given, by Moay * EB. tnax ~ “F (5.60) The‘anchor bolt hole reduces the effective width of the plate, Taking this into consideration, the base-plate thickness. tis i, tes fe (61) where b, is the width of the base plate, bhd is the bolt-hole diameter and fy 1s the allowable stress in psi Hi the number of bolts required is greater than that given in Table 5.4 bolting chair may be used, as shown in Fig 318° GUSSET PLATE ON ETHER Sibe OF ANCHOR BOUTS CPLLET WELD: —BOU SIZE + 118" TABLE 5.4 ~ Mumber of Chas Various Size Stack Diameter, Slack Diameter tt [No.of Chales 10 Figure 5.14, plan view, withy in the radial direction and z in the circumferential direction, the ‘maximum bending moments Mz and My are given by 2tsint H+ a Conan Ey + 17 ~ oF (5.62) asin’? Kee gh Comen Ey ea. (5.63) = CQumyad ged where 4H = Poisson's ratio (0.30 for steel) n= natural logarithm «+= radial distance from outside of skirt to bolt circle, inches © = sadial distance from outside of skict to outer edge of compression plate, inches b= gusset spacing, inches radius, of action of concentrated load, inches or one-half distance across Nats of bolting nut, inches Dy Ts + constants from Table 5.5 when b- unity, Mx = Mz,and when b> 1, Mz> Mand terctore Mz controls, For the ease in which a = &/2 and Mz is controlling, Equation (5.62) reduced 10 Mn ge Cat ind’ + Cyd” 65,64) The maximum stress in the compre width is 1 ring of unit on fax * (565) 5 TABLE 5.5 ~ Constants for Moment Calculation. oe | so [a2 Tia [re [se [ao] = 1% | 0565 | 0380 [ozt [0125] 007s | oo] 0 ‘% | 0195 | 0115 | 0085 | 0057 | 097 | 0023} 0 For ab. € less than 1.0 invert B,C and rotate axes 602Self-Supporting Stacks 518 PLAN VIEW BB pea L same AS J Stack WALL "cd BolT size + 118" WASHER WASHER THCKNESS LL. EQUat ro BOLT OIA * a ELEVATION cl weer “>|~sour sve SECTION AA FIGURE 5,13 — Center anchor-bolt chal. | ent st» s ‘eour Sze + 110" ane 36l "Ope sae EYAL cosser mares where ty is the thickness of the compression ring. The having tl 5.5.24 Design of Gusiet Plates for Compression Rings | Irthe gussets are spaced evenly as shown in Figure $.15, they may be considered to behave as vertical columns 15.35}. moment of inertia of the gusset about the ax: he radius of gyration is given by i.4 (367) rey L ”a =area of cross-section, in 5 #7 = radius of gyration, in Sty = gussetplate thickness, in and pe b= 19000 Af 60 < hye < 200 1+ (nt/Leaoor?) (568) where = height of gusset, in From Equations (5.66), (5.67) and (5.68) we may obtain 18,000 fu! ~ (bolt load)e! - (9.69) sn the equation may’be dis- plitying Equation (5.69) 10 bolt load “Ts,000 F (5.70) ‘When an external bolting chair is used the thickness Of the, stack shel, t, at the base should be checked. To determine the thickaess Equation (5.71) can be used 2, ws AD where dius of the stack at eration, inches P= maximum bolt load, pounds dial distance from outside of st the anchor bolt circle, inches b= gusset height, inches m= 2A (sce Figure 5.14) oF bolt spacing 5.6 Approximate Breech Opening Analysis From a functional point of view. steel stacks have to resist the effects of wind and of their own weight. In the case of steel stacks the effects of the wind predominate by a com parison of the influence of their own weight With respect to theis structural behavior th two types of steel stacks: the scll-supporting type and suyed stacks. “The self-supporting type acts ay a column cesisting its ‘own weight, acting vertically, and the overturning effect fof the wind, the base only being fixed. In other words, it is cantilever subjected to a relatively large overturning moment and a relatively small vertical load Guyed stacks resist the same forces. but itis assisted by lateral supports in the form of guyed cables equally spaced around the stack and anchored at the otherend to eonerete blocks, some distance from the stack footings. toad) . 9 Tubular Steel Structures — Theory and Design ‘he effec of those guy eables is 19 produce a somewhat smaller win bending moment in te stack Near the base of the stack 4 relatively wide breech ‘opening or flu inlets cu Yo facilitate the inspection and lining of stacks and 10 enable soot, etc, to be removed, it is usual 10 fit an aecece dior near the base. Avian the cate of the breech opening. any opening of this nature'should bbe adequately reinforced. The breech opening weakens the wall of the stack considerably and some forms of compensation are re- quired to take the loading and provide safely against local buckling he breech opening analy- W design ate considered for self-sup- porting stacks. However, it should be noted that such an, analysis and design may be applied to guyed stacks. This, is because guyed stacks are affected by such similar loud- ings ay self supporting stacks. Only the vertical load may. bbe increased on account of the vertical reactions of guy. cables, the following ate given two methods for thea sis and design of breech openings: one approxin another move rigorous method An approximate mettiod may be useful for the pre- liminary analysis and desiga and a more rigorous method is recommended for the final desiga {5.56} 5.6.1 Conception of the Method Experiments show that the applied load causing the gen- eral collapse of the thin-walled eylindsical shell axially- Jouded is slightly greater than load initiating local buck- ling, Prior to local buckling. a shell is quite sensitive 10 slight disturbances. When the applied load is just below thy local buckling load any lateral disturbaneé would ‘cause local buckling to occur in the hole region cut in the shel ‘Once the local buckling had occurred, the shell did ‘not seem as sensitive to slight disturbances because these ‘aisturbances seldom led 10 its general collapse. Buckling Toads continued 10 decrease as the hole dimensions in- creased. During the exper uulierently by the test STACK. [COMPRESSION FING usser ph BEARING PLATE ngSelf-Supporting Stacks cross-section A-A FIGURE 6.16 — Shell and hole geometry. the measured shell buckling loads were reduced to a proximate equivalent applied stresses in order to provide P common basis for comparison, This wasdone by replac ing the applied load with a statically-equivalent men rane stress system acting on the plane which may be called the applied stress plane and which is perpendicular to the cylinder axis, Figure 5.16. “Therefore, the statically-equivalent applied mem: brane stress system must equilibrate the applied axial oad plus a static bending moment duc to wind action and eccentricity of axial load with respect to the neutral axis of cross-section. ‘To simplify the form of this applied membrane stress system the folowing assumptions were made: A. The memmrane stress appticd mt y con the hole edge can be used to represent the applied stress corresponding to local buckling of the shell and b. The hole is far enough from the ends of the shell, so that the assumed applied stresses are not influenced by the end support conditions. 5.6.2 Stresses at the Edge of Breech Opening Reduced cross-section of the stack shellis under influence of axial load P and wind bending moment My. Based on the geometry of the applied stress plane shown in Figure 5.16. the resulting stresses inthe wal of the stack are given by (4, + Pxe)x — 6.729 where A = reduced eross-sectional area of the stack, 1 = moment of inertia of the tional area of the stack iced cross-see- Ifthe resulting stresses remain negative (compression only), then there will be no anomatly.and the usual laws of FIGURE 5.17 — Cros dietibution| sngram svetion of the stack. Ste548 will be valid, It, however, the stress distribution diagram includes a tensile postion, this should be consid= ered in further analysis, assuming that the position of neutcal axis is known, With reference 1 Figure 9.17. the following nota SeST = statical moments of wall under compression, : ‘and tension, respectively, retesred tu the new: Weal anis JT = moments of imettia of wall under compres: sion and tension. resp eutcal axis ely, felerred to the fa) c- fea = (2) fees om : Bending moment capable of being resisted by the compressive areas ts ne fotan « (3) fran By analogy. the value ofthe bending moment capable ‘of being resisted by the tensile are is (3.76) aly om From the condition of the equilibrium of vertical forces, we have Per-cso or 5 heged (5.78) Fotal bending moment is Manet My + Px, 6 After substituting into formula (5.78) values (5.74) and (5.75), we obtain NaC= THO (See Sp) (5.80) ‘and formula (5.79). using (5.70) and (3.77) may be repre: sented as, Mem FPxe et Ip OBI) From (5.81), the value of & is i Tubular Steel Structures ~ Theory and Design A, + Px, ore (5.82) The value of N determined from the formula (5.80) should be equal to P, or N= 9 (5, > Sp) *P (5.83) The average compressive stress in the wall may be ‘obained trom the formula =o = Be oa) ay TE“ TE where Lis the total length of the compressed wall, Figure 5.17 arc EF + arc GH nae MOCc ae bea ial 85) Using midwall radius ae a (5.86) peta et san Therstore, the average compressive stress is ee 180 fay OTERO ey (5.88) The maximusn value of the compressive stress occur- ring at the edge of the opening can be approximately determined by considering | inch wide strip at the edge, Figure 2.18 From the diagcam of stresses we may find the follow- ing ratios 4 Ff ‘ 1 Be Bo gen Pe om mT x rE 1 « (389) : 3 a. 1 net aoe : stress at the middle of the wall is 590 ee) by substituting xg te cosa x, # gtr, cosa Xe 690 rr$19 5.6.3 Geometrical Properties of the Reduced Cross- Section of the Stack 5.6.3.1 Statical Moment of the Compressed Area Figure 5.19 Ordinate of centroid of the sector AOR is 2r siny, stay) FIGURE 5.18 — Diagram Fiaune 5.19 fot My tie a tein . (5.92) Aten of the sector AOB aerty 69 Statical moment of the sector AOB is 2r siny, siny, 2 passer = rty ve sins) © ( Ty 64) and for sector A,OR, 2r, siny, siny, 1 msi te a) 99 Total statical moment is 5. « 2(8,-8,) © 4 tr'=e2) stay. . 8,7 218,-8,) = 4 (arp) siny, siny, 08 In the wall of stack + 2etziori) Ty 218 15.96) y Geometiic dats tor the determination of statin! moment of compressed aresadie Tubular Steel Structures — Theory and Design 5-20 * Hol), *$.6.3.2 Statical Moment of Tensile Area: Figure 5.20 Ordinate of centroid of segment DEF . 4 cos'a Yo = J1290-8) = sin 28T (5.99) ‘Avea‘of the segment DEF is nef froo- 9-25] sn Statical moi the neutral unis at of the segment DEF with respect to SN ia 8,7 A yo> & sin Pe (30-8) ~ sin 28] x cos '3 x é - Fr sins ‘Tz 90-8) = sin HT 2 | ) Ny saalogy. stmtieat moment of tee argment BLES, with respect to the neutral axis N-N is 8, * 51 {4 ©, cos'# ~ x sins(2(90-a) - sin 28] 2° 5 TL (3.102) Total statical moment of the tensile area with respect to neutral axis § (et-ep sin 8 x [2(90 -a)~ sin 29] (5.103) 5.6.5.5 Moment of Inertia of the Compressed Area; Figure 5.21 The moment of inertia of the compressed area with re~ spect to the neutral axis N-N is “ wt RO YD (5.108 Y ale | Ys x ° e a , | [emo 7 Tee iF 4 c le, ' | a e Y FIGURE 5.20 — Geometic data for determination of statical moment of tenaSelf-Supporting Stacks a. Moments of inertia of tee sections AOB with respect to neutral axis x-x are Pa 2 fran conadt = (5.105) =F [ayy - sim (arb cos (ana eres) 7 (5.106) where By analogy, the moments of inertia of two sectors A\OB, with respect to neutral axis x-x are Tyg 7 gh [avy — sin (a48) cos Ca-8)} ax T [Pm * con (a-8)] (5.107) Therefore, the moments of inertia of two rings AA,BB, are ee FETED fay, = stnentn cor too] Ne x , $20 bo Determination of the expression Ay (SE = YA) Where Ay is the area of the sector AOR. Abo) =, We fe oT = orty, sin 1 Aeon + sine) 1 (5.109) co Determination of the expression Ay (sty — ¥¥) Where Ay is the area of the sector AyOR), Dyoty VP TE Werf Ys Yer 7 a) 7 an joins) eine Wy erry, 6 12k sin cep as (EEA sine) The resulting value of the expressions (5.199) and (5.110) is FIGURE S.21 — Geomette data ordetermination of moment of Inertia of compres52 Tubular Steel Suructures — Theory and Design Ads yp = aut

Trem 140) then 2yesee Trem = 2s? > Tyan 7 AT (SIMD where A isan increase in the moment inertia of removed part af the cross-scetion of the stack The moment of inertia of the original cross-sectional area of the stack is 1. therefore the compensated value is rear wy fy designating the distance between the extreme edge ‘of the stiffener and center of the stack asd), Figured ?the section modulus of the cross-section of the stack is reat Seciee way Assuming that Sorig * Saeiee 1s.14ay Therefore. the reduction in section modulus of stiff ened cross-section of the stack in “is | Hi, as / 0 n SIDe view PLAN FIGURE 5.29 — Verllen! alttener as beam-colurmn, SLEE 1008 64s It should be remembered. however, that the stress in the extreme edge of the stiffener is, mm ft : tite aye (5.146) whereas the stress in the slack plates themselves ic actually Aessened in the 1 Tear os.47) or. the original moment of inertia divided by the new moment of inertia, Thus, the original scetion modulus is thot seriously weakened, and the plate stress is reduced. S715 Buckling Stabilire of Vertical Suiffeners Vertical stiffeners under action of axial load and bending, moments due to the eccentricity of axial loads. at both ends, may he considered as heam-colummns, Toachieve the preater factor of safely. the stiffeners will he considered as isolnted heam-coliumns, nepleeting the plating of the wall to which the stiffeners are connected Roth ends af the Sfiffeners are assumed ac hinges. Figure 5.29. The maimum stvess at mil length of the coh iven hy the seeant formula 15.59] eee eee f+. -F sec h z (5.48)5.28 Tubular Steel Structures — Theory and Design oP puns FIGURE 5.30 — Ring ge 5.7.2 Ring Stiffeners In addition to the compensation members which are placed as vertical stiffeners, horizontal reinforcement should be provided by using ring girders above and below the bieech opening. These ring stilfencrs should be de- signed as beams fixed to the wall of the stack to earty the unsupported parts of the stuck above and below breech opening, Figure 5.30, The span in bending is the width between the verti- cal stiffeners, but the girder should encircle the stack to preserve circularity at the opening. ‘To form cach ring girder, steel plates should be placed to actastopand bottom flanges. The shell of the stack ean serve asa web. ‘Around the stack, each ring girder must be capable of carrying a uniformly distributed load Ibyin of are due to axial vertical load 7 ote (5.149) and due to the wind bending moment, when the stress is, a = (5.150), Therefore. the coreoponing vertical lod i Ny ew 5.51 2S wish The total dstibusd oad in in «iM empresa 8 wisn re ‘The bending inomen inthe girder we ak (Fe 199 5.8 Rigorous Breech Opening Analysis Ever since the advent of plate structures, the structural arrangements in the vicinity of openings in them have been a matter of considerable concern: ‘When analyzing and designing such structures. vat- ious factors have 10 be taken into consideration. One of these is the "tress concentration” around openings, tecesses and cutouts in plane and three dimensional parts of structures The initial theoretical work on this subject was per- formed by Inglis (5.60] who approximate the effect of a rectangular opening with rounded corners by a’pair of Cllipses intersecting obliquely. Savin [5.61] studied both the square and the rectangle openings with rounded cor- ners. Greenspan [5.62] working independently and by nother method, produced a solution forthe square with rounded corners. None of these analytical approuches is Applicable vo a wide variety of rectangular openings. The futststep to rectify this situation was taken by Brock [5.63] ‘who presented a solution for the entice family of rectan- les sith rounded corners, ‘An outstanding theoretical study of stresses around fectangular openings in cylindrical shells appeurs by Muskhiclishsili (5.64). He makes use of the complex-vari able method in conjunction with conformal mapping technique in investigating such a problem. His solution is based on the assumptions of plane elasticity: homogene- ous, isotropic material within the elastic limit, uniform stress across the thickness of the shell with no stress nor tal to 1, an opening “small” relative to the shell and small” displacements. ‘An accurate analysis of the stresses around openings in tacks uati eecently has been beyond the state ofthe art, shell analysis. The large aumber of parameters in- volved makes in impossible to produce design charts for Uesigning reinforcement around openings by use of purely empirical approach and a theoretical analysis has been prohibited by the lengthy and complicated mathe- matics involved. Consequently, design of opening rein~ forcement has been based on tules of thumb which are generally quite conservative due to the uncertainty in- Solved. However, recent advances in the Finite Element Method of Analysis coupled with improvements in com- puter technology and numerical analysis methods have brought the state of the art toa level where itnow appears feasible to establish design procedures with a more solid foundation, (5.65, 5.66, 5.67, 5.68, 5.69} 5.8.1 The Finite Element Program Ihe invention of digital computers has significantly im- proved the output of engineering profession. Manual hnethods were the only means of performing engineering, calculations up o theend of the Second World War. They ‘were not practical because of the enormous calculation ‘work involved In solving a large number of simlutancous ‘equations encountered in analyzing any reasonably large structure. To overcome this difficulty. engineers resorted to comparatively easier but approximate methods, €-g relaxation and successive approximation methods. These methods, though still in use at present, have been virtually teplaced by computerized stiffness solution methods —| Self. upporting Stacks incorporating the finite element technique and matrix methods for structural analysis [5.70] Computers seem to be ideally suited for modern structural analysis problems because of their versatility and tremendous speed resulting in substantial savines in time and man-hours required for a particular project. In addition, computer programs using finite elements have the following distinct advantages 1. Their ability to use elements of various types. sizes and shapes and to model a structure of arbitrary eeometry, 2. Their ability to accommodate arbitrary support con: ditions and arbitrary loading. including thermal loading, 1. Their ability to modetcomposite sirueturesinvohving different structural components such as stiffening. members and a shell and combination of plates, bars and solids. ete 4, The finite element structure closely resembles the actual structure instead of being quite a different abstraction that is hard to visualize. Invariably. the finite element method of analysis em: tails a few disadvantages as well, as shown helow 1. A specific numerical result is obtained for a specific problem, A general clase form solution. which would permit one to examine system response to changes in Various parameters, is not produced 2. Experience and judgement are needed in order to construct good finite clement model 2. A large computer and a reliable computer program are esser 4, Input and output data may be Inrge and tedious toy prepare and interpret 5.8.2 Method of Finite Element Analysis Finite element analysis hascome about through the use of digital computers solving with matrix algebra methods the many equations of compatibility and equiibrivm created by classical solution techniques such as slope deflection, Generally. most finite element analysis pro- rams utilize displacement methods of solution. resolving deflections first, followed by a stressing routine. which ‘solves for member farces (stresces) fram the deflections ie. a stiffness solution method [5.71]. [5.721 What must be appreciated, however. is the fact that all finite element models are t hest approximations of the actual structures they may represent. Firstly. the applica- bility of finite element analysis must he determined with respect toa problem in hand. Ifit is possible to model an actual structure under consideration. it then becomes necessary to carefully choose a proper element and grid uch that the errors, that ineur when the actual Structural continuum i© replaced hy the finite element model, may he minimized. Furthermore. though must he LUsed to establish the appropriate constetints that nnast he applied about the model so that the model and nett structure tend to behave similarly ‘Over the past vears, as finite clement technology prow. its popularity also increased. Subsequently, at the moment, good evidence exists verifying the viability of the finite clement analysis method as quite reliable when applied property erally speaking the steel stack analyzed in this report is well ordered and no. complex problem to solve. is anticipated that the results of the analysis presented in Appendis B. are very elective of the forcesand delle tions that would exist if the modelled structure and the applied londs were in actual existence 5.8.3 ANSYS Computer Program ANSYS is a large scale genera purpose computer pro- gram for the solution of several classes of engineering Analysis prohtems. Itsanalyzingcapabilities include static And dynamic: plastic. creep and swelling: small and large deflections: steady state and transient heat transfer and steady state fluid flow The matrix displicement method of analysis hased upon finite clement idealization is emploved throughout the program. The fihrarvof finite elements available num= bers more than forty for static dynamic analyses and tem for heat transfer analyses. This variety of elements gives the ANSYS program the capability of analy ing frame structures (two dimensional frames. grids and three di- mensional frames). piping ststems, two dimensional plane and axisymmetric solids. fat plotes, three dimen- Signal solids. axisymmetric and three dimensional shells and nonlinear problems including interfaces and cables. Toading on the structure may be forees, displace ments. presstires, temperatures of response. spectra Loading may he arbitrary time functions for Finear and nonlinear dynamic functions for linear and nonlinear dynamic analyses, Loadings for heat transfer analyses include internal heat generation, convection and radia- tion boundaries, and specified temperatures or heat flows 15.73] The ANSYS program uses the wave front (or “fron- tal?) direct solution method for the system of simuttane- fous linear equations developed hy the matrix displace- ment method. and gives results of high accuracy ina mini- mum of computer time. The progeam has the capability of| Solving large structures. There is no fimit on the numbers ff elements used in a problem. The number of nodes can’ be in excess of 2500 for three dimensional problems, and S000 for two dimensional prablems. There is no “hand width” limitation in the problem definition, howeve there is a "wave front” restriction. The “wave front” restriction depends on the amount of core storage avail able fora given problem. tipto $76degrees of freedom on the wave front limitation tends to be restrictive only for analysis of arbitrary three dimensional solids or in the use of ANSYS on a small computer 'ANSYS has the capability of generating suhstruc: tures (ar super-elements). These substructures. may be stored ina likrary file for use in ather analvces. Substruc= turing portions ofa model enn rest in considerable com- prter time savings for nonlinear analyses Geometry plotting is available for all elements in the ANSYS library. inching isometric, perspective and sec tion siews of three dimensional structures. Plotting sub- routines are also available for the plotting of stresses and displacements from two and three dimensional solid orFIGURE 5.21 — Flat qua shell analyses, node shapes from dynamic analyses, dis- forted geometries Irom static analyses, transient forces fand displacements vs. ine curves from transient dyna analyses. a plots from plastic und creep analyses, Post processing routes modification, diftere lated results. Root mean square operations may be per formed on seisaie modal results, Results [rom various oading nudes may be combined for harmonically louded axisymmetsie structures “Options for multiple coordinate system silable for alg grition of calew ble, as well cylindrical, or spherical eo Tubular Steel Structures Theory and Design THICKNESS NOTE: x and y ave in the plane of the element X18 pavallal to ‘as multiple region generation capabilites to minimize the input dita for repeating regions. Sophisticated geometry generation capabilities are neluded for (wo dimensional plane and axisymmetric structures and for intersecting three dimerisional shell steuctutes [5.74]. [5.75] The quadrilateral shell element has bending and Incmbrane capabilities. Both io-plane and normal loads fe permitted, The element has six degrees of freedom at sch node; translation in the nodal x. y, and z directions find rotations about the nodal x, y, and 2 axes, Figures 5.31 and 5.32. Sx (TOP) Sx (HID) Ss, (8071Self-Supporting Stacks sat NUMERICAL EXAMPLE NO. 1 Approximate Method Determine stresses and design stiffeners at breech open. ing of celf-supported tee! nek to prevent buckling under sertical and wind loading, Figure 5.2% Assumed Location: Toronto, On' Morerial: C.40.21 $0 A (equivalent ASTM Steet) This weathering steel and although more expensive than 44W, a saving will be made due to lower main tenance costs, Height Required: 200 Minimum Discharge Diameters 10 te Corrosian Allowance: V 16 inch Solurion 1. Part 1. Determination of Wind Loading From NAC, Supplement No. 1, 1975. p. 43, the hourly wind pressure for Toronto is 9.9 psf at 1 in 30. From Figure BM. for L/D = 154. Cn = 0.65 According 10 NBC. p. 157 =) a i» a} su Fy = 0.65 ¢9.9900.6) [28] (2-0 (ie oh a. Wind pressure from 0 to 40 ft (exactly 0 t0 41-8") The exposure factor Ce = 0.50 = 103 - 9.193 HY b. Wind pressure from 40) t0 200 ft rr ean von aoe (S20 (c= Be) - = 05.95 = 0.03 4,9 Ji FIGURE 5.34 — Determination of bending moments In stack * Linder wind loadingMx for uniform loading x < 160-0" 454160 - 0 bu 160 = (70 ~ 0,1406x) x? Low + 95/2 . Mx for triangular loading ih x > 160-0" Mat = 0.09380" Mg = (10 = 0,1406x)x*+ 0.0938x* = = 70x! - 0.0468x" For the bottom part x > 160/-0" the enact exp mew (Qe 1x! + 63x = 12640) (x - = 1601 5 TOP eT 0) (0.2% + 253) 3) However. for the bottom 40 14 the wind loading can bbe considered to be uniform and set equal 10 95 1b/ft, oF = 47.5 (x ~ iso)? Moment at the base 1 P, =} (95 + 140) 160 - 18800 ws = 160.(2 x 140 + 95) . 160 x 375 Ta + 957 yx 235 Mp = 18800 x (85 + 40) ¥ 6 28,200,000 w/in us fe 2,250,000 Ib/te = y= #95 + 102) 40 = 3960 ws = qo - 102 x 103 + 95) 17 = Sco s ss7 = 19.73 fe = 3960 x 19.73 = 7810.8 Ab/te = + 937,570 w/in Meoe * 284290,000 + 937,570 = = 29,137,570 Ib/in 3. Pane 3 In order to determine the required thickness of stuck’s wall, the moment due to wind should be determined. The critical buckling stiess can be deteemicnd from equations: Determination of Stack’s Wall Huckness 30,4 (ee) Combining both of the above equations and substi- tuting oce = fs + fw yields 4, aD, (ee) Tubular Steel Structures — Theory and Design setting t= ean be optin . the equation ean be rearranged 0 that t ed. Therefore, Ms hy erm, aa.D? Assume «= 0.50 inch at base = 202, assume upper 100 Ht thickness of the wall 4 tom 100 ft, wall having ¥; in, wall thickness _ AW x 490 x 100 3 Tz = 12821.66 (2.875 + 7.25) = 129819.31 = 130,000 ibs : 5 130,000 4x 29,137,570 * TNs x Tare * 13,900(16 x 12)*® 0.0155 + 0.0724 = 0.0879 in vom this preliminary check it can readily be seen that the stiess at the bottom of the stack is not critical {In addition, the deflection of the stack must be con- sideied when determining the required thickness of the stack. According to the British Standaed for the design of Stcel Chimneys, the maxinuin allowable deflection atthe twp af steel stack is 4 = &/200 The maximum permissible deflection at the top of this stack should therefore be = 200/200 = 1 ft The actual deflection will be found using the method of Virtual work, oF ‘ amsSelf-Supporting Stacks 53 ayo My tot a i where | im = moment atx due iH htond applied at ton ot stack Mj = moment on segment idue to wind! toading | i. He = wD)'UR = moment of inertia af sepmentiat — | its centroid, which for this example will he tas! considered ats the height of the sepment Maximum allowable deflection at top of stack is 12 inches Calculated deflection at top is 10,794 < 12 inches therefore actual deflection is less than allowable 4. Part 4. Determination of the Own Weight of Stack and Wind Rending Moment : a. Own Weight of the Stack above Breach Opening Diameter D, = 120+ 0.365 tka 120 + 0.36 = 99 = 182.47 = FIGURE 5.95 — Stack’s wall dimensions. Diameter Dy = 120+ 0.36 « IRS = 186.67 = 15.6.6 ssabeyge se (122 } st.998 SEC: Diameter, nS “ m Min t tenane Atop. o {ay a) 6) (8) m (8) (9) Ses ee ¢ | gee [oe | wo | sees | omen vm | hasaa b. Determination of the Bending Moment uader Wind Load at x = 185 44, Fig. 534 18.800 » (83 4+ 25) * 12 = 24,816,000 Ib/in M, Total My = 24.816.000 + 330,250 = 25,472,250 b/in 5. Patt 3. Deterinination of Cross-Section Statical Properties 4 Statical Moment of the Compressed Area: Figure 5.46 Assume the position of the neutral axis as shown i Figure 8.36, ye = in 2 According 10 formula (5.96) fur iny, siny, + 8,2 fle 2 sion, star, + aetet 4) yysin where ee sing = 38 = 0.3871 3 = 22%50° H+ ores eee ne eae! yD sin | = sin 479 = 0.7514 sin, = sin 24°40" = 0, 4094 4 x 93 (934- 92.54) x 0.0209 x o.ja71 = 4 x x 12904 x 0.2994 + 185 x 92.75 x 0.3175 = = 5138 +5478 = 10,616 aa? fatical Moment of the Tensile Area, Figure 5.36 According to formula (5.103) 2 Py ee es Ee Sy * F(e' ef) costae Fe ef) (2090-8) sin 28)sing 2090-3), 2(30-22°50 Syste oat T-250 sin 26 = sin 45°40" = 0.7153, cos 8 = cos 22°50" = 0.9216 5, = 4 (93% ~ 92.54) «0.7314 x 0.4094 + 2 x Tubular Steel Suuctures — Theory and Design a * +2 Beate Sp = ¥ (93? ~ 92.5% 0.9216 - 22 (93 = 92.54) x (2.3445 ~ 0.7153) x 03871 = 2 = Js 2000 « o7eze — 40.3 «9273 % 1.6293 x 0.3871 = 6735-2720" 4,015 in? ©. Moment of Inertia of the Compressed Area According to formula (5.112) tg : fav + sincasa content] + A stor, siny 2 eet ayy sine( AE yng) where sin (ars) = sin (18°50* + 22°50") = «ain 41°40" = 0.6648 cos (a-B) = cos (18°50' = 22°50") = cos 4° = = 0.9976 1, = 225925") 2 x 0.0203- 0.6648 x 0.9976] + 2 x 93 (937 ~ 92.54) x x 08203 x 0.3871 x x (222g gp pystee = 2ETBT a 640 = o.seaz) + 146 x x 12904 x 0.3175' x (0.4867 + 0.3871) = = 389,931 + 665,876 = 1,055,816 in® AL Moment of Insta of the Temile Area Cl se fd 8) - sin + roe te ay [Foose 2 . +8 cost, - +s covtaing] «Ppa! sre fr (ch ry) costg sing + fr (ch ry) costy sing Pate of) r 1 ETE Pavso-sy stm 29] ainte where‘Self-Supporting Stacks sas FIGURE 5.36 — Geometric date 2490-8) , 2180 - 22°50"), 134.332. 9, a445 sin 28 = sin 45°40" = 0.7153 e038 = cos? 2250" = 0.9216" = 0.7828 sin = sin 22950" = 0.3871 costa = cost 2250" = 0.9216% = 0.6127 sin?g = sin? 22%0 = 0.38717 = 0.1898 rr? = ry?) = 93(937 = 92.59) = 93804357 ~ = 791453)=93 «12904 = 1,200,072 rte = ey") = 938(937 = 92.5%) = = 8649 (8649 ~ 9556.25) = = A649 x 92.75 = 802195, + asesae7 |} [ass = o.7asa 6 4 x x o.re2e x 0.3071] § xyatsee O7TET |” 4 rz00072 x 0.7628 x 0.3871 + 992195 fo. s44s = 0.7383] 0.1498 © aes . + ssps7ay [E [cease «tanai] «0.305 | - 482,652 + 97890 = 1595787 x 0.6995 - 386974 = 1,100,235 ~ 386974 = © 713,261 in® 6, Part 6 Checking of the Value of Axial Load N. According to formula (5.22) the value of the enefficient & From formula (5.83) it followsN= 9 (3g 7 Sp) © 16.65 (10,616 - 4,015) = = 16.65 x 6,614 = 109,907 1b 109,907 < 114,766 Difference is 4.424 7. Pan The average compressive after formula (5.88) Determination of Stresses ress wn the wall 1s estimated 180 = 35,9513 x gh8Sgy = 1262 pes The masimum stress at the muddle of the wall alter formula (59D) f [axe ete eyh cong axe tle re) where _* 36 in cosa = cos 16°50" = 0.9465 2x 36 + (93 + 92.5) x 0.9465] = x 248 = 2,065 pst 8. Part 8, Determination of Suesses by the Experi- ‘mental Method Nondimensional geomeuic parameter, Faccording to for~ mula (5.128) is For a = 5h b0in b= 8 =96in R= 93i0 t= hin 60 +9 From Figuse 5.23, for F = 5.72, we tind: Tubular Steel Structures — Theory and Design B= 0.132 x 30x 10 95S w 10,645 Hin 9 Pat 9 Design of Sileners a Breech Opening 44, ‘The required cross-sectional area of the single vertical stillener alter formula (5.128) ag teigine Assume d = 93cosa +5 = 93" Sina = sin 18° 50° = 0.3228 0.5 x 93! x 0.3228 D ays DEES aE 15.00 in b. Moment of inertia of removed part abouta stack cen- ter fine after formula (5.138) ts 3 where o =18°50', atsad) = 38:83, = 0.2206 in 2a = sin 37°40" = 0.6111 gem 2 93" (003286 + SEE) 0.8 = = 904357 x 0.6341 x 0.5 = 255,021 in* *yeire 2 Trem Theretre, required Trem , 255021 1 = 127,510 ta seite ~ ty 10W8 54, 306.0 + 15.9 x 93? = 306.0 + 137,578 = A= 15.9 int = 137 eed int The axial compressive stress in each stiffener under the weight of the wall above the breech opening ac- cording 40 formula (5.130) is cy ge Mgstse , 18,08 “RD * 360." “TStS * “oo * 378 PetSelf-Supporting Stacks 4d. The axial compressive stress in each stiffener due to the wind load moment, after formula (5.134) Hyde 22.5 © DL sine = 25172250 x 93 x 18.83 22.5 «0.5 x 195.5? x 0.3228 7 1902 pes The axial compressive stressdue to thececentticits of stiffener, after formula (5.136) (c+ re oe Sstice where G = 114,768 x 18:23 « 6003 Ihe Hye te 25172250 «18.83. saay the Pat pop, are THES 7AIRE TY en sin Seenee = 6005 In . (6003 + 20391) x 5 = 2842 psi e 30.5 £Totat axial stress in vertical fener is sum of fiop 7 378 + 1902 + 2842 = 5122 pat Buckling Stability of Vertical Stiffeners Vertical stiffeners under action of axial load and bending moments due to the eccentricity of axial loads at both ends, may be considered as beam: columns, The maximum buckling stress iv estimated using formula (5.148) where P is a part of axial load acting on vertical stiffener pe 114,ren «E82 6003 Ibs Section properties for stiffener crow-section 1 = 3960 int S = 60.5in1 Rending moment acting on stiffener due to the wind Hy = £5 = 1902 x 60.5 = 115,071 1b in 3.7 Rending moment acting on stiffener due tricity of axial load ag.83 nia, 768 x 188 x5 = 10,015 15 tn Total moment My My # Mp = 118,071 + 30,015 © = 145,086 Ib in og = $003, 6 15.35 oo sec 28 e228 a a0 x 10% x 306.0 = 278 + 2370 see 0.0395 = = 378 + 2970 see 216" = 378 + 2270 x 1.00078 ~ 2751 pst bh. Ring Girder The total distributed load asing formula (5.152) co, Me 4 oR oR 3.14 x 92.757 = 197 6 932 = 129 pat The bending moment in the girder Assuming 3 = 20,000 psi aun gu = 238200. 46 94 in? Required sw = 238200 = 16,9 vse lo x 5-3/4 218 SM = 21,5 in? > 16.94 in? NUMERICAL EXAMPLE NO. 2 Rigorous Analysis. Application of Finite Element Method 1 INTRODUCTION The purpose of thie investigation is to study the stress distribution and stress concentrations around the breech ‘opening for the individual and combined effects of dead and wind Toads. The magnitude and the distribution of538 stresses inthe vicinity of the opening will determin whether it should be reinforced with additional steel or not. These concepts, along with the ones presented in See- tion 5.8, have been upplicd to the stress-analysis of a stack-opening as presented in the following pages. ‘The stack analyzed in this example. shown in Figure 5.37, has the following characteristic parameters: Base diam 30.0 113 Top diameter = 15.0. Height = 500 (1; Shell-plate thickness = 1.25 The Young's modulus for the stack material is 29,000 ksi and its yield strength is 40 ksi. The breech, with dimen- sions 15.0 ft, + 10.0 ft. is located 8 ft. above the groun level. 18° ut 10 ovr oeTA A : | | | l} | | | | al) aug FIGURE 5.37 — Stack and breech dimensions. Tubular Steel Structures — Theory and Design 3. DESCRIPTION OF FINITE ELEMENT. MODELS. In order 1 study the stress distribution around the breech, (wo different finite-clement-models were related. The first o jodel 1) was 50 ft high from the base of the stuck, white the seeond one (or Afodel Ht) was 200 f. Fora perspective yiew of Model II, see Figure 5.38 shown fon this Figure are also the wo major directions, alon Which the lateral wind has been assumed to act for 5 lysis purposes. Having reviewed the computer output of Models 1 and I separately for identical loading conditions, it was, concluded that results corresponding to the analysis of Model I] should be presented in this report, since its dis- ccretization scheme had a much larger number of finite clements as compared to Model land consequently could predict better results in the vicinity of the stack-opening, Tn addition, computer results also showed (for Model II analysis) that wind blowing from East to West produced ‘greater stresses around the opening as contrasted (0 the Wind from North to South. Therefore, these values were selected for all stress-calculations in the subsequent pages, Figures $.39 and 5.40 represent the discretization scheme 10 the left and right of the opening, respectively, showing its element an node numbers. Allclement nodes were fed into the computer program in cylindrical co- ordinal igures 5.41 10 5.46 show the plan view of the discret~ ization scheme at elevations 0.0 f., $0.0 ft, 80.0 f., 120.0 {1., 160.0 ft, and 200.0 ft. The node numbers of elements, are shown around the outer periphery of the diagram, while an angle subtended at the center of the circle by two adjacent nodes is indicated by an angle-figure shown be- tween the {wo radii joining the nodes with the center. The ‘change in the stack-radius from 179.375 in., Figure 5.4110 143.375 in,, Figure 5.46 is indicative of the vertical taper that the stack-geometry has a part of its configuration. 4. LATERAL WIND LOAD ON STACK The lateral wind load on the stack has been calculated according to the National Building Code of Canada. The general equation for the lateral wind load, according to this code, on an exposed surface is as follo P= a*Ce Cg Cp Cn where 4 = the uniform lateral wind pressure in Ibs/f0, Ce = the exposure factor that varies according to the height of the structure; Cy = the gust factor; : iy she Inet, atl = the additional shape factor for chimneys. ‘Typical values of the above factors were used as shown below 9.2 tbs/ft (For Montreal Area); = varies from 1.0 for a height of 40 ft, 492.0 for a height of 1200 ft Cg = 20. Cp = Loand Cy = 0.7 Ce5.10 Self: Supporting Stacks DEVELOPED, MODEL ft MooEL I PERSPECTIVE FIGURE 5.28 — Perspective of stack — Model I5-40 Tubular Steel Suuctures ~~ Theory and Design P rae as [nba ‘isfzzofzat za] 24 TRIS] 8 ‘*s wo rd S 2 a “ccoyAll tue, ei Ai 7 " ~ ~ ~ = 2 lalsicla faa} woh gig/3/3 s-le] ale pee ay a] S| 8 2 . asl vl : say ay a] ead ral am pn de Lie a4 i sea 4 2 2 1 ae a 3 8 6 . co E12) 3| ' S| siRTF sa fa ti “ aera | ca ‘| 2 a L h f Is asl y y 7 % my FB 2 ne | ny | a 2 _ [al mes 20 Beoneesg 209 ‘opening) of the truncated cone belwe tangles and tangles, and shown, are In fact catortod with vertical lines slightly inclining to the right and ine horizontal ones wih some curvaiure FIGURE 5.38 — Dlscrauization acheme around openingSelf-Supporting Stacks sal mH 201 ro lam 195 196 189 190 191 192 & 3 3 3g OSs EI 197 198 196) 19 199, 05} 170_ me E 160 wal? 173 123 130 127 128 Lo" s ue oS \ 128\ 18. a hore oes a w78. oe Aue ‘aut ANGLES my DEGREES 4 NOTE: Tha discretization scheme presented on Figure 5.409 developed view of the right halt (th respect tothe sepa atinetruncated cone between sack anvations © and 500 The regular shaped wiaments(@ rec- Civclen ted ianolesas shown arein fac distred with vertical ines sig incining tothe ett anc the or FIGURE 5.40 — Diseret542 Tubular Steel Structures — Theory and Design FIGURE 5.41 — Plan cross-section al El = 00' cross-sectional FIGURE 5.42 ~ Plan crots-sectlon at El. = 0° cross-secilonal fads = 179,375 adios = 170.375", FIGURE 5.43 — Plan cross-section al EL + 80° crost-secilonsl FIGURE 5.44 — Plan cross-section at El. = 180' cross-secilonal fadius = 164975" radlus = 187775Self-Supporting Stacks say FIGURE 5.45 — Plan ero radius = 150575" The diagrams for the lateral load appear on Figs. $47 and 5.48, for Models Hand I respectively. where the wind load appears as x stepped function of the stack-heiht 5, TRANSMISSION OF APPLIED FORCES ONTO STACK-MODEL-IL The forces acting on stack-model Il are (i) Self-weight of the model (height (Gi) Dead toad of the stack ontop of the model acting vertically down: and 200 1 iii) Lateral wind acting on the entire stack Figure 5.49 is a graphic display of the application of vertical line londs acting on the top edge of stack-model II due to lateral wind and self-weight of the stack. More- over, Figure 5.50 shows how the transverse shear due to ‘wind load ean be applied to the same model by trans- forming it into equivalent tangential shear first, Such a conversion has heen found very advantageousin ANSYS computer program and lends to substantial savings in computer time used and the cost incurred, 6, THEORETICAL ANALYSIS The stress analysis of the area adjoining the siack-opening thas heen performed using the finite element method of analysis for Model Land Model Il. However, for reasons given in Section 3 of Example No. 2, only results corres ponding to Model IT have heen used in the following FIGURE 5.46 — Plan cross-section at El fads = 142375 200 cross-aectionat pages. Triangular and rectangular finite elements were chosen for the discretization scheme. ANSYS computer program was used for the stress analysis with loading con- ditions as dead load, wind load and their combination, The outpnt gave results in terms of bending and mem- hhrane stresses, hending and torsional moments and axial Toads as well as gisplacements of elements and nodes (For detailed results, refer to the computer output) 7. TABULATION OF COMPUTER RESULTS, In order to design the reinforcement around the opening. the most critical combination of external toads on the stack was selected ie, dead lond + lateral F. to W. wind Toad, Figure $48, Moments and axial forces correspond ing 10 this loading condition have been tabulated in Tables 5.80 5.1 for elements in the immediate vicinity of the opening, Figures $.39 and 5.40. 8, DESIGN OF VERTICAL STIFFENERS In will he assumed that the stiffeners will act integrally. With the stack and as such a certain length of the stack plate wilt have a significant stifening ellect on the stilt ners. In order to determine this length, reference is made to the AISC Specifications for stiffeners of pate gitder webs. Notwithstanding the slight disparity hetween the hehavior of a steel stack plate and a plate girder web, we believe we can make use of the following specification with some reservation [5.76]Tubular Steel Sruciures — Theory and Design MODEL | WIND LOADS The wind momenis and shears for Model | were determined tabulary, Table 87 in accordance with Fig. 6.47 500! Ll TABLE 57 lave |LAT. |LAT. [Mom MOMENT {—— ARM, 3 [area] wino|SHeAq ABT reLes0! 3 2 laase sc Fv? lars ga [Tg gu-FT 720" ° iy 40 | 25.4/n76 |224|2634| 20 |szea0 | 0 | 0 Se 0 701 ar 20 | 20.5] 970 Je |----] so | 7ov00 | 5 | 2500 7 ! © ao | 278] 833 | 269 |2239] 75 j167925 | 25 | 55975 , x” 20 40 | 267 }1068 | 213108] 110 |3c1880 | 60 | 186480 130 — 2-4 60 | 25211512 ]3.1¢ Ja7¢8 | 160 | 759680 | no [522280 apy ; | ago! | fob p29 “0 a 20 | 23: |1848] 3.36] 6209] 230 |126070 | 180 |m7620 SJ 270 aT 180 | 19,7]2948) 3,58 |10552] 3¢5 Ja6socco | 295 |302840 i al 420 al 20 | 16.2]1296 | «.02]5229 Jeso J2co2seo | cto Jarcrea0 30 g $00 | » Abed ot TOTALS AT glo a} BASE hensq| _|eees295q alo EL: 90" be7e0q puoi g FIGURE 5.47 — Elevation of wing in- TABLE $7 — Table of bane and lop of Modal | lateral wind shears and overtumiog {anally ageloat stack wet to sack ELin moments. ost Note: The values shwon ave org = 1.0 PSF. For absolta values, they mus the unit wind wore plied by chosen value of . For Model tthe analysi {multipted by q-= 9.2, tho-1/100 wind for MontrealSelf-Supporiing Stacks sas Wind forces tor Mod Medan MODEL I LATERAL WIND LEV 50° gr WIND ELEY iso! prensv4ELeV ELEY. ELEY AVG, MEAN MEAN : ise), OIF. DAM, DIAM, RADIUS 500. ‘$00 500 178.75" 89.375" 0 193150. 420° —+——— 20 ——— 2758" 103.775) 150 300° — i} 270° —}+——— 270 ——— 26.55" 130,775, + . 7 2438. 1 L,4 a rers) waa) Lt Or 7 THREE 3o035° 875° 3015" 150,575) ayer 3.95) 195.975" 4, 2 yess 157 775, ay . _ segs’ 180.78 350.3 a < 32935" 186.973 5 el ws, 198575 4, | | Says, 70.473 Fe g 36,35" W275" 20" DISTRIBUTON DIMENSIONS FOR DETERMINING | WIND FORCES STACK OF WIND AT EL = 50, 80, 120) 160 AND 200 evEvarion NOTE: HATCHED REGION ON STACK ELEVATION REFLECTS MODEL TT FIQURE 5.48 Mode! 1 region and dimensions required to determine wind forces at node elev lermined with respect to the wind distribution shown In Figure § 48 and q = 92 pal, ware as shown, 260) leyS46 Tubular Steel Suructures — Theory and Design | TENSION SIDE NORTH tif itn we seggneson Va stron Belt DUE fo SELF wr vaio nove: THe € — Danae 4b ut Soubsration WITH THE OEAD (GAD N-S WIND SQreamale toto ron Tae Beeecd AecioN yates ania ew Wino FIGURE 5 49 — Model lop edge vertical line loads due olateral wind and sell-weight dead lo ORAPC REPRESENTATION OF _SINUSODIAL NARIATION OF TANGETIAL SHEAR MAGNITUDE Wit AND APPLIED SHAER FORCE DIRECTION INTENSITY VARIATION OF LAIERAL SHEAR APPUEO TANGENTALY aT TOP EOGE OF CYLINDER FIGURE 5.50 — Lateral shes long cylindrteal plan cross-section.