PRACTICE

TKANSFORMER

CONNECTIONS,

ASSEMBLING,

MANUFACTURE,

AND

OPERATION

TESTING

BY

WILLIAM
A.

FELLOW,

I. E.

80C.

AM.

M.

E.,

Second
Entirely

LONDON:

Enlarged

BOOK

YORK:

370
6

"

E.,

M.

I. E.

E.,

ETC.

Reset

and

Impression

Tenth

NEW

M.

Edition

Rewritten,

McGRAW-HILL

F.R.G.S.

TAYLOR,

T.

COMPANY,
SEVENTH

BOUVERIE

1913

Inc.

AVENUE
ST.,

E.

C.

Copyright,

1909,

McGraw-Hill

STATES

UNITED

THE

by

the

Company,

Book

IN

PRINTED

1913,

Inc.

OF

AMERICA

""""''"""
K""

THE

MAPLE

PRESS

"

COMPANY,

YORK,

PA.

PREFACE

writer

The
all

on

TO

seeks

induction

static
who

operating

are

written

with

the

difficulties
short

of

the

such
New
the

value

as

of

which

schemes
of

view

It

of

this

is

certain
any

kind

of

need

and

of

changes
will

be

solve
a

Peru,
August,

reference
and

transformers

of

ing
operat-

they

temporary

appreciated

America,

1913.

"

'i.'"

are

ment
arrange-

and

will

book.

South

is

and

certain
when

those

for

phases.

William

Chaplanca,

transformers
out

readily

for

intended

or

engineers

can

apparatus

and

particularly
plants

assisting
they

using

operation

constructing

or

right

practical

the

apparatus.

EDITION

book

with

connected

matters

this

keep

to

SECOND

T,

Taylor.

add

to

much

Although
of

has

installation

connection,

led

that

the

written

author

in the

up

to

fundamental

published

been

the

It

the

field

in type
a

the

on

and

put
of

course

EDITION

operation.

and

engineers in

and

operators

have

information

available

easily

written

been

little data

transformers,

FIRST

TO

PREFACE

to

concerning
this

was

widespread

lack

ot

desire

of

notes, which
of

of years

their

information,

such

possess

these

number

principles

had

been

experience in the

field.
A

working

knowledge
is

engineering
does

not

simply

go
states

into

the

the

facts

in

quickly

the

vector

various

e.m.fs.

diagrams

are

and

for

and

whys
as

principles

fundamental
and

presupposed,

understanding
the

of the

few

this

words

as

phase relations
involved

currents

given with

all

diagrams

the

reason

wherefores

Kashmir,

December,

India,

1908.

VI

treatment

deeply,

very

possible.
and

To

relative

in

T.

but

aid

values

given

of circuit
W.

Baramulla,

of electrical

in
of

system,

connections.
Taylor.

I
CONTENTS
Page

Preface

Chapter

I.
II.

Introduction

Simple Transformer

Manipulations

22

Connections

30

III.

Two-phase Transformer

IV.

Three-phase Transformation

V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
X.
XI.
XII.

XIII.

System

39

Difficulties

Three-phase Transformer

84

Three-phase Two-phase Systems and Transformation

Six-phase Transformation
Methods

of

and

Operation

and

117

Operationof Large

Transformers

Con.stant-current
Series Transformers

97

109

CoolingTransformers

Installation
Construction,
Auto

....

Transformers

136

170
Transformers
and

Their

and

Operation

Operation

Regulators and Compensators

178
186
209

XIV.

Transformer

Testing in Practice

227

XV.

Transformer

Specifications

258

Appendix

270

Index

273

....

Vll

TRANSFORMER

PRACTICE
I

CHAPTER

INTRODUCTION

Development
The

about

25

design
of the

transformer

operation
rating

However,

of

each

transformed

in

of insulation

for

unit

single unit.

considered

was

history

of

process

of evolution:

size up

in

ten

the

Going back

to

find

that

the

experiments
Varley
the
and

in the

magnetic

part

circuit
the

of electric

their

open,
end

of iron

interlaced.

nearest

of

than

ing
maintain-

500-kilowatt
The

interesting
increase

tenfold

be

may

principles

most

kw.

long

transformer.

used

pointed
gave

of

out

it

by Faraday
circuit

magnetic

closed

approach
1

to

ring

closed

of sheet

the

of

of

wire

core.

iron.

leaving

path by bending

modified

wires, strips

in his historic

disadvantage

the

straight iron

the

manufacturing

transformer

lighting Ferranti

by using, instead
The

history of

of the

1856

year

has

for

ago

shown

more

first transformer
for

years

has

10

power

methods

large size

marked

than

greater

of

mum
maxi-

the

day.

present

had

overlapping

early days

it has

to facilitate

designs embody

Ten

transformer

20

transformers

various

and

years' development

to

we

be

to

not

large

Such

high voltages

early days

system,

amount

operating temperature.

low

being

the

series

in

mission
trans-

of transmission

to

transmission

enormous

an

15

connected

been

constructing

of

engineer

the

In

as

many

transformer

which

by

as

long-distance

distances

transformers.

large

of

have

method

devised

been

of

and

garding
re-

long-distance

made

increased

the

development

windings

secondary

known

was

transformers.

transformer

design

the

stimulated

high voltages,

at

early

possible,and

work

the

the

of

high-voltage

The

little

very

dates

scarcely realize the difficulties encountered

can

construction

in the

time

that

operation

for

day

present

alternating-current transformer

At

years.

Construction

Transformer

of

of the

development

back

of

Art

of

back
In

the

Varley's method
iron

present

bent

day

back

and

practice

TRANSFORMERS

STATIONARY

link-shapedcoils in the recesses

completing
shaped stampings,afterward
to

was

of

embed

either with
the

of the

ends

that

of laminations

sheets

received

its

the

the

"Shell"

core

stripsinterlaced

is good

prejectinglegs. There

this construction

from

with

or

built up
magnetic circuit

of

believe

to

reason

with

type transformer

of today

name.

00

00

at

a"

16.000

160

15,000

150
I

14,000

13.000
1

12,000

140

130

120

11.000

110

2 10,000

100

_^_

0)

Oi

9.000

90

80

"!

8.000

ii

wm-^,-^^wmm^

t" 7.000

70

M
6,000

60

5,000

50

4.000

40
I

3.000

30

__I___^___,,,j.:

2,000
1.000

20

=.^^

"

10
0

K.V.-Amp.

Fig.

Not

very

prominent
made

to

Before

many

for

years

time

the

development.

it

was

question

very

among

15,000-volttransformers

engineers conceived
not

was

solid material

to

between

coils

of transmission.

We

find

the

that

first

50,000-

idea of

could

oil space

transformer
have
and

drying

transformers

see

the

"

the

At

the

to

uncommon

time

insulation.

years

ago

K.-Volta

be

work.

limitingfeature
11

Transformer

"

engineers whether

oil,it
any

1.

only

former
trans-

without

being relied
was

to go

the
back

on

only
about

60,000-volt transformer

are
actually operating (see Fig. 1). At the present time we
at 145,000 volts with
as
great
actually operatingtransformers
break-down
o
f
than
with
less
and
liability
formerly was
safety

INTRODUCTION
the actiial

experiencedin operatingat 15,000 volts,and

is not

limit of the transformer

line itself is the

transmission

the

About

16 years

the present time

transformers
power

Increased

of

only

Glancing back
current

Just
and

'^

about

delta

of

manufacture

considered.

is

of

means,

"

voltage

was

made.

175,000-volt

regards the

as

ago

years
of

themselves

transformers

enter

we

dangerous and

systems

capacity of

kv-a

in

but

movers.

25 years

20

increased

course,

grievouslyfought

were

both

in the

limitingfeature

the commercial

prime

generators and

currents

on

being
Fig. represents the
singlecapacity transformers up to the year 1913.

voltage

units, not

voltage

the contrary

20,000-volttransformer

the first

ago

At

development

sight,but

of transmission.

the distance

or

yet in

upon

in the

time

Law

alternating

when
Courts

as

being

impracticable."
"

the

period when

electric distribution

three-phase

were

star

recognized as
oppositionto

find universal
for commercial
we
use
practicable
high voltages (above 1500 volts) and largeunits (above 500 kw.).
about
the period when
50,000 and
Going back only 10 years
"

"

60,000 volts
purposes

"

recognized

were

large commercial

as

units

practicable for

transmission

large commercial

and

electric

considered
universally
as
impossible,as absolutelyunreliable or decidedlydangerous.
of the three
view
In
above
decades, practicallyaccepted
throughout the entire engineeringworld, we actuallyhave at the
present time electric power
systems operatingas one
company
centralized system deliveringover
and
and
one
kw.,
200,000
power

systems,

single units

as

recognizedto-day,were

for commercial

electric power

turbines

purposes,

as:

(horizontaltype)
33,000 h.p.
turbines (vertical
Steam
type) of 40,000 h.p.
Water
turbines (vertical
type) of 20,000 h.p.
Turbo-generators (horizontaltype) of 25,000 kw.
Turbo-generators (vertical
type) of 30,000 k w.
Generators
(vertical
type) of 12,500 kw.
Steam

of

of 14,000 kw.
(shell-type)
and Transformers
(three-phasegroup of three) of 18,000 kw.
consists primarily
Fundamental
Principles. The transformer
of three parts: the primary winding, the secondary winding, and
iron core.
the
The
cuit,
cirin one
primary winding is connected
forms
the secondary in another, and the core
a
magnetic
circuit which
links the two together.

Transformers

"

STATIONARY

principleof

The

explained

if

TRANSFORMERS
transformer
constant-potential

the

slight effects

the

is

easily
drop in

of resistance

neglect
the
windings, leakage of magnetic flux, and the losses.
of e.m.f,,which
to a source
primary winding is connected
we

constitute

would

which

periodic changing

in

by the

current

generate

current

down

to
to

value

necessary

to

generate

and

opposite

to

the

the

If

an

e.m.f.

counter

in

e.m.f.

the

flux

which

nection
con-

for

the

produced
holds

the

produce that value of

the primary and
equal

to

This same
flux is surrounded
impressed e.m.f.
of the secondary winding,the same
e.m.f.
turn of wire whether
primary or secondary.

turns

being generated in

it not

were

permits

just sufficient

value

flux

by

short-circuit

The

each

El is the impressed e.m.f.

:e

wherein
number

e.m.f.

turn.

per

of primary
A^^is the number
of secondary turns.

ff

""

"

Then

turns,

if A^, is the

"

"

"^2 -^2^ secondary e.m.f.

=

and

=~

ratio of transformation.

A^2 E^
Ni is greater

When
down

transformer"

"step-up
The

than

and

N2, the

when

transformer

A^^ is

less than

is called

N2 it is

called

"

stepa

transformer."

reader

will understand

that

step-up

transformer

may

be

INTRODUCTION

The
primary is
step-down transformer, or vice versa.
which the e.m.f. is impressed.
the winding upon
The
primary and secondary windings of a transformer
possess
be
both resistance and reactance, and the secondary values
may
of
reduced to primary terms
by multiplyingthem by the square
This appliesto the load resistance
the ratio of transformation.

used

as

Thus, consider

circuit

containing a
tain
in Fig.2. Obviously,to maintransformer, a load,etc.,as shown
is required,which
flux a magnetizing current
of
the core
must
course
pass through the primary winding.
and

reactance

(6) is
R

and

well.

as

duplicate of

exact

an

Xg

secondary winding,

and

in the

Selection

of

into

enter

loss,due
by
loss,caused

to

the

losses appear

These

mostly

are

its construction.

copper

of

the

of the

resistance

simplestfor

and
ment
treat-

electrical characteristics
upon

the

copper

that

dependent
iron and

the

losses

The

The

"

proportionof

and

quality,arrangement

factors

reactance

load

the

about

The

reactance

and

of Transformers

transformer

and

the

Xg"

(a).

circuits.

of the transformer
Points

and

R"

is
representation

This

reactance.

resistance

respective resistance

the

primary; R'X's

transformer

the

the
respectively

are

are

of

two

kinds:

the

through the coils;and the iron

reversingof the magnetic flux in the core.
be provided
must
as
heat,and suitable means
the

current

disposalof this heat.

selectinga transformer

for the
In
to

consider

(a)

for

of its total
The

cost

amount

losses should
of

which

be

transformer

must

and

transformer

of the transformer

cost

on

be

loss,which

copper

that the total cost of the losses is

(b) The

is advisable

first:

ratio of iron and

The

given service,it

should

be

such

minimum.
for

given service and the

cost

minimum.

given service depends on the

the losses during the life of the

for

paid for

the first cost

of the

transformer

itself. In

consideringthe losses and price paid for a transformer

together,
the losses may
be conveniently represented as a capitalcost by
dividingtheir annual cost by the interest and depreciationfactor.
Safety

to

and
life,
durability,

this apparatus
service.
are

These

sacrificed to
transformers

in its abilityto

economy

essential features of

are

give continuous

and

uninterrupted

in part and sometimes

entire,
factors,sometimes
obtain a higher efficiency,
in
age
especially high voltwhere

so

much

insulation

has to be used.

This

STATIONARY

is not

considered

due

the

TRANSFORMERS

good practice although the higher efficiency

is obtained, and
transformer
a
designed and built with the
main object of efficiency
of safety and reliability
at the expense
The
alone
loss in revenue
finallybrings discredit to its maker.
to

in

cent,

transformer

large power

saving of several

offset the
of 1 per

failure of

years

not
efficiency,

would

than

more

in

gaining an additional fraction

dence
counting the great loss of confi-

and

The
prestigeon the part of the customer.
tion
applicaof constant
of knowledge gained by many
and
ful
careyears
formers
study of all the properties and characteristics of transin actual practice has
placed this type of apparatus
call both safe and reliable for operaon
now
a plane which
we
may
the
ing voltages as high as 110,000 volts. Looking back over
of the

development

transformer

do

we

not

pass

many

very

years

large units
moderately high
considered by manufacturers
a tedious
voltage (20,000volts) were
if not altogethera dangerous undertaking, in fact quite as dangerous
put
as
designing and building a unit in these days to give an outbefore

enter

we

of

20,000

Cooling.
a

low

the

kw.

average

throughout
uniform
various

when

200,000 volts.
should

well-designedtransformer

"

at

time

of

temperature

but

all of its parts.

is to

temperature

only effective

way

provideliberal oil ducts

parts of the transformer,and these

ing
of insurthe

between

be

should

form
be uni-

should

the temperature
The

tain
only main-

not

so

arranged

high and low voltage windings as to give the

other important factors.
Ducts
best results without
sacrificing
available space
and make
a
high voltage
necessarilyuse much
of given efficiency
transformer
more
expensive than if the space

in relation to the

completely filled with

deterioration
and
low
reliability
could

be

experiencehas demonstrated
For

various

of

and

expense

rise in

view

of the

of this

transformer

the extra

temperature

iron;in

type,

is warranted.
transformer

is

capacity for work increases directlyas the volume

sions;
material,and the radiatingsurface as the square of the dimentherefore,it is evident that the capacity for work increases

limited.
of

reasons

the

that

copper

The

radiatingsurface.
The
of heat developed in a transformer
amount
depends upon
former
transits capacity and
efficiency.For instance, in a 500-kw.
of 98 per cent,
efficiencythere is a loss at full load of
be
about
7.5 kw. ; and since this loss appears
as
heat, it must
the temperature of the transformer
or
disposed of in some
way,
faster than

the

INTRODUCTION

be
dangerously high. This hea,t may
in several ways;
removed
by ample radiation from the surface of
in which
is operated; by the
the transformer
the tank
or
case
in oil;or by the
circulation of water
through pipes immersed
will rise until it becomes

of the

removal

constant

oil and

heated

determination

The

thermometer

in

increase

the

of
the

by

or

temperature

the

loss

core

Committee

Standardization

that

C, and
made

referred

be

must

correction

variation

for any

to

the

of

1/2

the

of Electrical

electrical

of

cent,

per

that temperature,

from

an

as

of

temperature

room

per

perature
tem-

of

report

temperature

standard

well

Institute

American

of the

by

High

as

The

aging.

to

Engineers specifiesthat
apparatus

insulation

in the

due

made

be

may

of resistance.

measurement

deterioration

causes

be

being

after

off.

cooled

25"

its return

degree must
adding if less

subtracting if more.

and

The

rise may

temperature

be

determined

coefficient
resistance,using the temperature
degree from and at zero degrees.
Whenever

is available

water

and

0.39

of

change

the

by

cent,

per

per

expensive,water-cooled

not

of the large
preferableto air-blast transformers
sizes (1,500 to 5,000 kw.), as it permits operation
and moderate
and allows more
at lower
margin for overloads.
temperatures

transformers

Where

are

is not

water

air-cooled

of
the

transformers:

air-blast type
the

through

core

which

voltages

above

great thickness

and

has

or

This type of transformer

much

written

small

amount

the oil-cooled

ignited.

by

and

flame

of

an

The

of inflammable

in

electric

arc

the outer

the

an

that

the location

of the

consequent

depends

of the

material

as

air-blast transformer

the

action

of the

is

usually

material,

forced

short

with

easily

more

that sets fire to the insulation

under

tains
con-

compared

is much

as

formers
trans-

air-blast transformer

spreads
air;although the fire is of comparatively
soon

case

reliable

very

account

and

matter

transformer,but this material

break-down

followed
the

and

their construction.

on

as
a

this is

surrounding conditions

on

type, and

the copper.
about the fire risks of air-blast

from

oil-filledtransformers,but

needed

kinds

two

air circulation

is not

on
35,000 volts, principally

been

of

by a forced
by blowing air on

of the solid insulation

great deal

choice

is cooled

in radiating heat
difficulty
A

oil-filled self-cooled

the

coils

and

of the transformer.
for

is

available,there

lation
circu-

duration

8
it is

quite capable

near

the

of

TRANSFORMERS

STATIONARY

oil-filledtransformer

an

circuit in the
in the

burn

windings

presence

in

in transformers

fire

of

account

on

and,

air

can

as

get

the
to

chance
a

it.

is

is first raised to about

F., and with

oil at

of burning material
ordinary temperatures, a mass
extinguished as readily by immersing it in the oil as in
In

fact,the

by

any

chief danger of fire is not

defect

or

within

arc

the

that

the oil may

transformer,but

that

oil

in open

burn

400"

only
pletely
com-

the

Moreover,
not

short-

oil will

transformer

easilyignited;it will

is not

everything
The

extremely small, because

oil,no

its temperature

air unless

catching

is

unless

fireproofconstruction.

of oxygen,

submerged
used

is of

transformer

building

igniting the

of

be
a

can

be

water.

ignited

fire in the

it to take fire. The idea

building may so heat the oil as to cause
into separate compartments
of placingoil-filledtransformers
is not
some
thought of so seriouslyas it was
years
ago, although it does
to consider
apply in every case and therefore it is necessary
selectingthis type of transformer.
carefullywhen
Of the largenumber
of factors in the make-up
of a transformer
is particularly
anxious
only four which the operating manager
know
into the operating costs, namely: the coris and
to
enter
losses,temperature, efficiencyand regulation. All of
copper
these costs
(since they might be called costs as they include the
of generating such
losses
and
of suppl}'ingthe station
cost
capacity with which they generate them) represent quite a large
of energy
amount
during the life of the transformer.
Losses.
The
hysteresisand eddy current losses are generally
under
the term
combined
of
core
loss,"this loss occurring in
all magnetic material which
is subject to alternatingmagnetic
The
be
stresses.
hysteresisloss,as is generally known, may
not

"

"

defined

steel,and
from

the

work

done

in

reversing the

it may

be

considered

reversal

of

magnetism,

as

due

to

the

magnetism
molecular

in the
friction

manifesting itself
given steel varies with

this friction

hysteresisin a
the composition,with the hardness,with the frequency of reversal
of magnetism, with the maximum
induction at which the steel is
worked, and the temperature. The hysteresisloss varies approximately
quency.
the 1.6 power
and
of induction,
as
directlyas the freThe
loss varies inversely as the ohmic
eddy current
of the induction,and decreases
resistance,directlyas the square
as

as

heat.

the

as

The

amount

the temperature

than

in thin

of

increases.

It is greater in thick

(hysteresisbeing greater

in hard

laminations

steel than

in soft

INTRODUCTION

ations
it is also greater as the insulation between
adjacent laminsteels),
is less.
Lowering the frequency of supply will result in
increased hysteresisand higher temperature in the iron;reducing
the

from

frequency

133

say

cycleswill entail

125

to

increased

an

hysteresisof about 4 per cent., and a reduction from 60 to 50

approximately 10 per cent.
cycleswill raise the hysteresis
For
equal output there will not exist any change in the
of large power
creased
transformers
the inloss,but in the case
copper
due to excessive iron losses will materially
temperatures
output, and

the

decrease

normal

the

will become
voltage current
loss and
Iron
exciting current

low

capacity of
all these
and

transformer

the

this iron
to the

loss is

constant
practically

varies

as

the

The

loss due

designer,as
providedfor the

of the
be
core

of

given

per

turn

cross-section
is evident
be
core

turn

the

that

as

copper.
the

mean

increased,provided
consistent

that

with

the

over

space,

copper

that of
loss

output

less cross-section

or

To

loss

low
livered
de-

plus

energy

copper

control

easy

of copper

low

as

If the

may

to

turn

the shortest

secure

the

all wire

rectangular it
or

been

of conductor

would
of

area

length per

it is necessary
have

corners

necessary

of the conductor

cross-section

same

length

mean

the

coil is

of

form

loss

copper

the

possible with

length per
the

desired

the

secure

of coil wherein

voltage windings is either square

the
using this form of conductor
per cent,

nected
con-

energy

loss is within

This

the greatest amount

the available

high and

the

total useful

consists of the

good construction

in which

core

square

is the

or

copper

in both

current

form

is enclosed,so in order to

in order
for

of

kept
of

fixed.

are

taken

is

loads, the

voltage and frequency plus the

greater

is

desired per cent, regulation. In a transformer

and
of turns
for the
volume
area, the number

required iron loss

advantage is

all

delivered.

load

operation,

transformer

what

at

primary, and

the

to

the

kw.

consumption,

coal

commercial

to

while

output

iron loss at the rated

the

or

the load may

be, the total
While
the iron
great loss in revenue.

of the

square

voltage windings.
to

current

decreased

to

greater

mean

matter

no

yearly loss will represent

the

in addition

loss is constant

system,

secondary

virtual overload.

being directlyopposed

factors

as

rated

cut

may

the

mean

adopt
off. Also,
to

be allowed

entering into the low and

or
area

high
rectangular in shape, as by
is increased

by

ordinary round wire. This method

be reduced, and
time
at the same

about

33

permits
allows

STATIONARY

10

TRANSFORMERS

of the total copper

great part

winding.

The

loss due

to

virtue of the compact

The
due

loss

copper
the

to

construction

and

also has

and

each

to

generally has
in output

reduction

the

other

proper

and

the

less cost

iron

the

of its short

because

charge

core.

than

slightlyless capitalcost

high voltage
negligibleby
dispositionof

the

magnetic leakage is made

windings with relation

the

place in

loss to take

due

its

to

loss,
tion,
dura-

diversity

factor.
The

losses

determined

due

the

is received

power

from

in

component

the

phase with

are

test

the

as

The

rent
exciting curone
being
components;

the

iron

the

heating

by

or

factory.

of two

up

supply

to

necessary

and

current

guarantees

is made

transformer

energy

the

manufacturers'

from

transformer
of

magnetizing

the

to

which

e.m.f.

loss,the

represents

other

component

as
being in quadrature with the e.m.f. which is generally known
the magnetizing current
and is "wattless"
with the exception of
small
fluence
P R loss.
The
has very
littleina
magnetizing current
on

the

value

it is

operating
magnetizing

of the

full

at

total

in

current

load, but

load

the

as

when

transformer

decreases

the

effect

prominent until at no load

The
it is most
noticeable.
greater the exciting current, the
hence
the
at the peak of the load, and
greater is the total current
sion
be the generating station equipment and transmisgreater must
lines to take care
of the peak.
It is often said that regulationreduces the voltage
Regulation.
of

current

becomes

more

"

the

upon

load

therefore

and

the energy

sold.

causes

If,however,

regulationis maintained
voltage without regulation,the
will be the

same

revenue.

As
factor

power

in both

cases, hence

there

to the

will be

at low

load

the

inductance

into

and
effect,

is

lessened; depending on the

general,the core
type transformer
the

shell type

type

transformer

coils.

transformer;
there

is

the

power
has

reason

better

customer

at

high

factor

mostly
possible. With

the

factor
not

former
trans-

direct loss of

no

power

be

comes

ducing
re-

constant

is affected

transformers
and

the

as

kept as low as
non-inductive
load the regulation is nearly equal
drop, the inductance having but little effect. With
by reactance,

should

value

same

by

revenue

voltagewith

mean

delivered

energy

mostly by resistance
both

the

at the

regulation of

the

direct loss in

so

to
an

ohmic

inductive

effect of resistance
of

the

load.

In

good regulationas

for this is that

opportunity

the

for

in the

shell

interlacingthe

STATIONARY

12

operate without

the

of iron and

amount

and
insulation,

sufficient

this insulation

by

TRANSFORMERS
the less space
efficient will it be, with

more

occupied
given

copper.

present time

of solid

compounds for impregnation

is almost universallyadopted.
of the winding of transformers
of this compound marks
in the modThe use
ern
a great improvement
because
it helps to make
the coils mechanically
transformer
insulation
and
the
stronger by cementing together the turns
At

the

between
All
of any

the

use

layersin the windings.

and
all
high-voltagetransformers
practically
and

turns

dried and

voltage,are
is

which
material

considered

now

and

method

impregnated by
be

to

the

vacuum

process

reliable

most

this

insulating.For

of

the

transformers

insulating
both

purpose

be
asphalts and resins are the materials available. They can
liquified
by heat and forced into the coil in that condition,and
on
coolingthey harden, forming a solid mass
(coiland material)
which
is,if well done, free from porosity and volatile solvents.
The
compound fills the porous covering of the wire-conductors,
in the coils no

increassmall,thus ing
the dielectric strength and preventingmoisture
from
soaking
oughly
into the coils. Before
applying this process, the coils are thordried either in a separate oven
in the impregnating
or
then
and
tank.
They are
placed in the impregnating tank
and

all other

spaces

is

applieduntil the
impregnating compound
heat

tank

is then

exhausted

has

exhausted

the

compound

by

vacuum

of

moisture

is drawn

tank

from

into

the

the

the

the

air in the

The

After

pump.

which

at

temperature

thoroughly fluid.

last traces

another

from

coils reach
is

how

matter

vacuum

coils,hot

impregnating

thoroughly covered, this condition being

maintained
until the coils are
impregnated. The pressure generally
used is 60 to 80 lb. per square
inch. The time required
under
and pressure
vacuum
can
by trial but
only be determined
will dry any
ordinary
usually from three to six hours' vacuum
high-voltagecoil not unduly moist.
At the present time the fluid point of some
pounds
impregnating comis about 95" C, but it is possiblethat the development
until the

tank

of
an

coils

will

synthetic gums
actual
The

are

reach

soon

operating temperature

National

Board

of

insulation

of nominal

withstand

continuously for

Fire

2000-volt
one

of

stage which
130"

minute

permit

C,

Underwriters
transformers

will

specify that
when

difference

heated
of

the

shall

potential

INTRODUCTION

10,000 volts

of

coils and

the

13

primary

(alternating) between
and

core

no-load

of

run

and

secondary
voltage for 30

double

minutes.
should

All transformers
and

primary

the

transformer

in the

the

break

may

be

may

as

down

in the

somewhat

If the

transformer.

continued, for while

applicationof
yet continued
and

the

test
high-potential
or
a weak
insulation,

The

magnitude

the

insulation may
five

severe

or

applicationof

the

its

permanently reduce

the
are

Let

0
A

design of
found

Total

Total

high-power

to the insulation

spot
of the

test

may

voltage appliedto
it should

of

part

or

be

not

the

long

EQUATIONS

successful

transformers,the followingequations

of turns

number

of wire

magnetic flux.
Section of magnetic circuit
Frequency in cycles in

Lines

of force

Mean

effective e.m.f.

per

e.m.f.,and is much

is based

on

inch.

volts,frequency,

and

f6

i:^i^^-A
the

in the

used

inches.

Equation (1)

in square

seconds.

square

4 4^

then

in series.

J_.V2X;r

4.44=

we

strength.

If the

slightover-

reliable:

one,

the
readily withstand
six times the normal
even
strain,
voltage may injurethe insulation

FUNDAMENTAL

In

of the

be

of

duration

test

voltage

subjected to

strain to

imperfection

an

by the opening

insulation.

with

to

core.

resist the

inferior

an

to

yet due

when

caused

between

tests

secondary and

strength

down

applicationof

The

structure

vary

the

constantly subjected, and

voltage such
will break

sufficient

have

insulation

circuit.

and

secondary,

may

it is

which

subjected to insulation

be

assumption

design
number

d)
of

sine

wave

of

of transformers.
of turns

are

known,

then

have

gxio"
._

,".

14

TRANSFORMERS

STATIONARY

volts,frequency, cross-section

If the

known,

of core,

and

density

have:

we

'^

4.44X/XB"XA
Magnetic densities

transformers

frequenciesand
densities employed

Current

circular mils

2000

to

considerably with
different designs.

of

different

the

are

Efliciency.
"

The

in

vary

transformers

vary

from

any

load

1000

ampere.

per

of
efficiency

transformer

at

is

pressed
ex-

as:

Efficiency
=

"

the

In

of

case

magnetic

"

"

output

ordinary

leakage, the

core

(4)

"

^j

loss

with

transformers

loss is

core

"

^,

loss -f-copper

appreciable

no

practicallythe

from

same

no-

required,therefore,in order to
the efficiencies of such
transformers
obtain
at all loads, with
of the
are
a
single measurement
by wattmeter
great accuracy,
lost in the core, with the secondary on
watts
circuit;and
open
of the primary and secondary winding resistances,
measurements
calculated
for each particularload.
which the P R watts
from
are
The
core
loss,which is made
up of the hysteresisloss and eddyin a constant-potential
current
loss,remains practicallyconstant

load

to

full load.

transformer

at

and

The

only

all loads.

others

loaded, this leakage

in the iron,in

tests

In

the

of constant-current

case

having considerable
often
the

copper,

and

when

magnetic leakage

considerable

causes

formers
trans-

in the

loss in

casing or

eddy

rents
cur-

other

rounding
sur-

objects. It should be borne in mind that the

efficiencywill also depend on the frequency and the wave-form
and that the iron core
efficient
age; that is to say, the hysteresiscomay
metallic

may

increase

after

the

transformer

has

been

in

use

Generally speaking,the efficiencyof a transformer

therein,and is understood
depends upon the losses which occur
to its gross
to be the ratio of its net
input, the
output
power
some

time.

load.
with non-inductive
being measured
All -day
importance in a
Efficiency. The point of most
in operation, which
is economy
transformer
depends not only
total losses,but
the
more
particularlyupon the iron or
upon
tical
with identransformers
loss. For
core
example, taking two
total losses,the one
showing the lower iron loss is to be
of the greater all-dayefficiency
obtained, and
preferred,because

output

"

INTRODUCTION
in

resultingincrease

the

the

represents

15

in

consumed

energy

in

economy

operation.

applying

This
iron

the

to

loss
the

alternating magnetic flux, and is a function of the

it is worked, or
the iron and the flux density at which

necessary

quality of
in other
words,

the

number

of

lines of force

magnetic

flowing

through it.
mentioned
all-day efficiency

The

total

used

energy

the

by

is the

above
the

to

customer,

ratio

total

of

the

input

energy

The
usual
during twenty-four hours.
five hours
conditions of present practicewill be met, if based
on
hours
at no
at full load and nineteen
load; therefore,"all-day"
from
the followingequation:
be obtained
can
efficiency
of

transformer

the

All-day efficiency
=

Full loadx
Core

importance

The

station

of identical

transformers

only

the

method

the

upon

The

in

the

"aging"
kind

which

of

of

it has

to

that

steel is annealed

when
a

temperature

in
increases,

By

steel

loss

core

of

two

used, but also

upon

some

cases

the

been
so

as

of from

tially
having iniwould
show
service,

transformers

conditions.

normal

material

treatment

per

of the

received,

as
considered,
depending,

practice,that

increase under
the

to
on

400

be

in

losses,after being placed in

decided

to

variation

central

transformer

every

design may

constituents

found

iron

low

is due

loss

core

operation of

of treatment.

been

It has

economical

overestimated.

be

not

for

^^

-hFull loadx 5

-|-/i2 X5

the

to

testing

of

cannot

most

lossX24

iron.

The

used, and
subjected.
to have

85"C.

this increase

to

low
100"

being

This increase

aging
on

pends
de-

annealing

the

It has

iron

of

been

shown

jected
loss,and then subC, the loss usually
as

much

300

as

to

cent.

some

steel used

manufacturers

in their

cores

of transformers

is

non-aging,

or

it is claimed
that it has

that

been

the

cially
artifi-

aged by some
However, it should be remembered
process.
that
an
absolutely non-aging steel is not as yet a commercial
short
possibility. Within
periods the iron losses sometimes
very

increase,and
laminations

under

will become

very

high temperature

conditions

the

tempered or hardened, whereby the

permeability is greatlyreduced; therefore,the iron losses increase
with the length of time the transformer
is in operation.

STATIONARY

16

The
the

it may

while

rapidly as

the

at full

for

far

below

the

day,

actual

iron loss

the

the

the
efficiencies,

of

iron

cheaper
is reduced, even
though

the

partialload

loss is

However,

having equal

manufacture

to

ated
oper-

of copper

loss.

transformer

than

for

copper

in which

one

loss is

copper

very

is seldom

watt-hours

is

loaded,

it decreases

suppliesonly

actual

is

transformer

transformer

cases

the

transformer

full load

at

watt-hours

iron losses is

and

As

in many

load, and

full-load

equal

considerable

falls off.

each

efficiencyof

when

only

occurs

be

load

hours

few

affectingthe

It

loss.

copper

and

factor

other

TRANSFORMERS

the

ingly
correspond-

increased.
"

current

load

at

conductors

of

it,is

upon

of

primary

of

abilityof

The

Regulation.

distribution

transformer

to

constant
practically
voltage regardlessof
highly important feature.
very
By the

large cross-section

and

by

the

liver
dethe
use

lacing
inter-

proper

and

secondary coils,
extremely close regulation
with loads of various power-factors,thus
be obtained
may
tending to lengthen the life of lamps and to improve the quality
of the light.
In well-designedtransformers,low core
loss and
good regulation
in direct opposition to one
another
are
yet both are desired
in the highest degree. The regulationof a transformer
is understood
to be the

ratio of the rise of

secondary terminal voltage from

full load to no-load,at constant
tage,
primary impressed terminal volto the secondary terminal voltage. In addition to the vastly
it is possibleto adopt the efficient low-consumpimproved service,
tion
in
when
the
transformers
maintain
their secondary
use
lamp,
value when
the load goes on
constant
voltage at a practically
off.

or

While

so

few

central

within 2
voltage constant
present the point of best
from
to

about

2.00

per

5 kw.

up,

per

stations
it may

cent,

able

are

be

the

keep their

concluded

practicalregulation on

lies between

to

values

that

at

transformers

of 1.75 per

cent,

cent.

Regulation is a function of the ohmic drop and the magnetic

limits and
at
leakage. To keep the iron loss within necessary
the same
time secure
good regulation is an interestingproblem.
We
reduce
the resistance of the windings by using fewer
may
turns
at

of

wire,but

with

fewer

higher flux density,and

If

we

we

need

adopt
a

turns

the

iron

is compelled to work

consequently with

larger cross-section

greater length of wire for

to
a

reduce

given number

an

the

increased

loss.

flux

density

of turns

which

INTRODUCTION

only is

to

the

secure

in resistance.

resistance

low

ordinary practicethe
loads

remaining expedient
while keeping
copper,

calculated

be

may

transformer

of turns,

ductive
non-in-

for

loss

(%

"

drop)^

reactance

200
inductive

For

the

loads

For

follows:

as

copper

number

good regulation.

for

necessary

regulationof

regulation %

The

larger cross-section of
density by employing a sufficient

use

the flux

down
to

increase

gives an

thus

17

regulation may

be

calculated

by

(6)
the

followingequation:
Per

regulation

cent,

cent,

per

drop

reactance

SiiT^
0 is the

wherein

the

and

angle

drop

^^

Cosl'

phase displacement between

of

inductive

Regulation on
the number

resistance

cent,

the

rent
cur-

f.

m.

e.

per

is becoming

loads

operatingwith

of systems

important

more

mixed

load

as

(lamps and

motors) is

transformers
while
constantly increasing. Many
giving fair regulation on non-inductive
loads, give extremely

inductive

regulationon

poor

VECTOR

loads.

REPRESENTATION

studying the performance

In

of transformers

it is

simple and
graphical method

The
graphical methods.
representingquantitiesvarying in accordance

convenient
of

the

vector

involved,and
either in time

most

above

the
or

various

this method

angle

sine

simplest for making

clear

to

is shown

represents the

the

waves

with

another.

one

in

Fig. 3, where the

magnitude of the quantity

d represents

its

phase position

space.

circuit the
relation between
the
alternating-current
be represented by the method
important quantitiesmay
an

mentioned.

voltages or
values

line

the

of

one

relations of the

of the

length

be

to

principleof

The

In

use

found

been

has

law

to

of

represent

When

currents, the

such

length

the

quantities,while

the

angle

quantities.The

of

diagrams
of the
the

are

used

to

represent

lines represents the scale

the

angles between

phase difference

diagrams

are

constructed

between
from

the
data

lines

various
available

STATIONARY

18

in each

The

case.

resistance

and

TRANSFORMERS
below

diagram

inductive

always in phase with

represents
Since

reactance.

the

and

current

the

circuit
the

containing
R

drop is
e.m.f.

counter

of

4X

Fig.

self-inductance

3.

"

Vector

diagram.

in

which
time-quadrature with the current
produces the m.m.f., these two magnitudes will be represented
by two lines,o e^ and o e^, at right angles to each other; their

Fig.

4.

"

Assumed

vector

diagram

of

transformer, assuming

an

inductive

load.

value
the resultant
being represented by o e^^ representing
of these two
e.m.fs.,and is,therefore,equal and opposite to the
the circuit to produce the
be impressed on
e.m.f.,which must
sum

STATIONARY

20

E I the apparent
the

angle

of

It is very

with

the

watts,

TRANSFORMERS
P

or

it is sometimes

as

Cos

(f"

phase displacement.
evident

that

reactance,

the

when

resistance

the

angle

words,

the

large compared

large compared

very
be

almost

is in quadrature

current

is

time-lag is practicallyzero.

of

is
(See Fig. 174.) If the reactance
the angle of lag will
the resistance,
in other

called,and

90

with

with

time-degrees;
the

e.m.f.

vf
-Bs-*

/wwvww^

-Ihr^

(a)

-S.-*-

-*-Eii

(c)
Fig.

problem which
is the

Since

in the

can

convertion

always
of

one

6.

be

solved

by the

polyphase system

originalsystem there

must

be

at

least

use

of transformers,

into another.
two

compo-

INTRODUCTION

of

nents

the

values

through

In

reactance,
is

e.m.f.

an

time-phase,

resultant

devices

in

quadrature

e.m.f.

reactive

the

from

winding,

or

condenser,

is

stored

as

magnetic

or

as

electrostatic

but

such

devices

pressed
im-

current

necessary

the

core

of

the

in

of

the

the

energy,

are

desired

^"

condenser;

and

"

E^

winding,

the

of

ing
vary-

inductive

with

in

energy,

any

using

drop

P
energy

by

of

phase-splitting
an

obtained

inductive

in

components

obtained.

condensive

displaced

are

these

of

be

phase.can
or

which

e.m.f,

21

little

the

dielectric

practical

use.

of

the

CHAPTER

SIMPLE

There
to

are

TRANSFORMER

Single-phase (one, two,

work,

three

or

five

(three, four,

of

ways

distribution

general

Two-phase

MANIPULATIONS

of different

number

and

power

II

are:

wire).
wire)

more

Three-phase

delta

Three-phase

star

(grounded

Three-phase

Tee

(grounded

Three-phase

open-delta.

Three-phase

star

to

Three-phase

star

and

Three-phase

to

two-phase

Three-phase

to

two-phase-three-phase

Three-phase

to

six-phase, or

(grounded

transformers

of which

some

more

or

applying

ungrounded)

or

Two-phase
Three-phase
The

principal

at

given

the

e.m.f.

subject
the

to

back

determine

the

terminals

close

the

volts, while
the

of

and

the

together

primary

if

e.m.f

same

has

through

two

If

the
22

nected
con-

at

no

inals
term-

in turn

small
fuse

be

disturb

efficiency and

better

to

In

right,

strips of

but

fuse

the

operate
order

with

proceed

blows,

will

will

separately.

all

volts.

of 99
volts

99

power-factor,

were

secondary

e.m.f.

an

transformers

two

the

at

will have

it is much

everything

switch.

regulation;

one

transformers
of

dition,
con-

cent,

volt, which

case

latter

other

the

the

have

regulation is

giving only

one

lower

two

polarity

the

the

cent,

3 per

transformer

e.m.f.

as

has

have

transformers

regards

2 per

full load

at

the

in

observed

terminals

the

As
a

be

must

and

give exactly

but

of the

parallel connection
the

instant,

capacity; in which

secondaries

the

which
that

which

will

relations

phase

combined

100

is that

result

The

versa.

versa.

with

one

secondary,

of, say,

vice

or

versa.

are

transformer

transformers

of the

versa.

vice
vice

versa.

versa.

characteristics.

in parallel with
load

vice

or

precautions

two

practically identical
suppose

vice

or

transformers,

two

polarity

same

delta

vice

or

single-phase.

to

connecting

star-delta

single-phase.

to

Two-phase

ungrounded).

or

six-phase, or

to

ungrounded).

or

to

the

connect

wire,

then

connections

SIMPLE
be

must

made

MANIPULATIONS

TRANSFORMER

reversed; if it

does

not,

then

the

23

connections

be

may

permanent.

dotted

primary

and

be
secondary windings of transformers
may
connected
to meet
practicallyany requirement. Fig. 6 represents
the ordinary method
of connecting a single-phasetransformer
to
a
single-phasecircuit. Referring to the graphical
in Fig. 6 it is shown
that 0 E p and O E s
representation
(the
primary and secondary e.m.fs.) represent two lines of constant
0 as
about
The
rate
center.
a
length, rotating at a uniform
direction of the secondary is not strictly180 electrical degrees
of time phase with the primary, but
for convenience
and
out
it is commonly
The
elementary purposes
represented as such.
The

line is vertical to 0

X,

so

that

as

the

pointsE

por

move

u
-1000-

-1000-

LqqqqJ
nm

cm
"400-

(W)

-10050-

-50^100

FiG.
two

7.

"

Straight

connection

ordinary single-phase

of
formers.
trans-

Fig.
former

8.

"

with

Single-phase

primary

coils both

in the

circle,
they

variable

occupy

distances from

trans^

and

ondary
sec-

in series.

0.

As

they

through Y it is evident that they have positive

and
negative values, and that these values vary from zero to a
definite maximum.
They pass through a complete cycle of
sponding
changes from positive to negative and back to positive,corretravel

from

both
the e.m.fs
complete revolution,
varying as
the sine of the angle 0
0 E p A.
Since the changes of voltages in the primary and secondary
and minimum
windings of a transformer
go through their maximum
values at the same
time, the result of connecting the two
windings in series is to produce a voltage which is either the sum
the difference of the voltages of the windings,according to the
or
mode
of joiningthem.
If the windings of a step-up transformer
of the
are
joined in series so that their resultant voltage is the sum
of supply may
be convoltages of the two windings,the source
to

24

STATIONARY

nected

to the

terminals

the terminals

of what

windings

the

shows

fuses

that should
instance

of the

voltage

be

that

be

different limbs

on

on

outside

two

total

original

fuses

the

inductance

the
coil,

e.m.f.

counter

greater than

of section

that

wire

core

type and

core,

it will be

considerablysmaller

The

for this

reason

circuits

blow, say,

is,
for

leg A, the secondary circuit through this

and
the primary coil correopen-circuited,
sponding

the other half of the

on

of the

the outside

on

secondary coils

two

of the

wires.

this section will have

half of the

the load

If this transformer

of the

will be

to

by

has

the

fuse

the

which

the fuse in the middle

on

one

half-section

other

the

until the

transformers
ordinary single-phase

two

transformer

arranged

to have

the

than

in which

way

one

coils

advisable

be reduced

may

windings equals

in series.

connected
two

was

connected.

are

the

composite winding,instead of at
the primary.
If this is done,
originally

of the

of the transformer

voltage of the two

primary winding.
Fig. 7 shows the
Fig. 8

TRANSFORMERS

of the

C,

impedance

greater
of which

than

the

will be neutralized

secondary coil. The result will

primary section.A, will be

because

the

sections

two

in

are

series with each

in both
other,and the current must be the same
the primary
coils;therefore,the difference of potentialbetween
nals
yl,will be greater than that between the primary termiterminals,
of C, consequently the secondary voltage of C will be greatly

lowered.
avoid

Manufacturers

above

mentioned

disadvantage by
and connecting a
sections,

secondary coil into two

leg in series with a section

dividingeach
section of

the

one

leg of the core, so

windings will be

that

current

in either

in coils about

pair of

on

the

the other

secondary

legs of the core.

ings
for three-wire service having the windmade
Transformers
are
distributed that the voltage on the two sides will not differ
so
with onethan the regulationdrop of the transformer, even
more

half the

the

the

coil

of the

same

capacityof

rated

ordinary distribution
on

the

two

Fig. 9

shows

To

obtain

the

voltage will

on

be

are
a

with

transformer
single-phase

coils

two

connected

secondaries

of load

all

transformers

side; with

one

practically
equal

sides.

primary, and
shown

the

both

in

on

the

parallelacross

also connected

higher secondary

in

secondary.
the

two

The

1000-volt

coils

on

the

primaries are
mains, and the

parallel.
voltage

the

coils may

be

con-

iiected

in

primary coils are

nected
con-

in series.

the

the

secondaries

per

coil.

paralleland

volts,or

be 200

the

case

25

secondary coils connected

the two leads,with the primaries
across
potential

difference of

connected

In this

Fig. 10.

and
parallel,

in
The

in

shown

as

MANIPULATIONS

TRANSFORMER

SIMPLE

volts

100

connected

in series will

;=

-10001000-

1000^

"

1000

*"

UxMJUmJ
-100-

-doo-

-200-

-100-

FlG.

"|-100-

^00

Fig.

9.

10.

-1000-^-500

"h

500-"

"iJO^

^50^

50

Fig.
Fig.

9.

with

Transformer

"

11.

primary

and

secondary windings

both

in

parallel.
Fig.

10.

secondary windings
Fig.

11.

"

"

represent
If

we

the
coils in

in

with

to

invert

the

primary

primary

windings

all ratios of transformation

(10

one

connected

in

paralleland

connected

in series

and

parallel.

^For convenience
ten

primary windings

in series.

Transformer

secondary windings
Note

with

Transformer

"

to

will be understood

to

1).

arrangement

coils in

and
series,

in

ing
Fig. 10 by connectconnecting the secondary

shown

parallel,we shall obtain a secondary voltage

represented in Fig. 11.
In Figs 12-12*
and 13 are represented a rightand wrong

of

50,

way

as

of

ST A TIONA

26

connecting

connections

The

be.

may

in

transformers

NSFORMERS

TRA

R Y

scries
shown

parallel,just as
in Fig. 12 represent
or

case

the

right
the
in series,

in parallel,
or
connecting two transformers
and the dotted
solid lines showing the series connection
of

way

the

lines the

parallelconnection.
X

ZZ
"-iooo-"-^-iooo

fvwA

Lvwvv

lomJ

(WLJWi

Uoo^^ioo-J

i-lOO-^

^lOO-H

1000

-1000-

1000

1000

-100-200-

-100-

FiG.

12.

The

"

connecting single-phase

of

right way
transformers

in

Fig.

parallel.

13."

of

way

The

wrong
gle-phase
sin-

connecting

transformers

in

connections

The
the

transformers

the
carelessness,
to

shown

short-circuit
the

case

burn

out

sudden

are

leads

the
rush

in

Fig.

13

first received
are

two

often

the transformer

liable to

happen when
the factory. Through

are

from

brought

out

in such

coils if connected

of current

if not

parallel.

shown.

as

as

manner

this

In

primary windings would

in the

protectedby

fuse.

-3000-

'

cm
-100-^ -100-

cm

rw]

-lOOH

-100-

FiG.

secondary

14. "Three-wire
distribution.

Fig.

series

The

three-wire

arrangement

15."

transformers

shown

to

in

Three

1000- volt

connected
3000-volt

Fig.

14

in

circuit.

differs in every

respect from the three-wire system represented in Figs.8 and 10.

from
The two
outside wires receive current
the single-phase

transformer, and the center, or neutral,wire is taken

the
at or
connected
a
near
balancing transformer
up

care

of

center

by
of

TRANSFORMERS

STATIONARY

28
the

wire, B,

ground, and

and

is likelyto be established

trouble

the

by

first indication
or
fire,

of

any

such

coming
secondary

some

person

lamp socket, or other part of the

circuit that is not sufficiently
insulated.
Should
a
ground exist, or in other words, a short-circuit
low-tension
between
the high-tension and
windings, it will,in
of service;
out
general,blow fuses, thus cutting the transformer
to such
extent
to call attenthe voltage will be lowered
tion
an
as
or
the
the
be
to
secondary windings must
trouble, but
in contact

with

grounded.
avoid

To

this danger

distribution

to

life,the grounding
is

transformers

advocated

now

of secondaries
all

by

of

responsible

-1000""500-

-500

-1000-

-1000-

I" /WWW

WWW"

^A/\A__

AAA
"t"

50

60-"|

100^

H-lOo

-900-

FiG.

-1300-

18.

Fig.

19.

electric

Differences of
lightand power
companies in America.
opinionhave arisen as to general details both as regards the scope
of grounding and the methods
to be employed, but there is nevertheless
decided

secondaries
and

uniform

and

of distribution

expression that

transformers

the

should

be

low

voltage
permanently

effectively
grounded.
National

The

Electrical

Code

alternating-currentsecondaries
This

voltage was

decided

upon

provides for
for
after

voltages
extensive

the
up

grounding
to

250

of

volts.

investigationand

discussion.

grounding is the protection of

between
the
life. A fault may
itself,
develop in the transformer
primary and secondary wires which are usually strung one set
above
the
other
(high voltage always above the low voltage
such
electrified
as
an
conductors), or a foreign circuit conductor
The

series

principalargument

arc

metallic

or

incandescent

contact

with

for this

lightingline

conductor

may

come

secondary line wire leading from

into
trans-

SIMPLE

secondary line conductors

windings are liable to several forms

Both

former.
transformer

danger due

the

to

29

and

secondary
faults

of

and

high voltage.

of the accidents

Some

MANIPULATIONS

TRANSFORMER

handling of portable

recorded

and

incandescent

due

such

to

and

lamps

switching

the

are

causes,

lights

on

-10001000
-500^

"U

500

500-

""

SCO

^jlAMA/J

7VW\A_.

(*^

60"^

(*^

-50^
-500-

-1100-

FiG.

in

located

Fig.

17

If

made.

primary
of

single-phasetransformer
shown

are

in

with

transformer

floors,by

of

means

and

secondary

conditions

These

potential difference

of which
take

we

of

arrangement

an

be
accidentally

of other
some

stone

or

21.

lamp sockets.

to

represents

establish

used,

tile,cement

attached

circuits that may

number

Fig.

with

rooms

switches

the

20.

volts.

900

diately
immeA

combinations

great
be

may

Figs. 18, 19, 20, 21, and

22.

ratio

of

10

find

series,we
is

the

only
since

secondary

50

turns

number

the

the

ends
ratio

tively,
respec-

windings

two

quired
re-

-1000*"

600-

-500-

if the voltage
whole

of the
of

primary

still remains

turns

in

of turns

total of 500

appliedto

winding

and

join the

and

is

500

1, say

to

10

""-50-"J

to

to

K50*"

1,
-loeo-

and

with

in the
and

the

core,

the

the

and
is not

current

primary

e.m.f.

counter

secondary e.m.f. will both

exactly
but

magnetic induction

same

as

before; the ratio

secondary

currents

of the

current

where

the

into the

which

windings

would
are

FiG.

same

secondary
have

also the

and

same

since the

manner

been

separated.

22.

mary
pri-

remains

produced in quite the

will flow

of

main
re-

take

induced

the

before

as

primary

place

in the

of part

first

case

III

CHAPTER
TWO-PHASE
So

far

in

transformers

as

circuit

each

TRANSFORMER

Fig. 23, which

phase

is connected

transformer
other
In

secondary

the

which

of

in

point
The

in

of

current

such

of

which

have

and

drawn,
between

in the

diagrams

The

method

two-phase

in

be

to

are

of

system

the

in the

connected

windings

the

corresponding

positions

to

conception
representing

representing

also

are

considered

length

the

of

in which

order

of

alternating-

lines

the

sented
repre-

direction

physical

windings

number

are

dealing with

angular

lines; the

to

sponding
corre-

the

lines

connected.

connecting
is shown

in

in

that

independent

are

seen,

have

to

also

as

another

one

and

length

consider

to

windings

of the
to

are

results

The

currents

definite

currents,

the

lines and

other

the

by diagrams.
and

the
for

secure

proportional

turns

by

method

common

it is useful

are

one

currents

apart.

related

e.m.fs.

phase

diagrams,

angles

to

and

phenomena.

e.m.fs.

One

phase, supplying

connections

definitely

in which

To

various

the

cycle

readily determined

be

magnitude
a

ary
second-

supply

to

and

e.m.fs,

various

from

may

straight lines,is

and

phase, and

primary

two

one-fourth

diagram

vector

phase

other

other

the

system

or

time,

of

the

the

single-phase transformers,

of

primary

one

to

obtained

be

may

primary

shown

as

phase.

two-phase

time-degrees

90

to

phase, independent

secondary

other

straight, single-phase system.

is connected

transformer

the

only

of the

each

though

as

distribution,

two-phase

independently

treated

is connected

were

in

concerned

are

be

may

CONNECTIONS

two

transformers

Fig.

24.

they

to

Both

phases,

will be

as

in

transformed

are

four-wire,

separate

transformers.
A

in

method

is that

copper

transformers
the
or

connection

of

are

shown

outside

wire

in

connected

secondaries, are
neutral

commonly

changed

being

about

Fig.

24

used
where

independently
into

one-half

wires.
30

to

three-wire

larger

economy

primaries

the
to

obtain

the

two

system,
than

each

of

the

phases, and
the

center,

of the

two

When

having the

transformers

two

CONNECTIONS

TRANSFORMER

TWO-PHASE

ratio

same

are

31

in

connected

is
load, the total secondary current
them
divided between
very nearly in inverse proportion to their
impedances. This inverse impedance is usually expressed as

parallelwith

common

Consider,for instance,a
of 2.9 per
2.3

and

cent,

5 kv-a

4 kv-a

Lw
with

transformer

having

transformer

admittances

The

cent.

per

(13)

+\/_i

an

impedance
impedance of

an

will be

P\
n

6'

Ep. h

Fig. 23.

.y

Two-phase

"

four-wire

arrangement.

5
1.72

;r-^=
The

division of

ohms

total load

and^^=
of 9 kv-a

1.74 ohms

on

connected

these when

directlyin parallelis
1.72X9
for the

=4.57
-7^.'^''

5 kv-a

kv-a

or

91.5

per

cent,

rated

load.

kv-a

or

113

per

cent,

rated

load.

3.46

and
for the 4 kv-a

'

=4.53
^r.

3.46

the
3.46

value

3.46

is the total

sum

of

admittances

or

1.74 + 1.72

ohms.

gether
are
generally not mounted
Lighting transformers
closely towhen
paralleloperationis required,but are usually on a

secondary

net-work.

resistance

of

wiring

In
or

such
load

cases

between

where
the

the
two

drop

due

to

transformers

the
is

32

STATIONARY

ordinarilyexists between
different sizes would usuallybe automatically

difference

considerable,
any
different

TRANSFORMERS

designsand

such

as

compensated for,so that the transformers

proportion of load.
proper
these

Assume
at

distance

of about

500

is 200 ft. from

of load

which

close

of

will be

the center

5 kv-a

transformer

the resistance

that

the secondary

1.94

the

4 kv-a

cent., and

per

former
trans-

from

the

Adding these resistances

the impedance of the two transformers,

of

the

of

and

kv-a

the

kv-a

creased
in-

will be

transformer

transformer

4.01

per

division of the total load will be

The

cent.

and

1.62 per cent.

cent,

per

parallel

Neglecting altogetherthe
wires will doubtless be fairly

will be

component

4.15

to

in

also that the center

resistance from

to

of load

impedance

the

Assume

their

take

connected

are

transformer

small, as

about

each

0 wire.

No.

together,the drop due

to

to

ft. apart.

the 5 kv-a

wiring consists
reactance

transformers

two

same

would

for the 5 kv-a

2x9
kv-a

or

98.5

kv-a

or

102

4.92

-^^o"
=

rated load.

cent,

per

'

and
^

1 0X9

for the 4 kv-a

=4.08
"

the

value

2.2

being the

admittances

of the

sum

rated load.

cent,

per

1.2 + 1.0

2.2.

ohms.
So

long

it makes

the two

as

difference

no

which

to

it makes

no

connected

circuits

two
a

and

wires
c

is

the

to

b is

'\/2

and

the

\/2

Fig.

90

1.141

shows

times

wires

of the

one

and

outside

two

b'

shown

as

in

wires,a
Fig. 24.

secondary wires

two

wires of each

For

transformer

are

are

The
secondary system.
time-degreesapart, the voltage between

times

neutral,or

1.141

the other

outside

being

the

difference which

joinedtogether,so long as

of any

parallel

given secondary wire.

example: It is just as well to connect

and b, together,as it is to connect
a'
However,

in

connected

not

are

secondary wire

is connected

transformers

two

transformers

of the

that

common

that

in any

between
return
one

one

any

wire.

of the

of the outside
The

current

outside

wires.

in

connecting transformers,
where
the common
is used on both primary and secondary.
return
With
this method, there is an unbalancing of both sides of the
if all the motors
on
system on an induction-motor
load, even
the system
should
be of two-phase design. The
unbalancing is
due to the e.m.f. of self-induction in one
side of the system being
25

another

method

of

phase with the effective

in

in both

the current

and

18

be made

can

in the

e.m.f.

33

side,thus affecting

other

circuits.

combinations

Various

CONNECTIONS

TRANSFORMER

TWO-PHASE

of the

methods

two

shown

in

Figs. 16

by connectingthe primaries and secondaries

B
-1000-

-1000-

Ismsu

ysmsu

mi.-m)
-100-

-loo"

"

HI
Fig.

as

24.

four-wire

Two-phase

"

similar

auto-transformers

primary
to

the

with

three-wire

secondary.

single-phase connections

just mentioned.
The

four

ordinary

representedby
values

vectors

of e.m.fs.

and

methods

in

of

Fig. 26,

transformers

connecting
a,

are

d, showing relative

b, c and

currents.

-1410-1000-

-1000-

-100-

-100-141-

FiG.

25.

"

Two-phase
Eah
Ea'h'

three-wire

primary

with

three-wire

2e

Eah

2e

Eaa'

2e

\/2e

(5)
Eab='e
Ea'a

Eab

\/2e

2e

Eaa'

2\/2e

Ea'b=2e
70

^/21

la and
766'

(C)

h
=

V2*

secondary.

34

STATIONARY
Let

TRANSFORMERS

impressed

=E

=i

Ic

current

\/2

volts

for

phase

per

and

for

A,

A,

D.

E
.

la',lb,la, Ih'

impressed voltage per phase

impressed voltage
current

U)

per

times

phase

\/2

times

phase

per

for A

the current

D.

B.

for D.

phase

per

and

for C.

and

phase

per

for C.

J,

b'

(G)
Fig.

Another
transformer

main

two

The

fa.

26.

(D)
three-, four- and

Two-phase

"

is to

arrangement

voltage of

the two

is 100.

between

the

side circuits is one-half

times
circuits,
Another

and

the

method

of

the

two

the

voltage

times that
of two,

in any
or

across

any

one

of the

50X\/2

one

of

main

70 volts.

in

called the fiveFig. 28, commonly

wire system, is accomplished by connecting the secondaries
at
the middle, similar to the arrangement
in Fig. 27, and bringing
out

an

The

extra

shown

middles

in

But

root

square

systems.

This method
Fig. 27.
gives
four side circuits,
ad,dc, cf, and
d and /is 100,
main circuits,
between

and

the

connect

secondaries,as shown
a c and
circuits,
df, and

five-wire

wire from

difference of

the

center

of each

potentialbetween

and

transformer.
e

will be 100X\/2

STATIONARY

36

is effected
be

may

other

windings; or

by proportioning the

wound

for

ratio of transformation

1000

86.6.

to

is connected

transformer
of the

transformer

one

of 1000

50; the

to

/3\

ratio of

TRANSFORMERS

to

j-j. The

or

the middle

of the

secondary

of this

ing
secondary wind-

first.

-1000

"

uKlfMMJ

liMiKmJ

H"

"-75

-1000

"-35-" "r25

6'
100-

-100105.7-

/
Fig.

In

Fig. 30, a

29.

multi-wire

distribution.

represents the secondary potentialfrom

transformer.

one

Two-phase

"

At

the

of 90

angle

degrees to

the

to

in

c d,
line,

represents in direction and

h
a

c and
magnitude the voltage between
of the other
Across
the terminals,a c, ch, and
transformer.
h, it follows that three e.m.fs. will exist,each differingin

-1000-

-1000

"

liiim^

U^imilQj
*

"-50-*i

"

h-ee.e-^

'
c

-100-

FiG.

direction
that
A

in

and
c

and

30.

Two-phase

"

value.
c

or

The
100

to

single-phasedistribution.

e.m.f.

across

" is the

resultant

of

volts.

complete list of two-phase, three- and four-wire transformer

connections
is shown
in Fig. 31 and a list of two-phase parallel
combinations
is shown
in Fig. 32.
These
might or might not
leads.
represent a certain change in the transformer
They are,

TWO-PHASE

TRANSFORMER

however, only intended

which

can

to

CONNECTIONS

37

represent those connections

with the leads

be made

and

binations
com-

located
symmetrically

the outside of the transformers.

on

grounding two-phase systems several methods

are
ployed,
emthe best being those givenin Fig.33.
(A) represents a two-phase four-wire system, the two singlependent
phases being independentlyoperated,consequently two indegrounds are necessary.
For

^
(3)

pq

U\aaaI
(4).

(6)

f^'^

PA

"

""v5"

""C^

fA
-e-v^-

FiG.

31.

"

Complete

listof

two-phase transformer

connections.

two-phase four-wire system to be used

for three-phaseand two-phase at the same
time. This is similar
to the
Taylor" system exceptingthat two units instead of three
are
employed. The maximum
voltage to ground is a'" x,
(B) also represents

"

or

i!;x 0.866.

(C) likewise represents

"T"

three-phaseprimary.

strain to

ground is E^/
-

of

two-phase four-wire
In

this

case

system

the maximum

voltagebetween

with

voltage

terminals

(D) representsa two-phasethree-wire system. The maximum

strain to ground in this case is full voltageof any phase.

38

STATIONARY
"

{E) represents

strain to ground

is E

{F) represents

two

unit system.
the

The

same

as

maximum

(B)

two-phase interconnected

the

voltage

four-

or

five-wire

"

0.866, or

TRANSFORMERS

(5)

r'^^

V~^^

c^^!^

C2X^

1"^^

nr^

,^

r^

^
A

B
IWSAl

^A/^/J

INAAN

(9)

^^

A^
a

A^
b

AA

AA

WvaaI

Uaaa

Iwv^

(H)

/^s/\

AA

AA^^^^AA
b

Fig.

The

32.

"

maximum

Two-phase

parallelcombinations.

voltage strain to ground is 50 per cent,

of any
phase voltage and the voltage across
two-phase
any
terminals is 70.7 per cent, of full-phasevoltage.
system.

CHAPTER

THREE-PHASE

General

have

we

is

e.m.f.

line, B C,

and

to

third

with

deal

the

question

three

the

by

as

three-phase

A.

e.m.fs.

in

shown

line, A B,

line, C

by the

of

alternating

degrees,

120

represented

the

SYSTEM

considering

In

"

differingin phase by

currents

One

TRANSFORMATION

Principles.

transformation

IV

Fig.

another

These

and

34.

the

by

three

e.m.fs.

/'"^^

(i")b

Fig.

and

33.

currents

six

be

where

e.m.f.

phase

lines,ax,

wires, or

only indicate

the

and

the

grounding

carried

are

x;

two-phase

ends

B,

positive directions
39

at

diagrammatically
C,

and

in the

A.

mains

circuits
wire

return

common

joined together

are

represented
also,

systems.

independent

three

to

wire, or

neutral

three

relations

b x,

of

be

may

requiring
used,

Methods

"

The

and

x.

may

The

by the
arrows

through

ST A TIONA

40

TEA

R Y

windings; this direction

the

be

must

that

remembered

direction

of

the

e.m.fs.

NSFORMERS

is chosen

these

not

represent

arrows

currents

or

arbitrarily,
therefore,it

at

the

actual

given instant, but

any

merely the directions of the positivee.m.fs. or currents

i.e., the
positive direction through the circuit. Thus, in Fig. 32a the
considered
directed from
e.m.fs. or
currents
are
positive when
the common
junction x toward the ends, ah c.
In passing through the windings from a to h,which is the direction
in which

Fig.

e.m.f.

34.

be

must

receivingcircuit

upon

an

generated
main

from

to

give an

to

main

Graphic representationof three-phase

"

e.m.f.

acting

h, the winding, a,

currents

and

e.m.fs.

passed through in a positivedirection,and the winding, 6, is

passed through in a negative direction;similarlythe e.m.f. from

is

b to c, and

the

e.m.f.

degrees behind

b is 30

c, is

by

equal
the

to the

square

30"

cos

the

e.m.f.

a.

The

^3

e.m.f.

e.m.f. between
in each

between

its effective

and

value

is

(14)

E;

of the e.m.fs.

of each

value

this connection

With
or

is the

to

time-phase, and

in

where

main

from

b, and

any

winding,

c.

leads,ab,b

two

x,b

x,ov

ex

c,

plied
multi-

of three.

root

Fig. 34 that a positivecurrent

in main
in winding 1 produces a positivecurrent
A, and that a
in
in winding 2 produces a positive current
negative current
For

main

current

relations

A ; therefore,the

we

see

in

instantaneous

value

of the

current

in main

THREE-PHASE
is

TRANSFORMATION

"

current

"

mean

effective current

and

its effective value

in each

in each

winding.

is 30

with

the current

this connection

of three times

root

currents

7^ in phase;

times

of three

that

is the square

reactance, the three

degrees behind

root

receiving circuits

three

the

in main

main

current

When

"

is the square
different phases; so

of the

in any

41

in winding 1, and 1 is the

I^ is the current
I2, where
2
value
of the
in winding 2.
the instantaneous
Similarly,
in main
B is /j ^3, and in main
C, it is I^ I^. The

I1

current

and

SYSTEM

the

the current

equal in resistance
equal; and each lags behind
ah

are

are

e.m.f.,ah,h c, and a c, by the same

amount, and all are
in Fig. 34, by
shown
time-degrees apart. The arrangement
connection
star
or
lines,a, h, and c, is called the "Y"
of these windings has one
Each
end connected
transformers.
its

neutral

called the

three

is the

between

resistance per phase cannot

terminals,since there are two

Assuming that all the phases

ir,one-half

resistance

the

of the

phases

measured

as

The

resistance

e.m.f.

the

to

The

x.

current

in the

be

measured

directlybetween

phases in series.
alike,the resistance per phase

windings, or

are

terminals.

between

Should
of any

the

ances
resistbe

phase may

follows:

resistance

terminals

between
of

resistance

of

Ri.

"

of

"

is:

R^-^-R^.

terminals

between

Resistance

R^

6 is:

terminals

between

Resistance

Therefore

to

commonly
The

h x, and

ax,

equal, the resistance

be

Resistance

The

of

c.

The

The

c,

the

receivingcircuit is equal

of each

e.m.f.

ah

mains.

to the

connected

receiving circuit is equal

in each

mains, ah

remaining ends,

ends, or terminals

\/3 E, where

current

the

receivingends, are
the

between
to

point,x;

120

is:

R3+R2.

Res.

"

Res.

b c-|-Res.

_,

R3=

'

Res.

"

Res.

_,

^r,

R,

-j-Res.

6
,,

^i

'

Res.

"

Res.

6 -|-Res. b

c
"'

^.

(15)

TRANSFORMERS

STATIONARY

42

method

The

where

the

e.m.f.

called

and

the

that

in any

the

3,

connection.

delta

current

winding,
that

Assuming

all

the

on

receiving circuit is equal

each

on

that

as

A,

this connection

In

same

in Fig.34,

in series a,t

connected

are

receivingcircuit is the

the

on

and

windings,1, 2

C, is

and

connecting three-phase circuits shown

of

the

mains;

\/3 times

to

\/3I, where / is the current in 1,2, or 3phases are alike,the resistance per phase is
or

B.

ratio of 3 to 2 times

to the

equal

In

connection

delta

through phase 1,

one

series.

resistance
the

the

From

two

to

of the

sum

and

law
or

there
the

are

the

resistance between

two

circuits between

other

circuits

circuits in

more

of
reciprocals

through phases

divided

of

have

we

parallelis

the

and

and

the

C,

3 in

and

joint

reciprocalof

the resistances of the several

branches.

37?

Hence,

-^

is the

winding with

one

terminal

resistance
two

to terminal

others

with

per

phase R being

in

current

resistance

the

parallel. The ohmic

/ in the line,is

drop

of

from

Ohmic

To

drop

2/X-R.

three-phase alternating current

transform

employed. Several
single-phase transformers

different ways
1. Three

(16)

are

number

of

of the arrangements

in star

connected

are:

in

or

delta.
2. Two

in

connected

single-phasetransformers

open-delta or

in tee.
in star or in delta.
connected
three-phase transformer
three
With
the magnetic fluxes in
single-phasetransformers
the
differ in phase by 120
three transformers
time-degrees.
With
the magnetic fluxes in
two
single-phase transformers
ing
them
differ in time-phase by 120 degrees or by 90 degrees accordto the connection
employed.
With
there are
three magnetic
the three-phase transformer
One

3.

fluxes
The
than

differingin time-phase by 120 degrees.

weighs about 25
single-phasetransformer
three separate transformers
having the same

its losses at full load

Two
as

the

three

are

also about

25

per

cent.

separate transformers,V-connected, weigh

single-phasetransformers

losses

are

also

equal.

for the

same

per

cent,

total

less

rating;

less.
about

power

the

same

transmitted

44

STATIONARY

TRANSFORMERS

transformers
single-phase

three

the

service

same

in cost

decrease

that

may

be

frequently discussed

are

of the several

for obtaining

employed
the

on

types of transformers

basis of the

with

increase

in

rating; and on such basis it has been shown that the threeis the cheaper, while
the other combinations
phase transformer
of requiring an
more
are
expensive on account
equal or greater
transformers.
It
ever,
rating in smaller
aggregate
should, howin

borne

be

mind

generally speaking,
designed along the

that

is not,
three-phase transformer
efficient as
a
single-phase transformer

so

lines and

same

wound

for

the

same

total

output.

Fig.

It is shown

very

terminals,B C,
resultant
the

or

which
It

and

result

from

Vector

of effective

sum

e.m.fs.

the
clearly in Fig. 35 that a connection across
E, and x D, will receive a voltage which is the
e.m.fs. differingin time-phase by 120 degrees;
adding the e.m.fs. of E^ and E^ at 60 degrees,

equivalent to E^ \/3.
in Fig. 36, where
is shown
X
X

of

transformers

y,

is

b, X
This

zero.

that

of two

"

is

group

and

36.

where

current

equivalent

a;

many
summary

to

consequently

is in accordance
an

phase

reversed, the
the
the

of

with

star-connected

e.m.f.,x' y'
e.m.fs.,x c', x a'

resultant

component
resultant

of

Kirchhoff's

all three

e.m.fs.

which

law

is

states

circuit branches, the effective

alternating-current

in the main

effective currents
of the

is

one

circuit is the
in the

geometric,or

separate branches.

vector

The

sum

of the

modifications

appertaining to this are discussed in

the
in theory, and
books
treating alternating currents
given here is for the purpose of comparison. However,
fundamental

laws

TRANSFORMATION

THREE-PHASE

to 60
a

45

in

Fig. 36 that the phase relations between o' and b',

c',a and c and b and c have been changed from 120 degrees
The pressure
between
degrees by reversingphases b' and c.

it is noted
b' and

SYSTEM

c' is "'

o' and

b and

and

\/S, showing their phase relations

to be

unchanged.
For
example, in Fig. 36, consideringonly secondary coils of
that are supposed to be connected
three single-phasetransformers
of fact connected
in star, but as a matter
as
shown, let us assume
that E is equal to 100 volts:
will be the voltage between
terminals
of Ea, E/,
(a) What
and Ea, Eb, and Ee phases?
will be the voltage between
terminals a' and c',and
(b) What
a

and

6?

and

the

voltage

a'

across

y' and

y' c\ also

y 6?

voltage acting

The

(a)
E

will be

What

(c)

on

windings is equal to

of these

any

v/3

100X\/3
The

voltage acting on

Ea
,

Eb', etc.,is

;^ X 173.2=0.577

Ea

volts.

173.2

173.2=

100

a' and

c',or

volts.

v3

terminals

(b) The voltage between

to

\/3 times the voltage acting on

is evident

that

b,is equal

173.2

volts.

e.m.fs.,a' x' and c' x' are

equivalentto their resultant,y' x' which is equal and oppositeto
a' y' and y' c',are
b' x' ; the dotted
equal to Ea Eb' etc., at
lines,
120 degrees apart; in other words,
(c)

It

and

Ea- etc., or

100 X 173.2=

E\/3=

the

two

1
E

a"

-X173.2

y',eic.,=
Vo

In
X, y,
o,

Fig.37
z

6, c,

are

are

in shown

equal and
120

in each

0.577X173.2
a

120

diagram

three

of

volts.

three-phase currents

degrees apart, the

degrees apart

of the

100

and

circuits

in the

leads,

equal to \/3 times the

each

X,

currents

in which

and

Z.

rent
cur-

46

ST A TIONA

The

which
As

are

NSFORMERS

TRA

lead is shown

made

degrees apart.
example showing the use

an

three

in each

current

R Y

up

of two

60

transformers
single-phase

of

Fig. 35, assume

delta-connected.

Fig.

current

38.

"

37.

"

Geometric

Geometric

sum

of

of e.m.fs.

sum

three-phase

at

any

through X-phase winding if the

of
circuit,
will be the

What

Fig.

equal components

currents.

instant

equal

current

to

zero.

in h lead

is 500

amperes?
Since

one

component,

X,

has

in the lead the

same

sign as it has

TRANSFORMATION

THREE-PHASE
in its own

winding,and

transformer

SYSTEM

the other

47

Y,

component,

has

former
transoppositesign to that which it has in its own
in
in
vector
winding, X, is represented lead by the same
as
transformer
its own
winding; while the other component, F, is
representedin the lead by a vector 180 degrees from that which

in the lead the

representsit in its own

therefore,X
circuit,

500.

=~^

v3

instantaneous

The

values

three-phase system
of the

in the

currents

sum

of e.m.fs.

fact

is shown

other

in

at

Fig. 38,

instant

any

geometric

the

is

equal

with

group

Star-star

with

group

Delta-delta

with

star-delta.

Delta-star

group

with

star-delta.

It

with

that
however, be remembered
the following combinations,because

phases which

when

occurs,

will
secondaries,

result in

with

Delta-star

with

Delta-delta

attempt

an
a

three-phase

it is
the

impossible to
displacementof

is made

to

the

connect

star-star.
a

star-delta.

with

delta-delta.

Star-delta

with

star-star.

is well known

lines,

partialshort-circuit.

Delta-star

As

three

star-star.

must,

connect

to

This

zero.

delta-delta.

group

group

star-star.

Star-delta

Delta-delta

of

delta-star.

with

group

to

of the

sum

A, B,C, being equal to zero at any instant.

be connected
Single-phase transformers
may
system in any of the followingmethods:
Delta-star

wire

one

algebraicsum
Therefore, the algebraic

sides.

two

currents

or

currents

and

equal

are

in any
oppositeto the

of the

there

four

are

ways

in which

singleprimary and
three

be connected
between
phase transformers
may
be
secondary three-phase circuits. The
arrangements
may
and delta-star.
described as the delta-delta,
star-star,star-delta,
for high voltage the star connection
In winding transformers
has the advantage of reducingthe voltage on an individual unit,
thus

permitting a

increase
wind

in the

size of the

in the

has

if

disabled,the

The

probable advantage

one

transformer
two

number

conductors, making

easier to insulate.

and

in that

reduction

remaining

of

delta-delta

over
a

ones

of

turns

and

an

coils easier to

the

connection

theless
never-

the star-delta arrangement,

group

of three

will continue

should
to

become

deliver three-

TRANSFORMERS

STATIONARY

48

phase

thirds of the
delta

originaloutput

in any

to

of the group.

e.m.f.

The

between

measured

transformer

one

line is \/3

in the

current

capacity equal

arrangement.

that

as

with

currents

times

approximately twoFig. 39 shows a deltasame

terminals.

between

that

is the

mains

the

in any

The

transformer

one

winding.
transformer

Each

for 57.7 per

w^ound

be

must

line current.

cent,

for the

full-line voltage and

greater number

The

in

of turns

sitate
winding, together with the insulation between
turns, necesmore
a larger and
expensive coil than the star connection.
be preferable
the delta-delta connection
For another reason
may

the

Fig.

Delta-delta

"

star, inasmuch

the

to

39.

though

transformer

one

the

as

is not

arrangement
be

may

assumed
it is practically

case

of transformers.

connection

that

affected

even

entirelydisconnected,in which
the two remaining transformers
2

have

exactly

In

delta

carrying capacity

connected

displacement exists,the

per

of transformers

group

phase winding is -y='

of 85

being
total

the

of

cent,
the

for the

the
to

system
and

the

acting on
The

voltage

be 1000

angle
each

e.m.f.
is the

on

of

between

volts; the

any
current

two

three

mains

in the

time-lag,45 degrees.

phase

phases will

of

mains,

What

in each

if

line current, and

power

0.567.

current

be

(17)
three-phase

V3X^X/XCos^.
Assume

100

will be

amperes,
the

e.m.f.

phase, the current in each phase, and the output?

of transformers
each phase of a delta-connected
group

same

as

that

across

the

terminals

of any

one

trans-

THREE-PHASE

former.

The

winding,

or

line current
57.7

a/3X

phase is 100

each
Cos

TRANSFORMATION

-y^

SYSTEM

is \/3 times

100

57.7 amperes.

that in each
therefore

amperes,

The

49

transformer

the

in

current

output beinga/3 E

I-

1.732 X
In the star-star
connected

to

kw.

123

each transformer

arrangement

approx.

has

terminal

one

junction, or neutral point; the three

connected
to the three-phasemains.

are

number

100 X.7 1

common

remaining ends
The

1,000

in

of turns

is 57.7 per cent,

of that

transformer

winding for

requiredfor

delta connection

star

tion
connec-

and

the

-1000-

-1000-1000-

677

"

577

"

577-

immMj
nnjn

rron

^57.7-

57.7

-67.7-"

-100-

-MO-

100

40.

Fig.

"

Star-star

cross-section of the conductors

for the

The

output.

same

transformers,and
the whole
might
group

three

The

system,

is

and

must

be

anything goes
in

Fig. 40 is

outside wires is

of

"

known

especiallyconvenient

voltage between

the

he

with

wrong

of

one

them,

disabled.

distributing
systems, in that a fourth
neutral pointof the three secondaries.
The

correspondingly
greater
the
of
use
requires

connection

star

become

shown

arrangement

"Y"

if

of transformers.

connection

neutral

the

as

and

or

economical

in

led from

the

wire may

be

point and

any

voltage between

"star"

of the

one

outside

the

V3

wires,

namely
1000

The

current

is the

Fig. 41
4

X-7-

in each
same

shows

as
a

1,000X0.577

phase

of

577

volts.

star-connected

group

of transformers

that in the mains.

star-star

connection

in which

one

of

the

ST A TIONARY

50

TRANSFORMERS

secondary windings is reversed.

relations of

phase

degrees

120

connection.

that the

changed the relations of a

degrees by the reversal of one

The

be noted

have

60

to

It may

resultant

e.m.fs., ac

and

be,

are

and

phase
c

from

transformer

each

"

^3

-1000

"

" "

1000-

-1000-

UWUq^

Fig.

41.

Star-star

"

mw

connection

57.7,but in realityshould
is 57.7 X\/3

of

transformers, one-phase reversed.

be 1 00 volts

"

the

voltage between

and

In

formers
star-connectingthree single-phasetransit is quite possible to have
of the
transformers
one

reversed

as

100.

shown.

-577-

IM2MMJ

UM^M^

Fig.

In

the

42.

Star-delta

"

star-delta

arrangement

transformation

is

;^'
\/3

primary turns,

and

the

the

same

as

that

connections

"

between

or

0.577

e.m.f.
the

shown

times

acting on
mains.

of transformers.

in
the

Fig.

42

ratio of

each

the

ratio of

secondary

secondary circuit

to

is

52

ST A TIONA
each

that
the

transformer

voltage
the

In

the

resultant

TRA

be

NSFORMERS

wound

for

called

commonly

the

across

ends

open

of

of the

voltages of the other

requiresabout 16 per cent,

This method
than

of the

any

assuming the

only

57.7

per

cent., of

mains.

arrangement,

voltage

total

need

the

on

R Y

"V"

"open-delta"

or

two

transformers

two

phases;

see

is the

Fig. 44.

transformer

more

ity
capac-

previous three-phase transformations

shown,
transformation,heating, and

of
efficiency

saijie

transformed.

power

I
-1000-1000-

-1000-

1000-

-1000-

mmmJ

"

^100KO

Fig.

45.

"

"

"

connection

of

connected

In

comparing

connected
58 per
the

the

transformers
in

with

secondary windings

opposite directions.

kv-a

formers
capacity of two single-phasetransin open delta,with three similar transformers
connected
in delta,the kv-a capacity is approximately1 -^ ^^
=

This is due to the fact that for the delta connection

cent.

and

current

voltage

of each

transformer

each

other, while for the open-delta connection

30 degrees out
are
voltage of each transformer

each

the

phase with
and

current

of

phase with

other.

With
due

in

are

to

the

open-delta

the different

outside

mains,

algebraicsum

the

of the

method

impedances in
impedance in
impedances in

slightunbalancing
the

middle
middle

the
the

two

main
main

may

and

exist,
the

being

two

the

outside mains.

The

open-delta arrangement, (where the primary is connected

like that shown
in Fig. 45) is in every
respect equivalent to the
The primaries are
open-delta connection represented in Fig. 42.
connected

with

the

in

reverse

secondary.

or
direction,

180

degrees apart in phase

THREE-PHASE
The

diagram

vector

primary

TRANSFORMATION

the

of

requiresonly
the

tee

The

tee

is to
the

primary like that

of

characteristics.

open-delta arrangement

the

method

tee

equipment and the e^ciency in operation

is equal to either the open-delta,the
arrangement
of

cost

delta methods.

the

or

formers
single-phasetranssay, connectingthe

transformation

same

of

single-phasetransformers.

two

regards the

As

star

obtain the

53

changed phase relations

that
oppositedirection,
that of the primary, and

secondary like
the secondary, we
that

the

By connecting two

secondary.

to

in the

Like

shows

SYSTEM

is representedin

arrangement
is connected

transformer

middle

to the

Fig.46.

The

of

end

one

of the other.

.^"^
"60^

-^0
X

86.6

s^
-100-

-100-

-100

Fig.

The

number

46.

Tee

"

or

of turns

"T"

on

connection

6 is

of transformers.

=1.16

"

times

the

number

of

v3
turns

on

better

no

it

c.

Its

than

maintain

abilityto

the

open-delta arrangement,

preferable to either the

star

delta

or

phase relations is

balanced

and

methods

in
of

no

case

is

connecting

transformers.
single-phase

three

It is

tapped

worthy

to the middle

for

exactly ^^^

age

of

one

can

that

of note

86.6

the

transformer

of the other

transformer

per

be 90 per

cent,

cent,

of the

of the

which

has

need not be

one

designed

voltage; the normal

other,without

end

volt-

rimental
producingdet-

results.
Another

is shown

three-phase combination

case

it is assumed

were

connected
originally

in star

line in the vector

diagram.

dotted

that

the

three
at

in

In this
Fig. 47.
single-phase transformers
by
oA, oB and oC as shown

TRANSFORMERS

STATIONARY

54

to the combined
change the transformation
system of the
with the point o'
star-delta,the end of winding oB is connected
of the phase oA, and
the end 0 of the phase oC with the point
o"of the phase oB so that the vector
o'E' and
oB becomes
oC
o"C'.
The
becomes
is proportional
length of the three vectors
of coils per phase, all coils having the same
to the number
num-

To

Kwwwl

mum

rmtm

ca

f"fc iX\

^^

-E-,
-E

Fig.

4".

Delta

"

ber of turns.

with

connection

phase

another

The

end

50

relation

of

cent,

per

of

for maximum

phase

oA

winding reversed
voltage.

is connected

to

to

obtain

point

the

of the

phase o"C\
the list of
Going over

there

three-phase connections

common

only four delta-delta systems in

in Fig. 48.

are

shown

use, these

common

find

being

kit]Uj

Q-O
Fig.

we

48.

"

Common

delta connections.

of them
be so arranged as to
These, and a combination
may
give not less than sixteen different changes; all these changes
being given in Fig. 49.
tions
combinatransformer
of each
of the above
one
Taking away
find open-delta connections
like those
we
given in Fig. 50.
On
the eighteen different delta-delta
carefullylooking over
combinations
it will be noted that the
given in the above figures,
first ten

represent changes of

one

or

two

of the transformers

while

THREE-PHASE

TRANSFORMATION

SYSTEM

55

remaining eight have all their secondaries connected

direction opposite to their respectiveprimary windings.

in

the

There

also four

are

being

these

Like

in

generaluse,

Fig. 51.

delta-delta,these four star-star connections

will
as
give sixteen different combinations

the

arranged

in

shown

connections

star-star

common

to

Fig. 52.
Continuing

be

can

be

seen

from

delta-star

to

come

we

through the series

further

in

delta-star

star-delta and

or

of

star-delta

common

use

are

tions
three-phase connec-

combinations.

given in Fig. 53.

uAi'u LninJ crtru

""f^ w"
w^

iLijj
iij "b=ur4i lAIAj

f=^ f^

aJyi

cyp^ ^^^#t^^Yh^ ^\^

^^YJY^Cld~VP
Fig.

The

in

star

as

Fig. 54.

desired,thus
however,

from

one

These

IN

transformer

for

windings

of

none

THREE-PHASE

It is customary

be

may

to

about

number.
can

to

It must

deltabe

membered,
re-

changed about

be

another.

TRANSFORMER

that

connections

transformer

them

all transformer
so

CY?T^

changed

making twice the

that

^Y^\^

delta connections.

of star-delta

set of combinations

POLARITY

n.^iH

Uncommon

"

systems

uncommon

shown

are

49.

The

left- and

CONNECTIONS

manufacturers

to

arrange

right-hand primary and

for all classes and types. It

secondary leads are located the same
for operating companies and others
is not, however, customary
has been pulled to pieces. The majorto do so after a transformer
ity
to follow manufacturer's
seems
printsand wiring diagrams of
transformer
connections
coming from the factory, all of which
are

assumed

to

have

the

same

relative direction

of

primary

and

STATIONARY

56

TRANSFORMERS

secondary windings,thus permittingsimilarlylocated

the

transformer

tank

be

connected

together

leads leaving
for

parallel
operation if desired without the necessityof findingthe polarity.
high-voltagetransformers
are
Large and moderate-sized
rarely
used
be of singleor threefor single-phase
service. They may
phase design but they are used almost exclusivelyon three-phase
and

systems,

in star

connected

rvp rvi

Fig.

50.

to

delta

or

or

combination

of the

U-b
rv^

b^

d-\j

LrSj

^T^

^Vt^

P^

Uncommon

open-delta

"

connections.

and small
largeand medium
sizes (6000 to 0.5 kv-a) are very common.
They afford a better
than three-phaseunits,which
opportunity for different polarities
small
and
in large and
sizes (14,000 to
also made
medium
are
methods.

two

1.0

kv-a).

The

delta
"

to

in

Single-phaseunits

as

and

methods

star
"

conventional

uJ

Fig.

51.

"

in

wound

uJ uJ
cri_rn_r|p p p
u

kJ

understood

are

secondary windings

and

of connections

Common

to

opposite directions

b::^ Lj I

Urrzi
n

star

have

generally referred
all the primary

"

rj

around

I
"

|n_pi_p

connections.

always followed as
problems arise in every-day practiceshowing that it is not always

the

core.

This

conventional

method

is not

carried out.
Three

former
or
one
single-phase transformers
three-phase transhave their windings arranged in the followingmanner:
may
in the
(1) The three primary and secondary windings wound
direction
same
positivedirection.
in the
(2) The three primary and secondary windings wound
"

same

direction

"

negative direction.

TRANSFORMATION

THREE-PHASE

SYSTEM

57

in oppositedirection
primary windings wound
direction.
to the secondary windings positive
in opposite direction
(4) The three primary windings wound
to the secondary windings negative direction.
be wound
(5) One primary winding of the group of three may
opposite to the remaining two primaries and the three

(3)

three

The

"

"

secondaries

J d
n

r| p

"

positivedirection.

Lrbrb LrhnJ L b u
(rjJrL_r^rjn p_p_p
n

"^^-p-nH pi ^

Lrd-J

J fJ

r\-p-n

J L J Uxra

r^ p p

p rj p

r^-p_o
52.

Uncommon

"

cHx-J

LrrhJ JUL
Fig.

(6)

uuii

J u
p rj n
u

fhR-P
u

u
n

r|

L
n

connections.

star

primary winding of the group of three may be wound

opposite to any of the remaining two primaries and the
One

three

secondaries

negative direction.

"

of three
be
primary windings of the group
may
wound
opposite to the one
remaining primary and three
secondary windings positivedirection.

(7) Two

"

WwJ k/wJ Vf*i

W^

WmI

UwJ

IwmJ

Ivwl

Iwyj

ry^"^ (:^i_iq_r|
^^i-^ ^
Fig.

53.

"

Ck)mmon

star-delta

(8) Two

Ivwl

kwj

M*\

connections.

of three
be
primary windings of the group
may
wound
opposite to the one
remaining primary and the
three secondary windings
negativedirection.
have its primary and
(9) One unit may
secondary windings
different to the two remaining units, as:
(a) The unit on the left positivedirection.
(6) The center unit positivedirection.
(c) The unit on the right positivedirection.
"

"

"

"

TRANSFORMERS

STATIONARY

58

(10)

unit

One

windings different
in the

but

their

have

(a)

The

left and

(b)

The

rightand

(c)

The

left and

units

Two

U/w

U^

rp

ings
secondary wind-

and

right units
the

to

"

positivedirection.

positivedirection.

"

their

have

positivedirection.

"

units

center

may

in the

primary

units

center

windings different
but

secondary
units, as (9)

two

remaining unit,as:

different to the

(12)

remaining

the

to

the

not

negative direction.

units may

(11) Two

primary but

its

have

may

primary but not secondary

one
remaining unit, as (11)

negative direction.

l\/\A

U/s/J U^

Iv\aI

PL_n

ryen

U/sJ U/vJ

Iv""a|

Lj L/J u/J

Iwj IwJL/j

IwAl

U/vJ

U/M

iJj uJ

U/SaI P^VsI

I,
I/WM

UvvrhJ^*lvvg
1^^

assumed

Uncommon

"

of the

Transformers
rule

54.

to

have

transformation.

In

same

the
all

i'^'*^

i*^^

star-delta

'

Uv/J

'

f*^

LvUrh

('^^

connections.

transformers

where

"

1*^^

make
rating and of the same
same
polarity,impedance and

cases

nnn

Fig.

U-rHljriwJ

lij

\it--LLr-\h uil uj

iL

are

not

are

as

ratio

of

of the

be
secondary connections
in delta or
subjected to polarity tests before connecting them
The
be made, are:
mistakes which can
star.
reverse
windings.
(1) One or more
same

make

it is advisable

(2)

Internal

(3)

Where

leads

that

the

crossed.

transformers

are

located

some

distance

apart,

STATIONARY

60

and
the
The

will

where

the

are

of two

concerned)

in

become

the

same

as

themselves

must

polarity. This

of

be

should

as

the

secondary

or

external

tions
connec-

winding.

star-delta
star-star, delta-delta,

polaritysince

changed in
be

distance,

some

primary

reversingone

the

reverse

at

crossed.

of either the

leads

line leads

delta-star will not

leads

made

are

polarity,this being (so far

Reversing the
or

connections

leads may

reversal

reverse

TRANSFORMERS

order

to

the

make

noted
particularly

transformer
the

when

change
parallel

Time-Phase

Primary

Angle
Fig.

57.

"

Windings'

Secondary

Windings

Complete cycle of polaritychanges.

operation is desired,
former
for,though the phase relations of two transbe
the
same
paralleloperationmight be sible
groups
imposmay
(see Fig. 55)
.

The
the

same

For

effect of

reversal

of

for the four systems

Star-star:

The

one

or

primary windings is not

two

of star and

reversal

of

delta,but is:

primary windings
but
produce a short-circuit,
produce a difference in
phase relations and voltages. The maximum
voltage will not
be greater than the line voltage (seeFig. 58).
For Delta-delta:
The reversal of one
two
or
primary windings
will immediately produce a short-circuit when
the
secondary
will not

one

or

will

two

TRANSFORMATION

THREE-PHASE
is closed.

delta

double-line

or

The

reversal of

immediately produce

will

which

one

be

or

2E

60).
two

or

primary windings

when

the

secondary

voltage difference at that

delta will be 2E

closes the

and

short-circuit

maximum

The

delta is closed.

61

voltage difference will

voltage (see Figs.59

Star-delta:

For

maximum

The

SYSTEM

double-line

point

voltage.

Reveraed

B-b

Opposite
polarity

a-

a-

(b)
Reversed

Fig.

For

Delta-star:

will not
star

line

58.

produce

is made.

"

The
a

Three-phase polaritydifficulties.
reversal

short-circuit on
maximum

The

voltage,but voltages and

The

thick,black

lines shown

represent secondary

Fig. 57

as

one

or

two

primary windings

the
secondary side when
voltage difference will be E or
phase relations will be unequal.
in Figs. 55, 56, 57, 58, 59 and 60
the

windings.
possiblestar and
already explained.

gives all the

or, sixteen

of

delta

tions,
polaritycombina-

62

STATIONARY

TRANSFORMERS

Correct

Wrong

Connection

Connection

a-b-c

"Reversed
e

kvvAl

JvvA/V-i-A/WV LAA^AJ

,*,

"

^v^^N

.A.
"

l^/vv^|

6
A-B-C

"

J'^N/'X-,.

n
E

2E

a-A-B

'z?
^

B-C-A

(a)

i?

Vi__:

arr

'

-2E
^

(a)

AC

K'SA,^

UaaaI

IvvvJ/

(J

Fig.

59.

"

Three-phase

polarity difficulties.

Fig. 58 shows
Unlike

the

SYSTEM

TRANSFORMATION

THREE-PHASE
the

effects of

delta-delta

or

winding or

reversed

star-delta

no

63

transformer.

short-circuit exists when

secondary connections are completed.

of connecting
Fig. 59 (a) and (6)shows wrong and rightmethod
Across
the delta secondary when
Cx
one
winding is reversed.
of (a) double-line
voltage is obtained thus making the delta
connected
as
secondary impossible and only operative when
Correct
Connection
"

Reversed

a-b-e

C-A-B

Reyersed

Fig.

60.

shown

"

at

Three-phase polaritydiflSculties with

(b)

(a)and (b)have their primary and secondary

also (h) and (i).
in oppositedirections,
as

Both

windings wound
Fig. 60 (a)

and

(b) also

connecting the windings

group

of three

the maximum
and

(6) and

reversed.

transformers

two

are

show

in delta

reversed.

difference

(/),(g)and

in

(h)are

As

correct

when

and
two

before, double

voltage which
assumed

can

to have

incorrect

of

transformers

voltage or
exist.

of

way

2E

Both

is

(a)

their primary and

STATIONARY

64

secondary windings
secondaries

Fig. 57

of

of

(c) and

polarity. The

same

assumed

(d) are

primaries and
opposite polarity.

to have

combinations
paralleloperating polarity

complete cycle of changes.

it is evident

above

the

the

also have

may

represented as
From

TRANSFORMERS

that
and

delta-delta, delta-star, star-star

the four

from

of

systems
obtain

star-delta,we

48

different combinations.

Delta

VAV
/

V
a

Delta

acccbbbaabcbab

-star

Vv.'^"-'

AVAVAVAVA
\

Delta

"" O'

"

'-""' "-"

star

star
b

IX\

Star

Delta
c

^"
a

PARALLEL

After

YAYAYAYAYA

YX
c

we

have

c"]"" "" E".,"]["" ""]["c,"3

b b

b b

"

CONNECTIONS

gotten through with these

various

combinations

is in knowing just which

combination
one
can
difficulty
the primary and
be operated in parallelwith
another.
With
secondary windings arranged as is usual in practice,not less than
be made
(although
eight different parallelcombinations
may
sixteen are possible)these being given in Fig. 61.
esting
interOther
series of parallelcombinations
are
given in Figs.62, 63,
our

next

64 and

65.

whether
they
problem of paralleling
systems, no matter
into such
be
generating or transforming, resolve themselves
be in timefactors as equal frequency,equal voltages which must
is responsiblefor a fair part of
phase, etc. The manufacturer
The

the troubles

of

operatingengineersfrom

the apparatus

point of

THREE-PHASE

TRANSFORMATION

SYSTEM

65

engineerhimself shoulders the major portion of

far as
the operating life of the apparatus is
so
responsibility
whether
the apparatus be operated singlyor in multiconcerned
ple.
view, but

manufacturer

The

J U

the

can,

and

endeavors, to design apparatus

daQ_q-q g q n

ryyi rvjYi

^Y^

lAIAjuUAj

c?iirauAJAj

Lrb-talAm

ih)

(g)

and

61.

Three-phase parallelcombinations

"

deliver

equal

to

same

capacityand

made

'

Lj L

'

(d')

Fig.

of another

62.

"

Common

manufacturer

of apparatus

which

obtained

polarity,
satisfactory
particular

and

dxhJ

'

re'/

Lrtrb
(o'J

cbt-ra lii

LniAj iLlii
lL

'

r/';

J J J L L

Lrhm

identical

that

lAIAj iF^4s

lAIAu

'

practice.

common

(b'y

crtte

such

in

possible. However, one

for the methods, etc.,
held responsible

la')

uAirU

be

cannot

J d J L

customer

equal voltages are

paralleloperation
manufacturer

the

^"^

III

LI

Fig.

^^\^V^

^'^

^"^

LniAj

ul U

UU

three-phaseparallelcombinations.
who

may

designthe

differs in ratio of

same

size and

class

high-voltageto low-voltage

turns, in
The

impedance and also in its polarity.

fault and responsibility,
generallyspeaking,rests with

the

STATIONARY

66

TRANSFORMERS

engineers themselves.

Large

and

moderate

size transformers

in

and consequently when

ing
orderparallel
for the purpose
of paralleloperation,and
other transformers
when
different maker, certain specifications
the order is from
a
if the delta circulatingcurrents
should
be covered
to be
are

always operated

most

are

avoided

and

the

is to

apparatus

satisfactorily
operated

be

in

parallel.
In the paralleloperationof delta and
star systems, two
main
factors
after due
be kept in mind
consideration
must
has been
given to the design of the apparatus to be placed in parallel.
These

are:

cj-w-ft

c:i_pi_r|p

rypgL-n rp i^"p

tru

(a)

No

(b)

Some

m^^^Tff

"^^.w

Fig.

63.

"

Lrd-Q J U ul

u*U
n

Uncommon

condition

c^/rua

c::bfdtt-j:3

r^_,.ftn
iL [T^T3

pu

three-phase parallelcombinations.

is

possiblewhereby apparatus connected in

delta on both the high-voltageand low- voltage sides can be made
to parallelwith
another
either in
piece of apparatus connected
delta on the high-voltageside and star on the low-voltage side or
in star on the high-voltageside and delta on the low-voltage side.
However, a condition is possiblewhereby apparatus connected
in delta on the high-voltageside and star on the low-voltage side
be made
of another
with several combinations
to parallel
can
piece
of apparatus connected
in star on the high-voltageside and delta
the low-voltage side.
on
combinations

unit connected
in

parallel,
as,

that

will

apparatus

not

for

of

group

of apparatus

cannot
exactly the same
instance,a delta-star may

parallelwith

connected

one

another

delta-star.

or

be made
have

polyphase unit

one

to

phase
polyoperate

combination
or

group

of

68

STATIONARY

(a)

Each

TRANSFORMERS

unit
single-phase

phase of the polyphase unit

has the same
ratio of transformation,the same
IR drop and the
same
impedance drop.
(h) The phase relation is the same
(see Fig. 56).
(c) The
With
or

polarityis the

current
circulating

With

difference in

tied

was

'
65.

"

of delta

cdkL-u

ward
after-

uraLfcq fdkitKj
^

I
\j"")\\

L L LttttJ

three-phaseparallelcombinations.

are

offers

mixed
complications where
tion
employed. To reverse
phase rota-

lines (not transformer

terminal

Polarity complicationsare even

much
difficulty.To reverse
leads (not line leads) must

and

ih""\

sometimes
star

would

Tfu'Tf

Lnd-u

Uncommon

and

become

which

directlytogether

\g"")

rotations

that

as

(e"")

J L

two

pronounced

so

CraFtq

systems

efficiency
may

total

y^wW

L L) LrtTiJ

Fig.

secondary voltages

delta.

or

^.^

Phase

ratio,unbalanced

impedence the

in star

connected

will result.

badly affected,though not

exist if each unit or phase

(see Fig. 55)

same

slightdifference in

each

or

be

and

worse

the

reversed

be reversed.

leads) must

sometimes

sent
pre-

polaritytwo

transformer

(see Figs. 58,

59 and

Ordinary parallel operation

ordinary connections
paralleloperation are quite simple. Complications set in

60).

and

two

or

more

groups

of different system

operated in parallel. On some

systems, it happens
combinations

perhaps in
distribution
a

be

must

the

of
that

stations themselves

system.

list of available

Usually

transformers

certain

the
at

or

have

when
to

present day large and

our

with

made

connections

for

"make-shift"
available

the
on

some

chief
each

be

tralized
cen-

parallel
apparatus,

part of the general

operating engineer

station and

center

has

which

THREE-PHASE
facilitate their
of

and
of

or

both.

or

of

amount

will have

urgently needed.

in any

station

On

transformers

more

In

fact

energy

it may

and

necessary

the

of transformer

of odd

simple

mean

continue

stitute
sub-

ity
capac-

deliver

to

an

formers
trans-

or

mean

rence
occur-

issue

voltagesor kw.

in order

mean,

69

will

he

center

or

requirement calls for. This may

of ordinary connections,or it may

use

one

SYSTEM

temporary substitute

up

the

as

change

adoption when

breakdown

to make

order

TRANSFORMATION

the

operation,that

he

in series
connectingcertain transformers
and
others in multiple series,
It may
also mean
that such
etc.
unusual
in Figs. 66 and
those shown
as
parallelcombinations
66a

to

resort

will have
number

them

be

to

made.

of delta-star and

similar to above

phase

to

might

delta-delta

be made

but great

secondary windings
together,for, as in well known,
the

out

of
a

parallelcombinations

each

be taken

must

care

tying

before

group

to

straightdelta-star cannot

/
/

Fig.

be tied in with

66.

Unusual

"

delta-delta

parallelcombinations.
and

vice

versa,

nor

star-star

with

modified form this has been

although in a somewhat
tions
combinain Fig. 66.
With these and similar "make-shift"
done
from
of odd
engineers encounter
voltages and capacities
time to time on our largersystems, the essential points to remember
a

delta-star

are

the difference in

different
much

impedences of

in sizes.

The

phase positionand
various

the

two

former

rotation

transformers

and

also the

differing
very

difficulties show

themselves

immediately parallel operation is tried but the latter only

and conitself by excessive heating or a bum-out
demonstrates
sequently
often
is a serious point and
one
neglected by
very
operating engineers in their
working order.

rush

to

get the system

in

regular

70

STATIONARY

TRANSFORMERS

referingto paralleloperation it is oftentimes stated that

two
two
or
more
or
or
more
three-phase groups
three-phase
transformers
be connected
in parallelon the low- or highmay
not
be possible to connect
them
voltage side and yet it may
together on the other side. This condition does not constitute
Parallel
formers
paralleloperation of transformers.
operation of transis always understood
to mean
that before a condition
of paralleloperation can
exist both the primariesand
the secondaries
be tied together, neither
the
respectivelymust
one
the other
alone constitutingparalleloperation.
nor
When

CHOICE

the

In

connection

there

is

OF

CONNECTIONS

of power

choice between

for transmission

transformers
four

combinations

main

and

phase

three-phase two-phase systems,

Fig. 67.

star, see

tems
sys-

for three-

namely,

delta

and

^J-

Fig.

Where

and

V3,

or

The

"

100

per

nearly

or

x^/x

67.

lines in

case

two

systems.

common

cent.

57.7

cent,

per

of the star

of full

voltage

between

connection;

or

100.0^V^3
The

connection, where

delta

that

shown

and

three-phase

and

between
to

three-transformer

57.7

100

cent.

per

cent., the voltage is

per

lines;or 577.7 X\/3

two-phase; namely,
"T", see Fig. 68.

100

per

cent,

two-transformer

"T"

between

former
trans-

Where

x/3
y

=
"-

=86.6

cent,

of

terminals

a'

per

the
V
,

voltage
and

c.

TRANSFORMATION

THREE-PHASE

y-100

=t/"
^

cent.,

per

terminals

former

Full terminal

to

full

or

71

SYSTEM

voltage

h' and

a\

between

trans-

c.

voltage a',h' and

c,

corresponding

ratio of 1.0 to 1.15 of ahc values.

a^

7'
/

V
Fig.

Star

vs.

Delta.

68.

"

The

It is shown

"

systems.

uncommon

in

Fig. 69 that should

one

of the

of the
be cut out of star,or one
single-phasetransformers
leads joined to the neutral point be disconnected,
there will exist
the three different phases.
only one voltage instead of three,across
This
to three-phase working of
disadvantage is detrimental
three

the

star

arrangement,

inasmuch

as

equal and normal

two

phase

B
-IDOO-

"

-1000-

"

-1000

-677

577-

-OT.r-

-100-

Fig.

69.

"

Result

of

transformer

one

secondary

group

being

of

cut

voltages of the three-phase system

phase voltage which may be distorted
on

are

to

primary

and

of circuit.

disabled,leaving one
some
degree, depending

conditions.
On

the other

delta-connected
as

star-connected
out

shown

in

hand,
group

should
be

Fig. 70, there

one

phase, or

disconnected
will exist the

from
same

one

the

transformer

of

remaining two,

voltage

between

the

72

STATIONARY
different

three

The

result

TRANSFORMERS

phases,and practicallythe

obtained

by cutting out

simply the introduction

of open

little

total

one-half

over

rating of

the

transformer

transformers

the

In

of delta

one

operating

ditions.
con-

transformer,is

delta,which has a ratingof a

capacity; or more
correctly,the

capacity is

85 per
of three

same

of the

past it has

X 0.6666

cent.

0.5665

size connected

same

frequently been

in delta.

urged against the

use

of

with interlinked magnetic circuits that

three-phase transformers
if one
disabled by grounding, shortor
more
windings become
A

^1000

-1000"

-1000-

-1000"

-1000-

^rW)

0-

pRHTj

fMF|

100-

_-_o---H

-100-

"

-100

"

-100"

-~100

Fig.

70.

"

Result

of

delta-connected
transformer

of

group

transformers

with

one

disconnected.

or
circuiting,
through any other defect,it is impossibleto operate
to any
degree of satisfaction from the two undamaged windings
of the other phases, as would
if a single-phasetransbe the case
former
used in each phase of the polyphase system.
were
All that is necessary
is to short-circuit the primary and secondary
shown
windings of the damaged transformer
as
itself,
upon
in Fig. 71.
The
windings thus short-circuited will choke down
the flux passed through the portion of the core
surrounded
by
in
the
without
winding a current
them,
producing
portion of
any

greater than

small

fraction

of

the

current

which

normally

exists at full load.

With
the

two

phase short-circuited
be
remaining phases may

one

on

itself as

reconnected

mentioned
in open

above,
delta

in

TRANSFORMATION

THREE-PHASE

tee

or

in star-delta for

SYSTEM

73

three-phase to threein series or parallel

connected
of getting over
This method
a

transformingfrom

be
phase; or the windings may
for single-phasetransformation.
transformers
of the shell type.
trouble is only applicablewhere
are
and
delta-star
delta-delta
The
relative advantages of the
and will always be disputed and wide open for
systems are still,
advantage
discussion.
They possess the following advantages and disrespectively:
Delta-delta
one
phase is cut out the
(non-grounded). When
to deliver approximately 58
remaining two phases can be made

Fig.

per

71.

"

Result

of

operating a
winding disabled and

of the

cent,

full load

three-phase shell type)

delta-connected
short-circuited

ratingof

transformer
on

transformer

with

one

itself.

(in the

of

case

three

single-phasetransformers.
Delta-star
(neutral grounded). Advantage of reducing the
cost of high voltage line insulators for equal line voltage,which
is a very large item when
dealing with long-distancelines;their
size need
only be approximately 58 per cent, of that used on a
line using the delta system.
It is also possible,under
certain conditions,
to operate and
deliver three-phase currents
when one
phase or one line conductor
is on the ground.
The
disadvantages are:
Delta-delta

Delta-star

operate when

systems.

(non-grounded).
larger line insulators

and

Table

or

(neutral grounded).
one

gives a

Larger transformer
for the

Not

same

always

line
in

phase or one line conductor is

comparison of the four common

or

formers
trans-

voltage.
a

cut

positionto
out.

three-phase

74

STATIONARY

TRANSFORMERS

TABLE

Cheapest Cost.
and

This

"

represents the lowest

(complete)of equal

system

kw.

pricefor

capacity

ers
transform-

and

terminal

line

voltage.
Best Operated. All the star connections
assumed
to have
are
their neutral points grounded, and the generators in each case
"

star-connected

and

either

on

line

one

disabled

by

Least

Potential

strain that

be

can

the result

ground
unit

Strain.

placed

or

is

case

or

phase

one

the

represents

voltage

worst

the line and

on

changes

receivingstation
phase relation might

of

have

to

fault.

connections,short-circuits

of open

figured

transformer

one

other

or

This

"

what

matter

no
as

the

burnt-out

Each

grounded.

or

any

formers,
transoccur

tion
combina-

of these.
It is

the

quite evident

best

all round

this system

operated"

for
list,

the

whereas

phase

place
that

reason

with

to

star-delta

It will also

have.

to

second

delta-star

the

system

takes

circuits that

that

of
a

the

be

system
noted

importance in the
ground

on

one

delta-delta

to

is

that
"

best

line shortdelta-delta

(assuming all other phases thoroughly insulated which is almost

a
practicalimpossibilityon high voltage systems) the system is
not
interrupted. Although a doubtful
question it is placed in
its favor,but beyond this weak
point the delta-star to star-delta
is equally
and

about

with

giving the
First.
Second.

as

good

and

equally
only
best

two

able

Star-delta

Fourth.

Star-star

operate

the

delta-delta

and
The

is:

to

Delta-delta

Third.

to

as

transformers.

system

Delta-star

reliable

star-delta.
to

delta-delta.

to

any

combination.

to

any

combination.

furnish

to

delta-delta

rents
three-phase cur-

rightorder

of

importance

76

STATIONARY

consequently

are

connected

star

further

TRANSFORMERS
liable to mechanical

more

disadvantage

delta-

high-voltageside).
high-voltagedelta is that

the

(staron

system

failure than

of the

if it is

ground the delta as a safeguard for highof transformers

with interconnected
voltage stresses,it will requirea group
thought

to

necessary

phases
is

apparatus

has

star-delta

required

whereas

direct without

grounded
As

or

regards

any

of the

some

connection;therefore
the

delta-star

additional

system

can

be

expense.

switching,the

of

advantages

additional

delta-star

further

the delta-delta. The

delta-star
advantage over
(star on the high-voltageside or low-voltageside)can give claim
to an
advantage by its simple,effective and cheap arrangement
a

of switches

in all stations where

it is found

switches of any
disconnecting or single-pole
each
high- and low-voltage lead. Only two

break
on

instead

of four

per

transformer

are

to

necessary

needed,

the

use

air-

kind

installed

such

switches

remaining two

leads

neutral
to
bus-bar
a
being solidly connected
grounded
direct or through a resistance as thought desirable. Its advantage
in this respect is important on
systems
very high-voltage

where
take

stations

cramped for space;

one
three-phase group and we find
Twelve
switches are required for a
are

as

an

illustration of this

delta-delta group

of three

delta-star

of

three

star-star

of

three

transformers.
single-phase
Nine

Six

switches

are

required

for

single-phasetransformers.
switches
are
required for
single-phasetransformers.

In this it is also well to remember

arranged

that

replace any of the

will requirethe same

spare

group

group

former
transsingle-phase

three

formers
single-phasetransof the group,
number
of switches,or
twelve, nine and six respectively.All the switching referred
the neutral
to here
only holds good when
point of the star is
grounded.
There
exist a largevarietyof system connections quite different
from
the
mentioned
For
above.
common
ones
instance, it is
unusual
in one
not
of three singlestation a group
to see
now
phase transformers
operatingin parallelwith two single-phase
in delta and opentransformers, the two groups
being connected
delta respectively. It is well known
that the open-delta system

does

not

to

claim to possess

above

mentioned,

any

but

merits

over

it is oftentimes

any

of the

necessary

common

tems
sys-

to fall back

TRANSFORMATION

THREE-PHASE
this system

on

view

point of

as

stand-by

it becomes

very

in

or

SYSTEM

an

from

and

emergency

useful.

77

in certain

Now,

this

cases

of

station

in those
stations operating
wiring layout, particularly
above
the delta
50,000 volts, it might be only possibleto use
for paralleloperation after considerable
loss of time
connection
rearrangingthe wiring. The wiring layout of a station,however,
that
might be such with respect to the location of transformers
with

unit of

disabled

it would
in

in

paralleland

Iwv

ers
transformothers

of three

group

A"

Iwv

vvv"

(1)
.

ABC

Ivwl

Ua/^

remaining

two

open-delta with

:b

the

connect

in delta-delta

connected

of three

group

possibleto

be

not

lw\^

B'

Ivvvv

(2)

V^/^^

(3)

j^c
Fig.

72.

some

station

bus-bar

p"

connecting

transformers.

the

Suppose for example that the

bus-bar
wiring in the high- and low-tension

is

compartments
combination

of

method

distance

located

c'

^.'

Correct

"

b'

a'

and

delta-connected

away.

arranged
that two

to

meet

of delta and

groups

transformers

delta

any

have

already

and

one

open-delta
of open
operating in

group

been

paralleland suddenly one of the delta groups develops a burn-out

transformer
on
one
leaving two good units for further operation.
is what
is the best thing to do?
The first question to be asked
to make
to be in a positionto
Or, what is the best combination
the whole
take care
of the biggest amount
of energy
put upon
of the remaining transformers?
If it is kept in mind
that it is
"

impossibleto get
per

unit when

delta group
just how to
a

to

be

done

an

of

any

more

than

80 per cent,

open-delta group

is

of the normal

output

operatingin parallelwith

transformers, it will be

an

easy

matter

to

and
be done
what
proceed. Just wha.^ can
are
given in Fig. 72 and Fig,73. Supposing

know

ought
groups

78

ST A TIONAR

No.

and

delta

No.

have

operatingin

been

and
respectively

TRANSFORMERS
closed delta and

open-

No. 3 has

of one
just had a burn-out
unit (seeFig. 72), it is quite evident that by connecting the three
shown
be delivered than
as
more
is possible
can
groups
energy
with those connections
shown
in Fig. 73.
In fact, it is possible

deliver

to

more

group

Fig. 72 than from

given in Fig. 73.

the

A'

U/VSaI

IvvN/nI

b'

bsA/V^

B"

a"

l~

b'

connections

WS'^S^

c'

in

shown

the

A"

I'vA/vJ

a'

with

B'

l/VwJ

transformers

transformers

seven

ABC

tvN/v4

six of the

from

energy

In/n/vJ

b"

c"

iS)

^c"

b"

J
Fig.

73.

"

Wrong

method

of

connecting open-delta transformers

in

parallel.

the
As
of
art
Single-phase vs. Three-phase Transformers.
transformer
design and manufacture
improves, the three-phase
transformer
is sure
the single-phase
to be as extensivelyused
as
transformer,especiallyso for high voltages;its only disadvantage
being in the case of failure and interruptionof service for repairs,
but this will be offset by other
downs
important features since break"

will be of very
From

the

rare

occurrence.

of the

operating engineer (neglectingthe

losses in the transformer) the single-phasetransformer
is at the
present time preferablewhere only one group is installed and the
of

expense
delta

spare
If

system.
it

damaged
and

standpoint

the

be

can

other

unit would
one

cut

of the
out

be

not

three

with

warranted

as

transformers

minimum

in the delta-

should

amount

become

of trouble

on
operated at normal
temperature
open-delta at approximately 58 per cent, of the total capacity of
the
three.
With
a
a
three-phase transformer
damaged phase

two

can

be

considerable

would

cause

whole

transformer

would

inconvenience
have

to

be

for

the

reason

disconnected

that the
from

the

TRANSFORMATION

THREE-PHASE
of
system before repairs

SYSTEM

79

kind could be

made, which,in the

of a shell-type
case
transformer,could probably be operated
of damage, as it is not always possible
depending on the amount
before a thorough examinaof break-down
tion
to tellthe exact extent
any

is made.
of any approved apparatus that can
be
of high-voltageline disturbances such

In the absence
take

to

on

care

relied
as

we

transmission lines,
the whole
long-distance
burden
being thrown on the insulation of this important link
of a power
undertaking,the three-phasetransformer
appears
above
be
mentioned
to
as
handicapped. Its break-down
transformer
would
is
entirelyinterruptthe service until a spare
with
its
installed or the faultyone
temporarilyarranged
faultyof the shell-type.The enshort-circuited winding in the case
gineer
who
has the responsibility
of operating large power
systems has not yet taken very favorably to the three-phase
transformer for this very reason, his main objectbeingreliability
of service and not the first cost or saving of floor space.
It has for many
appreciatedby American and
years been
ing
European engineersthat apart from the decrease in manufacturof
size
unit has
cost with increase in
units,the three-phase
the advantage of requiringless material and is more
efficient
of
c
ombination
other
than any
transformers of the
single-phase
kw. capacity. The relative difference in the losses and
same
weightsbeing:
Three single-phase
transformers weigh about 17 per cent, more
than one three-phase.
transformers
have about 17 per cent, more
Three single-phase
losses than one
three-phase.
transformers
two single-phase
Used in open delta,
weigh about
have

the

on

some

same

as

of

our

three

transformers.
single-phase

have about the same

transformers
losses as
single-phase
transformers.
three single-phase
transformers
have a sum
Used in tee,two single-phase
total
weight of about 5 per cent, less than three single-phase
Two

transformers.
Two

about

transformers
single-phase

5 per cent, less than

connected
in open-delta.
Two

have

two

the

sum

weight of

transformers
single-phase

have
about
transformers
single-phase
losses than three single-phase
transformers.

total

5 per

cent,

less

TRANSFORMERS

STATIONARY

80

have about 5 per

single-phasetransformers
connected
than two single-phasetransformers

Two

Where

number

large

transformers

of

cent,

in

less losses

open-delta,

installed

are

in

one

building,say three groups or above, it is unquestionably a great

of single-phasetransformers, and
combination
saving over
any
of using two
sets out of the three or three sets out
the possibility
the important
of the four, and
so
on, offsets to a large extent
and
drawback
on
places the three-phase transformer
reliability,
almost
an
equal footing in this respect as the three single-phase
The
combination.
transformer
a
building is thereby reduced
insulator bushings and
considerable
amount
(alsocompartment
the
besides simplifying
busbar
high and low voltage insulators),
wiring layout in the stations.
To fulfil the requirements of a three-phase transformer
using
of single-phasetransformers,it is necessary
to use:
a combination
of 100
kw.
One
Basis.
cent.
three-phase transformer
per
capacity.
"

Connected.

Delta

Connected.

Star

each, or

cent,

per

total

100

Three

"

of 33.3

each,

cent,

per

or

total

100

capacity.

kw.

cent.

per

of 33.3

capacity.

kw.

cent.

per

Three

"

Two
of 57.7 per
each,
cent,
or
Open-delta Connected.
115.5
units,173 per
per cent. kw. capacity. (For three
kw. capacity is required.)*
"T"
"Scott":
(Two-Transformer Connection)." One of
of 50 per cent, kw., or total
one
per cent. kw. capacity,and
capacity. (For three units,165.6 per cent.
per cent. kw.
"

capacityis

"T"

50

per

and

delta

is not

the

of any
A

star, and

open-delta and
advantage
"-three

for either the

one

Not

of time

amount

"T

always

in

in

and

107.8
kw.

best

combinations

of

the

open-deltaor
a

of

is lost in

from

transformer

service, hence

case

With

connections.

"T"

former
trans-

spare

break-down

of

cutting it

out

are

unit,

of service.

(two-transformer) systems, the

"T"

unit stops the system

further

the three

(three-transformer)systems

"T"

warranted,

the minimum
With

that

three-transformer

the

delta, star, and

the

57.7

of
{Three-Transformer Connection)." Three
cent, each, or total 150 per cent. kw. capacity.

this it is evident

From

cent,

required.)*

"Taylor":
maximum

total

operating three-phase current.

three-transformer
"

loss

is,a

spare

methods

unit costs

the "T"-two-transformer

disadvantage.

"

delta,

less than

methods.

TRANSFORMATION

THREE-PHASE

FOR

CONNECTIONS

SYSTEM

THREE-PHASE

GROUNDING

81

SYSTEMS

shown
for grounding threeare
Fig. 74 several methods
phase systems. For (A) and (B) there is a choice between the
ground shown, or the ground at x. For (A) the ground as shown

In

Fig.

represents
and

74.

of

of

grounding three-phase systems.

difference of
"t~

the

maximum

E, and

"

y^

potentialbetween
for the

ground

ground

at x.

voltage stress from line terminal

is full-line voltage,but with a ground made
at x

{B),

ground

Method

maximum

line terminal

For

"

to

the

STATIONARY

82
maximum

voltage
voltage between

full

TRANSFORMERS
is

stress

only approximately 87

of

cent,

per

terminals.
of

Fig. 74 is the most

of any of the systems given. Like (A'),three singleuncommon
be
made
phase windings are
required before grounding can
possible. The maximum
voltage strain from any line terminal
to ground is E' + (0.57 E), or assuming E
100, and E'
100, we
The

delta-star

shown

system

at

(c)

have

100 +

ground
The

(0.57X 100)
of

diagrams

well-known

The

two

(A'), (B') and

best

grounding

for

methods

only where
grounding through the

for

The

delta

systems

and

star

grounded

shown

at

B"

and

show

C"

(A')

are

and

(B').

The
be

cannot

connection.

star

shown

systems

as

Fig. 74 represent the

methods
of grounding.

auxiliaryapparatus
(B")

at

(A') and

For
voltage terminal grounded.
with
the
exception of ground

Both

neutral

of

(C)

their three

and

systems

(C) is used

method

strain from

star-line terminal.

to

two

had

volts maximum

157

and

(C") represent

(B') but with

(A") the system

high-

one

is insulated

high-voltage line terminal.

effects of grounding either the low

the

at

Where
both
neutral
voltage or high voltage or both.
points
the
are
on
grounded, the high-voltage stresses
low-voltage
accidental ground occurs
the high-voltage
an
on
windings when
side is reduced to a minimum, but is of maximum
value
on
tems
sys-

operatingwithout

grounded neutrals.
Single-phase Transformation.

interesting
is given in Fig. 75.
For this service three
transformers
their equivalent
or
single-phase
in
their
(somewhat special
construction)are required,the
magnetizing current
being much
stronger than that used in the
ordinary static transformer in order that the iron may be supersaturated.
This modification
will result not only in satisfactory
Three-phase to
three-phase to single-phasearrangement

transformation
the

of

frequency

With

transformers

secondary windings
e.m.f.
becomes

across
so

times

three
The

A-C;

would
but

transformed
the

under

if the
that

frequency

advantage

connected

constant

an

extension

in

is saturated

e.m.f. is obtained

of

Fig. 75,

the

show

the
no

secondary

having

3f

or

primary.

of this arrangement
and

shown

as

ordinary conditions

iron

of the

lightingis required
The

transformation

current, but

well.

as

three

voltage and

An

"

where

is felt where

and

frequency is

the

of electric traction

arc

on

descent
incan15-25.

railways operating

CHAPTER

THREE-PHASE

of

Most

the

down

put

line

in the

be

their

and

times

those
neutral

grounded

short-circuit

of

until

so

complex

to

as

enon
phenom-

of

most

are

the

troubles

be

damaged

may

in

produce,

stances,
in-

some

voltage.

troubles

that

happen

can

ground

and

transformers,

to

three-phase

short-circuits.

and

grounds

system,

changes

fact

systems

unknown

some

themselves, which

normal

star

the

of

twisted

the

of

or

matter

disastrous

are

disabled

as

transmission

on

resonance,

relations

phase

most

system
a

surges,

DIFFICULTIES

occur

transformers

many
The

which

lines,and

on

might

TRANSFORMER

troubles

to

on

entire

the

phase is

one

any

Witli
a

becomes

group

made.

are

-4000
4000-

"

-4000-

"-4000

-"-4000

ma)

QMJ

^^^"^^Mm\^f^mmxjimm^
-600CO

"

"

-60000^

60000

^60000-^

103557

Fig.

The

76.

of

cent,

per

windings

that

and

move

If

one

circuits

as

to

circuit
and

the

core

star

increase
is

is likewise
and

the

the

ground

is

but

with

voltage

increased,
84

and

cut

out

insulation
in

an

to

The

point

neutral

ungrounded
the
be

as

of

cent,

57.7
the

between

per

between
may

delta.

proportion.

is 57.7
the

of

is limited

core

reduced

voltage
the

and

the
the

connection,

grounded,
ground

and

line, and

the

mains

voltage, with
so

of

the

voltage between
line

windings

between

voltage

short-circuited

transformer

One

"

the
may

system.
other

great

two
as

the

TRANSFORMER

THREE-PHASE

distribution
of the

With

would

employed, would
voltage.

star-delta

system

possibleto

obtain

and

cut

out

3 times

the

of e.m.fs.

on

the

impressed

on

the

transformers,which

should

phase relations

The

originalstar

Fig.

across

X"

are

7=

Fig. 76,

of delta

the

on

normal

of the

one

triangle

vector
or

former
trans-

secondary,

any

voltage

under

the regulation

where

potentialof

full line

77.

"

2300

changed

arrangement

to

an

Primary e.m.fs. and

reversed,the resultant
two
phases. See also
As

in

to

4000

volts,

conditions

be
4000

the

disastrous

represents the

Fig. 7Q A B
primary with

In

transformers.

unequal heating
three-phase system of

prove

shown

as

85

cause

four-wire

were

is short-circuited
it is

if

and

transformers

the

of

unbalancing

Such

full line e.m.f.

DIFFICULTIES

volts.

open

degrees, converting
delta; one
phase is

phase

relations.

to

60

as
e.m.f.beingthe same
vector
diagram. Fig. 77.

that

across

any

only designed for 2300 volts the e.m.f.

but in this
the secondary windings should be 34,600 volts,

each

transformer

is

voltages are 34,600 times V 3 or 60,000 volts.

e.m.fs. are graphically
The secondary vector
represented to the
rightof Fig. 76. In order to bring the resultant vector secondary
must
be
e.m.f.,a and c, in its proper positionthe components
drawn
parallelwith the primaries.
One
secondary winding is short-circuited and cut out of delta
its phase
leaving an open-delta connection reversed in direction,
relations being changed from
60 to 120 degrees: increasingthe
and c to
a
voltage between
case

the

34,600X1732X1732=103,557

volts.

or\/3X\/3X34,600=103,577 volts.

STATIONARY

86

This

is

TRANSFORMERS

important point to bear in mind, especially

when
generators are tied directlyto the system without fuses or
protecting devices.
any
The
voltages impressed on the primary windings of Fig. 7G
and

77

are:

E.m.fs.
A

very

"nd

A'

and

and

The

4000

volts.

primary

the

be

6000X0.577

be

be 4000X0.577
the

be

line,are:

2300

volts;

2300

volts;

2300

volts.

are:
secondary lines,

60,000X0.577

103,577^2.99

60,000X0.577

in e.m.f.

34,600 volts;

34,600 volts;

34,600

per

cent,

300

per

cent,

173

per

cent,

above

b and

and

"

one

actual

the

173

three

volts.

are:
secondary lines,
above
normal,
above
normal,

ground and
The

any

volts,

be

and

ground.
circuit

and

volts,

that

across

where

secondary windings are

of the

neutral

60,000 volts,

It is also found
and

be

increases

between

should

and

103,577 volts,

which

should

should

4000

should

which
and

60,000 volts,

which

4000

" andc

and

should

e.m.fs.
6

volts,
volts,

volts,

which

4000

should

which

The

4000

S'

C and

between

which
B

Aand

the

transformer
the

and

neutral

grounded,

line circuits will

partialground

normal.

on

cause
a
cause

the

points of the primary

opening of one or two

currents

to

flow

current

to

flow

through the
line circuit will partiallyshortthrough

the

neutral.

strain between

high-tensionand

low-tension

ings
wind-

is

equal to the high-tensionvoltage plus or minus the lowthe arrangement

and connection
tension voltage,depending upon
but as the low-tension
of the coils;
voltage is usually a small percentage
of that of the high-tension,it is customary
to assume
that the strain between
windings is equal to that of the hightension

voltage alone.
If the
neutral
points of
windings are grounded, the

the
iron

high-tension and low-tension

core
being also grounded, then

THREE-PHASE

TRANSFORMER

long as the circuits

87

voltagestrains will be the

with the windings ungrounded, and balanced; but in
same
as
of a ground on either high-tensionor low-tension line,
in
case
or
of a connection
between
ings,
case
high-tensionand low-tension winda portionof the windings will be short-circuited.
Assuming that all lines and transformers are in good shape,
that is to say, clear from grounds and short-circuits,
it is possible
in Figs.78,79, 80 and
to obtain any of the followingresults shown
81, by connecting the receivingends of transmission lines to a
phase terminal receiving
three-phasecurrent from another
wrong
of supply, or by switchingtogethergroups
of two or more
source
transformers
of the wrong
phase relations.
as

Fig.

78.

and

are

e.m.fs.,and

Re.sultant

"

balanced

DIFFICULTIES

Fig. 78 represents

phase

connected

star-star

the

the

relations

group

result of

of

improper

delta-delta

of transformers.

delta-delta

and

star-star

mission
together at 120 degrees apart, both transof the same
lines receivingthree-phasecurrents
potential,
and frequency.
phase relations,
The
resultant voltage obtained in attempting to paralleltwo

combination

groups

thrown

of three

e.m.f. between
Star
The

transformers

any
=

two

(57.7X

combination

line
1.732

shown

star

is

connected

\/^

times

the

wires,or
100) X (1.732)

in

transformers
(threesingle-phase

173.2 volts.

Fig. 79 represents
in each

four

group) connected

groups
to

one

three-phasecurrent from
the primary
of supply and is so tied in on
independent source
to involve
and secondary busbars
as
a
partialshort-circuit.
is more
In common
often likelyto
practicethis combination
set

of busbars.

happen

on

Each

group

receives

large distributingsystems where

all transformers

in

STATIONARY

88

groups

are

tied together

noticed,any

be

attempt

windings and
parallelwill produce

Fig.

79.

all
a

Representation

"

TRANSFORMERS

on

primaries and

to

connect

80

to

B.

"

to

delta-star

change

the

system

with

of each

As

wih

all

mary
pri-

group

in

short-circuit.

of

complete

delta-star

combination

group

Graphic illustration

delta-delta

of two

With

and

windings

secondary

delta-star transformer

Figs.

such

secondaries.

delta-delta

and

connections.

of e.m.fs. and

connected

of

groups

phase displacement
of transformers.

sible
presupposed paralleloperation it is imposfield
the
to
correct
magnetic
phase displacement

TRANSFORMER

THREE-PHASE

DIFFICULTIES

89

of generators which
in the case
though it is possible
for permitting the 30 degrees electrical displaceare
ment
necessary
to be corrected by a mechanical
twistingof the phases with
it is
respect to their magnetic fields; but with transformers
impossible.
The
phase displacements show a star connection introduced in
which
the relative e.m.f. positionsare
changed by an angle 30
the line potentialto be
degrees. If, for example, we assume
in
shown
the groups
as
60,000 volts,and we attempt to connect
diagram, the result will be voltages as high as 116,000.

which

Fig.

81.

occurs,

E.m.fs.

"

and

phase relation
group

The

delta-delta

to delta-star

connected

of transformers.

resultant e.m.fs. established

separately in Figs.80

of

and

shown

84,840 volts,which

should

be

volts,which
volts,which
volts,which

should

be

=60,000

should

be

=60,000

should

be

=60,000

B"

to

B''

to

=116,000

A"

to

=116,000

A''

to

=116,000

A'

toB

81.

by this experiment,are
They are correctly:
=

84,840 volts,which

should

be

=60,000

31,000 volts,which

should

be

=60,000

A'

to

to

=116,000

volts,which

should

be

=60,000

to

=116,000

volts,which

should

be

=60,000

to

84,840 volts,which

should

be

=60,000

B'"

to

31,000

volts,which

should

be

B"'

to

31,000 volts,which

should

be

A'"

to

31,000 volts,which

should

be

A"'

to

84,840 volts,which

should

be

fact not

certain

very

well

primary

followingcombinations

=60,000
=

=60,000

is the impossibility
of parallelrecognized,
ing

and
can

secondary three-phase systems.

be operated in parallel:

The

ST A TIONARY

90

Delta-star
Star-star

with

group

with

group

Delta-delta

TRANSFORMERS
delta-star.

star-star.

with

group

delta-delta.

Star-delta

group

with

star-delta.

Delta-star

group

with

star-delta.

Star-star

Fig.

82.

"

with

group

delta-delta.

^Practical representation of
group

These

primary

delta-star

to

necessitate

combinations

delta-star
ratios of

delta-delta

connected

of transformers.

and

changing

secondary turns,

Delta-star

is

constant

of VS

Star-delta

is

constant

of

=1.733
=0.577

"

;=

former
trans-

as:

1.

to

1.

to

\/3

consequently, special ratios

in delta-star

needed

standard

the

star-delta

or

transformation

secondary side

connected

are

secondary

primary

to

transformers,

turns

in order

and

straightratio and the delta-star

of the following combinations:
ratio

to

"=

1^

and

when

two

delta-star;the

Delta-star

duce
pro-

ratios.

of transformers

delta-delta

are

to

already explained,displacement, of phase relations

As
on

of

or

star-star

more

groups

having

delta-delta

ratio of 1 to

0.577;

ratio

with

occur

or

to

any

1,

or

\/3
any

ratio.
1
.

Delta-delta,ratio

1 to

1, with

star-star

ratio

~;Eto 1, or
vo

ratio.

any

92

STATIONARY

unit will be in phase with

in each

of the

sum

will not

in

be

of the

the

carry

the

same

current

the

current

in the

cent,

greater than

of full-load

in

will

sum

the

equal

Whatever

^"N^^

j^S.^^

other, and

thus

there will

scheme

^"^^

f^

\a a\

\oc\

c\

83.

is decided

of transformers

it will

always be advisable to keep

possible; this is particularlyapplicable on

system

of

systems

100

Quite
two

groups

parallel at

all

transformers,both
times.
Assuming the
of

in delta-delta

and

one

becomes

damaged, it might

least

of the

one

greater than

80

other

cent,

per

open-delta

It is not
on

connections

generally
one
can

combinations,
of

as

to

in

shown

known

that

changed

such

as

0, 30, 60,

and

those
90

high-

numerous.

with

sub-stations

of

load

to

groups

load

operate the closed

be

in

nected
con-

is great, that
If the

out.

be

of the

one

rating it will

at

is not

possible

delta

group

Fig. 83.
there

are

star-connected

transformer
be

cut

of their total

ordinary circumstances
the

be

must

group

larger

of

transformers

if the

if

being operated

groups

transformer
mean,

of the

networks
are

given

scheme

that

some

distance

have

of systems

for

on

to

where

over

sub-stations

lines and

number

and

megawatts

transmission

voltage

phase

each

current,

the

cases,

Vv"^AA_,_/y/VAA'V^

Fig.

with

will

if,in addition,

in both

same

If,

l^'V^V.
"

under

the

perfectparalleloperation.

^AAAAJ

only

unit

both

same,

phase with
load

in each

line current.

the

current; and
is the

With

line,therefore

is the

units

the

of

units will be

two

their numerical
exist

line current.

phase with

will be

line,also the

the
the

per

in the

as

reactance

ratio of resistance to reactance

current

in the

current

to

impedance

same

the

of resistance

currents

the

however,

will be the

currents

unequal ratios

sum

TRANSFORMERS

about
shown

to

in

sixteen
group,

different
and

obtain

several

84

giving

Fig.

degrees (electrical).

that

nections
con-

these

parallel
the

time-

TRANSFORMER

THREE-PHASE

Primary

Conaection

DIFFICULTIES

of

Secondary
With

Transformers

In

Connection

Transformers

Phase

^^

60

degrees

out

of

phase

bt--

30

^
Y
X

"

degrees

out

of

phase

90

degrees

out

of

phase

Fig.

84.

93

of

ST A TIONA

94

includingthe straightstar

Not

time-phase angle equal

three

different groups

same

group

internal

voltage windings.
troubles

The

(a) Puncturing

the

to

the

different

of
a

special

transformers.

strain

maximum

on

low

(Neutrals non-grounded.)

usually experienced with

be classified

can

to

of

High-voltage line grounded, producing

"

belonging

parallel,while if
is possible without

less than

no

are

in

connections

with

connection

delta

transformers

that

connected

of the

or

find that there

we

parallel connection

rearrangement

85.

to zero,

such

be

can

no

groups,

Fig.

NSFORMERS

TRA

R Y

formers
high-voltagetrans-

as:

of the

insulation

between

adjacent

turns

due

etc.

surges,

(6) Shiftingof coils

duo

to

switching on

and

off very

heavy

loads.

(c) Terminals
other

leads),due

There

are

some

of

puncture
to

(transformer insulator

either (a) or

large number
them being :

of

bushing and

(b) or both.
causes

(1) Insufficient insulation between

for

transformer

layersand

turns.

downs,
break-

TRANSFORMER

THREE-PHASE

DIFFICULTIES

(2) Insufficient insulation on

(3) Electromagnetic stresses

too

(4) Electrostatic

certain parts too

effect between

(5) Condenser

ground

capacityof

95

the end-turns.

great.

and
coils,

between

high.
windingsand

high.

too

(6) Improper drying out

after

(7) For

coil

of

want

(8) Concentrated

choke

construction.

in

condensers

in series.

reactance

or

parallelwith

transformer

windings.

-EB

W-E-^E-

Un^'V^V/^

^vA^N^

t'-N/S^.^

rrv^:^^^:^
"El

-Ey

"

Fig.

86.

(9) Two

"

^^e-

"E^A^JJ,

Showing the effect of grounding the low-voltageneutral.

or

more

of the above

in connection

with concentrated

condensers.

(10) Internal short-circuits.

(11) Conditions of switching,
surges, arcinggrounds, lightning,
etc.

(12) Improper
(13) Oil

not

treatment

of the

oil.

suited to the transformer.

(14) Thickening of oil and cloggingof coolingmedium

(15) Leaking water-coils,or, circulation

stopped.
(16) Breathing action

of

stopped.

cooling medium

(prevalentin damp localities).

installed

protective

(17)

Improperly

(18)

High

(19)

Defective

(20)

Variation

in

speed

(21)

Variation

in

generator

(22)

Roasting

(23)

Puncturing

(24)

When

and

winds

in

conductors

oscillation.

prime-movers.

or

of

generators.

voltage.
over-load.

constant

terminals.

transformer

of

and

85,

voltage

connected

are

having

bus-bars

and

86,

generating

to

total

given;

stations

capacity

kw.

of

the

other

grounded

many

strains

the

by
difficulties

subjected

to

at

in
the

conditions

for

windings
both

which

generating

high-

These

receiving-station
to

those

stations.

delta-delta

and

usually

the

system
and

grounded,

relations.

vector

showing

the

low-voltage

maximum

approximate

addition

high-

operation

of

system

one

with

system
The

shown

greater

transformers

low-voltage

grounded.
are

other

of

delta-delta

windings

conductor,

in

break-downs

delta-delta

live

point

neutral

for

insulated

an

for

causes

different

Three

for

one

other

show

87

transformers.

effects

with

by

live

bring

governors

apparatus.

greater.

Figs.

are

which

transformers

systems

times

are

TRANSFORMERS

STATIONARY

96

potential
serve

show

to

transformers

impressed

on

the

VI

CHAPTER

AND

SYSTEMS

TWO-PHASE

THREE-PHASE

TRANSFORMATION

With
have

two

primaries

three-phase
For

versa.

single-phase

three

or

less copper

system

is

the

line

for

than

l/N/vvJ

Uy^(\ri

of

adopted

universally
either

power

because

it
or

to

vice

or

electric

single-phase

the

possible

secondaries,

two-phase

transmission

long-distance

three-phase

with

it is

transformers

the

requires
the

two-

U./"^saI

i^'iddc

kiac

't

-r

-Ey-

Fig.

87.

"

This

shows

the

effect

of

voltage neutrals, resulting

phase systems
line

loss, and

offers

In

with

certain

applied

to

Fig.
7

given

advantages

local
88

transmit

to

distribution

is shown

the

grounding

both

the

in

minimum

voltage

given

amount

of power

line

voltage.
the

over

of electric

well

known
97

The

high-

and

low-

strain.

with

two-phase

three-phase

given

system

system

when

power.

three-phase

three-wire

to

ST A TIONARY

98

two-phase four-wire
is necessary

that

1 ratio and

Fig.

One
the

to

which

transformation.

The

"

Two

in this arrangement,

the other

88.

TRANSFORMERS

10 to 0.866.

three-phasetwo-phase

or

one

10

transformers
of which

are

has

all

10 to

to^.

connection*

(Scott system).

is connected
wire,6, of the 10 to 0.866-ratio transformer
middle point of the 10 to 1 ratio transformer, the ends of
connected

are

-1732

to

""

"

of the

two

"

three-phase mains,

d, the

c;

^1732

-1733

"-iooo-^

wooo

-1000

W[JW

!!!4 ^'H
-100-

100-

Fig.

end

89.

of the

"

Three-phase to two-phase

other

transformer

star-connected

is connected

to

the

transformers.

remaining wire

three-phase mains.
It is customary
for
to employ standard
transformers
transformer
the main
phase two-phase transformation,
of the

ratio of 10 to 1, and
*

Patent

No.

521051, June

the

other

5th, 1894.

transformer

the

three-

having

ratio of 9 to 1.

STATIONARY

100

It is evident

is

in

shown

as

trifle over

TRANSFORMERS

degrees; since

90

that

Fig. 90
the

the

two-phase relation

angle, 6

b"

degrees is equal

to

and

b b'
x, is

V3

degrees,and

60

the

angles, b

Therefore, the angle, ab

The
angle, b c a, whose
degrees;therefore,
(6 ca;
98.66

40.67) + (" a

0.866. the

V3

of the

tangent

sine of 60

a;

and

b ax,

equal

c, must

(a 6

40.67)+

90

degrees,nearly.
approximate voltage obtained

-^^=0.866.

degrees nearly.

is 0.866

tangent

likewise

are

is

an

angle

98.66) =40.67

of 40.67

+ 40.67 +

180

The

between

6 and

fea

is 133

volts.

Fig.

91.

With

Three-phase

"

two

or

transformers

with

are

distinct

phase

three-phase and
shown
in Fig. 91 only
arrangement
The two primary windings are
nected
con-

the

In

used.

ratio of transformation

ratio of 0.866
transformer

to
are

1.

connected

One

of

primary

The

b represents the
At
and

Patent

right angles to

809996,

January

6 the

16th, 1906.

The

1.

other

with

secondary windings of this

of the primary and
middle
the

first.

secondary voltage from

quantity,the voltage,x
No.

to

is wound

transformer

and

the

to

10

of
secondary windings, respectively,
a

from

of

currents

three-phase mains.

the

to

it is possibleto transform

transformers

more

three-phase to two
two-phase systems.
two

three-phase two-phase* (Steimnetz system).

to

to

to

6 in

one

former.
trans-

tion
line,x c',represents in direcc',of the second transformer.

SYSTEMS

TWO-PHASE

THREE-PHASE

101

terminals, ab c, three equal voltages will exist,each

the other by 60 degrees,and givingrise to a threefrom
differing
the

At

current.

phase

-1000-

-1000-1000

UftMiKMiU

U51AMM5J

\'

z
X

-100-

hco" J

""

-ico-ico

FiG. 92.

"

It also follows

Three-phase

"T"

to

two-phase four-wire.

that, at the terminals

b and

c',two equal
by 90 degrees,

from
the other
voltages will exist,each differing
and giving rise to a two-phase current.
As will be noted, the

-1000-

-1000-1000-

npsm

m\
-100-

-8676-

-100-

-100-

B'

Fig.

93.

"

Three-phase

The

"V"

or

delta to

three-phasetwo-phase (Taylorsystem).

three-phase side are equal to those

any phase of the two-phase system.
in general is similar to that of the ordinary
arrangement
open-delta system.

voltages obtained
between

open

in

the

STATIONARY

102

combination

Another

in

93.

Fig.

in

similar

somewhat

open-delta.

the

to

of the

primary windings

The

connected

in such

TRANSFORMERS
above

transformers

two

secondary windings

The

are

connected

are

distinct

phase currents; one

kind
differingin phase by 90 degrees, and the other by 120
one
secondary winding two special taps of 50
degrees. From
manner

circuits

of

86.6

and

the

x, the

three

The

also

B'

and

94.

Three-phase

"

in

shown

from

currents

operate both

to

shown

connected

middle

cent,

per

of those

of

four- wire

one

writer,

the

three-phase electric
of distribution;and

and

two-phase

system

parallelcircuit

in

of the

connected

in

delta, and

in delta.

distribution

secondary winding, 2a;

The

used.

are

the

on

said four-

cent,

per

distribution

windings, 2a
Patent

No.

of the

length

line,9, tapped
and

869595,

3a;
October

from

on

the

distribution

29th, 1907.

one

windings

line,7, tapped

distribution
end

ings
primary wind-

secondary

\/3

B,

three-phase two-phase* (Taylor system).

to

single-phasetransformers

are

-"

A'

A'

system.

Three

at

currents
,

will be 86.6

independent systems

operate

also

two-phase

Fig. 94 is a device patented by

delta

translatingdevices,on
wire

to

phase.

employed

to

three-phase

e.m.fs.

two-phase

method

Fig.

complete the
secondary.
By this
out

two-phase
it is possibleto obtain

and

brought

are

and

three-phase

A'

two

cent,

per

of connection

method
from

to

as

and

cent,

per

give

is shown

of the

connection

at

the

line,8, tapped
"

wmdmg,
the

between

line,10, tapped

3a;

at

-"-

end

per

TWO-PHASE

THREE-PHASE

length

of the

cent,

connected

means

three-phase

from

said

on

of

the end

SYSTEMS

windhig la,

103

and

lines both

distribution

translating

for

and

two-

on.

formers.
secondary windings of said transThe
secondary winding, la, is tapped at D, which is
also
about
86.6 per cent, of its length,by the line,
10; which serves
and three-phase circuits.
the twoas
a leg for both

At

la,

and

2a

3a

are

the

secondary winding, 2a, is tapped at its central point A, by

7 ; forming one
leg of the two-phase circuit. The secondary
line,
The

winding, 3a,
length from

is

tapped
end,

one

at

approximately 86.6
about
the point,B, by
at

per
a

of

cent,

line,8, to

its

serve

ft^

i
^

Fig.

95.

Three-phase

"

to

two-phase, giving

86

per

standard

cent,

former
trans-

taps.

one

as

the

leg of both the three- and two-phase circuits. C represents

the junction of two
from
point of a tap taken
secondary
which

windings
which

serves

another

as

connected

shown

are

leg

for

both

in
two-

the

series

and

circuit,

three-phase

circuits.
The

arrangement

apparatus
the

aid

consists

of

in

of

nous
accomplishes the operatingof non-synchrothree-phase design without
The
operation
split-phasedevices.

two-phase

transformers

or

and

generating three-phase alternatingcurrents

in the

^TA

104

TIONA

NSFORMERS

TRA

R Y

into three-phase currents

lines,4, 5 and 6, transforming the same
in the legs, 8, 9 and
in
10, and into two-phase currents
the legs, 7, 8, 9 and
10; and in operating translating devices

EV3-

"

"

"

"

^^A/wJ

IAAW\

AAA

c^
e'

"

"

Fig.

at

and

in

circuits.

The

parallelwith

96.

the

two-

two-phase windings

and

used

on

three-phase
the

motors

current

must

be

J9
1000

-1000-1000-

WSAAA

sA/yw/s

-1000

-1000-

"

"

d
Fig.

independent
operate
A

on

as

the

interconnected

97.

type

of

winding

would

not

this system,

three-phase single-phase transformation

is shown

in

Fig. 98.

TWO-PHASE

THREE-PHASE

105

is the distorted effect of the

this connection

objectionto

The

SYSTEMS

a
voltages and phase relations of the three-phase when
single-phaseload is put on one of the phases. To obviate this to
be necessary
it would
to give the three-phase voltage
extent
some

relative

The
slightdistortion.
load
when
a single-phase

98, it having

the

effect

appliedbetween
point a'.

b-c

is

voltages and

unbalanced

is

phase relation
in Fig.
vector

appliedis shown
by the
of twistingthe phase relation when
shown
from
a symmetrical point as

load

at the

-1000-

-1000

"

"-

1000

"

"

Vv/VwJ

\AA/v/W

/S^V^

/S^"s.^

-100-

-100a

-100-

FiG.

98.

Three-phase

"

to

single-pha.se.

-1000-

-1000-

-1000-

-^50oH*-eoo-*

iMKMmJ
fToooD"!

nmm
-100-

100-141-

FiG.

It
and

is

99.

"

Another

possibleto

transform

All that

them

is necessary

their connections

are

three-phasesingle-phasesecondary operation.

take

from

three-phase system
(seeFig. 99).
single-phasecurrent

currents

into

is to

identical

three-phase transformation,

two

arrange

transformers

so

that

ordinary two-phase to
only difference being in the

with

the

the

TRANSFORMERS

STATIONARY

106

secondary, which has the two windings

circuit.
supplying a single-phase
In
two

the

in series for

connected

ordinary three-phase to two-phase transformation,the

in each

components

half of the

winding

differ in

phase by

90

"Taylor*

v:

"

"Meyer'

"Scott"

Steinmetz

'

T7
/

Fig.

Two-phase
Transformer
Resultant

Resultant

degrees.

100.

windings.

transformer

windings.

"

two-phase voltages.
three-phase voltages.

However,

when

the

secondary

circuits

are

connected

of one
currents
these two component
are
phase.
series,
connections
The maj orityof three-phasetwo-phase transformer
This is particuemployed are for temporary or specialpurposes.
in

FiG.

101.

"

Combination

of systems

given

in

Fig.

100.

The systems used

larlyso when only two transformers are used.
of
shown
in Fig. 100, in the form
in Europe and America
are
In comparing these various
of the
vectors.
systems by means
how
to note
Vectors
near
given, it is very interesting
they are to

STATIONARY

108

single-phase
and

With

the

use

the

Fig.

using
of

can

winding
is

is

(g)
others

equal

two

connection

and

with

which

are

than
transformer

parts
former
trans-

one

open-delta

single-phase
other

made.

into

cut

ordinary

the

two-phase
be

star

an

(a)

three

transformers

three-phase
104

of
all

transformers,

the

in

(g)

exception

combinations

design,

(/)

reversed,

single-phase

shown

shown.

as

winding

By

with

transformers

connected

phase

TRANSFORMERS

tion.
connec-

consist

of

three-phase

two

two-

transformers.
standard

ratios

combinations

and

VII

CHAPTER

In

SIX-PHASE

TRANSFORMATION

transforming

from

different

ways

namely,

diametrical

double

of

primaries

the

voltage that

Fig.

104.

be

may

voltage.

connected

in tee.

may

the
be

with

winding,
double-star
coils

or

are

or

to

In

diametrical

used

double

winding

Three-phase

"

one

will

two-phase

the

last

central
may

double-delta
for

first three

case,

three

tap

from

be

six

the

to

obtain

primary

single-phase
each

to

required

tops.

windings

are

transformers
ary
second-

coils.

For

independent

transformer; the second

109

transformer

secondary
two

cases

delta, according

or

or

point;

neutral

using special transformer

connection
each

star

the

four

are

transformers:

fixed
In

tee.

stand,

there

of the

the

either

connection

there

required

without

or

connected

each

six-phase

to

secondaries

the

delta; and

secondary

For

^with

"

star; double

the

three-phase

connecting

OPERATION

AND

set

the

ary
secondare

all

TRANSFORMERS

STATIONARY

110

first set.
in a similar manner
to the
reversed, then connected
Hence, the phase displacement is shifted 180 degrees.
the double-tee
connection
For
two
single-phasetransformers
of which

required,one

are

0.866,

to

There

10

or

to

0.866

of 60

degrees;

from

the

the

105.

each

transformer

e.m.f.

1 ratio and

",

For

a,

b',X

For

double-tee

c,

two

beginsin

the current

to

coils

relation.

the

double

connections

double-tee

and

phase

for

Hence,

reverse.

delta

and

e.m.fs.

before
direction,

one

star,

if the

ends

reversed,the phase displacement

are

of

electrical degrees.
c'

as
,

graphically

connection

they

connection:

etc.,is

double-delta

xa,

10

phase displacements
electrical degrees
through

for

h' c,

180

move

is in effect shifted 180

double-star

For

other

ratios,and

to

and c
a a',hh'
instance,the e.m.fs.,
explained in Figs. 106 and 107, for a diametrical
are
equal io 2 a x, 2 h x, 2 c x, etc.

Take,

the

coils with

are

Six-phase diametrical

"

double
diametrical,
of the

there

coil must

begins

current

to

ratios.

positionwhere

Fig.

10

ratio.

six-phasecircuits

In

the

secondary coils giving 10

two

are

giving 10

to

has

3 times

a,

h'

x
,

c, etc.

connection:

etc., is "7-

=0.577

connection:

per

cent,

of

h' h" c,
,

a, etc.

AND

TRANSFORMATION

SIX-PHASE

OPERATION

111

than a' y, or a z.
b'," c, c a, etc.,is 13.3 per cent, more
between
e.m.fs. in Fig.
of relationship
The
general statement
that if the value of a a',etc.,is represented
demonstrate
106 may
of a' h, etc.,are
the values
of a circle,
repreby the diameter
a

Fig.

106.

"

Six-phase e.m.fs. graphicallyrepresented.

by a 120-degree chord, and

representedby a 60-degree chord of

the

sented

the

values
same

of

6, etc., are

circle.

voltage between, a 6, etc., is not required,only three

secondary coils are needed; but if this voltage should be required,
If the

|" 1000"^

1000

"=

"" "

"

looo

"

(VS^

nnnjTi
100

"

-100-

-100-

-60-

-50-

-50"^

Fig.

then

six

107.

"

Six-phase diametrical

secondary coils

tap like that shown

transformer

in

secondaries

commonly used of any

One
secondary coil on

are

needed,

Fig. 107.

The

or

connection.

three

coils with

diametrical

center

connection

of

represented in Fig. 107 is the most

three-phase to six-phasetransformations.
is all that is
each step-down transformer
as

STATIONARY

112

whereas

necessary;

secondary wires

such

"

for each

transformer.

secondary wires

two

to the armature

apart

the

double-star,double-delta,and double-tee
require two
secondary coils,and therefore four

connections

The

TRANSFORMERS

winding
as

shown

of

at

from

each

rotary

a'

for the diametrical

connection

c
,

c' ;

much

are

connected

are

points 180 degrees

therefore,arrangements
simpler than any of the

converter

b h'
,

transformer
at

others.
A

part of the three-coil

secondary diametrical

for induction-motor

be used

service to start

-1000-

Fig.

108.

and

sufficient

when

of service.

this

with

The

-1000

with

connection
for

motor

the

is shown

in

connection,which

is made

five-poleswitch, a three-phase e.m.f.

value

equal
That

3.

is

equal

obtain

to

to

one

e.m.f.

By

cut

out

of

means

introduction

of

obtained, giving a
secondary winding times

may

of each

be

may

Fig. 108.
the

in

converters.

be

is to say, if half the e.m.f. of each secondary winding

50 volts,then
assuming the switch to be closed,we

50X\/3=86.6

Similar ends
on

half the

motor

through

used

five-pointswitch

starting synchronous

speed is obtained

arrangement

may

the rotary converter.

-1000-

Six-phase diametrical

"

connection

connection

volts.

of the three

side of the

windings
five-poleswitch.

are

The

connected
three

to three

wires

on

points

the other

SIX-PHASE

TRANSFORMATION

side of the switch

AND

led off to the

are

OPERATION

113

service. The

three-phasemotor

remaining points of the switch receive three wires from

neutral pointsof the three secondary windings. Connections

the

two

that

made

so

when

is closed

switch

the

are

star-connection

is

obtained.
With

the

shown

in

is that

in

double-star

of

arrangement

secondary windings,

to a given
Fig. 109, a rotary
may
three of the six secondary coils,
be connected
or
one
rotary may
to the six secondary coils. The
disadvantageof star connection

continue

case

109.

differs from

each transformer
for the
It is

double

"

-^

to
out, it is not possible

"

connection.

six-phasetransformation
that

of

is shown

Fig.
point of
neutral point

combination.

practiceto

wire,direct-current

in

Fig. 109 in that the middle

winding is tied together to form

star

common

"

^1000

"

Six-phasedouble-star

"

for

arrangement

10,which

1000

-*p--

"

Fig.

is burned

transformer

one

running.

"1000

An

be connected

converter

system

to

wire of the three-

the neutral

connect

the

point

neutral

of the

star

connection.
It may

be

transformer

relation to

seen
or

that the similar ends of the two

similar

certain

ends

of any

primary

coil

are

two
at

coils
any

coils of the

same

bearing the

same

instant of the

same

polarity.
The

double-delta

secondary arrangement should preferablybe

connected
delta on the primary, as it permits the system to be
operated with only two transformers,in case one should be cut
out

of circuit.
8

114

TRANSFORMERS

STATIONARY
set of the

One

ordinary way,
then

but

be

can

in

secondary coils is connected

leads

from

similar

the

second

set

that

two

reversed

are

and

distinct delta connections

it is desired to connect

case

in delta in the

manner.

Fig. Ill

from

seen

and

made,

the

in

connected

It
are

three

six

the

leads,ab

c-

six-phase rotary
to the proper
rings.
The double-tee
connection
requiresonly two transformers,and
far'as concerns
the cost of the equipment and the efficiency
in

a' h' c'

to

converter

it is necessary

that

each

be connected

so

-1000

-1000

"

"

UMMiU
nyn
n^
"-50-H

UMMiU

-50

n)Fi
"^50-

-50-

nJFi

cw\

-50-

-50-

'V

"

-501^

VJ-

-100

"

"

UM^

nnn

"^-M

"

-1000

"

"

-100

"

-50

-100-

"

"S^

-50

vF-

-50F3=-50VsP-

110.

FiG.

Six-phasedouble-star

"

with

one

neutral point for the six

secondary

windings.

operation
delta

transformers

connections.

star

or

tee-connected

two

This connection

are
can

preferableto
be used

the

form
to trans-

and from
two-phase to six-phase,
three-phase to six-phase.
It is worthy of note that the transformer
with the 86.6 per cent,
winding need not necessarilybe designed for exactly 86.6 per
cent,

of

of the

one

can

e.m.f.

of the

be 90 per

cent,

other
of the

voltage
transformer; the normal
mental
other,without producing detri-

results.

Fig.

112

represents the tee-connection

for

transforming from

three-phase to six-phase e.m.fs.

With reference
to its abilityto transform
six-phasee.m.fs. and
maintain
balanced
is much
phase relations,the tee-connection
better than

either the delta

Another

method
interesting

or

two-phase

to

or

star

of

six-phase is shown

connections.

ti'ansformingfrom three-phase
The
in Fig. 113.
transtwo

TRANSFORMERS

STATIONARY

116

connections
have

would

rotary

be

may
a

value

The

used.

equal

to the

three-phase

full

e.m.f.

obtained

secondary voltage used

for the

converter.

a'

B'

-1000-

-1000-

-This

wire

for

three-phase

JiMfiikilQ. \smmmj

-u

\mEm

"

Neutral

wire

Tnnnjwrsr-,

'n
.j^

Three-phase

-100-

Motor

-100-

Fig.

113."

Six-phase

from

three-phase

two-phase.

or

Double-delta

Delta

'1

Fig.

Fig.
use

at

114."

114
the

General

shows

group

all the

present

time.

of

six-phase transformer

six-phase transformer

combinations.

combinations

in

VIII

CHAPTER

Small

METHODS

OF

transformers

do

special cooling devices

various

The

transformers.
transformers.

by

forced

current

Transformers

cooled

by

forced

current

Transformers

cooled

by

Transformers

cooled

by

cooling, the

forced

do

Oil

Transformers.

least

per

cent,

at

60

being

immersed

these

transformers
be

cases

oil

of the

is reduced

it will

in

liable

to

been

destroyed.
purpose

of the
made

thin

of

in

slight blow

again,

unless

metal

obtaining

transportation
is sufficient

to

117

for

the
heat.

the

insulating material

other

be

result

the

of

is

explosion

an

electric

plants have

radiating surface,

of many
cast

if oil is punctured

hand

case

necessary

cause

of

escape

less

the

with

in many

oil, and

this way

not

are

coils

and

core

inflow

which

or

employed

gained by immersing

In

steel

cooling.

can

transformers

corrugated

is

the

puncture

in

fire started.

tanks

the

the

transformer,

of

for

upon

of

high insulating qualities

introduce
On

are

special means

any

of

the

upon

etc.

large self-cooled

steel
handled

the
or

occur,

the

mica,

in

close

short-circuit

tanks

depend

and

the

by

kind

punctures

means
by ojfifering

itself,and, therefore,

cambric

as

For

repaired

manufacturers

Many

Insulation

oil,are:

this

of

in use,

advantages

two

means.

^This arrangement

"

The

immediately

temperature

such

in

require

not

of transformers

in oil.

of above

being depended

Self-cooling
for

of oil.

^Transformers

"

radiation

natural

of water.

combination

some

and

output,

air.

of

current

Transformer.

Dry

small

some

are:

cooled

of

losses.

radiation;

by natural

Transformers

usually

since

provided.

be

methods

Self-cooling oil-filled

Self-cooling

their

with

compared
cool

keep

must

cooling

Self-cooling dry

are

surface

will not

transformers

Large

TRANSFORMERS

require special cooling devices

not

large radiating

have

they

COOLING

manufacturers

iron.

sufficiently strong
the

transformers

the

oil to

leak

thin

The
to

in
at

the

be

rugated
cor-

safely

them.

soldered

TRANSFORMERS

STATIONARY

118

the

between

different sheets

the

between

seams

sides.

of thin

cast-iron

The

steel,or at the joints

is unquestionably the

case

best,and the most suitable for oil transformers; the great strength
insure the safe transportationof
and stabilityof cast-iron cases
the

transformer.

design of oil-insulated transformers,interior ventilation

the
is provided by oil passages
or
ventilatingducts, between
In the

distribution of heat
an
even
coils,and in the iron. These secure
and
throughout the transformer,
a
uniformity of temperature
be secured
results which
can
only by a free internal circulation
of oil.

Without
reach

an

external

of large size may

transformers
good oil circulation,
of that of the
internal temperature
greatly in excess
in contact
with the oil,and in poorly designed
surface

this may
of the coils.

lead

transformers

number

The

planned

are

Such

cooled.

speedy destruction

size of the oil passages,

and

all

keep

to

to the

ducts

parts

of the

or

ventilatingducts
about

transformer

available

necessarilyuse
of a given efficiency
more
much

lation
insu-

of the

evenly
and

space

expensive than ifthe

iron. Experience
could be completely filled with copper
or
space
of large size and high voltage has
with oil-insulated transformers
in addition to
shown
that oil increases the life of the insulation,
acting as a coolingmedium, and adds materiallyto the capability
make

transformer

lightningdischarges,in other words

is safer than a dry transformer.
such a transformer
of heat developed in a transformer
The
amount
depends upon
of 98.5 per
its load and its efficiency. In a 500-kw. transformer
of the

cent,

loss

transformer

resist

there is
efficiency
as
heat, it
appears

temperature
to 3000

in the

loss at full load

be

must

is

kv-a

capacity and

blast) where
It

is

or

is not
minimum

requiresa

auxiliary apparatus

or

solved

in this type

was

radiate

the

heat

art

in demand

more

water

of the

one

This

of transformers.

manufacture

type will be

represents

now

made

of the

best

of transformer
than

the

in sizes
advances
a

very

manufacture.

(air-

air-cooled type

available,is expensiveor
amount

the

or

design is

new

this

Since

of 7.0 kw.

disposed of in some
way
will rise until it becomes
dangerously high.

important development
This

self-cooled oil-insulated transformer

The
up

to

of

attention

not

cient.
suffi-

and

equipment. The great problem to

that
of providing sufficient surface

generated

and

keep

the

temperature

no

be
to

rise within

limits.

certain

The

total

corrugationsdepends
the

radiated

watts

of heat

amount

the

it,but

with

it is broken

as

defined

well

as

the

on

is found

as

be

to

into close contact

come

is
corrugations,the efficiency

into

up

oil

into

up

be

plain surface

the air and

both

as

broken

efficiencywhich may
inch of surface,as

radiated.

be

to

efficient

most

square

119

of surface

amount

its

on

per

TRANSFORMERS

COOLING

OF

METHODS

modern
self-cooled type is proslightly. The most
vided
with auxiliarypipesor radiators whereby the actual surface
time the
and
be greatly increased
at the same
of the tank
can
radiatingefficiencyof the surface kept very high. The method
of cooling consists essentiallyof fittingthe outside of a plain

decreased

cast-iron

arranged tubes, the

the lower

top and

ends

by making

the

near

surface

in both

the

as

that

would

to

of

times,while

increased

be

the

of

same

cooling.

For

this

or

one-fourth

limits it is

proper

that

area

comparison it is

size of the

greater than

the

about

heating within

increase

much

40

this method

the

keep

resultingin a cost very

having auxiliarymeans
oil-insulated

for

iron,namely, if the larger

and

only

losses. From

in order

capacity,and
capacity. Now, if the

kv-a

4000-^100

considerablyto

necessary

widely

kv-a

100

copper

increased

of radiation

much

of

transformers

two

obtained

be best

can

proportionalto the increase in output, the

losses

has

will be

losses

of 4000

one

obtain

transformer

transformer

small

large transformer
densities

the

near

capacities.

for

Assume

the tank

enter

bottom.

rough comparison of

different kv-a

seen

of which

ends

upper

vertically

of

number

idea of the limitations in this direction

An

as

with

plain boiler-platetank

or

of

transformer,
a

transformer

self-cooled

reason

in
generally manufactured
For sizes up to about 500 kv-a, the tank
sizes above
2000
kv-a.
is singlecorrugated and above
this size compound
corrugations
used
obtain
the
to
surface.
radiating
are
necessary
Hot
air tends
flow
to
upward, so that, in providing for
station ventilation,it is essential that the inlet of the cool air
should
the

be

inflow

transformers

low

down

and

not

the outlet somewhere

air

of

outflow

and

are

being

well

the

roof,

about

the

near

distributed

station.
Self-cooled

oil-insulated

given good ventilation

shortened.

The

darkening

of the

or

transformers

large size should

else the life of the transformer

first indication

oil and

of

of increased

slightdepositon

be

will be

temperature will be
the

inside surfaces

120

STATIONARY

of the

transformer.

TRANSFORMERS
this

Once

is quickened because
from

the

In this type

deposit begins to

of the decreased

form

the

of
efficiency

ency
tend-

heat

pation
dissi-

transformer.
of transformer

the

only remedy where the oil has

thickened
to a considerable
and a deposit accumulated, is
extent
to thoroughly clean the transformer
by scraping off the deposit
and washing it out with oil under
high pressure.
Transformers
Cooled
^This type of
by Forced Current of Air.
"

is

transformer

called the "air blast,"and may

be
commonly
wound
for any
desired voltage not exceeding 40,000.
Air-blast transformers
cooled by a blast of air furnished
are
The
blower
deliver air directly into a
by a blower.
may
chamber

which

over

convenient, the

more

the

is

transformer

blower

be

may

if it is

located,or

located

at

distance

transformer, feeding into a conduit which leads to

the air chamber.
The
blower is usually direct connected
to an
induction
be driven by other means.
One
motor, though it may
blower
of transformers
in the same
generallysupplies a number
from

the

station,and

the

transformers

air
an
usually spaced above
is maintained
chamber, in which a pressure
slightlyabove that
air for cooling the iron passes from
of the surrounding air. The
the lower housing selected to suit the transformer
capacity. When
the efficiency
of an air-blast transformer
is known, an approximate
of air required can
estimate of the amount
be made
by allowing
150

cu.

ft. of air per

minute

are

kilowatt

for each

satisfactory
operation,the velocity of
should

be

minute.
should
volume

by

500.

as

low

That

as

possible,and

is,the

should

cross-section

air to the

air in the

never

exceed

least be

transformers

is

so

small

to only
amounting in most cases
capacity of the transformers.

as
a

to

For

the

of the

equal to the number

of air required per minute
by
The
required to drive
power

at

lost.

the

most

chamber
500

ft. per

in square

feet

representing the

total

chamber

the
the
be

fraction

transformer, divided
blower
for furnishing
practicallynegligible,
of 1 per

cent,

of the

delta
three-phase, air-blast shell-type
transformer,when
formers
advantage as three single-phasetransconnected, has the same
total rating that is,by disconnecting and
of the same
former
both windings of a defective phase, the transshort-circuiting
be operated temporarilyat two-thirds,or thereabout,
can
of the total capacity from
the two
remaining windings.
transformers
cooled
of
Coming under this heading
by forced
The

METHODS
of

current

air,there exist

cooled
those

and

through

in the

ducts

air-cooled

forced

The
been

of the

directlybetween

tank,

coils,

the

transformer
the former

of the shell type

be

may

for

largeor

or

sizes.

moderate

has
question of air-blast against oil-cooled transformers
settled in practicelong ago in favor of the oil-cooled type.
of the

Some
due

the outside

on

formers
trans-

laminations.

type, but preferablyof

core

air-blast

an

air is forced

the

121

methods, viz.,oil-insulated

two

of

means

in which

and

The

by

TRANSFORMERS

COOLING

OF

to

chief

advantages claimed
of the oil round

the presence

the

additional

the

are

windings,and

the

safety
sion
exclu-

consequently exclusion of dirt

and dust from
all parts of the windings.
than
require larger air chambers
Three-phase transformers
transformers
of the same
total capacity. The temperature
single-phase
of

of air and

forced

current

of the

out-goingair compared

with

the

sufficient
in-goingair is the best indication whether
passingthrough the transformers, but in general,and on the
the

of 25"

C,

the

incoming

the
the

results

best

air is not

temperature

of the

air will leave

obtained

are

greater than

surrounding

the

transformer

when

the

this value.
air

or

air is
basis

or

of

temperature

Depending

entering air,the

greater

of

temperature

smaller

as

on

going
out-

the

Also, depending on the design, the difference

in temperature of the supply of air and the air leavingthe transformer
may

case

be.

12" and 20" C.

will vary between
insulation of air-blast transformers

The

must

be

impervious

have
moisture,and must
superiorstrength and durability.
It must
also permit the ready discharge of the heat generated
in the windings,as otherwise the transformer
temperature
may
reach a value high enough to endanger the life of the insulation.
In building such
dried
the coils are
a
moisture-proofinsulation,
to

at

temperature

the

boilingpoint

of

water, by

vacuum

all moisture.
After
ment
treata
thoroughly removes
with a specialinsulatingmaterial,
they are placed in drying
the insulatingcoating becomes
where
hard and
strong.

process

ovens,

above

which

the coils

taped with

overlapped coveringof linen and

of the
again treated and dried,there being several repetitions
The
depending on the voltage of the transformer.
process,
insulatingmaterials are so uniformly appliedand the varnish so
carefullycompounded that the completed insulation on the coils
is able to withstand
potentialstwo or three times greater than
Then

the

same

are

thickness

an

of the best

insulatingoil.

122

STATIONARY

Transformers

TRANSFORMERS

Cooled

This type
by Forced Current of Water.
of transformer
is usually called
water-cooled."
oil-insulated,
Inside the cast-iron tank and extending below the surface of the
brass tubing through which
the
oil,are coils usually of seamless
circulates.
coils are
These
furnished
with valves
cooling water
flow
of water, and
for regulating the
the proper
adjustment
been
the
transformer
will run
having once
indefinitely
made,
Another
method
of cooling is by
with practicallyno attention.
drawing off the oil,
coolingit,and pumping it back, the operation
In the design of oil-insulated,
water-cooled
being continuous.
transformers, interior ventilation is provided by oil passages
the coils,
and in the iron.
These
bution
distribetween
secure
an
even
of heat and
a uniformity of temperature
throughout the
"

"

Without

transformer.

large size
of that

internal

an

external

of the
of

means

reach

may

securing the

oil

good

greatly in

temperature
in contact

surface

of

circulation,transformers
with

the

excess

oil.

As

oil insulation is of immense

regulation,
it permits close spacing of the primary

best

as
advantage inasmuch
and secondary windings. It effects great economy
of space, and
freedom
deterioration
from
its fluidity and
greatly assist in
insulation.
Its
solving the difficult problems of transformer
into play with remarkable
good qualitiescome
advantage in
building high-potentialtransformers.
standing
Water-cooling coils are made of seamless tubing capable of witha

Transformers

cooled

Cooled

by this
the oil.

The

the

the

outside

of the

Combination

oil is forced

pounds

per

Method.
of

at the

top,
With

"

upward through

iron laminations.

increase in size

and

^Transformers

pump
spaces

passes

such

inch.

square

for circulating
left around
down

scheme

over

formers
trans-

as

than
the largest
larger capacities
transformers
of the ordinary type, without
to show
prohibitivecost and to necessitate

the

place of installation.
of the

250

built of much

transportationof

transformers
The

oil to be increased
circulation

positive
efficiencyof the fluid.
and

to

require the service

existingwater-cooled
such

150

overflows
coils,

between

be

by

method

and

can

of from

pressure

in parts for

forced-oil system
to any

which

allows

erection

at

the

the circulation

extent, thereby producing

rapid
cooling
a

greatly increases the

of oil circulation
Moreover, this method
such
uniform
and
ensures
positivecooling that much
higher
indicated temperatures may
be
in
transformers
safely
permitted
overloads.
operating at moderate

124

ST A TIONARY
certain

above

shown

in

given

TRANSFORMERS
in the

value

Fig. 115 and consists of

is actuated
of water
by a volume
slacks off

water

The

lamp shown.
soon

as

the

the

is

bell alarm

reaches

in such

arranged

so

of the

temperature

thermometer,

In

is

the

as

balance

relay or

water

which
if the

that

manner

is

outfit

flow, it will lightthe incandescent

to

ceases

or

This

transformer.

it will operate

that

transformer,

indicated

as

by

certain limit.

transformer, the heat generated by losses

above
is so
mentioned, and the arrangement

water-cooled
of

disposed

as

?rmometer

Th

0
Lamp

K"^

Low

VoltapJe
Relay

Resistance

-x:(^
Water

Fig.

115.

Relay

and

Water, thermometer,

"

voltage

bell

indicator

danger

large high-

transformers.

power

littleheat is dissipatedfrom

effective that but very

for

the

tank

and

advantage is derived from the use of corrugated

where
There
tanks.
are, however, installations of transformers
is not
available at all
a
supply of cooling water
satisfactory
the meter
where
is
rate of coolingwater
periods,and also cases
with corrugationsmay
be used.
a tank
excessive,in which cases
The usual design of a tank with corrugationsprovidesfor approximately
total
of
without
70
cent,
capacity
cooling water.
per
consequently

Its

is,in general, about

cost

boiler-iron tank.

standard

advantage in

to

are

Fig.
a

no

116

shows

and

transformer.

one-quarter

of 17" C.

The

15

greater than

cent,

per

corrugated type

climates

result of

the

rise of 35"

temperature

This

cold

very

to

has

used

been

culties
water-freezingdiffi-

where

common.

water-cooled

in

10

(57-40

hour
=

cooling coil

duration

17"
of

cutting off

(60

shows

"

25
an

water

duration

five-hour

C.

the

35"

has

supply

of

resulted

C), while

two

increase in temperature

C).
this type

of transformer

is sometimes

METHODS
coated

outside

the

on

COOLING

OF

with

TRANSFORMERS

oil while the inside

the

depositfrom

125

in the coolingwater,
by impurities
of cleaningthe inside of coolingcoils is to pour
A good method
equal parts of hydrochloric acid and commercially pure water
into the coil. After the solution has been standing for about
is lined

coil,it is

to

necessary

depositcan

The

accumulated

deposithas

When

this,the transformer
of the oil should
has

should
never

tank

cooling
cleansing.

of the
for

top of this type

the

at

damp atmosphere. To avoid

that is,the ture
kept warm;
tempera-

be

go below

used, which

been

the

water.

scraped off.
in

located

when

of "breather"

or

is condensed

moisture

transformer

it from

clean

outside

the

on

remove

wiped

be

Sometimes

thoroughly with

coils out

flush the

hour,

one

10" C.

In

consists of

some
a

cases

form

vessel of chloride

calcium, so arranged as to allow the water taken out of the air

to drain off without
mixing with the air that is goingin on account
tion
oil in cooling. An indicaof the contraction
of the transformer
of

of condensation
underside

the

all

On

should

for

continuous

oil in any transformer

This is usually done

by

of

and

transformer

without

tank

filters the
and

sampling and
removing the unit

withdrawing

at

the bottom
oil and

the

from

service.
and

top

it
filtering

by

series of about

removes

The
0.75 in. of paper.
paper
all moisture, returningit to the tank

of almost

About

entire contents
a

The

clean.

the station.

of

provision

filtration of the

tanks
should not
capacityof oil-containing
less than
the oil capacityof any one
transformer, but preferably
in
slightly
greater in capacitythan the largesttransformer

dry
be

oil and

on

top.

installations

of valves

means

of rust

through a
twentycontainingfive 8-in. by 8-in. filter papers,

total thickness

at the

cover

200-lb. pressure,

each
five filter sections,

making

accumulation

high-voltage transformer

made

forcingit,at

is the

of the transformer

large

be

of moisture

of any

four

hours

should

transformer

filterequipment may

be

and

sufficient to filter the

be
on

this basis the

capacity

provided for.
DISTRIBUTION

TEMPERATURE

Core-t3rpe (verticalcylindrical
coils,turns of the conductor
being in a horizontal plane). With this type of winding the
"

ends

which

of the
passes

adjacent

to

coils will be
out

the

somewhat

cooler, owing

to

the

heat

points. If the temperature of the oil

higher than at
top portion of the coils is much
at

those

STATIONARY

126

the

coil. The

in the

resistance

will be

there

bottom,
is

tendency

heat transmitted

high

temperature

of

much

than

The

the

the

transmit

heat

downward

will be small, but the thermal

the

portion

of

temperature

the
of

difference

temperature

important

most

top

to

with

compared

as

in this direction.

higher

TRANSFORMERS

will be

result

coil will be
oil

adjacent

as

that

almost

the
as

that of the

80

40

30

Temperature

(a)

(6)

"

i-c)

"

"

(^)

"

low

"

by reslatance

thermometer.

"

"high

"

(.d)

80

of high voltage winding

"

"

"

oil.
water

leaving cooling coil

70

"
60

50

40

30

no

Fig.

bottom
course,
to

the

duct.
related

8a

Hours

Run

10

11

18

13

14

116.

the
oil adjacent to it,assuming, of
portion is above
the
coil
that the equivalent thermal
resistance from
oil is practicallyuniform
throughout the length of the
The
not

total
to

the

average
surface

temperature
temperature

of
at

the
the

coil is therefore
bottom

of

the

METHODS

coil but

to

considerably higher

than

should

be

and
near

top

problem with

the

surface

surface

solid surface

coils to

of the

circulation

natural

distribution of temperature

correct

coils may

average

figured from

bottom

at the

the top of the

maximum

the

that

be
perature,
tem-

temperature

of the coil.

difficult

The

at

temperature

127

for the entire surface

considerablyhigher than

be

may

also, the maximum

the

is average

temperature which

which

and

TRANSFORMERS

COOLING

OF

oil from

through the

surface

the

of the

oil is:

of the

tank,

the

cooling

or

resistance
given velocitythe equivalent thermal
is constant, the temperature
drop from coils to oil being directly
proportional to the watts
per sq. in. discharged from the coils.
forced-oil circulation (returningthe oil to the ducts at a
With

coil. For

temperature) the whole problem of cooling is much

the only lacking element
being a definite knowledge
simplified,
definite

relation

the

of

circulation

natural

the

and

duct

will be

With

circulation.
than

natural

the

of the

duct

the level of entrance

since the

than

thin duct

rise

temperature

upon

forced-oilcirculation

forced-oil circulation

for

natural

will be better

resultinghigher velocityof the oil

drop from

temperature

of the

surface

the

Thinning
the

as

temperature rise

to

surface, the rise being less than

the

rise

though

circulation of the oil a thick duct

conditions

same

external

an

as

duct

does

might

not

be

temperature

cause

and
Velocity,

hence

oil,as well

as

to
to

as

expected, up
rise of the

greater, this temperature

will be

the

oil between

oil inside

of the

coils

oil.

With

on

one,

give lower

the

to

thick

will

thickness

different for

very

oil. With

the

duct.

the

effect of the

The

at

by the difference in

temperature

average

outside

of the

that

exit from

and

to

the

between

temperature

is caused

oil flow

the

resistance

equivalent thermal
the
velocity of

the

coils and

of the

surface

the

between

cause

reduce

great
to

net

an

that
a

certain

to

give practically
obtained

thin duct.

increase in temperature

point,since,

passing through
produce

drop from

smaller

the

as

for

oil while

rise tends

will

temperature

the

higher

coils into

rise in the

oil

itself.
The

dischargeof

heat into the duct from

both

sides,as compared

in
discharge from one side only, is an important matter
connection
with cooling. It is found that with a duct of a given
thickness,if the heat is dischargedinto it from both sides,at a
with

its

128

STATIONARY

TRANSFORMERS

the temperature rise of

given density in watts
per sq. in,,both
the oil while passing through the duct, and the temperature rise
of the coils above
adjacent oil,will be smaller than if the heat is
side of the duct only, at the same
discharged into one
density.

twice

Thus

the

rise.

temperature
while

is carried away
by the duct, with a smaller
This
smaller
rise of the
oil
temperature

heat

passing through

heat, indicates

that

this accounts

and

the

velocityof

the

for

the

absorbing twice

duct, though

is

flow

than

more

the

double,

reduced

drop from the coils into the

oil. The great difference in velocityin the two cases
is accounted
for by the friction on
the side of the duct where
heat is discharged,
no
which

is

much

than

greater

is

being

coils)."With

this

when

heat

discharged.
Shell

(verticaloil-ducts between

type

flat

type, in general,the larger insulation is not

in the

path of heat
mal
flow,
insulatingcovering is thin. The equivalent therresistance is uniformly distributed throughout the length of
and

the

duct, since

the

the

this resistance

will change

discharge because
oil would

the

of the

coil and

The

bottom.

be

much

as

of the

temperature

discharged
from

the

The

is more
the

per

of

sq.

the

of the

the

at

is greater than
in the

effect

the

the

as

its temperature
of

copper,

that

at

as

coil would

passage

being

bottom

top

bottom

through the

heat, the

temperature

at the

same

top part

result

downward

in. from

is

more

part of the

siderable
con-

which
is

heat

coil than

rise of the oil in its passage

through the duct
rapid in the bottom portionof the duct than at the top, and

temperature

temperature
the

in the copper

giving a

more

temperature.

were

the

If the

top.

portion of

the

would

heat

conductor

between

its temperature

This

entrance.

good

at

heat

opposite,the
throughout its passage

be the

of the oil leavingthe duct

portion of
is

difference

of

rate

different.

which

rate

oil would

the

oil will be

the

but

throughout,

same

changes in

uniform

the

greater than

temperature
at

at

and

that

is the

part of the surface

any

duct,

with

velocityof

receive heat

through
the

the

generated in

heat

of oil flow

rate

oil where
the same,

drop

duct

from

than

the

uniform
On

from

the

it leaves

at the

top

oil is also greater in the bottom

the

top.

The

temperature

of the coil to the bottom

temperature,
other

the duct

since it absorbs

as

well

hand, though
would
the

same

be the
total

as

gradient

is thus reduced,
a

the
same,

lower

average

temperature

of

if its velocity

heat, yet its average

METHODS

OF

COOLING

TRANSFORMERS

129

of
throughout the duct will be greater on account
the largerproportion of heat which
it receives near
the bottom.
This will result in an increase in the velocityof circulation,
which

temperature

tends
and

reduce

to

the

actions

both

temperature rise

the

temperature drop from

coil into the

the

reduction

affectingfurther

oil in the

of the

in the

oil,both

duct

of these
of

temperature

the

coils.

Disc-shape
between).

Coils

These

"

with

layers, or

all
practically

ducts, but in

coils may
several turns

the

the

(horizontalposition with
layer.

per

will be

heat

either

wound

be

thrown

latter the inner and

horizontal

In

out
outer

in

the

ducts

single turn
former

into the

case

horizontal

layers will discharge

through layer insulation in the inner and outer cylindrical

surfaces. A large portionof the heat will find an easier passage
than from
out through the horizontal oil ducts
layer to layer in
the coils. The
relative amounts
passing out through the two
paths will depend upon the circulation of the oil. If the oil is
stagnant in the horizontal ducts, it reaches a temperature where
best

it

heat.

absorb

to

ceases

solid matter
of the hydrocarbons
quite evident that more
will deposit at those pointsof the maximum
temperature; that
as
is,at those pointscommonly known
"hot-spots." If 80 per
It is

of the transformer

cent,
the

remaining 20

designed and
the

maximum

distribution
the

various

from

the

per

operates
cent,

the weakest

at

C, the

80"

at

of the

part

of 40"

temperature

C. and

is

transformer

insulation is at the

point of

temperature rise. Therefore,a knowledge

of temperature

things which
standpoint

throughout
this

effect

of

all those

badly
of the

transformer, and

of

is important
distribution,
who

operate transformers;

and, if we are to avoid serious trouble with transformers,trouble

with oil,and oil depositingwhich necessitates frequent cleaning
of the transformers,it is essential there should be no
hotout
spots."
Standard
air-blast and
heating guarantees for self-oil-cooled,
transformers
water-cooled
are
given in the followingtable.
"

oil-cooled transformer

The

measurements

surrounding air temperature

and
barometric
a
ventilation,
air-blast

The

transformer

ingoing air temperature

760

mm.
9

of mercury.

of

25"

are

C.

pressure

of 20"

C. and

mm.
are

on

condition

normal

of 760

measurements

based

the
of

of mercury.
based
on
an

barometric

pressure

of

TABLE

II." HEATING

normal
All

GUARANTEES

transformer

water-cooled

supply

of

corrections

transformers

by 0.5
variation,or

are

per
for

at

variations

AIR-

TRANSFORMERS

measurements

ingoing water
for

OIL-COOLED,

FOR

WATER-COOLED

AND

BLAST

The

TRANSFORMERS

ST A TIONARY

130

temperature

in the

based

are

three

of 15"

above

on

C.

types

of

cent,

by changing the observed rise of temperature

for each
degree Centigrade temperature

each

made

mm.

deviation

in barometric

pressure.

OIL.

TRANSFORMER

oil and the properties

subjects of treating transformer
in a thorough
treated
have
been
of oil are
so
broad, and
manner
by other writers,only a few important notes are given
As

the

here.
The

most

interest the

important characteristics of
operating engineer are summed

table.

TABLE

III

transformer
up

in the

oil which

following

STATIONARY

132

TRANSFORMERS

it is desired to determine

insulatingqualitiesof an
oil when
and
there are
no
high voltage testing transformer
When
this is the case,
apparatus available for making a test.
be
a
good idea of the insulatingpropertiesof the oil can
very
with anhydrous
of water
obtained
by testing for the presence
the anhydrous copper
sulphate. To prepare
sulphate,
copper
heat some
on
top of a
sulphate crystals (blue-vitriol)
copper
Often

hot

The

stove.

leaving

as

white

the

of

water

crystallization,

is known

powder, which

as

drous
anhy-

sulphate.

copper

Fill

will drive out

heat

residue

the

with

sample of the oil,add a small quantity

of the anhydrous copper
sulphate, and shake well. If there is
with the anhymoisture
drous
present in the oil,it will combine
any
blue
This
solution.
sulphate,forming a distinctly
copper
small quantity of moisture
test is quite delicate and
can
a very
of
be detected
by it. If this test does not show the presence
it is quite safe to assume
water
that the insulatingpropertiesof
the oil are fairlyhigh.
When
obtaining a sample of oil for testing,always get the
of the tin or barrel,because, as
sample of oil from the bottom
is heavier than
will
water
quantity of water
oil,the maximum
test

be

always

bottom,

tube

found

use

end

tightlyover

one

Remove

thumb

tightlyover

the

at

the

end

obtain

To

bottom.

long glass tube

the

of small

plunge it to the
lettingthe air escape,
and

from

sample

diameter, hold

and

of the tube

of the

bottom
then

the

press

the

it with the

withdraw

the

thumb

barrel.
thumb

sample

oil.

of

The

mineral
down
and

importance

real
seal
on

the

the

oil is that
bottom

transformer

of the

it tends
of

the

light oil
to

known

decrease

transformer

coils themselves.

The

to

the

the

trade

as

depositthrown

tank, cooling-coils
(A)

class referred

to

having a specificgravity somewhat

higher than the mineral oil,its flash and fire points are much
higher but when
subjected to continued heating it throws down
a
deposit tending to clog up the oil ducts of the transformer
this
and
impede the circulation of the oil. So far as is known
entirelyby the effect of the heat on the oil.
deposit is caused
It can
be removed
through a bed of lime and then a
by filtering
of the oil-dryingoutfits
sand
bed, or preferably by using one
The
the market.
now
on
(B) class oil is light and practically
white, and is usually referred to as mineral seal oil;it has rather
here

is

dark-colored

oil

METHODS
flash and

low

COOLING

OF

points but

fire

TRANSFORMERS
does

throw

not

133

down

deposit

heating.
subjectedto long
oils depends altogether on
the thoroughness with
transformer
which
the oil is protected againstabsorptionof moisture, and,
when
heavy oils are used, the temperature at which the transformei*s
are
operated, the higher the operating temperature the
more
rapid are thin oils affected. It is the generalpracticeto use
tendency

keep

to

free
practically

down

from

the

the

usual life of

The

seal oil in water-cooled

mineral

the

continuous

and

when

transformers

and

temperature

of its

because

it is

also because

slimy depositreferred

to

With

above.

(A) oil the deposit would, besides accumulating

and probably clogging the oil-ducts,
close in around
the coolingof the oil
coils causing a consequent increase in the temperature
and this in turn would
decrease the efficiency
of the transformer.
No
be given as to the length of time
information
can
specific
be in use
continuously; it might
throughout which an oil may
the

of class

use

last five

it

or

years

might

last

five

only

under

but

months,

ers
ordinary service conditions the oil for high-voltagetransformshould
be good for at least 18 months.
Several
good oil

drying and

purifyingoutfits

are

of this modern

in

now

common

the

use,

cipal
prin-

being an electric oven, a

The interior
and strainer,
and blottingpaper.
filter-press
pump
is providedwith rods for supporting and separating
of the oven
the
facilitate rapid and
to
blotting paper
thorough drying. A
is attached
thermometer
and
switch is provided
to the oven
a
for regulation of the
For
drying and filtering
temperature.
elements

outfit

oil,five layers of 0.025-in. blotting

sections
is
in

rods

each

of the press.

in such

sheet.

hours

at

The

that

way

air is accessible

blotting paper

temperature

not

over

should
85"

dry oil the instant it is removed

air
to normal
cooled,as exposure
neutralize
hands

small

the

because

quantity of

will take

up

the

drying.

C,

from
for

It should

be

sides of

both

to

dried

least

at

and

then

put into

the

oven

and

few

minutes

not

come

24

tank

before it is
is sufficient

into contact

with

of the

danger of absorbingperspiration.A
anhydrous calcium chloride placed in the oven
moisture

in the

air and

quicken

the

higher temperature than that given above might

blottingpaper or impair its mechanical
strength. As
A

between

The

of

the

used

material
separationof this filtering
of the greatest importance. Specialcare
be exercised
must
drying the blotting paper, which should be suspended from

the

to

are

paper

process.

scorch

the

the paper

134

STATIONARY

is somewhat

weakened

handled

TRANSFORMERS

by saturatingwith oil,it

removal

after

from

size for the paper should be filled with

should be submerged in the oil. The
in the tank, the bottom

suspended

in. from

or

in. above

the

top of the

the

anything

prevent

the

of
It

pump.

should

paper

of the

oil level

be

paper

should

strainer

paper.

be

fully
care-

of suitable

tank

dry, clean oil and

edge

The

bottom.

bath.

the

should

the paper

carefully
being kept

be

least

at

is

provided to
inentering and juring

appreciable size from

is easilyaccessible and

should

be cleaned

is usually for
rating in gallons per minute
clean heavy oil or dirty lightoil.
conditions in filtering
average
best oil temperature
for filtering
is between
The
75" C.
25 and

occasionally.

installation of this outfit the

the

In

oil falls

that

With

with

the

and

paper

the

as

oil is filtered twice

as

will take

pump

will remain

volume

placed

nearly
the

so

it.
stant,
con-

pressure,

rapidly.

With

slowly

more

gained by an increase in
inch. In general,class (B)
square
the class (A) oil,and
the greater

per

fast

be

is little

there

pounds

75

and

fast

will increase very

pressure
the
volume
increases much

and

pressure
over

pressure

as

should

pump

being nearly proportional to

volume

dirty oil the

dirty oil
than

by gravity and

oil the pressure

clean
the

but

The

as

capacity is obtained by frequent renewal of paper, the total

in the
capacity per day depending largelyon the time consumed
operation. In placingpaper in the press, care should be taken to
have the holes in the paper
corresponding with those in the plates.
Oil is admitted

inch.
as

at

any

100

over

pounds

per

square

will at first be very low, gradually increasing

pressure
after three
that
placements
reclogs with dirt. It is found
paper

The

the

of the
,to fall

and

not

pressure

off,and

it is best

that

begin again.

the

paper,

The

dielectric strength of the

oil is apt

the

of paper

to

discard

of oil which

amount

full

can

charge

be filtered

through

quality and

ture,
temperadepends entirelyon
of its low
because
hot oil being filtered with great facility
be dried to withstand
oil may
a
viscosity. By this process
one

set

puncture
gap

the

of papers

test

from

consistingof

40,000
two

0.5

60,000

to

volts

in. diameter

with

standard

discs spaced

spark

2/10

in.

quality as regards moisture and

all sediment
will usually remove
treatment
one
foreign matter
Oil
and
bring the puncture voltage to 40,000 volts or more.
continuous
load
overwhich has been damaged by overheating from
apart.

or

With

bad

oil of

burn-out

an

average

may

be

treated

in this

purifyingoutfit,

METHODS

TRANSFORMERS

COOLING

OF

135

althoughthe oilwill stillbe darker in

color than
it was
originally.If the oil is thickened to a slimy
nature, it will quicken the operationto heat it to 75" C. just
before running it through the press.
and

the sediment

removed

Water-

Fig.

The
water
water

order

curve

Curve

"

Fig. 117

in amounts

to

obtain

Parts

10,000 by

In

Volume

showing the effects of water

very

less than

present in the

standard

1^

117.

clearlyshows
0.010

oil must

dielectric

test (0.2 in. between

the

per cent.
exceed
not

in oil.

serious effects of
It shows

0.001

strength of 40,000
0.5 in. disc).

that the

per cent, in
volts in the

IX

CHAPTER

AND

INSTALLATION

CONSTRUCTION,

OPERATION

OF

LARGE

TRANSFORMERS

There

various

are

in

much

so

they

of

are

what

of

transformer.

Transformers

in their

assembled

countries

the

they

for

are

high

very

shipment;

home

boxing,
boxes

and

the

to

coils

which

size

(in a

factory

call

tion
construc-

of

the

core

is

will warrant.
the

usually
but

abroad

left

is

type

loose

state)

if

they

tanks

the

are

for

unprotected
in

weatherproof

in strong

packed
the

When

case

large capacity,

shell

completely

as

transportation facilities

carefully packed

are

if of the

of moderate

and

strictly

through

pass

shipment

the

the

size and

and

voltages

core

from

their

as

have

for

usually protected

fact,

others

design

are

; in

type)

core

high-voltage large-capacity

of

sent

disassembled,

sent

are

tanks

they

the

whether

exactly

manufacture.

always

are

or

ing
differ-

market

transformer

here

to

respectively,

of American

design, and

in

referred

types

tell

to

shell

However,

transformers

shell

and

call

the

on

design (shell

other

manufacturers

some

core-type

the

or

transformers

it is difficult

that

design

one

of

types

of the

core

wooden

type

core

being shipped
and

box

into

in its

end-laminations
is built up

should

put

already

the

transformer

it

be
the

essentiallyof
form
made

up

in. in

they

or

It is shown

the

stampings

are

paper
in

be

to
are

to

used

to

limit

Fig.

1 18

the
that

and

the
from

136

of
are

of

eddy
three

other

factory
and

"heat-run."
consists
assembled

when

different
each

which

from

vary

frequency

there

removed

cores

the

flow

be

should

These

which

insulated

the

transformer

circuit.

magnetic

from

yokes which

and

cores

the

permanently

giving it

before

core-type

according

laminations

varnish

cleaned

and

being

is sent

done, it

Whether

one

already assembled,

sent

before

in

packed

boxes.

or

transformer

seldom

three

or

of laminated

thickness

which
The

two

complete

the

first with

deal

in separate

inspected

is very

inspected

thoroughly
us

If

tank.

leg being

each

at its destination

thoroughly

tank, which

Let

assembled

and

yokes

0.010
the

to

are

0.025

system

on

manufacturers.

by

coat

currents.
cores

of

equal

cross-

of

OF

CONSTRUCTION

joinedby

section
the

as

that

and

cores,

and

top

upon

LARGE

bottom
each

TRANSFORMERS

yoke
core

are

of the

137

cross-section

same

placed the

low

and

high

phase. The low and high voltage

voltage windings for one
trical
windings are connected so that the fluxes in the cores are 120 elecequal to zero at any
degrees apart, making their vector sum
instant.

designsof core-type

usual

The

have

manufacturers
between

high and

Fig.

low

118.

transformers

distribution

uniform

of

by the best

dielectric flux

voltage windings,excepting at

Three-phase core-type

"

made

the

ends

of

transformer.

long cylinderswhere the dielectric flux will be greater and its

distribution irregular.

the

As

tions
has its laminaalready stated, the core-type transformer
shipped already assembled,wrapped in insulatingmaterial
and

of horn-fiber
a

binding

intact.
the

and
thus

keep

to

The

with strong

bound
the

laminations

different sections

size of the

in the

are

bindingtape
of

the

assembled

which

assembled
on

wooden

serves

as

sections

pins of
direction,

in one
laminations; first,
this end in the oppositedirection,
then
alternatingspaces
The approxibeing left for assembling the end laminations.
mate
inch
number
of laminations
in
building up
required
per
holes

TRANSFORMERS

STATIONARY

138

tliese laininuted

detoniiiiied from

be

may

iron

be about
solid,would
built up laminations, 36 and

the

that

sections

90

tion
informa-

the

of

cent,

per

the

64 laminations
height of the
per
of laminations
the number
inch being about
required for the two
in. respectively. The
and
0.10
standard
thicknesses, 0.025
built in an insulatingchannel
of laminations
are
required number
tions
piece,and on the top of the channel pieceand the pileof laminachannel
another
piece is placed, the whole being pressed
and
the channel
down
piecesstuck together with
to dimensions
the

under

shellac

sections

then

are

influence

and

of pressure

assembled

with

heat.

pins

wooden

various

The
to

hold

them

remaining in the holes permanently, and the

and
sections clamped to dimensions
assembled
finallywound
which should
not
with a layer of strong binding tape of half-lap,
extend
beyond the beginning of the spaces for the end-laminations.
built up, the next
is now
The
being to insert the
core
process
end
laminations
at the bottom, their number
corresponding to
together, these

the

them, making them so fit into the spaces as to

assembled
while the
laminations
are
butt-joints. These
or
"legs" are restingin an horizontal position. While in
left for

spaces

form
cores

this

positionthe

over

the

end

bottom

laminations

with

clamp
and

its insulation

is fastened

raised

other
by the help of anends
vertical position,with open

the

whole

clamp and cross-bars to a

The
clamping bolts are then placed in a loose state,
upward.
reliance being put on the bolts (which hold the bottom
clamps
in a vertical positionduring the
in position)to keep the cores
assembly of coil-supportsand coils.
The
coils,which are of a cylinder form,
the cores.
of a stout tape and slipped over
together

connect

after

at

coils

the

the
are

bottom
in

should

are

raised

All of the

be

connected

position. Between

the

by

means

coils which
ately
immedi-

cylinder low-

high-voltage coils is placed a cylinder

tion
shaped insulating separator, the separator being held in positween
beAll connections
of spacing stripsof wood.
by means
before the spacing
be conveniently made
outside coils can
the high and low-voltage windings,
stripsare inserted between
voltage coils

when
leave

the
the

and

coils may
be
coil connections

the

steel

the

coils of the

board

the

tank.

The

easily turned
as

distant

top connections

to
as

such

positionsas

possiblefrom
should

be

made

the

will

side of

after

all

high-voltagewinding are in position. A pressthe whole

insulatingpiece or casing is finallyplaced over

ST A TIONARY

140

order

TRANSFORMERS

of

zontal
assembly. The assembly of coils is begun in an horiplane, and stacked one above the other as shown in Fig.
121, the outer
press-board insulation piece being set on two
wooden-horses, correctlyspaced, depending on the size of the
transformer

be

to

Fig.

of

the

stack

by

is

assembled.

119.

first

taken
coil,

from

the

top

Three-phase shell-typetransformer.

placed in positionwith
of

means

"

The

its inner

lated
edges insu-

channel-shapedinsulation pieces.

Each

coil

it is

tion
placed in the assembly has the same
shaped insulapieceson its outer edges; insulation separators are arranged

before

Fig.

120.

Single-phase transformer

"

in

symmetrical order for both

blocks
and
with wooden
filling
top

and

largesize

bottom
can

of

coils.

easilybe

The

lowered

the

low

channel

iron

and

high-voltage coils

piecesset

assembly
into

assembly.

of

at

these

position.

the

inside

coils if of

OF

CONSTRUCTION
iron laminations

Tlic
used

the

keep

to

must

TRANSFORMERS

LARGE

be laid with
which

alignment,on

141

great care, steel being

laminations

the

butt.

(SeeFig. 120).
connecting the coils together,all the solderingis best done
the assembly progresses,
also all taping of the connections,
as
since the short stub connections
are
only accessible at this stage
be
Before
of erection.
commencing to solder, a cloth should
the ends of coils to prevent splashing solder
on
spread over
which might get inside of the coils and ultimately cause
them
a
should
be
burn-out.
During the assembly of coils,
great care
and
the insulation separator in alignment.
taken to keep them
In

facilitate

To

their four

through

this,all
and

corners

the

as

coils and

the

coils

the

long round

being built

are

placingof

insulation

the outside

separators

stripof

is threaded

wood

After

up.

slit at

are

the

assembly

of

pieceor collar
top insulating

While the
clamped down to dimensions.
end
holding down the coils to dimensions, strong
clamps are
cloth tape is wound
the two
around
the coils,
between
clamps,
under
considerable tension,
the ends of tape being finally
secured
by sewing them down, after which the whole is painted with
the
position,

whole

is

black,insulatingair-dryingvarnish.
Getting the assembled

they

rest

to

the

coils from

vertical

the horizontal

positionnecessary

positionin which

for the

assembly

of

completion of transformer, requires the greatest care

where
transformers
of a largersize than
2000 kv-a.
are
especially
This is accomplished by means
of blocking the space, inside of
of coil-space
for a
coils,leaving sufficient space in the center
should
be slid over
the
lifting
piece. The rope or cable for lifting
rounded
of the liftingpiece,care
that
ends
the
being taken
wooden
is sufficiently
high about the coils to prevent
spacer
strikingthe slingwhen swinging to vertical position.
iron

and

The
set

bottom

into

which

end

frame

position where

or

core

support

it is desired

to

is

now

build

ready
up

the

to

be

iron,

is

coils should
The
arranged in a similar manner.
be
be exactly vertical.
should
Lapping of the laminations
avoided, otherwise difficultywill be experienced in getting
in all of them.
be used
for driving
Raw-hide
mallets should
the
laminations
in case
into line; or
these mallets are
not
available,hard wood
pieces pressed against the laminations
may

be

they

should

hammered.
be

During

pressed

down

the
two

buildingup of the laminations

three times,depending on
or

142

STATION

ARY

TRANSFORMERS

160 Turns
188 Turns
188

Turns

PI

Not

P2

Crossed

P3

Not

P4

Crossed

P5

Not

P6

Crossed

P7

Not

P8

Crossed

P9

Crossed

PIO

Crossed

Crossed

Crossed

Crossed

Crossed

Pll

Not

P12

Crossed

Not

Crossed

Crossed

S7 Crossed
S6

Not

Crossed

S5 Crossed
S4

Not

S3

Crossed

S2

Not

Crossed

Crossed

SI Crossed

Fig.

121."

Assembly

of coils for

shell-type transformer.

CONSTRUCTION
size of

the

TRANSFORMERS

LARGE

OF

being built.

transformer

143

this

For

clamping,

the

is

with espeusually lowered and forced down

cially
made
clamps or the regularclamping bolts may be used if
the clamp to the
is sufficient to lower
them
the threading on
be left in position
required dimensions; these clamps or bolts may
in
in
found
is
tions.
laminathe
if
over
getting
night any difficulty

top iron frame

In the

rigidframe

constructed
especially

an

laminations

should

built up to
forced
into

be

core-plate to be
driving. It is always
the

that

available

are

from

come

without

of transformers

case

clamped down, the low])orted and insulated in

After

height

as

The

used.
will

permit

considerable

ations
put in all of the lamin-

specialfacilities for

the

laminations

right manner;

being

care

sing
pres-

been

have

high-voltage leads should

and
a

to

factory as

there.

be

positionunder

difficult matter
the

may

of wood
such

pieceor frame,

top

be supin
taken

they are properly spaced, for if

they are placed too close together a short-circuit might occur.
cast-iron frames, the insulator bushings used
the
At
for this
held
are
by metal supports to the frame, and at the
purpose
the leads pass
is
through the bushings, cement
point where
used
the leads into position. Both
the high and
to hold
low
which
to the terminal-board
voltage winding end-leads connect
leads to

supportingthe

is located

above

oil-cooled and

terminate

water-cooled

get the bottom

into the correct

Of

or

part

at

the

all the leads

transformers

the base

into their

loweringtransformers

be

In

core.

part

brought

are

their leads

have

and

of

case

at

the

top of

coils.

to

should

coils and

assembled

the base

at

assembled
In

that

top; usually'air-blast transformers

the

at

out

the

see

must

be

taken

cross-bar,into which the tie-bolts are screwed

position,which requiresthat the transformers

properly

centered

in the tank.

transformers,the core type is the easiest

to assemble, and a full descriptionof one
method
particular
assembly of this type might well be said to cover
cally
practi-

one

of

the two

tanks, care

in the

and

is

whereas

the

shell type

difficult pieceof apparatus

to

varies

in many

assemble, especially

largersizes.

Air-blast
4000

of

manufacture,

every
ways

types

kv-a

regularlybuilt in capacities
up to
ciency
voltages as high as 33,000 volts. The effi-

transformers

and

for

of this type of

required amount

are

transformer,in good designsand

of air pressure,

is sometimes

better

with

than

the

the oil-

144

STATIONARY

filled water-cooled

TRANSFORMERS

type of the

capacityand

voltage. Its
former
ordinary shell-typetrans-

same

like the
general design is very much
with the exception of a few

of air.

in

certain

where

assembly

of the

excess

regulate the air

the

enters

this

that, where

so

for the

number

is considerably

transformer

the

at

of air

provided

are

of transformers

will receive its portion. The

transformer

bottom

divides

and

iron

tion
circula-

the pressure

dampers

reason
a

in the

transformers

required for

area

For

left open

in these

area

actual

for cooling.
specified

each

air-spacesare

air space

The

modifications

volved,
in-

are

air

to

always

into rate
sepaducts controlled

paths, flowing upward through the coils and

by the dampers at top of the transformer
casing,and
ducts
controlled by a damper at the side of
through the core
the casing.
This

always shipped already assembled

in the larger sizes great care
is necessary
in handling
For
the larger sizes would, of course,
shipment abroad

that

so

them.
have

to

be

holds

above
These

brick

or

eddy
as

allowed

be

leads, and
transformers

well

the

for

supply of air will

generally designed
than

the

and

be
on

the

where

basis

temperature

of

Transformers.

tion
fric-

chamber

these

occur,
should

space

high- and

low-voltage
inspection. Three-phase

sufficient.

the

minimize

of

formers
single-phasetrans-

The

of

temperature
of the

incoming
sufficient air is passing through
than
20" C. difference,
the
more

is not

found

made

to the

with the temperature

whether

transformers; if there

when

of

repairs

out-goingair compared

obtained

blower

than
larger air-chambers
aggregate capacity.

same

to

Sufficient

off.

location

air is the best indication

the

smooth
the

the

occurrence

air-chamber

an

From

rounded

necessary
have

rare

possibleof angles,and

as

be

of the
the

of air.

currents

free

should

placed over
sides being made
are

the

concrete

be

should

is of

disassembled,but as this
for practically
all sizes.

transformers

and

they

is

of transformer

type

of

25"

of the

As
C.

transformers

the

best

results

are
are

in-coming air is not greater

this value.

Installation

voltage

transformers

of

the

"

^In

self-cooled

the

installation

of

high

water-cooled
oil-filled,

and the air-blast types, the

oil-filled,
followingpoints of importance should be born in mind :
receiving stations the transformers
(a) In generating and
of any
should be so situated that a burn-out
coil,a boilingover
forced-oil-cooled
oil-filled,

OF

CONSTRUCTION

TRANSFORMERS

LARGE

145

oil,or burning of the oil in any unit will not interfere with
the continuityof service.
(b) In generating and
receivingstations the transformers
be so
should
formers
located that the high voltage wiring from transof the

to bus-bars

is reduced

to

minimum.

of a
tanks, which are, of course, made
metallic or non-combustible
material,should be permantly and
effectively
grounded, preferably to the ground cables to which
the station lightningarresters
connected.
are
(d) Sufficient working space should be allowed around each unit

(c)The

transformer

facilitate the

to

making

of

repairsand

inspection.

for necessary

entire process
of
of assembly of transformers
voltage,the best and most careful workmanship is

(e) During

the

high
of utmost
impoi'tance.
in the installation
(f) (This might be considered as the last process
of transformers
but
the least important.)
by no means
Extra
the part of all
on
specialknowledge and care is necessary
those whose
is
^the difficulty
duty it is to dry out transformers
is usuallysupposed, but the drying
not in drying out the coils,
as
and
the core.
No
surrounding them
of the whole insulaiion
what
the factor of safety the transformer
has been built
matter
for it avails littlein the case
of carelessness
or
neglectto dry out
the transformer
properly.
leave
the factory they are
Before transformers
given a highthe
standard
the
twice
to
rated voltage
being, apply
voltage test,
between
the high- and low-voltage windings, the latter being
connected
to the iron core.
The main
object of applying this
of the windings,
induces twice the rated voltage to one
test which

low

or

"

is to

determine

properly
the

insulated

greater

punctures

whether

causes

between

from
of

the

various

each

other.

failure in

turns

and

not

portionsof
It is

between

coils

believed

now

high-voltage

the

transformers

the

high

and

are

that
are

low-

voltage windings.
To install properly and place in good working order high-voltage
transformers
is quite as important as their design,
power
since upon
this depends the life of the transformer.
All transformers
of high voltage should
be thoroughly dried out
on
which
show
arrivingfrom the factory, and all transformers
evidence of being unduly moist,or that they have been subjected
that would
to conditions
them
to be unduly moist,should
cause
be taken
specialcare of in the drying process.
10

146

STATIONARY

Testing
put

are

in

and

Before
Cooling Coils
into operation they are

the

of

case

subject

assembled

before

evidence

show

high-voltage transformers
subject to a "heat-run,"
with cooling coils,
the coils

"

made

are

TRANSFORMERS

transformers

to

the

heat

run

of

determine

to

testing for

for

establish
the

the valve

and

period

of about

one

it is

be

to

make
to

usual

method
of

water,

between

gauge

be

out
through-

taken

that

no

In

removing
disconnect entirelyfrom

preferableto

the

and

cooling coil by

indication

should

it with
filling

indicated

coils

inch, disconnect

pressure
the

Care

cooling coil,in order both to

is entirelyremoved
and
pressure

be

the

The
full

in the

water

the

the

of the

resulted.

maintains

coolingcoil in

of pressure

source

the

hour.

If

cooling coil

whether

note

coolingcoil

the

air is left in the

the

and

valve,

has

lb. per square

100

to

made.

heavy indentations
should
be given the

fill the

holding

of pressure,

of

of 80

coils must

as

break

is to

leaks

pressure

source

means

whether

be

can

rough usage, such

disarrangement of layers,the coils
tests

These

test.

pressure

water.

that

sure

whether

note

the

of

source

the

lowering
coolingcoil,
to leakage

to
by
gauge
to leakage through the
cooling coil valve or
indicates a
through a hole in the cooling coil. If the gauge
in the cooling coil,it should
be inspected
lowering of pressure
The
throughout its entire length until the hole is discovered.
will gradually form
water
at the hole and
begin to drip. After
the cooling coil is filled with water, a small
air-pump may be
used for givingthe required pressure, in case
there is not a satisfactory
for obtaining the pressure.
water
As
the test
source
is only to determine
whether
the cooling coil has a leak in it,it

pressure

connected

is due

will in

no

case

lb. per

JOO

inch.

square

the

cooling coil

per

square

bubbles

necessary

in

inch

for

establish

Some

liquid,under
a
period of

rise to the surface

of the

engineers prefer
an

air pressure

about

than

greater pressure
of 80

hour,

one

to

and

submerge
to

100

note

lb.
the

liquid.

Several
Drying-out Transformers.
out
high-voltage transformers, the

exist for

methods

"

best

drying

being considered

as

follows:
1.

admit
to

Short-circuit

sufficient current

approximately

effect

either

this

80"

temperature

fifth of the full-load

the

to

C.

high

raise the
The

will range

low-

voltage winding and

of the windings
temperature

or

of

amount

on

necessary

one-third

between

current, depending

heat

the

room

and

to
one-

temperature

STATIONARY

148

APPROXIMATE

IV"

TABLE

TRANSFORMERS

HIGH-

OUT

HOURS
POWER

VOLTAGE

NECESSARY

IN

DRYING

TRANSFORMERS

The tank is first made

vacuum
being dried inside of its tank.
tight,this being,in the majority of cases a difficult task to do and
is only accomplished after considerable
time has elapsed with
under
the vacuum
by closingthe holes indicated
operation,
pump

by the whistlingnoise of the enteringair. The leaks are stopped

by using putty, which should be fairlystiff in order to keep it
If the puttying is done
into the tank.
from
a
day
being drawn
is begun, thus giving the putty
before the drying process
two
or
a

chance

to

harden, it will be

found

easier to obtain

much

the

required vacuum.
of the transformer

One

(1),although
reach

by
be

actual

90" C. instead

the

When

process.
the

of 80"

C,

current

reached,

might

and

the

The

be

up

after which

it should

the
be

in method

as

is allowed

to

temperature is determined

80"

of the

C.

during

it is found

quickly,and

given until

case

temperature

approximately
startingthe heat-run
at

temperature

in this

temperature

increase in resistance.

maintained

bring

the

windings is short-circuited

to

oil should

the

drying

advantageous
do

to

this, full-load

is
approximate temperature
value.
reduced
to the specified

CONSTRUCTION

TRANSFORMERS

LARGE

OF

149

of
certain amount
a
heating by electric current
of the
of the base
the bottom
be applied under
should
heat
of applying heat
The
most
transformer.
satisfactorymethod
is to use
to the base
grid resistances supplied with sufficient
The
the grids at full red heat.
current
to maintain
grids should
the heating fairly
under
the base so as to make
be distributed

addition

In

to

general,and

confined

not

to

In

the surface.

portionof

one

case

care
heating the base is used, extreme
too
should be taken that the supply of the heat does not become
ing
intense,otherwise the oil may be injured. The idea of supply-

method

of

the base

is to

other

some

heat

oil

to

the

throughout

transformer

C.

80"

of

maintain

structure

is found

It

uniform

that

of the

temperature
at

the

uniform

perature
tem-

the

of

temperature

ing
of the oil'sreachwindings reaches 90" C. considerably in advance
either to disconnect
80" C; and, for this reason, it is necessary
the current
occasionallyor to reduce it to a small percentage of
be
relied on
The
base
to
full-load current.
heating should

maintain

oil has

time

used

be

for

cooling coil.
which

to

the

base

the

condenses

heating,the

heat

is not

air

tank.

the base

valve

temperature

be

may

used

surface

for

in. of

the Hmit.

refer to the
vacuum.

low

after

pressure

through the
the base heating; in
should

base

of the

should

Care

be

the

This method

recommended,

taken

jected
be submitting
in ad-

of

temperature
of

applying heat

principallybecause

the steam

tank.

drying transformers requiresthe circulation

coils and core
while it is
through the transformer
The
and

of the

of

the

size, the

air should

of heated

source

top

cover

of tank

be

air inside of the tank

80"

this temperature

moderate

20

on

being admitted

all parts of the transformer

approximately

under

not

at

to

carried

does

steam
available,

quantity

C. and

of 80"

will,

referred

be

must

point and

of the steam.

exceed

not

(3) This method

in the

of hours

it

as

sufficient

through the cooling coils that

on

of heated

C.

steam

entire bottom

steam

the oil does

is not

Also, steam

the

case

80"

long

as

process

and
established,

the

electric current

the

temperature

been

reach

to

necessary

When
may

reached

in. has

of 20

vacuum

time

actual

the

for

are

after the

at

C.

be almost

may

above

at

of 80"

temperature

constantly,provided
heat is applied. These
specifiedlimits

which
of

oil at

the

same

C,

and

for

the

process

period

discretion

connected

partlyremoved.
should

used

to

The

be maintained

should

of three

being

be

be

days
as

carried
for

units

mentioned

on

of

in

150

STATIONARY

methods

(1) and

(2). The

the

transformer

of

drying

transformers

no

electric current

enters

oil may

The

should
is

dried

be

Where

filled to within

the

refer

not
a

air

inches
to

tank

tank

to

the

to

of the

method

is

method

tank

heat

mentioned

top,

that

so

the

condensation

without

its transformer
to

necessary

put

of
C.

with

be

may

be

cover

is used

12-hour

bracing
this does
under

run

in. of

20

In

for this

vacuum;

oil.

transformer

tanks

above

of moisture.

less than

dry

in

must

temporary

collapsingunder
A
cylinder form.
not

to in the

used, the tank

prevent

be

The

it

as

localities where

to

through it,referred

quite sufficient to
installations are provided with
being of the cylinderform.
should

air

This

C.

prevent

of 80"

temperature

heated

100"

vacuum

method

it is sometimes

inside of the

the

by

vacuum

few

the transformer

purpose,

exceed

not

especiallyadapted

heated

warm
kept sufficiently
case

of the

temperature

is available.

(2),or by blowing
method.

TRANSFORMERS

vacuum

All

for this purpose,

large

the

tanks

bringing the temperature of the oil up

be obtained
to 80" C. may
coil or an electric
by placing a steam
in the bottom
heater
of the tank.
Assuming that the tank in
the
which
oil is being dried, will radiate approximately 0.25
watts
of electric energy
inch, the amount
required
square
per
maintain
the
the
oil
to
at
specifiedtemperature
quite
may
The
be about double
electric heater should
easilybe estimated.
the

necessary

size estimated

for the

reach

desired

to

the

electric heater

an

or

for

bottom

of

the

used, its

it must

uniform
should

pressure

Whether

be

be

coil

steam

maintain

to

In

throughout.

not

sary
neces-

placed directlyon

it is necessary

as

about

temperature

shortening the time

temperature.

is used

tank

of

purpose

is

steam

lb. per

10

oil

the

case

greater than

the

square

inch.
The

tank

same

circulation
from
and

of air.

the

valve

then

down

In

in the
to

be

and

process

the

by

heated

used

this
base

the

adjustable opening
oil must

be

may

to

oil

of transformer
the

permitting
until the

up

the

the

run

above

air to

of forced

means

to

top of the
of

temperature

continued

by

it is necessary

case

air pump,

for

drying

for

oil level,

the

tank

piping

having

circulate.

approximately

oil becomes

dry

an

The

100"

C,

mined
deter-

as

test.

Comparison
of any

of

Shell

Core -type

and

type should

not

be

Transformers.

selected

at

random

"

formers
Transbut

only

CONISTRUCTION

TRANSFORMERS

151

and
of design,reliability
investigation

careful

after

LARGE

OF

simplicity

repair.
is a difficult piece of
In general the shell type transformer
increases
to repair in case
of a break-down; the difficulty
apparatus
to

in almost
in the

and

from

man

has

been

number

advisable

largersizes it becomes
the

is

and

factory

do

to

conditions

to-day considered

practice,and

which

to

capacity,

for

former
trans-

repairs. This disadvantage

the

only

choosing the core-type transformer.

engineers
Experienced transmission
severe

send

to

companies operatingtheir

of power

in

increase

proportion with

direct

lines at

fail

never

transformers

of

cause

high

ages
volt-

realize the

to

subjected

are

large

in

to

for transformers
they ask manufacturers
seldom fail to go thoroughly
to their high-voltagelines,
to connect
into the factor of insulation,
continuity
which, to them, means
It is well-known
that the insulation
and uninterrupted service.
is subject to very severe
of a high-voltage transformer
potential
of which, are:
strains,some
increase in generator voltage.
(a) Sudden
local causes.
increase in line voltage from
(b) Sudden
(c) Direct and indirect lightningdischarges.

whenever

(d) Ground
(e) Internal

external

or

(f) Line

surges,

Reliable

data

lines

of the

one

on

depending on

"

arcing grounds.

etc.

taken

from

number

companies

of power

long-distance high-voltage transmission

has
shell-type transformer
type for high-voltageservice.

the
core

With
of

large sizes

such

apparatus

important, if
to

can

very

not

the

put
from
has

every
been

side.

wrong
or

Late
turns

idea.

there

well
most

reliable

looked

To

operatingto-day, this

class

of

one

as

modifications
of the core-type

the

most

nected
important piece of apparatus consatisits reliability
to factorily
system, and

on

think, as

with
some

much

interest

do, that

operationit will

once

be

give good service.

in the grading of insulation
transformer

has

given

it

wonder

transformer
to

operate

attention

any

must

been

once

and

continue

without

satisfactorymanner
It requires attention,and

else it will not

that

the

more

considered

be

ating
oper-

than

been

are

lines,show,

long periodsof time, after it has

put into successful

indefinitelyin
a

for

service,is

into

as

transmission

operate

connection.

the

is

tion
given atten-

on

better

the

end

stand-

ST A TIONA

152

itis now

ing,and

considered

in

upon

R Y

this

TRA

NSFORMERS

give better service

to

regard equally

well

as

and
the

as

be

can

pended
de-

shell-type

transformer.

these

important advantages and disadvantagesof

general types might be summed
up as follows:

of the most

Some
two

Favor

in

Advantages

of coils and

surface

core

parts of transformer.

strength

"

life of

insulation;the

the

of the Shell-type. Greater

radiating
resultingin a lower temperature in all
This point has an important bearing on

insulation

of the

the

transformer

of the

hottest

depending

on

the

part.

Interlacingof coils resultingin lower reactance

voltages,hence
closer regulation.
magnetic
Mechanically stronger and better able to withstand the electrothe

to

times

the

in the

the

As

stresses.

of the

square

normal

electro-magnetic stresses
current,

short-circuit

will produce

full-load current

portional
pro-

of many

abnormal

strain

transformer.

Satisfactoryseries-parallel
operation. This
on

are

large transmission
in Favor

Advantages

Disadvantages of the
Disadvantages of

designed

for

being

sary
neces-

systems.

of the

Core

Shell

Type.

the

often

Core

volts

Type.

^Easier to

Difficult to

"

Type.

"

"

^With

repair.

remove

coil.

low-voltage winding

and

of insulation
above, the amount
of winding; the temnext
to the core
turn
perature
means
a larger mean
and P R loss being increased thereby.
the
on
Radiating surface
low-voltage winding very poor,
in
It is a disadvantage if,say,
resulting higher temperatures.
90

per

50"

22,000

of

cent,

C. and

tiheweakest

the

the

transformer

remaining

10

operates

per

cent,

at

at

80"

temperature

C.

as

this

of

point is

link in the insulation.

(concentric)results in poorer regulation

and higher reactance
voltages.
Less mechanical
bracing because of its design and form.
Not
former
possible to operate a three-phase (delta-delta) transin case
one
winding becomes
damaged.
be obtained
It is obviously true that equally good results can
sign
with either the core-type or shell-typeconstruction,but the deThe

arrangement

of

one

or

the

of coils

other

would

depart

from

the

regular standard

of operaexpressed above if equal performances and reliability

tion
ence
for equal conditions
of load, etc., are
desired. The differof the shell-typeconin favor
is slightbut nevertheless

CONSTRUCTION

from
struction,
particularly

dear

break-down

is

shell-typetransformer

The

alloyed iron).

transformers

cost

is

care

is necessary.
results,although in

get good
and

applied. Many

has

been

resultingfrom

recorded

all of which

them.

could

cannot

natural

cooling.

cause,

top

of transformer
a

about

three

as

The
most

the

it reaches

important

transmission

given

been

limit

transformer

taken

has

been

of anything

the

cooling
of

by
stopped by
care

under

ature
temper-

tions
ordinary condideliveringpower

must

be taken

must

at the

until the oil in

actual

an

continue

to

to

coolingmedium

be

reaches

close watch

very

of

or
air-blast,

an

transformer
a

have

be

of the

kept

of service

out

as

this limit.

of
efficiency

engineers and
most

the

apply

operated until the coils

temperature

hours;

and

circulation

of

case

cannot

be

to

way

coolingmedium,

load, without

no

transformer,

This

C.

the
may

in the

permit

temperature
soon

case

water-cooled

of 80"

will

In

at

no

known, high-voltage

form

some

and

it might

had

care

is well

As

loss alone

the transformer

any

of

iron

the

they will

reading is the best indication

continuously,even
since

medium,

formers
trans-

transformers

of the

if proper

saved

designed to operate with

run

when

that

cases

large power

cessation

in this direction.

transformers

for

been

amounts

but

fortunate

of

the

Hourly temperature
wrong

case

have

core-type

equally expensive.

are

attention

some

losses

space

having been put in service

This is,however, not the

attention

further

copper

shell- and

general idea is that

or

after
operate quite satisfactorily

the shell-

than

(low

space

words,

The

"

require any

not

cheaper

iron spaces

and

ordinary iron)

possible equal

as

of Transformers.

Operation
do

other

nearly

as

of copper

volumes

equal

In

and

likewise,the core-type transformer

with
relativelycheap copper
type
and

the

core-type with

the

factor

space

And

factor

153

occur.

cheaper than

(largecopper

space

copper

TRANSFORMERS

operatingpoint of view, with

the

repairs,should

of

exception

LARGE

OF

is

transformer

feature

by

the

operating

managers

engineers this factor

important, the

usually considered
majority of central
distribution

is

not

the

station

By

systems.

considered

important being

most

be its

to

to

be

insulation

the
and

mechanical

strength of the transformer, and consequently its

is no doubt
reliability.The efficiency
an
important feature and

should

not

cannot

be

be

neglected in

considered

as

the

the most

choice

of

but

transformer

important feature

of

it

large

154

STATIONARY

TRANSFORMERS

The
trunsforiucr.
writer believes
high-voltage power
order of importance to be:
1. Reliability,
and
or
abilityto supply continuous

the

right

rupted
uninter-

service.

Safety, or

2.

condition

conforming with

safety to life

and

property.
or
Efficiency,

3.
has

been

made

condition

with

conform

to

with

met

1 and

after

allowance

proper

2.

nal
Reliabilityas referred to here means
things both intermany
and
It might be stated, but
external.
not
generally,that
is the principalpoint in discussingtransformers
from
efficiency
their operating point of view.
Where
large high-voltage power
transformers

can
concerned, efficiency

are

said to

be

take

the

third

place of importance, and probably second

place where
concerned.
low-voltage city distribution transformers
are
of lightningand
Excepting cases
roasting of coils due to
constant
overload, the low-voltage transformer
(as used for
Not so with
citylightingand motor
service)is free from harm.
the large high-voltagepower
transformers
such as we
are
using
the

at

day in connection

present
that

causes

would

coils,moving

of failure

Causes

systems.

and

are

sometimes
coils and

of both

with

sion
long-distance transmis-

do

about

bring

is to

that

numerous;

complete failure

iron,and

say,

burn-outs

of
of

transformer.
Use

Value

and

reliable

but
electrically

bring

about

We

know

to

the

of Reactance.
be

of

the

to

time

to

keep

"dead"
such

enough
need

may

large

the

Several
and

short-circuit
shock

and
take

be

methods
interesting

to

and

15 times

even

brace

the

certain that

care

of

experience.
their experimental stage,
more

other
Some
are

transformer

take

is

mechanical

severe

the

methods

but,

upon,

current

to

the transformer

of

on
care

Use

of reactance, internal

(6)

Use

of resistance

or

stresses

tried

and

external,or both.

neutral

of

grounded

of

quite strong

(a)

in the

normal

time

from

are

experimented

of them

some

down

current

inverselyproportional

are

transformer, therefore on large

the
of high reactance
use
more
or,
reactance, is required that will vary

power

suggested

stresses

of the

reactance

current.

to

be

absolutely
might
mechanically which

weak

short-circuit

the

correctly,high automatic
with

transformer

its wreck.

leakage

systems

"

systems.

we

in

STATIONARY

156

will be

equal

reactance,

the

to

load

divided

full-load current

by

the

percentage

or:

/"=

which

TRANSFORMERS

577

1^

represents

=20,000

0029

in

amount

an

(18)

amperes

times

of 30

excess

normal

full-

current.

(/) is the force in grams

produced between
primary and
their magnetic
secondary windings, and (/)the distance between
in moving one
work
done
set of coils
centers, the mechanical
through the distance (l)against the force (/)would be:
If

^=/.^i.X
short-circuit

At

secondary coils

10^

little

very

joules

(19)

magnetic

flux

through

passes

the

transformer,but if the system is sufficiently

of the
constant
large to maintain
voltage at the terminals
full magnetic flux
transformer
during a period of short-circuit,
a

exist sufficient to
of transformers

lines,but

primary coils.

the

through

passes

of

maintain

located

roast

results
Thus

and

them)

will do

that
a

end

current

current, and

one

at

with

can

never

voltage at the terminals

long-distancetransmission

distances

behind

2.9 per

the

and

of

systems

on

transformers

cent,

reactance

of

voltage

constant

30

of 2.3 per

reactance

current, while

full-load

of

condition

(sufficient
of close regulation, it is possible to get
much
so
damage as to wreck them entirely.
power

with

transformer

short-circuit

times

the

comparatively short

for

unlimited
practically
to

constant

at

Such

with

one

would

times

cent, would
per

cent,

give a
full-load

give 40
reactance

of 25 times.
This,
produce only a short-circuit current
that more
in the transreactance
former
then, certainlydemonstrates
circuit for better
protection is required, and that the
should
be designed proportional to the current
reactance
so
as

would

be

effective.

The

terminal

is taken

from

to

during short-circuit
voltage at the transformer
of the transformer, therethe leakage inductance
fore

810
"

is the
work

force

done

exerted

in

1"

0.706
g.c.m.=

on

moving

the
the

jr-j
transformer

r.
mch

"

lb,

coils and

(20)
represents the

secondary coils until their magnetic

CONSTRUCTION
coincide

centers

TRANSFORMERS

LARGE

OF

with those

coils (an

primary

of the

157

impossible

flux to pass

between
reactance
zero
cause
condition)which
primary and secondary coils.
in question has three
Now
assuming that the transformer
primary coils between
four secondary coils,and the distance
of the adjacent coils,
between
the magnetic centers
or
half-coils,
would

is three inches.
its

The

respectivecoils

would

This force is exerted

If the
force

the

distance

exerted

if the

and

between

coil face is exerted

every

force exerted

tons,
which

or

426
-"

the

on

65

tons

design of

primary

secondary coils,and

of the

on

=71^,

tons

adjacent coils
would

transformer

have

130

been

instead

would

1.7 inches the

been

1,750,000 lb,,

of three

have

coil;this is

for each

the

been

inches,

under

average

400

force,

tons.

coil the

reactance

had

4.3 inches

been

0 and

such

of the three

force of:

-^=
6

had

varies between

In the
is used

about

faces

transformers

distance

tons.

six faces

the

the

between
the

on

and

transformer

something like:

be

corresponding

the

such

on

940,000 lb. =426

coils and

exerted

force

followingformula

/"i6A^

4.44
E

0)

Jos"

in which

the
of turns, ((f))
(/) is the frequency, (A^) the number
flux enclosed
The
flux produced by a coil
by the conductor.
iron core
without
an
being:

where
a

{N) is the

constant

in the
The

width
1

which

number

(21)

~j^

of turns,

{d) the inside diameter, (A)

(jA

equals 0.28+0.125"

and

/ the current

coil.

tendency
of the

of

coil of

(I) is the length and

leakage
a

flux

is not

transformer,
D

the

mean

but

diameter

uniform

throughout the

is greater at the center

of the solenoid.

of

STATIONARY

158

coil (if the

the

circuit should

tendency

will not

break

insulation

the

point

the
The

lie in the

tape

same

bindings, and

intense

of most

and

corners,

tendency,

conductor

hence

heap

buckle,

up

are

upon

liable to

each

on

other

density.
coils have

shell-typetransformer

their outer

plane, and

short-

to

this

be

conductor

at

iron). If, then,

coil will have

the

occur,

in

sufficiently
strong to overcome
its equilibrium be disturbed, the forces of

and

at

imbedded

coil be

it not

should

and

TRANSFORMERS

the

tendency to twist
vertical portions of the coils to
the

into cable.

form
The
forced

upward

current

coils

If, however,
coincident

or

into

downward

being, in
entire

have

the

iron

the

tendency

to

be

(the heaviest

core

instances,forced out of position).

the primary and secondary are exactly

most

the centers

the

coils

transformer

core-type

of

force

would

be

in

exerted

horizontal

be no
direction,and there would
tendency for any of the coils
to move
the primary or secondary is forced
vertically. Whether
which coil has its center
line above
the center
depends upon
up

line of the
is

It

only recently that

have

reactance

the
in

other.

marked
the

to

come

the
toward

movement

central

power-limiting capabilitiesof
This has largelybeen
due to
fore.
the

station

consolidation

concentration

and

industry resultingin unified systems

of

which
fluctuate
gigantic proportions,the loads upon
may
suddenly through a wide range or, still worse, short-circuits on
such
high powered systems may
give rise to rushes of current
the volume
of which
hitherto unknown
in previous systems.
was
In the last few years we
have
to largerand
come
largersystems,
and
consequently greater difficulties of operation. The
centration
conof power

for economical

in these

huge power
dependence
enterprisesand for
ever
our
increasingtransportationsystems, as well as for lighting
and
industrial power
from
or
thrity substations
ten, twenty
distributed over
and
vast
it
areas
supplying large cities,make
ance,
absolutelyessential that they shall l^e protected against disturband
that every
possibleprecaution should be taken, which
in operaexperience or ingenuitycan provide,againstirregularity
tion,
plants, the

because

for

if these

huge

vast

reasons

industrial

transformer

systems

are

going

subjected to disturbance and interruptionof service other

be sacrificed
must
affectingtheir regulationand efficiency
this end, if need

be.

to

be

factors
to

gain

CONSTRUCTION

LARGE

OF

TRANSFORMERS

159

coils in
advantages of iron and air reactance
station are many,
provided the former type is worked
low magnetic density so that it will not become
The

at

the maximum

latter type has

the

leakage,and

that

effective in

are

and

At
and

both

of

not

types

strong

used

an

only

protectingtransformers

external

when

ficiently
suf-

ated
satur-

short-circuit current, and

too
are

at

vided
pro-

magnetic

needed.

They

againstsurges, lightning,

short-circuits.

At

the

peak

power

phenomenon makes itselffelt,

especially
in large transformers, which is negligibleat lower voltages;
distributed capacityof the high-voltagetransformer
winding.
lower voltages, the transformer
capacity (c) is negligible,
11

the

0,000 volts and

transformer

is free from

over

is

thus

an

inductive

apparatus,

and

as

such

all

high-frequencydisturbances,such as traveling
etc.
impulses, stationaryoscillations,
High-frequency

waves,

the

transformer,

but

produce high voltage

between
the end turns, protectionagainst which
is given by the
high insulation of the end turns of the transformer, and also the
external
internal choke
coil. At
or
high voltage the
very
electrostatic capacity of the transformer
becomes
appreciable,
currents

cannot

enter

coils of the transformer

then represent a
high-potential
circuit containing distributed
capacity, inductance, resistance
and conductance.
In the high-voltagewinding of a transformer
and

the

the

inductance

the

oscillations

is

high in value and the capacity low, that is,

in a
comparativelyspeaking lower than the respectiveconstants
line. The result, in general, is that
high-voltage transmission
higher in voltage and lower in current, in the
The
former.
is exposed by highdanger to which a transformer
frequency disturbances from the line side,is not limited to the
end turns
only, but damage may be done anywhere inside of the
are

transformer.
A

coil

choke

transformer

danger.

might

which

does

not

between

reactance
or

might

It protects the

but

this choke

or

transformer

originateinside
coil has

the

in this

not

protect the
its

the

transmission
become

case

from

certain

windings; in
to

throw

fact

back

the
the

source

of

line disturbances

itself from

transformer

tendency

line and

ances
disturb-

addition

of

disturbance

and

of

thereby increase the internal voltage and destructiveness.

Recently it has become
customary to specifythat transformers
have
less than
large sizes and high voltages must
not
proximately
ap5

per

cent,

reactance

for the

protectionof

trans-

STATIONARY

160

TRANSFORMERS

formers, switches,generators

and

mechanical

due

high

the
To

increase

modifications

stresses

the

reactance

are

possible,as,

of

all parts of the

to

excessive

given

system

against

currents.

transformer

one

or

several

for instance:

(1) Decreasing the dimensions of the windings in the direction

in which the leakage flux passes through the wire-space.
of groups
of intermixed
(2) Decreasing the number
primary
of turns
of each
and
being
secondary coils,the number
group
correspondingly reduced.
of turns
in primary and
(3) Increasing the total number
secondary.
(4) Increasing the length of turns in primary and secondary.
itself by the
the viewpoint of safety to the transformer
From
of higher reactance
within the transformer, little
introduction
practicalbenefit is derived.
hard
No
and fast rule can
location of
be given for the correct
several
There
reactance.
reasons
are
against making it all a
Of course,
far as the generating
so
part of the transformer.
stations
connection
are
or

may

not

inductive

concerned

are

with

located
be

is

high systems
at

to

necessary

in

important, but

in

form

any

where

formers
trans-

long transmission lines it may

it. To make
a largetransformer

end

the

reactance

of

use

is not an easy matter, as the

with high reactance
large power
economic
utilization of
the
general principlesof design and
materials obtain for us only low factors, and in order to make
have
of high reactance
to increase its cost and
transformer
we
a
and more
its ampere
more
winding
turns, with of course
copper
transformer
and
and
a
bigger
consequently a larger core
space,
of

for

the

If it is desired

output.

same

by increasingthe
windings, the same

results

are

increase

the

primary

obtained

and

between

space

to

the
and

the

reactance

secondary
efficiencyof

in the transformer
Placing reactance
whereas
external
itself is very
effective on
an
short-circuit,
will not
reactance
generally be so effective
current-limiting
it is not on
because
general principlesdesigned for the shortcircuit current
and its value
consequently is about frustrated by
is required only during the
magnetic saturation. A reactance
short-circuit. In that case, why then should
an
expensive and

the

transformer

inefficient

might
to

transformer

only

occur

arrange

is reduced.

once

reactance

be

considered

in five years;

would

external

that

so

when

it not

short-circuit

be

much

its maximum

better
flux

on

CONSTRUCTION
short-circuit is about

TRANSFORMERS

LARGE

OF

equal

its

to

voltage flux?

161

If

reactance

is put in to limit the short-circuit current, the reactance

must
All
the short-circuit occurs.
be there when
long transmission

magnetic

lines possess
that

so

less

which

reactance

will be

reactance

tend

reduce

to

similar

requiredfor

located at the end of the line than

the

those

at the

The

chief

age
voltformers
trans-

generating

station.
Neutral

the

Earthing

of resistance in the
the

earth

current

resistance

where

on

load

and

voltage

conditions

and

solid-grounded
system.

proved the better to be

ground through resistance
the

while

worse

It

system

to

seems

disconnect

of

the
or

appear
the

that

Of

broken

exactness

of the

will

is not

all times

being

disturbed.

not

the insulated

system

two, experience so

far has

will work

methods

factory
satis-

operation exist and likewise

condition,it being better or
particular

depending on
the

best

be

would

way

the

kind

of disturbance.

limit the

to

current

and

time, in preferenceto grounding

same

to

come

short-circuit which

are

of

of

given value and

insulator or ground of any
reached

current

close value

we
grounded system, and whether
"dead"
ground the method depends

itself. Both

circuit at the

line side which

system

these

ideal condition

operationare

would
through resistance,

in the

the

certain conditions

will vary under

one
in one
the
other
or

both

of

at

current

the
impossible;

cases

two

entirelyon

earth

advantage

system is to limit

arrive at

short-circuit. To

The

extreme

"

star-connected

will limit the

that

the

of

neutral

in fact in most

easy,

of Transformers.

automatic

into

effect

kind

resistance

when

the

line

the oil switches.

actuate

interruptthe

resistance in the

add

on

the

service

line,develops a

depending

on

the

grounded circuit and neutral;

generallyspeaking the service is interruptedwhether there be

resistance in the grounded neutral or not.
It is often stated
and grounded in an insulated delta system
line down
that with one
short-circuit
or
(a non-grounded delta system), an interruption
is very vague
and
This statement
will not occur.
might lead
those who
have not had experiencewith very high-voltagesystem
(voltagesabove
60,000 volts) to believe that in the majorityof
cases

it is correct.

neither

It may

be

stated

that

it is not

correct

for

non-grounded star or delta systems operate at these

high voltagesexcept in very unusual cases.
The primary or secondary may
be put to earth or ground through
a

group
11

the

of star-connected

transformers

as

shown

in

Fig. 122,

or,

ST A TIONA

162

if these transformers
be

must

With

used,

this connection

strain between
to

per

cent,

the

Fig.

of its

of

"

made

shown,

as

secondary

grounding and

or

Method

of

under

strain will not

maximum

terminals.

voltage between

122.

and

ground connection
similar to Fig. 123.

the maximum

insulation

primary windings respectively

ground (whichever side might be grounded) will

of full voltage between
terminals,but with the

method

of full

might be

grounded

any

NSFORMERS

available

not

are

substitute

TRA

R Y

grounding

an

the

be greater than

insulated

87

former
trans-

operating conditions

same

Grounding

be

the

delta system

58 per
neutral

cent,

point

tance
through induc-

coils.

connected
to a
high-voltage windings of transformers
line will immediately operate the relays or circuittransmission
fall to the ground.
should
of the line conductors
breakers
one
of

the

Grounding the neutral point of the secondary, or low-voltage

specialprovision
windings,will not operate the relaysunless some
has been made, and even
so, before the relays or circuit-breakers
are
actuallyoperated the secondary or low- voltage windings are
made

subject

to very

high-voltage

all is to ground the neutral

windings

necessary,

and

points of

where

stresses.

both

the

The

best

method

of

high- and low-voltage

delta-delta systems

are

used, ground

A common
in Fig. 123.
condition found
windings as shown
in practiceis the non-grounded delta-delta
On systems
system.
where
the ground connection
of the ground
is used, the character
the

ordinary pipe restingon

An

of 2000

average

an

TRANSFORMERS

STATIONARY

164

ground

15

gave

several

gave

and

driven

give

to

6 feet into the

pipe
pipe restingon

same

earth, it is found

the

conductance

found

was

dry pebble

of ohms.

thousands

adds

foot

ground

same

the

pipe penetrates

the

As

The

ohms.

ohms,

the

each

that

proportionalto

about

tional
addi-

the

added

upon

what

length.
resistance
specific

The

chemicals

exist around

is present.

there

infinite. In

dry

salt

will

earth

metal

the

In

the

of

plate and

sand-bank
marsh

depend
how

moisture

much

resistance

is tically
pracis
resistance
specific

the
the

of earth
Resistances
ohm.
one
extremely low, being about
in the same
will vary greatly even
connections
locality.
The
engineer is interested mostly in the earth connection in
the immediate
vicinity of the earth pipe or plate; because in

main

the

body

of

the

earth,

the

of cross-section

area

through

if the
enormously great that even
specificresistance is very high the total resistance becomes
conducting
negligiblysmall. If the earth plate should lie in the dry nonof the top layer, it is advisable
to
stratum
get
of introducing better conductivity,not only in the
some
means
the
between
the plate and
the earth, but also between
contact
of
earth
The
best
means
conducting layer deeper down.
the iron
accomplishing this is to pour a salt solution around
to
a
pipe and allow it to percolate down
good conducting
which

the

order

In

stratum.

by

is current, is

there

so

this solution

that

filtration of rain

natural

not

may

be

it is well

water,

washed
to

out

leave

pipe at
crystal
surface, so that rain water
flowing through will dissolve
salt and
Salt has
strata.
carry it continuously to the lower
additional value of holding moisture.
to the use
Objections have from time to time been made
be destructive to the metal
of
salt in stating that it would
considerable

pipe.

Under

action

on

cheap,

and

did

quantity

usual

the

iron

an

destroy

the

conditions

pipe is

it would

be

pipe

salt

of

around

it is found

that

negligiblevalue.

of

better

within

the

Iron

the
the
the

of
the

chemical

the

pipe is very

practiceto use the salt,even

a
period of years which it

if it
does

not.
If it is desired

it is necessary
sufficient to

to

decrease

to drive earth

keep

one

out

the

resistance

pipesthat
of the

are

dense

of earth

connections,
a

distance

field of current

of the

separatedby

CONSTRUCTION

TRANSFORMERS

LARGE

OF

165

density in the earth around a pipe-earth

drops off approximately as the square of the distance. A good
is to drive multiple pipes at least 6 ft. apart and conmethod
nect
The

other.

them

current

together, and

proportionto
The

more

the

number

salt

water

earth, the

pipes have

Earth

which

they will

applicationof
the

lose

boiled

out

and

evaporated

tends

in the

diameter

small

the

surface

earth

As

diameter

of

the
a

from

resistance

pipe

effect

that

earth-

moisture

the

pipe,the

of the

this moisture

The

the

supplied,but

being

pipe effects

of the

an

quickly and

ground.

is

bad

so

out.

is
rounding
sur-

the vapor

pipe.
comparatively
the

decreases

the

resistance

layingout systems which must of necessitybe

less complicated,the question of continuityof service
or
be always kept in mind
and placed first in importance.
In

"

more

should
the

intricate systems
operation many
tie-lines between
tions.
receiving stations and generating staThis arrangement
in providing propresents difficulty
tection

present time

on

any

dried

drying

of current

percentage.

Switching.

with

at

have

as

drive away

to

little. Doubling the

At

will be

its effectiveness

generated

continuouslywithout

pipe

critical value

maximum

high voltage might

moisture

The

certain

less

pipe-earth,the

pipe. Inversely the drier the

the pipe.
of potential
near

the

near

carry

around

earth

plate

by

placed around

the concentration

more

in

almost

pipes.

of

potentialgradient

the

will decrease

resistance

the

are

of the

account

line may

one

there

cause

an

in

interconnections

interruptionof

and
a

in

disturbance

large portionof

the

system.

Systems
cannot

is that

he

are

sometimes

"overrelayed,"relays which

being installed. The

thoroughly understand
oftentimes

plugging with

wood

to

renders

some

prevent

what

interruptionsof service,which may

protection to the transformers.
system

of connections

careful

the

of
he

be at

them

inoperativeby

considers
the

Before

study should

ator
operresult

unnecessary

expense

deciding
be made

of needed
upon
to

the

mine
deter-

simplestpossiblearrangement, when taking into account

of energy
under
normal
not only the delivery
conditions,but also
conditions.
continuityof service under abnormal
switching is
Low-voltage moderate
capacity transformer
connected
transformers
to
simple. High-voltage power
large
of
in
their
switching
arrangement
systems are not quiteso simple
the

ST A TIONA

166

and

their

and

other

TRA

R Y

from
protection

both

NSFORMERS

internal and

short-circuits

external

faults.

Figs. 124,

125

and

show

120

different methods

four

for

high-

protection and their switching. The series

voltage transformer
be attached
directlyto the switches which thoy
relays may
of series transformers
operate, while those relays energized by means
and potential
transformers
(differential
relays)are usually
Series
OH
on
Switch

Eelay
lelay SI

Primary

"

r^

Switcheshes

Disconnecting

Bars

Bus

Volt

110,000

*];

Switches

-Disconnecting

Switches

on

Swltcihes

Dteconnecttog
Dteco:

Primary

Series

~~

Relays
Disconnecting
Switches

Power

Transformers

on
[o]

Switch

6. Disconnecting

Bars

Bus

Fig.

124.

attached

the

to

of

Method

"

Switch

protection of transformers.

switching and

switchboard

panels

located

on

operating

the

gallery.
secondary relays (relaysenergized from the
be used on highseries transformers) or both, may

Series relays,or
secondaries

of

voltage circuits.

operated by
source

the

as

main

air-break
where

the

case

an

may

be;

in the

transformer

low-voltage switches
of

small

supply or

switches

are

disconnecting switches

and

are

circuit is most

bus-bar,
isolatinga circuit,
If

these

The

single-poletype

A, B, C, etc.,

auxiliarysource

from

switchboard.

break

marked

of intermediate

means

receive their energy

oil-switches

The

the

which
same

located
are

are

on

of the

usually located at that point

desired,for interchanging,or

etc.

is switched

direct

on

to

high-voltagesystem

LARGE

OF

CONSTRUCTION

167

TRANSFORMERS

to
equivalentin its suddenness
in high-frequency
what
experiments, and the exact
usually occurs
the local capacityof
of the rush will depend largelyon
amount
their connections,that
and
the high-voltageswitches
is, the

there

be

may

distance

rush

they

of current

from

located

are

the

transformers

which

to

they

connected.

are

usual

The

switching

shocks

dependent

are

end

the

to

load, character

the

upon

Disconnecting

Switch

on

Oil Switch

"A"

Transformer

Relay
Switch

Trans^formers

Power

Series

Series

yr
:p-'^||forA*H
Transformer

Transformer
over-load

Tlme-llinlt

for C

Relay

^t

type

of switch

time

allowed

regards

the

transformers

methods

Two

(oiltype

Switch

Low

of

or

switching

air,and
the

and

there
switching itself,

be switched

(1) Switching in
(2) Switching

the

non

to

on

transformers

-energized

Bars

Bus

Voltage

opening,

for

can

Disconnecting

(/
"f To

"

Relay

c
cnrrent

Switches

|6|

Switch

125.

Keverse
Reverse

"

Switch

Disconnecting

Fig.

Switch

Series

tlme-

series

for

load,

Disconnecting

Switch

Umlt

of the

to

Volt

110,000

Inverse

due

transformers

of

turns

and

protecting transformers.

single-or multi-break), the

of switching. As
method
several

are

in which

ways

line,as for example:

a
on

an

line.

open

transformers

on

an

energized

line.

(3) Switching energized line on

(4) Switching in the transformers

voltage at generating station.

of the
(5) Switching under
any
resistance

or

reactance

in series.

to

energizied transformers.

and

above

afterward

conditions

raisingthe
but

with

STATIONARY

168

TRANSFORMERS

low-voltage side of transformers.

(7) Switching on the high-voltageside of transformers.
on
long transmission
(8) Switching energized transformers
transformers
in at the receiving
lines with
already switched
station,but "dead."
during lightning storms,
(9) Switching in transformers
line disturbances,etc.
(10) Switching in transformers
using oil-switches.
using air-break switches.
(11) Switching in transformers
(0) Switching

on

the

Transformer

Series

Disconnecting
Switcli

Disconnecting
Vh\

Switch

Switch
-^[pjoil

Bars

Bus

o^Si Disconnecting'
Switch

Definite

"

Time

Relay

limit

Relay

lijiiit

Switches

Tlme-

Inverse
for

Series

"

for

Switches

Transformer

Disconnecting
Switch

Oil Switch

Disconnecting

Non-automatic

Switch

Oil Switch

Generator

Fig.

Most
to

126.

Another

"

of

the

excessive

on

the

to

in

the

(4) is generallynot

above

being

case

best

are

the

on

and

bad

and

windings
is to

do

three-phase circuits.

possiblebecause

protection.
may

of the

lead
formers.
trans-

switching
possible using only 3-pole

method

whenever
of

switching

shown

thrown

(4), the

low-voltage side

oil-switches

of transformer

methods

surges

Next

method

Busses

of the

all

The

method

necessityof lowering

CONSTRUCTION

voltage

the
where

of

the

high-voltage

all
A

switches

it is necessary

If

point

to

but

where

can

used, and, probably,

time-limit

The
amount

of current

to

up

open

If

it

might

can

be

be

circuit

Aside

from

is

for

only

will

with

permit

it is needed

of

that

switch

safely.

operate

switches

be

current.

the

of this

kind,
it

whereby

arrangement

some

when

of
care

to

work,

should

flow
take

very

on

the

instance,

or, for

actually being opened.

the

of

circuits

opening

closing circuits, there

of

methods

above

conditions

two

do

to

the

it is able

connection

provide
use

and

for

which

under
in

to

limit

to

it is set

load

into

brought
the

are

well

time-limit.

the

instantaneously

relay will therefore

which

is used

reactance

when

its

the

to

is

large enough

reactance

with

energized

design is required, a time-limit

of

economy

made

be

be

to

is

method

first.

circuit

has

switching

about

open

large loads, switching

and

closed

being

169

preferential

next

is "dead"

station

important

very

TRANSFORMERS

The

system.

receiving

LARGE

OF

which

be

should

avoided,

as:

(1) Opening

line

long transmission

under

load,

heavy

on

high-voltage side.

the

(2) Opening
with

long transmission

high-voltage side

the

on

no-load.

Method

(2)

to

is to

be

of

safely breaking

most

comparatively

Where

circuit

is, one
good

lead

each

on

practice

the

delta

connections

through

for

or

the

open)
of

air-break

this

for

that

bad

phase

switches

capable

with

necessary,

and

not

fused

to

use

This

group.

fuse

blown-out

distortion

are

For

connection,

delta

three-phase

reason

kind

and

is still customary
of

low-

should

conditions.

extreme

inside

installed

the

are.

construction

it

If

transformers

power

under

installations

small

fuse-switches

expulsion

large

mechanical

substantial

of

(leaving

for

from

done

conditions

load

the

be

method

"dead."

made

be

to

all it should

at

what

switches

be

is not

out

matter

no

High-voltage
the

cut

short-circuits, and

to

required

line

high-voltage

voltage side

that

principally

refers

(1)

live circuit

made

line

they

may

occur.

should

switches.

be

CHAPTER

TRANSFORMERS

AUTO

ordinary

The

The

winding.
the

and

ratio

or

the

circuit

and

Thus

h.

For
and

example,
b d

taking
1050

the

the

127.

in

whole

or

Fig.
or

two

taps

taken
to

the

has

127

part

two

brought

taps

winding

of the

vasiy

be

auto-transformer.

Step-up

"

voltage

lower

tap

volts.

obtain
X

550

and

wound

being

each
a

primary

the

from

out

the

voltage simply by changing

raised

volts

d,

or

for

and

all that
and

b, is wound

by moving

And

voltage maybe

from
550

between

of turns,

connections.

the

to

raise the

to

number

total

the

across

voltage ratio being equal

the

shown

Fig.

used

applied

one

of turns.

auto-transformer

at

the

across

but

having

transformer

is connected

winding,

same

of numbers

The

words,

is usually

voltage

in other

secondary

off from

out

primary

winding,

total

is

auto-transformer

from

50

d,

the
the

to

volts.

far

1050-1-50

secondary

volts.
170

end
=

then

be

seen,

gives 1000-1-50
winding,

the

of

1100

is to

volts,

1000

will

As

secondary

is necessary

c; the

for

volts.

bring

two

gives

In

leads

1050"500

by
=

a,

order
out
=

TRANSFORMERS

STATIONARY

172

actual power
The

this service?

requiredfor

auto-transformer

delivered

over

ratingof

the

actual

45,000 + 750
Fig. 128

In
The
to

line will

to the

The

thus

action

act

of

as

33,750 kilowatts.

step-up

auto-transformer

the

is similar

portionof

the

to

that

of the

between

the

two

primary and secondary

the

insulated

former
auto-trans-

transformer.

essential difference

and

separate

are

primary

the

The

step-down

or

in the transformer

lies in the fact that

from

circuit.

the

primary.

the

than

subtracted

auto-transformer

an

ordinary transformer, the

windings

be,

secondary voltage is smaller

the

be,

kilowatts.

3750

voltages,b d and c a, are thus

form
the secondary voltage of
may

will

auto-transformer

delivered

total power

will be the

what

the line?

5000X750
The

and

from

in

other, while

each

to both

winding is common

-1000-

-100-

-1100-

FiG.

primary

and

in both

types

129.

in

an

the

auto-transformation.

primary

The

of transformers

other, and thus

winding carries only
secondary currents.
the

Two-phase

secondary.

each

In

"

and

in the

are

foregoing explanation

between

of

currents

opposite direction

auto-transformer

difference

secondary

to

portion of the
the primary and
a

auto-transformation

the

will be used instead of the auto-transformer.

ordinary transformer
in Fig.
shown
as
Two-phase, four-wire,auto-transformation
to assist the primary,
the secondary winding is made
129, where
be considered
two
as
ordinary single-phasecircuits. The
may
ratio of transformation

by

in this

case

is 10 to 1, therefore

we

obtain

shown, a secondary voltage of 1100.

By reversingthe secondary connection it is possiblefor

get

the

connection

1000

100

as

900

volts.

us

to

TRANSFORMERS

AUTO
If

we

should

take

in

it as shown

end of the

one

Fig. 130

we

secondary windhig and

obtain

would

173

50 per

cent,

of the

connect

primary

voltage plus 100, which is the total secondary voltage. Then

that is
assuming the primary and secondary to have a four-wire,
to

say,

two

systems,
independent single-phase

Ob

Fig.

130.

we

would

have

auto-transformation.

four-wire

Two-phase

"

secondary voltage of 500 plus

and
taps brought out
y, are
windings.

100=
from

600

volts.

the

middle

The

points,x
points of the

two-phase auto-transformation is represented in Fig.

to a three-wire
Both primary and secondary areconnected

Another
131.

Fig.

system

from

between

a'

131.

"

Two-phase

which

we

and

h c'

auto-transformation.

three-wire

obtain
and

1550

secondary voltage of
volts between

1100X1.41
A

1550

a' and

1100

c', or

volts.

combination
giving a five-wire,
two-phase
interesting
it
transformation
is shown
in Fig. 132.
this arrangement
From
is seen
of different voltages and
that quite a number
phase
very

TRANSFORMERS

STATIONARY

174

by simply shiftingthe connection

increase and decrease
the resultant
at X we
voltages.
constitute the
At a re rf and c x d the respectivephases that
45 degrees to a
four-phase relation have been changed from
relations

obtained,and

be

can

o'

-1000

"

^1000

"f

"

600-"k-500-

"-500

^-nmPi
U

-100-

-1100"

"

"

-1100-

300-

FiG.

100

"

-500-

132.

Two-phase

"

auto-tranformation.

five-wire

slightlyhigher value, the voltage increasingin proportionto the

increase of phase difference.
of
The
in Fig. 133 is a method
three-phase arrangement shown
auto-transformation
by which we are enabled to supply approxi-

-IflOO-

-1000-

immJ

-1000

*"

"

liK^^mJ immJ
n^^'^'iij^

-100

-100-

-^00-

-1040
-1040-

-1040-

FiG.

mately

1040

1732-volt
with

133.

"

volts to

primary

ratio of 10 to

Between

Three-phase

source

1, or

500

auto-transformation.

secondary mains, 1, 2
of supply, using three

the

points ah,h

star

c,

1000
c,

we

X\/3=

to

100

volts.

obtain
866

volts.

and

3,

from

transformers

TRANSFORMERS

AUTO

points 1 2, 2 3,

Between

500 + 100

and
X

3, there

\/3

175

1040

exists

approximately

volts.

in Fig. 134, with its

three-phase delta connection shown
be used where
three secondary windings left open-circuited,
may
The

*" "

1000

"

-loco-

"

^1000
"

M^^sinJwmsiSiSirisismsi^
|"-ioo^

=H

-500

-im-SCO

Fig.

134.

"

auto-transformation

Three-phase

with

secondaries

open

circuited.

three-phase 500-volt
if

required,may

is installed.

motor

be used

at

the

same

ings,
secondary windtime for lightingor

The

lightingservice it will be necessary

the secondary windings in delta,running a three-wire
to connect
of
This method
of supply, ah c.
distribution to the source
power.

To

obtain

Fig.

135.

100-volt

"

Three-phase delta
is often

connecting transformers
transformers

of correct

shown

in

are

found
not

useful

in

places where

obtainable.

Fig. 135 has its secondary windings

in circuit with the primary windings. Like Fig. 133
connected
from the middle of each winding;but instead
a tap is brought out
The

combination

ratio

auto-transformation.

TRANSFORMERS

STATIONARY

176

it is connected
to one
leading out to the secondary distribution,
at 1, 2 and 3; the result
end of the secondary winding as shown
in the vector
of which
represents a phase displacement as shown
of

diagram.

Fig.

Using

136.

the

connecting
for

us

obtain

to

transformers

same

to

"

in the

as

500X\/3=866

volt

of different

number

distribution,such

-1732-

auto-traiisformation.

Three-phase double-star

"

as

three

at

previous examples,
supply, it is possible

voltages

1000,

for the

ary
second-

600,

three

secondaries

open-

three

at

^1732-

-1783

-1000-

-1000-

"1000

"

"\

-100-

-500V3-

-500"^-

Fig.

137.

"

Three-phase

star

B^

auto-transformation

with

circuited.

at

520, six

at

500, three

(Fig.136).

at

173,

According

and

to the

appliedat the secondary distribution

kilowatt capacityof the transformers
Another

it is shown

three

at

it is understood

are

spectively
volts,re-

raito of transformation

will vary.
is shown
in

three-phase combination
that the primary windings

100

that

the

Fig. 137, where

connected

in star, and

the middle

From
at

leads, ABC,

three

the

6 and

The

are

of each

connected

to

primary winding

1732-volt

a
a

tap is

supply.
brought out

c.

secondary voltage across

The

volts.

177

TRANSFORMERS

AUTO

100-volt

-1350-

ab,

and

secondary winding

may

is 500X\/3 =866
be

used

for power

-1850-

-1^-1000-

-1000-

Lm|Mi"-[
^100-

-1000-

U^^^ioaoMm^^
"^100-

-500-

-500-500

Three-phase auto-transformation

using primary windings only.

FiG.

138.

and

singleor polyphase, depending

lighting,

"

upon

the

size and

design of the transformer.

Fig. 138 represents a three-phase transformation,
using only
end
of each
the primary windings. One
primary winding is
connected
to
the middle
point of another primary winding.
Three-phase, 1350
volts, impressed on A B C will give 500
volts

on

12

1-2, 2-3, and

1-3.

XI

CHAPTER

CONSTANT-CURRENT

TRANSFORMERS

operating

For

constant-potential,

is

nearly

constant

current

potential circuits,and
winding

secondary
Thus

the

full

from

by

distance

the

line.

cut

of

series

still

with

respect
of

lamps,

maintaining

in

the

the

current

such

stant
con-

manner

is balanced

coil

which
coil

secondary

decreases

hold

resistance.

number

any

counterweight,

and

to

variable

transformer

secondary

primary
or

out

its

from

self-regulating characteristic

the

against

as

to

constant-

current

of

take

to

from

lag

automatically

The

or

increases

amount

circuit

constant-

designed

constant

load, while

zero

of

the

from

through

permits

to

This

vary.
of

reactance

the

circuit

the

irrespective

constant

of

load.
For

the

majority

current

transformer

reliable

in service

one

possible

primary

between

such

deliver

receiving

to

levers

automatically
in

to

constructing

the
of

system

it

It is

angles

operates

the

on

is obtained
either

varying

load

rated

current

that

at

transformer

load, making

the

to

to

mains,

used.

frequently

OPERATION

lighting systems

alternating-current

transformer

current

incandescent

and

arc-

AND

element

the

incandescent

will be
than

found

lower

reactive

the

of

advantages

coil

the

systems
in

constant-

initial cost

method,

more

it combines

as

regulating device

and

and

in

an

ing
insulat-

the

double

transformer.
One

type

of

magnetic

type

enclosing

the

the

primary,

of the

repulsion
for

system

For
the

while

vertical

three

central

limb.

the

upper

and

of

limbs

The

lower

one,

or

is free

to

of

core

and

along

fixed, is

is carried

secondary,

move

is

coil, which

coils

flat

two

on

limb

central

the

core.

The

in the

with

suspension,

balanced

consists

transformer

between

the

fixed

and

windings

moving

given position is directly proportional

to

the

of

the

current

windings.
series

enclosed, arc-lighting

usually

consists

is

transformer

constant-current

of

movable

on

alternating-current circuits
universally

secondary
178

and

used.

fixed

This

primary

type
wind-

maries

When

separated.

are

together should
position;that is,when

full-load

less than

be

when

primaries

the

secondaries

effective force

distance,the

them

draw

primariesand

the

maximum

the

separated by
to

TRANSFORMERS

STATIONARY

180

are

tending

they

in

are

secondaries

and

close

are

For
one

together.
capacitiesof 100 lamps, or less,there is one primary and
the
secondary coil, the primary being stationary,and

coil is suspended and so balanced

secondary, or constant-current
it and the primary changes
by weights that the repulsionbetween
with variations of load, the current
them
the distance between
in the secondary being kept constant.
there are
For capacitiesof 100, or more,
two
primary and two
coils.

secondary
each

from

secondary,

the

maximum

operated

at different

being operated

loads, the

load

than

one-half

may

be

of

to

rated

connected

to be

up

carried upon

transformer.

in

to

at

unequal

of the other

greater,

total

coils

transformer, the

multi-circuit

the

the

the

However,

circuits

two

of

capacty

loads

operated separately,

being less,and

together

will allow

the

the

operate

circuit

one

the

when
circuit,

capacity of

total

the

it is necessary

which

two

of each

load

will be one-half
when

circuits

be

may

if desired.

currents

The

circuit of lamps

separate

arrangement,

capacity of

the

former
trans-

circuit.

one

capacitiesof 250, or more, there may be one or two primary

and two
secondary coils,two circuits being operated from each
It is
secondary, thus giving four circuits from the transformer.
For

not

the

that

necessary

loads

the

on

two

circuits from

each

coil be

the total load can

be carried on one
cuit
cirbalanced, and, if desired,
alone,provided the insulation of the line is such as to admit
the
Constant-current
high voltage which will be introduced.
transformers

type is surrounded
with

base

by

and

by

away

the

top of

cast-iron

working parts

The

air- and

of the

are

are

oil-cooled type.

corrugated

sheet

iron.

The

cast

case,

iron

or

The

air-cooled

cast-iron

oil-cooled

type

casing
is

rounded
sur-

providing ample cooling surface.

immersed

in

oil,which

ing
assists in conduct-

heat.

Constant-current

transformers

usually located

in stations

generated, received or transformed, as,

for instance,a receivingstation at the end of a long high-voltage
line; although in large cities they are, for convenience, located
where

electric energy

are

in district sub-stations

is

and

close

to

distribution

centers.

TRANSFORMERS

CONSTANT-CURRENT

They

made

are

systems, and

to

for

operate

reasonable

any

to furnish

60-

on

125-cycleand even
primary voltage.
for

125-cycletransformer

60-

181

133-cycle
tomary
cus-

133-cycle

125-

is

It

system.
The
current

maintains

transformer
a

within

1.5 per

the

one-third

of

constant

potential
its regulation
over
capacitywill come

the

constant

its rated

if properly adjusted.

efficiencies of constant-current

The
load

cent,

maintain

and
potential,

uniform

full-load to

from

range

than

accurately

more

even

will

transformer

constant-current

lamps vary
100-lamp transformer
arc

to

about

cyclesfrom

60

at

about

with

transformers
96

full

for

cent,

per

94.5 per cent, for the

25-lamp

transformer.
Another

transformer

known

replacingthe

older

constant-current

wound"

type

is fast

the

as

wise
"edge-

mentioned

type

above.
this modern

From

of construction

method

which
is the
derived, principalamong
of an
internal short-circuit,
as

are

any

of the
The

consists of

conductors

adjacent

two

transformer,
construction

at

or

of

the

most

this type

about

several
almost
the

advantages

possibili
im-

absolute

voltage

between

only the volts per

turn

10 volts.

different.

is somewhat

The

of sheet steel and has a center

is built up of thin laminations
of construction
not
only
leg of cruciform shape. This form
core

tends

thereby requiringa
support itself,

to

very

thin

angle

for

securely clamping the laminse and decreasing the eddy current

of construction
in the clamp, but the form
also gives the most
economical

flux

path

as

well

as

permitting a

smaller

diameter

coil.

wise
secondary consist of four concentric edgeThe
coils of double cotton
wound
covered rectangularwire.
with wooden
four sections are
assembled
together concentrically
spacing stripsto maintain at all points an air-duct of sufficient
conductor
therefore
Two
surfaces of each
width.
are
exposed
creasing
of air passing through the air-ducts,
to the currents
thereby inthe effective radiating
surface of each coil by about threefold.
The
ning
large radiatingsurface with the consequent cool runThe

primary

allows
copper

per

course,

and

very

high

ampere-turn,

cheaper

current

less

transformer

the older type above

density which
weight,

for the

mentioned.

less floor

same

permits of
space,

kilowatt

less

and,

of

ratingthan

STATIONARY

182

Construction
modern

most

of Transformer.

type

of laminations

TRANSFORMERS

of

of

The

"

iron,which

annealed
specially
Each

sheet

speciesof

are

lamina)

or

japan,

loss in the

current

is built up
sheared
to the

transformer

constant-current

required length and width.

coating the surfaces with
I'educe materially
the eddy

this efficient and

of

core

is treated

which

to

serves

This

core.

by

japan

rolls which
applied by passing each individual sheet between
are
constantlykept moist with the japan. After passingthe rolls,
the piecesof iron are
carried along a travellingtable, where
they

is

dried

are

air is blown.

through which

by passing nozzles

Short-Circuit,
Flug

l-x-^^J

*"""""H

Fig.

140.

"

for single,or

Connections

multiple of

series

arc

or

incandescent

circuits.

Like the core-type constant

with

commences

in

horizontal

together
"horn-fiber," the

iron
press

the

position.

stacked

under

the construction
potentialtransformer
iron, the iron legs being assembled

and

After

all the

laminations

wrapped with the

assembly should

have

been

sheets

necessary

of

placed in a press
the weight of the
which
will reduce
considerable
pressure
In the factory an
to
the required dimensions.
hydraulic
is generally used, the pressure
applied being equivalent to

several

tons; the

whole

temperature

legs in

each

be

is also increased

to

about

250"

F.

of

rectangular
of "cruciform"
one
shape which is larger in crossshape, and
the two
section than
rectangularlegs each legbeing assembled
and handled
separatelyuntil completed, after which the three are
and
raised vertically
accurately spaced for the placing of end
There

are

three

transformer

"

two

"

laminations.

After

the

end

laminations

have

been

put in and

TRANSFORMERS

CONSTANT-CURRENT
whole

the

completed iron

is turned

core

is similar

in every

placuig of coils,the

the

for

ready

upside down.

of coil for this modern

form

The

made

assembly

183

constant-current

type

former
trans-

large majority of those

It is
used in constant
potentialpower and lightingtransformers.
cylindricalin form and consists of rectangularshaped wires,the
All the coils are placed
width being several times the thickness.
the

on

all,there

each

with

coil. For

coil,while the secondary coil is

series alternating-current
lighting.
fabrication
is

interesting. In

in this

wound

and

coil. For

primary

coil is the

movable

the

coil for

of this class of coil for constant-current

the

former
is used which
cylindrical
the requiredinside diameter
as

edge

insulating

movable

voltage coil the

the

has

the

of the

collapsible

inside

same

coil. The

around

manner

coil

of the

the

formers
trans-

wire

diameter
is set

former.

In

on

the

through a friction device to give the

requiredtension,the startingend of the wire being clamped to
The
wire is
a
flanged collar revolving with the winding form.
pressed firmly against the collar by another collar,which loosely
and is held stationary;next
follows another
fits the winding form
heavily against the stationary
flanged collar which
presses
of wire very
collar, thereby forcing the several turns
tightly
The flanged collar thus travels slowlyalong
against one another.
the winding former, so that for one
revolution of the machine, or
winding,

wire

winding

In

it is
lighting

incandescent

and

arc

movable

The

dimensions.

with
concentrically

rectifier systems

arc

mercury

to

of cruciform

one

the lowest

make

to

customary

is the

coils located

four

are

between

spaces

use

leg which

center

respect

the

is fed

turning lathe, it travels

of
taken

from

baked

at

distance

wire.

of the

turn

one

After

equal
the

former
collapsible

the

temperature

of about

the

to

coil has been

it is set
F. in

180"

insulated

into

ness
thick-

finished and
a

clamp

well-ventilated

and

oven,

thereby removing all moisture; and, while stillhot, is dipped in

a tank
containinginsulatingvarnish. This heating and dipping
is repeated several times until the coil becomes
self-sustaining
and

until the

coil is then
turns

of tape

are

insulation
with

wound

by
used

will take

one-half

in the

which

is varnished

which

is treated

to

each

one-third

no

turn

varnish.

more

overlappingthe
Various

its width.

insulatingof coils,such

The
ceding
pre-

kinds

cotton

tape,

cambric

tape,

as

applying, varnished
applying,and mica tape.

after

after

tape,

up

Mica

tape

is

ST A TIONA

184

NSFORMERS

TRA

R Y

Where
cotton
high-voltage transformers.
only used on
very
tape is employed it receives a brushing of the best quality of
and
baked, revarnished
rebaked,
insulating varnish, is then
this process being repeated several times for each tape.
within one-tenth
of
The
comes
regulation of this transformer
1

above

amp.

below

or

normal

from

current

full-load

to

no-load.

Fig. 140 (A), (B) and (C)

connecting the secondaries of
single,or multipleof series arc

show

different methods

three

transformers

constant-current
or

of
for

circuits. Method

incandescent

C.T.

Tx

Fig.

141.

of

Method

"

constant

shows

two
a

in each

transformers

independently.
Fig. 141 (A)

simple circuit;(B)

and

(B) represents

transformers

constant-current

case.

and

two

methods

series-arc

operating

of

lighting

three-phase primaries. The secondaries of (A) show

circuit being supplied from
circuits,each
for 2000
transformers, the primaries of which are wound

separate
volts and

as

respectively. The secondaries of

each being in
independent secondary circuits,

two

from

pendent
inde-

two

2000X\/3/2 volts
show

two

singlesecondary winding
circuits operated in series or singly as
desired; (C)
circuit being operated
multi-circuit secondary, each

(A) represents
with

current

three-phase primaries, using

from

operation

also

(B)
two

parts

shown.

shipment,

Before

subject
primary

to

an

and

constant-current

insulation

test

all parts; also

transformers

of 10,000 volts
between

between

are

made

secondary,

primary, secondary

and

all

TRANSFORMERS

CONSTANT-CURRENT

duration

The

parts.

insulation

the

of

however,

the

primary voltage

the

the

insulation

case,

has

above,
based
the

is greater

room

of

be

should

25"

than
added

cent,

per

rarely

referred

exceeding

If the

C.

0.5

to

55"

C.
of

temperature
for

each

degree'

rise of temperature;

observed

the

to

is very

If

voltage.

rise not

25"

C,

minute.

one

transformer

constant-current

temperature

room

on

normal

guaranteed temperature

difference
if

type of

modern

The

is

test

5000, which

is above

is twice

test

185

less,subtracted.
record

The

of

tests

transformer

current

100-lamp

CONSTANT-CURRENT

air-cooled

amp.,

RECORD

TRANSFORMER

Full-load

=100

constant-

below.

shown

are

6.6

lamps"

6.6

amp.

"60

TEST

cycles

Lights connected
Test
60

Core

loss in watts
loss in watts

Copper
Sec.

892
402
6930

open-circuit voltage

Pri. current

at

At

75

per

At

50

per

33

per

At

12

hours'

run

C.)

Efficiency in

per

factor

Power

18.7

voltage

rise after

(Temperature
55"

2200

cent,

at

full-load.

98.5
.

cent,

full-load

94.1

cent,

full-load

91.4

cent,

full-load

in per

at

cent,

70.2

full-load
.

At

75

per

cent,

full-load

53.2

At

50

per

cent,

full-load

36.4

At

33

per

cent,

full-load

When

operating

line loss,the
Volts
Power

per

load

voltage and

of 6
.

power

lamp 4- line loss

factor

of

lamp

=83
=

84

6 amp,

factor
per
per

lamps

plus

the

lamp

at

cent.
cent.

per

are

cent,

XII

CHAPTER

TRANSFORMERS

SERIES

characteristics

The

circuit

amnaeters

and

is

high

so

directly into
than

greater

with

series

when

to

the

the

alternating-

the

current

very

voltage

connect

of

is

measured

it is also

and

the

instrument

be

to

instrument,

of the

used

relays.

transformer

with

it unsafe

and

capacity

the

in connection
The

circuit

the

with

where

not

are

connection

in

render

OPERATION

transformer

wattmeters

to

as

series

the

is used

It

generally
current

of

known.

THEIR

AND

considered

first

was

lighting systems,

street

but

and

was

in

used
entire

an

nection
con-

failure.

im
n

Sa"-^*r-

^P

Ip
Fig.

Figs.

For

and

142

almost

20

commercial
this

At
on

the

introduction
insulation
the

higher

that

circuit

magnetic

within

current

without

this
The

rings

For

core.

number

meant

they

the

were

To

primary

in

limits

order

turns

considerable
in

of

this

insulation
of

place it

was

time

186

core

to

and

money,
to

be

take

also
use

of

accuracy

of sheet-

serious

care

on

problem.
This

increased.
and

magnetizing

being placed
a

had

to

made

was

became

difficult

but

the

windings

secondary

waste

with

the

required,

was

the

keep

compared

accomplish
and

to

the

with

Also

essential

found

was

into

instrument

instruments

the

high voltages, insulation

of

once

it

on

came

improved,

insulation

better

joints

reasonable

transformation.
iron

went

other

any

increased.

only protect

not

time

As

to

it

instruments.

of instruments

device

voltages

would

operator.

equal

accuracy

accurate

more

of

the

as

until

measuring

was

relations.

vector

background

with

its accuracy
and

the

143.

transformer

series

in

kept

in connection

time

for

it

years

market

demand

Fig.

^Fundamental

"

7^

142.

143.

use

*"

even

of

the

after
heat

it only

such

means

the

the

resistance in the

the

secondary

increased

the

through

current

e.

increase the

would

as

to maintain
secondary e.m.f. sufficiently

flux and

ordinary conditions
that

in the current

decrease

resultingmagnetic

so

TRANSFORMERS

STATIONARY

188

f. is low

m.

resistance.

Under

secondary circuit is low,

and

also the

resultant

netic
mag-

flux.

secondary be short-circuited

If the

that there is no

so

the windings, and

current
leakage between
put
magnetic flux will be set up in the primary. This

in the

e.m.f.

an

that

in the

secondary which

primary.

windings will

The

be reduced

result

to

value

io

Fig.

144.

"

voltage
Thus
that

Direction

establish

to

the

of

sets

current

up

is that

the

which

will

flux

on

magnetic
the line,a

flux

produces
opposed to
threading the

produce

sufficient

three-phase currents

"

chosen

arbitrarilyfor

venience.
con-

through the secondary resistance.

force of the primary current
is less than

current

magnetomotive

of the

such that the flux

secondary current, by an amount
produced thereby generates the voltage required to send the
secondary current
through the resistance of the secondary

the
circuit,

vector

of the

sum

When
decrease

flux, which

in turn

the

In

transformer

order

secondary e.m.f.,which

the

When

current.

greater secondary
to

determine

the

it is in general necessary
of the

reactances

transformer

decreases

secondary

there is

current.

and

the magnetizing

being equal to
the secondary resistance is increased,there
will be a
in the secondary current
which allows a largerresultant

current

reached

and
secondary current
the primary current.

and

primary

and

f. and

e.m

condition

stable
a

less

characteristics
to

know

secondary

the

creases
inis

secondary
of

series

resistances

windings

of the

secondary circuit,and the

and
amount
at the various
power-factor of the exciting current
If no
operating flux densities in the transformer.
magnetizing
the
current
be in
were
required,
secondary ampere-turns would
of

the

external

SERIES

TRANSFORMERS

approximate equilibrium with

consequently
would

inverse

be the

this ratio

ratio of the

the

nearly

as

force is

that very

so

curve,

is worked

transformer

the shunt

large cross-section

of

to

attain

considerably
little magnetizing

from
electrically

about

at

one-tenth

differs very

much

load,while the former must change its secondary voltage in

to change its secondary current.
fundational
is the

mechanically and
shunt
transformer;the latter maintaining a
of the
voltage on the secondary irrespective

constant
practically

The

the

transformer,due to the fact that

iron is used.
It is readily understood

series transformer

In order

iron is worked

possiblethe

as

magnetic density of
that

of turns.

required.

series

The

primary ampere-turns and

primary to the secondary current
tlie

number

of the B-H

the "knee"

below

of the

189

expressionfor

same

for

as

^
I

or

of

current

series transformer

potentialtransformer, or

constant

the

order

KN

(22)
^
^

where

primary
primary

I p

secondary

turns

constant

ratio of transformation.

N
A^

current.

secondary

in series.

is known

ratio of transformation

If the

current.

of wire in series.

turns

and

primary

turns

fixed,the secondary turns are equal to primary turns multiplied

by the ratio of transformation.
ratio and a non-inductive
to one
Assuming a one
secondary
in Fig. 142 is obtained.
The
load, the diagram shown
primary
and e.m.f. are equal and oppositein phase to the secondary
current
current

and

current

is in time

and

e.m.f.

as

the load

phase with

the

is non-inductive

the

primary

primary voltage.

where
0 I p
O I

primary

secondary
and

In

0 E

current.
current.

0 I

0 E

primary

secondary e.m.f.

e.m.f.

magnetizing current.

operation the secondary current is in time phase with

the secondary e.m.f. if the secondary load is non-inductive,
but
the primary current
lags behind the primary e.m.f.,as shown
in Fig. 143 by the angle 0.
The
0 I s, and
the
secondary ampere-turns
primary turns
actual

TRANSFORMERS

STATIONARY

190

0 I p

being equal

to

multipliedby

line current

the

/ p

p'-O p'. I p'

being that part which suppliesthe core loss,and 0 I p' that part
which
is equal and
opposite to the secondary ampere-turns.
I p' I p" and / p.
iron loss and "wattless"
The
ase
components
In a well designed series transformer, the secondary amperebe taken
for non-inductive
as
turns
equal
secondary load can
is
fore secondary amperes
to 0 / p-l p' I p", there
is made

turns

of two

up

components

and

primary

the

this,it is merely necessary

supplying the iron loss,subtract

determine

To
turns

0 I p

/ p and

primary ampere-turns
turns

To

the

ampere-

this value

divide

and

p'

find

to

the

by

from

the

secondary

s.

determine

iron loss it is necessary

the

the

know

to

loss

given frequency and varying

loss at a given frequency
Let P represent the watts
induction.
and
induction,/ the iron loss current, N s secondary turns, then
in watts

per

unit

weight

of iron at

loss current

Iron

(24)

and
N

P
turns

ampere-

(ironloss)=1

secondary ampere-turns

1 p

"

(25)

"

^^

(26)

Ep"

and

secondary

amperes

Pj^-

(27)

"

p
1

If the ratio of transformation

is made

equal

to

-^"

the

second-

1 p
P

current

ary

amperes.

will be
The

less than

error

the

desired

To

compensate

diminished
will

equal

from
Is.

cent,

error

ratio

the
I p

j^

so

amount

"

that

"

....

(28;

-^

I sXi^

secondary
s

the

PXlOO

rj"=i"

I p

for this
the

of

error

by

is

in the transformation
As

per
^

value

turns

the

must

be

secondary

slightly
current

SERIES

191

and
secondary is on short-circuit,
there is no
magnetic leakage between

that

Assume

TRANSFORMERS

the

that

for

venience,
con-

primary

the current
is started,flux is
secondary. At the moment
e.m.f.
in the primary winding. This flux produces an
set up
in the secondary which
current
sets
a
opposed to that
up

and

in the

is that

the

threading the two

to a value
producing only sufficient
windings will be reduced
current
voltage to cause
through the secondary resistance,
thus
the primary
restoringapproximate equilibrium between
and

primary.

secondary

145.

Fig.

"

The

Method

by

primary
an

of

required
the

to

vector

that the

ratio between
of load.

Such

its
a

of

readingsby

the

that

of the

secondary

current

flux

and

current

primary

series transformer

force

produced generates the voltage

secondary current
through the resistance

this

of

to the

magnetomotive

three-series transformers.

or

is less than

the

sum

being equal
A

such
send

the

flux

obtainingequal three-phasecurrent
of two-

current

amount

Thus

currents.

use

the

result

and

condition

magnetizing

current

current.

maintain

should

primary

the

constant
practically

secondary through its full range

can
only be approached but not

absolutely reached, since the

magnetizing

current

becomes

TRANSFORMERS

STATIONARY

192

ratio.
preventing a constant
is accomplishedin commercial

factor in

formidable

magnetizingcurrent
by having

of iron

abundance

an

in the

transformers

working

thus

core,

minimum

the

magnetic density,permittingthe current ratio

of the primary to the secondary to vary approximately in inverse
As iron is worked
of turns.
ratio to the number
considerably
iron at

below

"knee"

the

allowed
the

low

very

for

and

wattmeters

ammeters,

good range of load is

relaysto be operated on
a

curve,

secondary.
either

In

other

and
the

for

and

C A ; the

two

phases

of the

to

two

in

toward

current

will be

the

that

found

of

60

leads

to two

is shown

ammeters,

and

resultant

neutral
not

are

the

to

point 0.
arranged in

phase relation
120 degrees. In

the
or

it becomes

with respect to the others

phase relation is desired.

series transformers

is the

in the

that

of transformers

group

secondary

phases

opposite directions

of series transformer

the

reverse

connected

are

are

the

connection,the direction

the star

star-connected

or

change

in

arrow

system
of

in C

current

of

Fig. 144,

the

in the two

resultant

phases will be either

three

delta-

necessary

when

the

secondaries

the

between
a

and

direction,it

same

either

will follow

of that

the

With

in

shown

arrows

is the

direction

delta-connected

resultant

C.

currents

If all the

in B

C B; and

point,and

neutral

current

in lead

and

C and

two

the

return

common

instantaneous

the

With

is the

considered

be

may

to follow

of the

current

of that in A

direction.

in lead A

current

the

and

direction

opposite

the

are

Assuming

two.

in leads
the

leads

of the leads

one

three-phase system the

displaced 120 degrees from each

star-connected

or

three

other

current

then

delta-

in the

currents

B-H.

the

of

connection

prising
com-

Fig. 145 where A and

secondthe opposite end of ary
in

In the vector
wire at 0.
to a common
winding connected
in lead A
that 0 A is equal to the current
diagram it is shown
in lead
both
in magnitude and direction and 0 C the current
has
C which
a
phase relation oi 120 degrees. The resultant
wire O is equal in magnitude
current
that is in the common

and

direction

in lead

B,

0 B'.

to

its

and

The

ammeter

reading is equal

(2) indicates
to

the

the

value

current

in

shown

Fig. 145.
Assume

Fig.

that

146.

current

one

of

Referringto

in lead

both

the

transformers

is reversed

as

at

C
,

the vector
in value

the

diagram,
represents
and direction,0 C the current

TRANSFORMERS

SERIES
in lead

the

and

C,

direction the

and

current

on

the current
in

one

currents

bear

"

^Another

and

sls

0 C

are

5X'\/3=8,66
and

lead

0,

or

in the

that

90

0 C.

give 5
primary,

to

So

amperes.

it is found

by

wound

sultant
re-

one

that
of the

to reverse

secondary leads.

method

volt-amperes

great

of

it is simplynecessary
relation,

of

using

with

The

that

The

(2).

ammeter

with full load current

transformers
V

as

0 A

will be

of the transformer

Fig. 146.

be V3

to

their secondaries
across

the

represents in value

displacedfrom

transformers

two

connectingseries

phase

is

current

through

current

is found

degrees,and
Thus, if the
amperes

resultant

193

on

each

three

two-

and

three-series

transformers

ammeters.

transformer

of

two-transformer

equal to \/s times the volt-amperes

of load A B C; but the phase angle between
voltage and current
is charged 30" in the lagging direction on transformer
A, and in
the leading direction on transformer
For power-factorof the
B.
secondary loads A, B and C varying from 100 per cent, to 0 per
A
cent,, the power-factor of the equivalent load on transformer
will vary from y/s leadingto 1/2 lagging;while on transformer^
it will vary from \/2 laggingto a negative 1/2.
Where
(a) is for equal loads on each phase and equal powerconnection

like

Fig. 147

are

factors.

(6) Equal loads and non-inductive.

13

194

TRANSFORMERS

STATIONARY

(c) Equal loads

(d) Equal loads
cent,

non-inductive) and

non-inductive)

and

(loads A

power-factor.
lagging power-factor in load

with

tendency
the equivalent load on
the leading phase, and
factor

which

on

both

50

power-factor.

cent,

per

and

(loads A

transformer

the

diminish

10 per

is to increase

which

is connected

to

former
equivalent load on transin the lagging phase.
is connected
Low
powerA and
with high power-factor in C
B combined
to

the

produces similar results.

There

Fig.

are

147.

number

Varying phase relations due

through the series

"

series transformers

more

used

be

may

and

voltage.

Some

Figs. 148

to

low

in

an

ammeter

and

three

reverse

power,

connections

of the

is sufficient for
and

at the

wattmeter

phase working, one, two

used
for relays,ammeters
that

or

factors

power

phase,

reverse

for this purpose

are

149.

single-phasesystem,

with

varying loads and

two

transformers.

overload,

series transformer

One

connecting

in connection
for

to

of

ways

One
or
more
polyphase system.
with alternating-currentrelays for

to

operating circuits
shown

different

of

or

and

time

same
as

in

shown

three

opening
is used

circuit of

in connection

Fig. 148.

For

series transformers

wattmeters.

series transformers

the

should

may

It is often
be

used

threebe

mended
recom-

for three-

TRANSFORMERS

STATIONARY

196

series transformer
relays one
when
be used
for operating a three-phase system, and
may
operating three-phase wattmeters, two are all that is 'required.
The
shown
in Fig. 150 will be found
to give good
connection
has its own
tripping arrangement.
results,as each transformer
Three
transformers
are
operating together on a
quite common
point grounded or
system, neutral
three-phase, star-connected
connection

In

with

overload

ungrounded.
If all the

direction

the

secondary windings are

phase relations between

arranged in

not

outside

one

the

wire

same

the

and

Lr-rrH-

-400-

-400-

iL

-400-

UlAAflJLr
nnnnnn

"eooo-

-60006000-

FiG.

150.

middle

"

Method

wire,and

of

and

connecting two series transformers

three-phase system.

middle

the

and

the other

outside

relays

wire

to

will be

degrees instead of 120 degrees. In order to obtain a phase

ary
of the secondeach winding, one
relation of 120 degrees between
windings must be reversed.
all the
with
series transformers
Fig. 151 represents three
It makes
direction.
in one
no
secondary windings connected
60

difference whether
becomes

to

necessary

when

120

connection

very

the others
A

the

is shown

in

method
reverse

or

60
much

of connection
one

transformer

be

delta

with

or

star, it

respect

to

degrees displacement is required.

used where
one
relay is required,

Fig. 152, in which

the

series transformers

have

197

TRANSFORMERS

SERIES

-10)0-1000

^1000

s" *

"

w
00"

h*^ioo

"j

173

"

100"^

"

^173-

-*

^
^

-i-T" i=F

i_""

w
-173-

FiG.

151.

Method

"

and

three

connecting three series transformers, three ammeters

system.
relays on a three-phase star connected
of

-10)01000

"

"

"

1000-

-577-^

-m-

QOQ06QQ

ULMMiJJlJ UilMMJU

r-fws^^
r-^wr"-|j-'Tnnp-|

t
Fig.

152.

"

Three-phase

star

arrangement

connected

in

showing

opposition.

two

series transformers

STATIONARY

198
their

TRANSFORMERS

opposite terminals

relations

tend

to

The

connected.
in

operate

primary of one transformer

in the secondary and relay,but will not
the trip coil. If a short-circuit should
the

outside

two

its

and

in the

current

other

latter

when

be great
occur

to

value

which

transformer,

tend

operate

phase

become

of

loaded
over-

that
to

in turn

to

one

any

above

transformer; this will

current

enough

on

phase

will also exist

current

secondary will

the

C,

voltage will rise

of the

secondary

wires

that

parallelso

exists in the

secondary

of

the
the

reverse

will allow

the

v"-

Six

Fig.

and

153.

Method

"

relays

to

two-

phase

of

with instruments
connecting two series transformers
or
three-phase system inducing six-phase secondary

currents.

primary

flux

to

raise the

voltage

transformer; this voltage will

overload

twice

and

the

current

algebraicsum
the

current
are

current

'currents

operate the

of the currents

in each
wound

This

two
at

For

leg.

for 5 amperes

of

the

additional

current

value

degrees apart,

120

example:
on

value

former

current

to

will not

be

transformers,but will
If

two

their secondaries

through their primaries, the

algebraic sum

or

be

\/S

the

times

series transformers
with normal
of the

two

is

\/3X
Fig.

the

the
the

cause

relay.

through

to

153

shows

two-phase

8.66

amperes.

arrangement

of

connecting

two

SERIES
series transformers
noticed

be

for

in all the

of all transformers

TRANSFORMERS

199

working instruments
connections

shown

and

relays.

that

the

It will

secondaries

grounded on one side.

In Fig. 153 the system is so arranged that two-phase or threewill give a six-phase secondary, depending upon
phase currents
the connection
made
The
series transformer
at point x.
nections
conwill work
factorily
satisare
so
arranged that the instruments
with any of the two
independent phase currents.
Y
The
point of the secondary power
represents the neutral
are

r;
Wm

C^S

u]
1L

UflflAJLr'
'-vAfliULr
-vjjflfl4^
wsom

1!

ABO
Fig.

154.

Three-phase

"

transformers, and
with

direct-current

primaries

is measured
side

of

current

The
to

the

they

are

system

as

of

the

in the

measured

are

series transformers.
the

used

where

by

the

The

the
ammeter

shown

is shown

wire

in

in connection

Fig. 154, in which

series transformers

two

shown

connected

value

directlyto

to

obtained

wattmeters

of two-shunt

connected

neutral

phases by the
of the
geometrical sum

through the middle wire.

potentialsides of the two
secondary leads

ammeters.

three

The

transformers.

series transformers,

two

supply.

interestingconnection

Another
currents

be

may

three

and

wattmeters,

two

showing

arrangement

star

may

of

use

currents

two

in

are

installed,

the

grounded

is that

be

of the

connected

transformers; in the figure

the

mains.

TRANSFORMERS

STATIONARY

200

of series transformer
polyphase combinations
of one
connections
to four transformers.
covered by the use
are
In three-phase work
either the star, delta,open-delta,
connections
reversed
might be applied.
open-delta and "Z"
In

general,singleand

tM/'*^'^
y'"^^/"/"^'K.
'^^^^^^i

"

Fig.

155.

"

Three

same,

but

the

thought

to be

much

the

are

it is

-tUf^

shown

in

transformer
potential

in the

the. currents

connections.

star

connection

(See figs.155, 156, 157.) The

not unlike the ordinary constant
this connection

delta and

transformer

secondary

through C is

current

than

better

Fig.

155

delta.

leads

A
For

V3.

and

is
In
B

relays

the delta connection.

^NHk

W-H^H^

VM^"\

V-co^
Fig.

156

"

It is also

Two

possibleto

series transforiners
in

is shown
on

"

transformer

and

Fig. 158.
the left,the

V"

only
two

inverted

"

three-phase

measure

To

and

one

read

ammeter.

the

current

switches, a and

V"

connections.

currents

The

two

arrangement

through

b, are

with

the

former
trans-

closed.

To

TRANSFORMERS

SERIES
read

through

the

transformer

switches,c

two

When
the

in the middle

the current

and

line,h and c are closed;the current

the right is measured
by closingthe

d.

measurements

switches,a

on

201

are

and

being taken

not

d, should

be

it is necessary
that
the iron of the two

closed;as
transformers
is worked
which
at a high degree of saturation,
produces an abnormally largesecondary voltage,giving rise to a
serious heating of the transformer.
Since series transformers
connected
are
directlyin series with
the line,.
if not properly installed,
they will" offer a convenient
occur
path for the escape of high frequency charges which may
the line,and
which
in discharging,not
on
only burn out the
a
transformer, but are likelyto form an arc and probably cause
fire,or

loss of life.

fHHi^

"rmWr

W^
^
fWf^

Fig.

The

157.

"

Three

transformer

special connections.

of

is
drying out air-insulated series transformers
current
accomplished by simply passing normal
through the
is thoroughly warmed.
This may
winding until the transformer
the secondary through an
be done
ammeter
by short-circuiting
and sending enough alternatingcurrent
through the primary to
the secondary, the primary current
current
on
give normal
being
obtained from a low voltage source.
If not convenient
to obtain
low voltage alternatingcurrent
the same
result may
be accomplished
normal
direct current
by passing
through the primary
the transformer.
long enough to thoroughly warm
In case
of oil-cooled transformers,the winding should be dried
before
out
the transformer
is filled with
by this same
process
oil. In doing this the temperature
of the coils should
be
not
allowed
much

process

to

exceed

less than

in the transformer.

65"

C, which
normal, owing

may
to

the

mean

fact

the

that

use

of

there

current

is

no

oil

STATIONARY

202

All secondaries

and

TRANSFORMERS

casingsof

likewise the instruments

and

the

serves

double

purpose

should

be

grounded,

to which

of

This
they are connected.
protectingthe switchboard
attend-,

and

freeingthe instruments
charges which might otherwise
ant

transformers

from

the effects of electrostatic

collect

the

on

and

cases

cause

errors.

If for
or

of

it becomes

any

reason

any

current

carrying device

from

series transformer, the secondary

to

necessary

remove

the

should

ment
instru-

an

secondary circuit
be

short-circuited

r^rnjr^r^iy^jr*-! r-npsv^

Fig.

158.

by

Method

"

to

wire

of connecting two series transformers

the current
three-phase system, to measure

or

considered

other

some

as

part

of

Series transformers

means.

the

and
in any

line

circuit.

When

ammeter

one

lead.

should

be

it becomes

change secondary connections, the ground wire

The
should
be inspected to see
that
it is in good condition.
other
also stand
in a dry board
or
insulating
operator should
to

necessary

material.

By

of

reason

when
errors

to

due

to

phase displacement in series transformers,

transformers, will

used

with

such

displacement.

series

The

certain types of series transformers,

have

meters,
watt-

certain

following table applies

the actual

percentage

of

TRANSFORMERS

STATIONARY

204

TABLE

of less than
power-factors

At

VIII

50

the

per cent,

will greatly

errors

increase.
It will be

transformer, greater
circuit of

at

error

The

"

true

the

same

by

power

obtained

in

used

when

that

factor,but

power

the

greater.
will indicate

that the wattmeter

means

the percentage

sign
opposite

in the

error

more

minus

The

shown.

will indicate

that the wattmeter

means

be

may

power-factorbecomes

plus sign (+ )
the

than

accuracy

approximately

lower

is calibrated with the series

that if the wattmeter

seen

direction.

Excepting (d) which

(c) are

slip

bus-bar

to

over

type transformer

It is sometimes

shows

Fig. 159
of

to

step up the

that both

transformers

employed

the

evident,from

is

For

200

Tables

that

the
a

flowingthrough the circuit

time

some

transformer

VII

and

and
should

street

of

former."
trans-

series transformers
is

transformer

desired value.

be

ing
Assum-

amp.), it is
testinginstrument

standard

current

5-ampere

coil when

load

coil and
a

the

5-ampere

b.

past, the series transformer

the purpose
VI,

any

current

transformation,may

in its current

amperes

low-voltage scries
lightingsystems.
For

to

other puiposes,

for 40 to 1 ratio (200-5

circuit has

1 transformer

service meter

current

diagram

type
open
the wound

as

using two

equal; No.

the ratio of

are

as

test and

arrangement

on

well

is, "step-up

ratio but

inverted,and, depending

load

use

an

desired

any

of the

former,
trans-

secondary).

for meter

series transformers; that

inverted

in No.

switch-stud

or

(5 amp.

desired to

primary type

wound

for transformers

(a), (h) and

intended

primary

indicates

has been

lightingin connection

with

used for
series

arc

its primary winding is connected

lighting,

VIII

are

representativeof

therefore not

be considered

certain

general.

type of series

SERIES
in series with

the

is desirable

obtain

TRANSFORMERS

series

205

lightingsystem, so that under all

conditions of load on the secondary the primary winding carries
of the arc circuit (see Chapter XI) which
the full current
is maintained
value
at its normal
current
transformer.
by the constant
Its connections
shown
in Fig. 160.
are
For satisfactoryoperation of the series incandescent
lamp, it
to

as

under
has

been

secondary

in

practicethat

current

obtain
of

with

constant-current

is

load

50

per cent,

load

lation
regu-

impossible,but

circuit voltage

open

not

cent., the regulationof the transformer

2 per

possiblein the

as

150 per cent, of the full-load

and

at 100-75

to

conditions

exceeding

not

the current

course,

abnormal

found

constant

near

Of

secondary winding.

arc

the

voltage, and

varying
and

on

it

than

more

lamps

on

the

secondary is satisfactory.

.standard

W,

"~_l In verterf

"

To

Fig.
Fig.
with

159.

Series

"

160.

for

Method

low-voltage

Certain
obtained
power

from
expense.

"

Fig.

159.

primary load

Fig.

and

Load

transformer
of 5-40
of

volt

using

used

to

lamps,

700

are

amperes

series transformer

series incandescent

current,

step-up

or

for

as

instance,

obtained.

series

cuits
lighting cir-

arc

lighting.

lightingrequire lower potential than that

from
series arc
circuits,and to provide for this,light
cuits
multiple circompanies are often compelled to run
classes of

the

central

station

or

substation

By using a series transformer

be
low-voltage circuit may

circuit,a
obviating a large item

of expense

and

on
run

at

considerable

the series
when

arc

lighting

required, thus

providing a

very

flexible

of distribution.

system
The

ratio of transformation

of series transformers

used

for

culty
generally been 1-1, bur there is no diffiin winding either primary or secondary for any reasonable

lightingpurposes
current.

has

'

STATIONARY

206

The

leg

center

is

20,000 volts

which

transformer

fits simply

secondary coil
is

the

over

also

form-

secondarp coil,

break-down

and

the

test

the

to

of
Its

core.

work.

In this series transformer

in the

telephone line insulating

in connection
with
long-distance

used

high-voltagetransmission

circuit voltage

assembled

are

unlike the well-known

is not

appearance

core

it will withstand

that

the

to

of the

primary coil

insulated

so

shell type, built up of

symmetrical pieces in each layer.

two

tognue

or

coils. The

wound

but

with

punchings

the

On

is of the

of this transformer

core

circular

TRANSFORMERS

Its

secondary.
the

on

exists

there

acteristic
drooping voltage char-

purpose
It has

secondary.

is to

limit the

open-

been

obtained

by

so

proportioning the magnetic circuit that the section is contracted

in several parts to permit saturation of the iron with no current
in the secondary winding.
of meter
connections
which may
be
There
exist quite a number
Some
of these are
used
transformer
on
given
systems.
power
transformers
below:
series and potential
being used in each case.
Fig. 161(A) shows the simplest three-wire three-phase meter
has its potential
in which a single-phasewattmeter
arrangement,
coil connected

to the

coil to

current

should

transform

power

location x, the
the

to

secondary
the secondary
have

of

transformer,
potential

of

series

and

its

If the

transformer.

accessible neutral

an

potentialtransformer

point, at the
be connected
according

may

line.

dotted

simplest three-wire three-phase

in which
two
wattmeter
single-phasewattmeters
arrangement,
in
This
method
of measuring electrical energy
involved.
are
Fig. 161(B)

shows

three-phase circuits
is the

current

correct

such

to

as

branch

give

of unbalanced

voltage

or

one.

is for

three-wire

coil connected

three-phasesystem.

phase through
dance,
impe(c.t.),and its potentialcoil to a "Y"
and resistance
has equal reactance
of which

series transformer
each

condition

its current

has

wattmeter

next

for any

connection

Fig 161(C)
The

the

the

voltage

proper

to

the

to

one

potentialcoil

of the

meter.

Fig 161(D)
two-element
used

in

better
whole

connection

accuracy

is obtained

if

we

unlike

is.employed

wattmeter

preferenceto

is not

two

here,

and

single-phasemeters.

consider

without

(B).

the

that

the

record

of
possibility

error

The

polyphase or

should
It has
of the
that

always be
a slightly
meter

comes

as

from

SERIES

207

TRANSFORMERS

P.W.M.

W.M.1

W,M

Fig.

161.

"

Other

important

uses

for

series

systems.

transformers

on

three-phase

TRANSFORMERS

STATIONARY

208

the

reading

total

sum

and

is not

might

be

may

subjected
Fig

balanced

the

The

phase

superior

and

(G),

for

the

is

transformers

subjected

to

belonging

to

Fig 161(7)
method.

greater

the

to

method

of

that

reason

required

and
of

each

three-wattmeter
in

voltage

the

in

shown

than

singleinto

is considered

energy

of

wattmeters

greater

nated.
elimi-

combined

inter-connection

because

star-star,

independent

method
no

meters.

phase

measuring

three-wattmeter

variations

(E), (F),

potential
be

cannot

those

properly

circuit.

the
shows

This

of

voltages

(F) is practically
three

as

transformers

connected

and

same

reason

by exchange

three

and

used,
should

Abnormal

are

(E)

conductor

one

This

return.

be

to

with

in

is the

arrangement

systems

common

to

method

three-phase,

transformers

referred

objection

the

of the

transformers

four-wire

potential

The

method.
but

shows

1Q1{H)

Fig.

three

are

established

are

which

(F) for the

(E) and

unbalanced.

are

individual

in the

prevented

are

loads

secondary

be

would

in

This

circuits

secondary

the

an

impedence

transformers

star-delta.

primary

the

with

and

primary

method

methods

to

the

on

voltage.

potential

in

on

normal

which

load

transformers

two

wattmeter

three

preference

voltages

the

case

three-

and

through

of current

in

in

used

their

connected

being

be

always

times

transformers,

latter

the

shows

(GO

its

This

loading

unequal,

transformer

remaining

the

\/S

almost

to

161

series

that

reduced

so

system.

unbzlanced

very

single-

three

star-star.

unequal

With

become

one

on

of

side.

might

voltages

short-circuit

accidental

because

the

in

connected

are

secondary

the

the

secondary,

their

adding

three-wire

three-phase

recommended

on

occur

for

transformers

of

arrangements

two

method

potential

method

show

(F)

wattmeter

The

and

separately

meters

afterward.

together

Fig 1Q1{E)
phase

single-phase

two

method

simplicity

and

four-

wire, three-phase,
is

preferable

convenience.

to

polyphase

method

(H)

wattmeter

and

offers

XIII

CH.APTER

REGULATORS

Potential

Feeder

transformer

lines

the

circuit

It

are

the
of

consists

surface, in
placed.

hand

carries

the

of

core

in

direction

one

position
due
the

that

to

14

the

of

be

can

wheel.

magnetic
through
by

primary

C"

any

generated

S.

the

to

secondary

That

in

the

is,when

its

windings

spindle

by

and

the

and

secondary

in

magnetic

direction
core

C, the

winding, P,

winding, S;

the

on

position by

primary

other

162.

regulator.
desired

carries

core

voltage in the
209

position indicated

due

Fig.

slots

deep

on

turned

the

in

secondary

feeder

winding, P,

winding,

and

single-phase

flux
the

four

is mounted

the

In

with

controlled,

be

to

across

in series

connected

ring with

core

Type

"

it

primary

secondary
C

162.

indicated

the

the

of the

are

connected

regulator is shown

iron

laminated

The

arranged

means

which

regulators

windings

is to

feeder

laminated

all

windings

which

of

single-phase

of

Almost

"

primary

secondary

voltage

Fig.

so

their

with

their

and

type

inner

Regulators.

type,

the

COMPENSATORS

AND

flux

through

is in the

winding

the

tion
posi-

has

its

STATIONARY

210

TRANSFORMERS

C C and C C
When
is midway between
the core
highest value.
the generated voltage in the secondary winding is zero, and the
feeder voltage is not affected.
When
the core
is in the position,
C C
the generated voltage in the secondary winding is again at
the generits greatest value, but in such a direction as to oppose
ator
,

voltage.
On

of the

account

the primary and secondary

air-gapbetween
is introduced
windings, inductive reactance
in the line which
pensating.
requires com-

Stillwell

The

regulator is another
for raisingand lowering

type of transformer

voltage of feeder circuits. It

consists of a
primary winding which
the feeder
is connected
across
circuit,
and
a
secondary winding in series with
the

the

circuit the

varied.

By

of which

voltage
of

means

is to be

switch

arm,

less of the

secondary winding
thus
be introduced
into the circuit,
may
"boosting" by a corresponding amount
more

the
163."

Fig.

well

Type of Stillregulator.

or

voltage

switch

is

winding
may

subtracted

be

added

of the

provided
is

by moving

the

switch

to

which

connected, so

by moving the switch

arm

to

generator.

arm

the

to

the

that

the

reverse

primary
the

age
volt-

right,and

left.

above, with an
for connecting the various sections of the secondary
arrangement
in Fig.
winding to a dial switch and reversing switch, is shown
The
feeder
be controlled
in the following
163.
potential can
manner:
Starting with the regulator in position of maximum
left as
boost, that is,with the dial switch turned to the extreme
of the dial
far as it will go, a continuous
right-hand movement
switch for two
During the
complete revolutions is obtained.
A

regulator built along the lines mentioned

first revolution

the switch

cut

outs, step by step, the

ten

sections

the first revolution

has been
secondary winding. When
that of the
as
completed, the voltage on the feeder is the same
A
further
secondary winding being included.
generator, no
in the same
direction automatically
of the switch
movement
of the
throws
a
reversingswitch; and continuing the movement
dial switch, still in the same
direction,the secondary windings
of the

212

STATIONARY

Fig.

165.

of leads
Further, by bringing a number
winding, 2, 8, the secondary voltage, 1, 3,

of the

decreased

or

connected

are

In

step by step

the

to

circuit.

winding, 3, 4, taps

The

^^

-pj^

jgg

one

The

reduces

that

initial

^^

the

both
position,

lamps, the

is

each

voltage
two

arms

and

the

arm

at

on

zero.

rest

order

of

handwheel

other

counter-

In

contact

decreased

or

on

order

and

the

central

to the

final
block.

added

neutral
contact

the

voltage

age
right,and the voltposition is reached

to

increase

To
to

the

arms

rests

connected
the

type

of

the

left,the
blocks;

contact

arm

secondary winding is
voltage thus

the

potential between

decrease

to

each
position,

the

In

one

of

by

is effected
on

an

treme
ex-

into the

initial voltage

regulator,as will be seen, is in

with regulatingtaps
an
ordinary auto-transformer
its secondary winding.

the
ranged
ar-

the
transformer
regulator differs from
stantly
contype in that all the primary and secondary windings are
in use.
There
are
types that vary the secondary voltage
either by moving part of the iron core
of the windings,
one
or
of the windings (primary or secondary) and
or
one
part of the
iron core; the whole
or
part of the magnetic flux generated by
the primary threads
the secondary according to the positionof
the moving part.
The

induction

This

final

circuit is that

of the

7, 8.

difference

is turned

extreme

an

its total

system.

on

the

is turned
lamps, the handwheel
being gradually separated on the
of potential between
the
difference

of the

these

connect

the

the

contact,
circuit and

of

and

arms,

arms

the

handwheel

step until in the

step by

the

step by step, until the

decreased

with

rotation

in

shown

sliding contacts, 5, 6.
operated by a handwheel,
the other through a
and

clockwise

arm

primary bi^g]^^^nd

the

be

7, 8,

arms,

secondary voltage
primary, increased

*^"

them
at

that

of

blocks

contact

two

contact

regulator voltage between

cent

2, 3,

clockwise.

rp

of series incandes-

of

regulator,
primary winding connected
portion of the secondary

two

7, 8, may

gearing, so

of this form

the

to

in direct

turns
"*

blocks

arms,

one
3TW55jn*

^^

From

brought to
diagram. The

contact

1000

creased
in-

the

are

the
ZZ

connections

the

1, 2, represents
the

across

parts
be

may

different leads

the

as

from

secondary circuit.

is shown

Fig. 165

compensator.

or

TRANSFORMERS

type

REGULATORS

COMPENSATORS

AND

213

regulator is either self-cooled oil immersed, oilwater-cooled, or forced air-cooled depending on the

This type
immersed

of

capacity.
Single-phase regulatorshave only
magnetizingflux is an alternatingone

parallelto
the

through
varied
with

with

the

diameter

that

With

respect

the

its direction is

and

movable

the

winding,the
which

core

always
passes

but its direction may

be
excitingcoil,
the stationary core, and, consequently,
stationary or series winding.

of the

center

to

the

to

respect

of

excitation

one

in such

armature

to

the

field that

the

opposed to that induced by the

secondary, the voltage induced by the primary in the secondary
when
is added
th6
directlyto the line voltage,but is subtracted
the
direction of the flux is the same,
being
complete range
of
obtained
180
by rotating the armature
through an angle
degrees. As the core is rotated gradually,the relative direction
of the
forced
primary flux, and, consequently, the amount
is similarlyvaried and produces a
through the secondary coils,
gradually varying voltage in the secondary from the maximum
The
negative value.
positive,through zero, to the maximum
induced
voltage, is,however, added directlyto, or subtracted
directlyfrom the line voltage.
The primary or rotatingcore
contains two windings;the active
the line,
and a second
across
windings connected
winding shortcircuited on
itself and
arranged at right angles to the active
crease
winding. The object of this short-circuited winding is to deof the regulator,and
its operation is as
the reactance
follows: As the primary and the short-circuited windings are
both
the movable
and permanently .fixed at rightangles
on
core
either
to each other,the flux generated by the primary passes
on
and is,
side of the short-circuited coil,
therefore,not affected by it
in any
whatever; for as long as no flux passes through this
way
coil there is no
in it. This condition is,however, only
current

primary winding

when

true

induces

relation

flux

is in the maximum

the armature

in
positionwith current
with
positionof the armature

lower

With
the flux
on

generated by

neutralize
If the

side

of

the flux

primary

the current

series
current

no

in the neutral

the armature

either

the

boost

or

no

in the

or

winding,
in the

boost

or

and

in any

secondary.
lower

position

equally
the primary coils,
which
cannot, therefore,
the
generated by
secondary.

core

were

not

secondary

maximum

provided ^ith

passes

short-circuited

214

STATIONARY

winding, and

rotated

TRANSFORMERS
maximum

from

positionso

as

to reduce

the

passing through the secondary, and if the line

remained
current
constant, a gradually increasingvoltagewould
be required to force the current
through the series windings,

primary

and

correspondinglyincreasingflux

This

flux

would

voltage
neutral

the

become
to

have

with

maximum

position,due

would

fact

the

to be

the

generated.
in

armature

in this

position the
series windings and

that

primary windings are at right angles to the

The current
therefore
entirelyout of inductive relation to them.
in the secondary, therefore,would
act as a magnetizing current,
and

considerable

used

force

to

result
The

the

would

absorbed

would

part of the

be

poor

power

short-circuited

inductive

coil

as

on

factor
the

the

on

which
the
the

on

to

be

The

feeder.

armature

short-circuit

have

voltage so
line voltage, and the

the

to

series coils when

relation to the

acts
position,

neutral

right angles

at

coils.

these

through

current

be

line voltage would

is in

armature

direct

is in the

secondary winding,

^-E,

Fig.

166.

"

Phase

positions of primary and secondary voltages

phase induction
regulator.

of

single-

full load
the voltage necessary
force
to
thereby reduces
than
that
current
through this winding to only a trifle morethe secondary and
represented by the resistance drop across
of the secondary
short-circuited windings. This short-circuiting
is gradual, from
to the maximum
zero
boosting positionof the
in the neutral position,
regulator to the maximum
short-circuiting
that by the combined
effect of the primary and
short-circuited
so
coils the reactance
of the secondary is kept v/ithin reasonable
and

limits.
The
losses
for

either

operation of the short-circuited coil does not increase the

in the regulator,but rather
tends
constant
to keep them
from
given secondary circuit. In rotating the armature
maximum

primary diminishes
so
increases,

the

to

that

as

the

neutral
the

total

current

position,the
in

the

ampere-turns

current

in

short-circuited
of the

the
coil

primary plus

REGULATORS
the

short-circuited

the

of

ampere-turns

COMPENSATORS

AND

to the

approximately equal

215

winding

always
secondary.

of the

ampere-turns

are

graphicallythe values
Fig. 166 there is shown
phase position of primary and secondary voltages
In

phase induction

of

single-

regulator.

positionin

mechanical

the

When

time-

and

electrical

the

of

degrees

of
moving part is shifted to 0 F on 0 X followingthe curve
semi-circle in the position of negative boost, or 0 Y' and 0
in the position of positiveboost, the secondary voltage can

considered
0

and

C and

and
respectively,

X'
be

0 C

respectively.

A'

When

the values

to have

the

the

mechanical

part

90 electrical

occupiesa mechanical
position0 E s' and 0

positionof

E s the value
degrees from the
the flux due to the
0 B oi the secondary voltage is zero, because
through the secondary core
primary exciting current
passes
parallelto the secondary windings. The resultant voltage is
equal to the primary voltage.
The
kilowatt capacityof any regulatoris equal to the normal
boost
of the
regulated times the maximum
regulator,and as the lower is always equal to the boost, the
is equal to twice the kilowatt
total range
capacity or 100 per

line current

cent,

to

with

Kilowatt
boost
lower

1 to

2 ratio.

capacity of
times

lower

or

be

might

secondary

be

the

current,

expressed in
For

current.
In

single-phaseregulatoris maximum

terms

maximum

the

or

of kilowatts

divided

three-phase type the boost or lower

lines is equal to the regulator capacity in kilowatts
amount.

by

3 and

divided

Regulators
other

by

the

primary voltage

this
the

across

multiplied

secondary current.

induction

of the

or

by the

it is one-half

two-phase type

boost

type should

be

not

used

for any

10
than
frequency differingmore
from
that
for which
they are designed,because an
per cent,
increase in voltage or
decrease
in frequency increases the
a
magnetizingcurrent and the losses and an increase in frequency

increases the

impedance.

must

not

these

deviations

occur

regulator

voltage

should

and

or

the

in

both

The
the

deviation

frequency and

tend

to

neutralize

not

be

subjected to

same

per

of 10 per

cent,

each
a

other.
10

per

allowed

voltage
For

cent,

unless

instance,a
increase

in

frequency, but it
voltage and frequency are

decrease

will operate satisfactorily

if both
increased within the aEiount
given.

the

cent,

in

TRANSFORMERS

STATIONARY

216
Induction

regulatorsmay be operated by hand, either directly

and
chain; by a hand-controlled
or
through a sprocket wheel
If operated by hand
motor.
motor, or automatically-controlled
be of the alternating-current
controlled motor, the motor
may
direct-current type, but preferablyof the alternating-current
or
type and polyphase. If automatically controlled,the operating
should preferablybe of the polyphase type as the directmotor
is not very well adapted for this purpose.
When
current
motor
should
be conthe regulatoris operated by a motor, the motor
trolled
mounted
switch
on
by a double-pole double-throw
other
switchboard
in any
convenient
the
location. Closing
or
switch

the

one

the

operate

voltage as
obtained

the

or

way

will start

other

regulator to obtain a boost

be desired,and
when
the
may

the

regulator

should

movement

the
or

motor

as

so

in the

lower

to

line

voltage is
be stopped by opening
line

correct

_L
Tt
"

Regulators
egruiaiors

Eegixlators
-E^e

-Eie-

-E"e-

Fig.

167.

Connections

"

of

single-phaseregulatorsoperating

on

three-phase

system.

the

switch.

the

movement

soon

the

as

depending

circuit

closes the
from

the

does

not

on

Generally a limit switch is provided which stops

circuit as
of the regulatorby opening the motor
either the extreme
positions
regulator has reached
the direction of rotation,but which
automatically
again as

as

the

positions. The

extreme

interfere with

direction

soon

the

which

oppositeto

regulatorarmature

operationof
of the

movement

it may

be

each

recedes

limit switch

regulator in

the

going.

single-phaseregulatoris used in one phase of a threein series with

phase system, the secondary wiring is connected
Under
the lines,
the line and the primary between
see
Fig. 167.
When

these

in the

conditions
two

is therefore
If three

there

windings
reduced

the current
phase between
effective voltage of the secondary

is a difference in
and

from

the

its normal

value.

single-phaseregulatorsare

used, each

phase

can

be

REGULATORS

adjusted to
that

COMPENSATORS

AND

the range

the effective range

equal to

the

between

the

voltage
phases
effective voltageper regulator,
but that due
so

217
of the

is not

that

to the effective

of the

10

regulation per

cent,

per

boostingor loweringneed

greater rating than

7,5 per

is the size necessary

where
in kw. of a
In generalthe capacity

in feeder

is the

circuit. For

volts

instead

cent,

which

where
E.I.\/S,

voltage

if 10 per cent, regulation

three-phase three-wire system is

line is needed; thus, the

to

the

to

In this case,

regulatortimes Vo.
the phases of
across
desired,only 57.7 per cent,

of each

regulator,
due

of

have

not

10

per

cent,

regulatoris used.
three-phaseregulatoris rated

one

boost

lower

or

six-phaserotary

and

I the

at

amperes

service,kw.
capacity of regulator is: (double-delta connection)=J5J. 7. 3.46
(29) and (diametricalconnection) =E. I. 3 (30).
For fKjlyphasecircuits the system may
be regulated by introducing
the
so-called
"induction
of
regulator." This form
regulatorhas a primary and a secondary winding. The primary
the main
across
winding is connected
line,and the secondary
winding in series with the circuit. The voltage generated in
each phase of the secondary winding is constant, but by varying
the relative positions
of the primary and secondary, the effective
voltage of any phase of the secondary on its circuit is varied
from
maximum
boosting to zero and to maximum
lowering. In
order

avoid

converter

adjustingthe voltages when each

phase is controlled independently,polyphase regulators are
arranged to change the voltage in all phases simultaneously
to

They can
by hand,
and

operated by

the

shaft.

distant
is

be

trouble

the

movable

of

hand

wheels

is rotated

core

it is desired

When

point,the apparatus

to

by

motor

controlled

and

of the

be

may

of

means

operate the

is fitted with

arranged through suitable gearing to

The

When

motors.

or

direct-current

the
or

handwheel

regulator from

small

turn

operated

motor

which

movable

induction

core.

type,

convenient

place.
The
theory of this form of regulatoris described graphically
in Fig. 168 in which
the voltage of one
phase of the regulator
is,eo
generator voltage or the e.m.f. impressed on the primary:
e.m.f. generated in the secondary windings, and is constant
ao
at

any

with

constant

with

the

generator

generator

generator e.m.f. and

The

construction

e.m.f. : 6'a'

e.m.f. :e'a'

secondary e.m.f. in phase

line e.m.f., or

resultant

of

the

secondary e.m.f.
the regulator is such that the secondary

the
of

218

STATIONARY

voltage, oa,

is made

the

TRANSFORMERS
to

assume

primary e.m.f.,as of, oh,

When

oc,

its phase relation is

positionwhen

phase relation

etc.

represented by of, which

as

to

is the

poles and the south poles of the primary

and secondary windings are
opposite,the secondary voltage is in
phase with the primary voltage and is added directlyto that of
the

the

desired

any

north

generator.

regulator is then said to be in the position of maximum

with reference
boost, and by rotatingthe armature
to the fields,
the phase relation can
be changed to any extent
between
this and
the voltage of the secondary
directlyopposed voltages. When
is directly
opposed to that of the primary,its phase relation is as
The

e'

Fig, 168.

"

I'

represented by

d in the

electrical

to

that

of

the

induction

an

diagram, while

relation of the secondary when

The

of

Graphical representation

design of
induction

the

in the

motor.

regulator,

h represents the

neutral

induction

a'

position.

regulator is very

Its

shape

efficiencyis

similar

somewhat

induction
of the same
motor
higher than the average
rating.
The primary winding is placed on the movable
has
either
and
core
delta or star connection,while the secondary or stationary
a closed
winding is placed on the stationary core and is an open winding,
each
in series with
section or phase being connected
the
sponding
correof
the
line.
phase
The
maximum
is 60
arc
through which the primary moves
degrees for a six-poleand 90 degrees for a four-pole. Induction
potentialregulators are built for single-phase,two-phase, threephase and six-phase circuits.
Compensators are used in connection with startingalternatingcurrent

with

motors,

voltmeters

and
in

to

some

extent

they

are

used

in connection

generating station.
Compensators for startingalternating-currentmotors
of an
inductive
winding with taps.. For polyphase
the

consist
work

the

TUANSFORMERS

STATIONARY

220
be thrown

is then

to the

over

cut

suitable

and

out

fuses

provided
causing

breakers.

prevent

are

minute

thrown

to

an

the

line

the

switch

The

winding

is

to

through
generally

prevent

the

line,thereby

the

of current.

designed
after

the

to

bring

switch

starting position. It is important

the startingposition until the motor
to

to

rush

one

is connected

motor

safety device which is used

directlyon
throwing the motor

with

Compensators
within

the

circuit

or

from

operator

the compensator
running position;

rush

unnecessary

of

the

has
that

motor

been

current

to

speed

into the

thrown

kept in
finished accelerating,
switch

the

has

up

when

be

the

switch

is

running position.

the line is connected

to the ends
two-phase compensators
to
of the two
coils,and the starting connections of the motor
the taps as shown
in Fig. 170.
The
switch for operating the startingcompensator and motor
is the same
that used on the three-phase service.
as
Other
designs are used, one of which operates the compensator
handle
the switch
follows:
For
moves
as
starting the motor
low
from
the off positionto the first starting position,where
a
voltage is applied to the motor; then to a second startingposition
where
a
higher voltage is applied; and then to the running
the line,
is connected
the motor
directlyacross
position,where
the
circuit. For
from
the
being disconnected
compensator
In

still further
is moved
to a notch
stopping, the switch handle
of the switch
along than the running position,the movement
handle
direction as in starting. In the latter
being in the same
position the switch handle is released to that it can be moved
back
to the off positionready to start again.
The

other form

of compensator

used

to

indicate the variations

of
all conditions
point of distribution under
and
no-load
between
load
without
overload,
appreciable error
variable
three
of
consists
reactance,
parts: a series transformer,a
is adjusted to
The
variable
resistance.
and
a
compensator
of

voltage

allow

at

for the

the

resistance

and

inductive

reactance

of the

line.

If

sponding
correproperly adjusted, a local circuit is obtained
and any change in the line
exactly with the line circuit,
causing the
produces a corresponding change in the local circuit,
voltmeter
always to indicate the potentialat the end of the line
It is
of distribution,
center
or
according to which is desired.
circuit is dependent
well known
that the drop in a direct-current

these

are

REGULATORS

due

resistance

The

reactance

usually

to

if the resistance

it would

that

necessary

load

at the

at

lines,but

of the

the

causes

drop

it is

also to the reactance.

to

be

greater than

only factor. Therefore, it is

should give accurately the voltage
the

were

compensator
all

221

circuit
alternating-current

an

the

only

not

in

but
resistance,

the

upon

COMPENSATORS

AND

times, whatever

be

may

the

current

and

power-factor.

Fig. 171.

^Form

"

the

of compensator

point

used

of distribution

indicate

to

the current

both

in the line.

The

the

line;and

always

current

reactors

voltageat

of load.

series with
a

of

variation

all conditions

under

Fig.171 shows a series transformer in

in its secondary circuit
having,therefore,
to

the

and

tional
propor-

resistors

are

proportion of the winding can be cut in

out
or
so
modifying the reading of the
circuit,
station voltmeter
that it corresponds with the actual voltage at
the point of consumption, regardless of the current, powertwofactor,reactance, and resistance in the line. For balanced
so

wound

that any
of the voltmeter

and

three-phasecircuits one
In
adjusting this type

calculate
arm

at

the

the

ohmic

compensator
of

compensator,

drop for full-load

point which

will

is sufficient.

and

it is advisable
set

the

to

resistance

give the requiredcompensation and

until the voltmeter

arm
reading
adjust the reactance
corresponds to the voltage at the point or receiving station
selected
for normal
voltage. This compensator is commonly

then

called the

"

Line-dropcompensator.

"

222

STATIONARY

Its connections

in

shown

are

center

which
each
the

proper,

provided with

practiceat

line of which

Each

is to

in

used

as

Fig. 172,

of distribution

be

must

TRANSFORMERS
present time

the

the

voltage at the
be indicated or recorded
in the station,
shown
in Fig. 172, No. 1,
voltmeter
as

be

and
reactive drop of
adjusted for the ohmic
line respectively. For example, take such
line giving
a
factors shown
in Fig. 173; where
R is ohmic' resistance of
must

10, Xs is

the

reactance

of

To

fulfil the conditions

of E

of

supply

and

the

With

voltmeter

unity

drop is due

No.
factor

power

independent of

is the

load

voltage.
that the voltage
to nearly 110.5,

100, it is necessary

it will

entirelyto

almost

and

voltage be increased
2 of Fig. 160
will indicate

generator

or

ohms,

10

the

be

noted

that

this value.
total

the

line resistance R, and

the

live

is practically

line reactance.

Current
Transformer

j; fji
"
"

Fig.

As

the

172.

"

Connections

for

"

Line
Drop
Compensator

live-dropcompensator.

line

decreases,the effective voltage

produced by the reactance
increases,until at an imaginary zero
-power-factorload the total drop is due almost entirelyto the
power

factor

of the

reactance.
The
where
cent,
114

voltage diagram
R

and

Xs and

of such
are

as

power-factorload. The
which
gives "' 100.
=

conditions

for

loads; for, as

which

the

circuit is shown

before, but
vector

For

the

compensator

line

the

Eg

above

in

line has

in this
or

case

any

Fig. 174,
an

80

per

represents
other

is set it is correct

for

live
all

drop m voltage in the line decreases, due to

decreasingload, the voltage drop in the compensator decreases
in equal measure.
For
other
factors
a
simple adjustment
power
the

will be incorrect.
Automatic

regulation

of

single-phasefeeders

presents

no

AND

REGULATORS
in that
diflficulties,

at
"

is but

there

223

definite

one

point to regulate

regulatoris directlyadded
If regulation
subtracted
from the voltage of the feeder.
or
is necessary
the station is desired,only a potentialtransformer
distant point
if regulationfor compensation of drop at some

is

"boost"

the

and
to

COMPENSATORS

desired, a

of the

"lower"

or

connected

series transformer

in series with

the

feeder is added.

JP"

=10

100

happens that one phase of a three-phasefeeder

is used for lightingand
a
single-phaseregulator installed. In
have its seconday
the regulatormust
making such an installation,
across
winding in series with the line,its primary being connected
this feeder is purely lighting,
if the load on
the phase. Now,
often

It very

the

power

100

per

factor

would

cent., but

remain
the

should

constant

factor

power

and
vary

approximately
considerably,

Eg^lU

'\oi_^^
"^

Fig.

it-may
such

cause
an

extent

For

such

174.

phase with the voltage to

be obtained.
not
compensation may
satisfactory

the current
that

Constants

to

service

be

the

series

out

best

of

arrangement

would

be

to

in
connected
transformers, one
B of the phase
series with each conductor
as, for instance,A and
the primary of the
which
across
regulator is excited. With
is
this connection
(see Fig. 175) the line drop compensator
for ohmic
and inductive
set to compensate
drop to the load
and
the voltage will automaticallybe maintained
at the
center
of changes in load or power
factor.
desired value irrespective

use

two

cross-connected

224

ST A TIONAR

TRANSFORMERS

Hand

regulation has long been

regulators. With the development

replaced with
of the

automatic

automatic

regulator

D.T.

Fig.

175.

"

Single-phaseregulatorand voltage-dropcompensator
to a three-phase system.

connections

Regulator

Regulators

-o

T=f

C.V
9

'1^

"?

C.T.

Fig. 176.

"

Two

single-phaseregulators
use

there

has

followed

which

of the contact

three-phase system, showing the

making voltmeter.
on

perfection of
displacesthe operator
a

the
and

meter,
contact-making voltregulatesthe voltage

REGULATORS

AND

COMPENSATORS

instrument

automatically. This

is

225

of

composed

solenoid

in
windings; a shunt winding which is connected
parallelwith the secondary of a potentialtransformer, and a
series winding (differential
with respect to the shunt winding)
with

two

which

transformer,
circuit. A

movable

with
is set

lever

core

an

by

its contacts

are

of

means

set

series

the
the

feeder
of

which

of contacts

spring actingagainst the

the upper

core,

lower

and

the

pivotedlever.

make

stationarycontact.

lower

between

midway

of

center

is attached

core

the

through

end

and

upper

secondary

is in series with

passes

the top of this

to

the

of which

carries at its other

lever

contact

primary

the

solenoid,and
The

in series with

is connected

The
so

that

stationary

voltage is on the shunt coil of the meter.

The stationary
contacts
or
form, when closed,a circuit to one
coils of a relay switch, which
the other of two
in turn
controls
the regulatorcover.
a motor
on
Any deviation of voltage from
normal
the
contact
to be made
and
causes
regulator corrects
for this change, bringingthe voltage back
When
to normal.
coil
compensating for line drop to a distant point the current
is used and as the load increases,
the regulatorboosts the voltage
In this manner
the meter
be set
can
by the proper amount.
that constant
at a great distance
so
voltage can be maintained
the regulator.
from
when

contacts

normal

of this instrument

connections

The

lightingis connected

on

and motors

to the same,

in each

connected

regulatorsand
conductor) are

middle

the

only

conductor

three

for

phases of

two

three-phasesystem

in Fig.1 76.

shown

are

feeder circuit where

series t{||hsf
ormers
If the

necessary.

Two

gle-phase
sin-

(one transformer

series transformer

in

not
pensation
cominstalled,
phase were
proper
could
be secured, owing to both phase displacenot
ment
and an
of
in
the
three
current
unbalancing
phases.
Three
single-phaseregulators are
usually employed when
taken
from
all the three phases of a
are
lightingand power
One
three-phasesystem.
three-phaseregulatormay be used, in
which
it is better to employ only two
series transformers
case

cross-connected, so

or

as

to

get

an

With

shown

be

the

single-phase
regulatorsas
adjusted independentlyof

established
to

at the

three

use

in

Fig. 177

others

of each.

For

and

this

each

constant
reason

in preferenceto
single-phase
regulators

phase regulator.
15

load center

of unbalanced

average

current.

phase can
voltage
it is better
one

three-

ST

226

TIONAR

employed

are

conductors

to

independent

three

systems,
their

having

conductor

phase

TRANSFORMERS

four-wire

three-phase

For

with

and

their

This

neutral.

single-phase

secondaries

is

excited

tors
regulain

connected

primaries

method

single-phase

from

equivalent

series

phase
to

three

circuits.

if

y
Fig.

An

177.
"

installation

giving
and

perfect

regulation

operated.

when

properly

installed

228

STATIONARY

Where

suitable

TRANSFORMERS

electrostatic

is available

voltmeter

the

high-

tension

voltage is obtained by direct measurement.

In applying insulation tests, it is important that all primary
terminals should
be connected
together as well as all secondary
in order to secure
terminals,
a uniform
potentialstrain throughout
the winding.
In testingbetween
the primary and secondary or
the primary and
between
and
core
frame, the secondary must
be

connected
In

making
should

the

to

the
be

core

and

frame,

test,connect

as

and

shown

grounded.
in

Fig. 178.

The

sparkvoltage, which

discharge at the desired

be determined
of test with static voltmeter,
directlyby means
may
or
by the spark-gap table giving sparking distances in air
between
soidal
opposed sharp needle-pointsfor various effective sinuvoltages in inches and in centimeters.
gap

set

TABLE
Table

Points,

of
for

centimeters.

Sparking
Various

to

IX."

SPARKING

DISTANCES

Distances

in

Effective

Sinusoidal

Air

between

Opposed

Voltages,

in

Sharp Needleinches

and

in

TRANSFORMER
After

transformer

is

discharge the needle

every

insulation

The

depends

difference

strain

be

points should
applied

be

therefore

be

tested

insulation

of the

stand
with-

should
a

200-volt

least

2000

volts.

test, varies with

the

tude
magni-

at

transformer, which, if severe,

the

long,

for

of

the transformer

primary

2100-volt

winding

the

to

renewed.

as

tion
injure the insula-

may

and

229

potential of 10,000 volts, and

of

continued

be

not

PRACTICE

voltage for which

the

upon

voltage applied to

of the

the

should

instance,a

For

secondary should
The
length of time
should

which

test

designed.
a

IN

TESTING

its

reduce

permanently

strength.
Transformers

by their

tested
side
is

voltage. One
high-tension winding

the

of

connected

own

low-tension

the

to

and

winding,

sometimes

are

iron, and

the

transformer

operated

above

normal

the

is

test

of

end

voltage
give the

at

to

The

voltage.

test

necessary

Testing Transformer

the

same

the
other
repeated when
the high-tension winding is
and

connected

the

side

one

connected.
dis-

Fig. 178.

Method

"

for insulation

apparatus

insulation

making

In

should

care

adjacent

the

to

to

protect

terminals,only one
it should
be
possible,

whenever
of the

for the

of

purpose

also

the

others

test.

If

it is necessary

should

be

handled

at

beyond

any

insulated

called

test

"over-potentialtest"

testing the insulation

to

time,
bility
possi-

between

is made

between

adjacent turns
windings. In applying

adjacent layers of the

over-potentialtest, the exciting current

and

but

testingset being grounded.

insulation

Another

only the operator

not

under

apparatus

test.

great

the live

handle
and

be taken

tests

of connecting

of

is

transformer

always increased.
This
times

usually consists of applying a voltage three to four

normal
voltage to one of the windings with the other

test

the

winding open-circuited.
volt
be

winding,

appliedto

at
one

three

end

is to

If this test

times
of the

its normal

winding

in

be

made

voltage, 6000

question,or:

on

volts

2000may

TRANSFORMERS

STATIONARY

230

3000

volts

to

1200

volts

to

300

volts

to

winding,

1000-volt

winding,
100-volt
winding.
be applied at high frequency
400-volt

general,this test should

the exciting currents
referred
to above
may
the
the
will
less
be
the
higher
frequency
the test.
It is recommended
required to make
In

the

be

The

be reduced.

that

used, and for 60-cycle transformers

be applied,and for 25-cycletransformers
built up to
highestvoltage transformer
industrial purposes
voltage for which it was

double

and

tested

was

85

280,000 volts, or

designed.

voltage is applied to test the insulation

sections of coils,
between
these being the cause
cent,

per

than

this would

be

followed

by

minute

half times
defect that
and

of transformer

yet

not

normal
may
have

to

burnouts.

apply twice

another

test

the

normal

the

test

the

and

is

at
to

turns

practically

of

test

surer

voltage

for five minutes

apparent in

between

better

voltage. The latter

have
developed during
become

60

present time

the

Double
and

current

cycles
rents
133-cycle curcycles.

60

at

The

of

amount

least

for power

that

so

for

and

one

one
one-

discover

any

double-voltage test,

short

time

the

double

applied.
voltage was
The
former
applicationof a high voltage to the insulation of a transis the
of determining whether
the
only real method
Mechanical
dielectric strength is there.
examination
of the keenest
kind
very

is false,and

of insulation

measurement

much

better; since insulation

when

measured

by

voltmeter

comparativelylittleresistance

may

or

may

with

low

resistance is not
not

show

voltage,but

ance
resistoffer

current.
high-voltage
the primary and the
In working the high-voltagetest between
the secondary, the secondary should
core
or
always be grounded
for the reason
that a high voltage strain is induced
between
the
and
the
other
be greater than
the
core
winding which may
strain to which
insulation is subjected to under
the
normal
operation,and, of course, greater than it is designed to stand
the
testing between
tage
primary or high-volconstantly. When
side of, say, a high ratio transformer, and
the core, the
induced
the low-voltage winding and
voltage strain between
be
broken
be
core
high and the secondary may
very
may
down
by an insulation test applied to the high-voltage side
under
conditions which would
not exist during normal
operation
time
of the transformer.
shorter
The
the
the voltage is kept
to

TESTING

TRANSFORMER

on,

with

IN

PRACTICE

correspondinglyhigher voltage

severity of test, the less will be the

should
Every transformer
twice its rated voltage, the reason
of the

because

get

deterioration
tested

be

this

for

conditions

abnormal

many

to

231

desired

the
of

the

with

at

lation.
insuleast

is
being necessary
of operation which
side of the winding

high voltage system, if one

between
becomes
grounded, the whole rated voltage is exerted
the iron core;
and sometimes
the winding and
during normal
operation (so far as exterior observtion indicates)a difference of
potential will occur, lastingbut a small fraction of a second or
minute, which might be as high as the testingvoltage required.
with copper
wound
all high-voltagetransformers
are
Practically
coils being insulated
turn
stripor ribbon, one
per layer, the
times
uniformly throughout excepting the end turns which are someinsulated
withstand
to
voltages of 5000 volts between
the case
of a transformer
with a normal
Take
turns.
voltage
of 80 volts,it would
that
in applying the
between
turns
mean
standard
voltagetest,i.e.,twice the rated high-tensionvoltage
the
between
high-voltagewinding and low-voltage winding
On

occur.

very

connectingthe
across

latter to the

110,000-voltwinding,or

between

shall

we

core

induced

an

receive

220,000

voltage of

160

volts

volts

turns.

Several

years

it

ago

was

agreed

to

lower

the

standard

high-

all
to 1.5 times the rated voltage,and
voltage test specifications
made
of breakdowns
sorts
to the
happened until a change was
higher test. The double voltage test is not too high and not too
how
former
test no
matter
severe
a
high the rated voltage of the transand
industrial purposes.
For
mercial
commight be for power
it will not
former
testing transformers
apply. Such a transfor 400,000 volts and
before
it was
was
recently made
shipped from the factory it was
given a full half-hour test at
650,000 volts with the center of the high-voltagewinding grounded.

Since

then

highest

test

that

of

was

has

one

made

far, on

so

14,000

made

been

kv-a

for

750,000 volts.

commercial

100,000 volt

power

About

the

transformers

transformer

which

was

high-voltagewinding to all other

for a 60-cycle system and covered
was
parts. This transformer
floor space
of 23 ft. X 8.5 ft,,it being 18 ft. high. Another
a
transformer
of 10,000 kv-a
at 70,000 volts operating on a 25-cycle
given 270,000

system
former

was

volts

give

transformer

across

its

high-voltage
was

fitted

with

test

of

180,000 volts.

oil-filled terminal

The

bushings

TRANSFORMERS

STATIONARY

232

during

and
was

the

visible

even

was

fitted

which

is made

bushings

of these

test

in

when

with

the

darkness.

utter

condenser

corona

latter

The

former
trans-

of terminal

bushings
and conducting
insulating

type

layersof

of alternate

up

270,000 volts,no

at

material.
In the

operation of

with the difficult problem of

confronted
rise between

only effective
that

burn-out

In fact it is
a

that

turns

small

but

across

part where

total

of the

in

voltage
ficient
suf-

voltage

itself

short-circuit

and

voltage is concentrated.

100

times

turns

and

at

at

the

voltage

of the

are

we

transformer

to

as

excessive

the

quitepossibleto get

percentage

turns

the

that

line

the

high in

so

few

appreciable increase

no

be

found

taking care

increase

not

may

be noticeable

to

and

it has been

transformers

normal
the

voltage

across

time

same

terminals

have

of

the

tra,nsformer.
With

without

or

insulation

extra

on

end

the

of transformers

turns

high-voltagesystems, the voltage difference

the only
due
to switching,etc.,is there, and

operating on
end

the

on

of

out

way

turns

it safe

make

is to provide sufficient insulation

difficulty
choke
coils which
of the external
irrespective

the

always provided.
This double
voltage test is
been
thoroughly dried out and

made

the

after

to
are

has

transformer

quality of oil brought up to

reliance on
In the past some
makers
standard.
placed too much
tion;
solid insulaoil as an insulator and consequently left out much
the

oil could

result
not

Temperature.
be

may

always, its insulatingproportions

upon

drying-out

put into service after the

completed,

and

the

"

The

applied in

determine
of the

voltage slowly brought

as

temperature
several

nearly as

ways,

heat

test of

all of which'

up

are

transformer

arranged

service.

starting a temperature
test, transformers
for them
left in the room
a sufficient length of time
alike by the room
temperature.
a

transformer

temperature
temperature

has
so

remained

many

that it has

throughout,

the

to

tions
condi-

possiblethe working temperature

in actual

transformer

or

should

Before

If

ately
immedi-

occurred

burnouts

cases

many

were

the

because

occurred,

desired value.

the

to

been

burnouts

many

In

age.

transformers

had

process

relied

be

decreasing with
the

that

was

the

reached

in

hours

to be

room

approximately

temperature

of

the

be

affected

at

stant
con-

uniform

surface

may

TESTING

TRANSFORMER
be taken

be that

to

however, the

transformer

of the interior.

of the temperature

ascertain

233

internal temperature.
or
interior,
If,
the
is radiating heat to
the
room,
will be found to give little indication

of the

of the surface

temperature

PRACTICE

IN

rise of

eters
transformer, thermomsometimes
are
used, which give only comparative results
useful only
in temperature
and such measurements
are, therefore,
in ascertainingan
increase in temperature
during the heat run.
from
If thermometers
used they should be screened
local airare
be read
without
and placed so that they can
currents
being
To

the

temperature

If it is desired

removed.

readingsshould
the

In

order

determine

to

it is necessary
resistance,
resistance

remained

throughout the

temperature

resistance
The

in

to reach

is called
after

constant

of

measurement

first what

uniform

ature
temper-

room

the

temperature

"cold"
former
trans-

for

out
temperature through-

rise

rise of

each

of

the

windings, separate

of each.

be taken

of

of resistance
by means
the followingequation:
R

or

by

rise

temperature
use

of

room

out
through-

is constant.

measurements

readings should

by the

rise

the

mometer
ther-

rise
by resistance gives the average
windings of the transformer, and to obtain

temperature

average

temperature
to determine

length of time
its windings.

sufficient

The

test

thermometer

by

has

under

curves,

intervals

difference between

that of the transformer

and

temperature

at half-hour

be taken

until the

and

test

obtain

to

may

be

Ro(l +0.0040;

mined
deter-

(31)

by equation
Resistance

where

R'

is the resistance

at

at

S"C

any

~^^^~R'

temperature

(32)

t.

R^ is the resistance at room

temperature; R the resistance
when
The temperature
heated, and t the rise in temperature.
coefficient of resistance is taken
25" C.
at 0.004
as
Considering
the above
the
to 25" C. may
equation,
temperature rise corrected
be determined
in the followingmanner.
be 20" C, and
absolute
Let room
Example:
temperature
where

temperature
rise.

of

transformer

60"

C.

Ascertain

correct

perature
tem-

234

STATIONARY

The

correction

corrected

of

apparently

is 5" lower

temperature

room
a

is

temperature

TRANSFORMERS

0.5X5

2.5

60

20

"

than

the

cent,

per

40"

C, but since the

standard

requirements,

be

must

added

giving

of

temperature

100X2.5X40
41" C.

100
Thus

with

calculated

from

cent., or with

the
a

should

of 20"

temperature

room

temperature

room

be

equation should

above

decreased

by

be

added

of 15"

temperature

should

If the

C.

This

in

increased

be
so

should

for each

0.5

per

room

on.

differs
rise in

observed

the

temperature

by

temperature

room

25"

2.5

C, the rise

cent., and

5 per

from

with

cent.; and

per

by

C, the rise in temperature

of 35"

temperature

by

pic

rise in temperature

C. the

corrected

be

degree centigrade.
is intended

correction

to

pensate
com-

tion
for the change in the radia2000

constant

involved

error

Sinn!

well

as

for

as

in the

the

assumption

100-

that

Umj!jImJ UjiMWHL
m

the

0.004,

coefficient is

temperature

correctly, 0.0039,

more

or

"mmmm

remains
-3000-

with

constant

varying

temperatures.

room

-4000-

To
Fig.

179.

Method

"

of
and

transformers
for

an

let

example.

over-potential test

and

ohms,

of

Temperature
The
when

primary
referred

during

room

temperature

The

certain

tance
primary resis-

test

is

30"

ohms.

Ascertain

C.

is

transformer

rected
cor-

rise.

resistance
to

sistance
re-

ing
follow-

the

operating temperature,

its maximum

at

take

us

of

increase

ment
instru-

of
8

the

measure

necting
con-

taken

temperature

at

temperature

coefficient

of

0.4

per

of

30"

cent,

C,
per

for incoming
of reference
cooling
the standard
transformers,
temperature
In testing water-cooled
of the transformer.
be 25" C, measured
at thfe intake
within
5" C.
water
of the ingoing
maintain
the temperature
it is important
to
ambient
temperature
this is impracticable, the reference
of the surrounding
air, but where
the disconnected
when
of the windings,
should
be taken
that indicated
by the resistance
as
the temperature
and
of
of cooling water
is being supplied with the normal
transformer
amount
For

water-cooled

should
transformers
water

the

windings has

become

constant.

STATIONARY

236

in the

oil,on

method

"

various

and

tank

cores,

other

parts of

the

possible,

when

transformer
A

the

TRANSFORMERS

of heat-run

used

to

extent, and

some

known

as

the

In this test two

formers
trans^'Opposition"test,is shown in Fig. 180.
of the same
capacity,voltage and frequency are required
shown
The
in diagram.
and connected
two
ings
as
secondary windin parallel,and the two
connected
are
primary windings
in series in such

connected

to

as

way

each

oppose

secondary leads receive excitingcurrent at the

and frequency, while the primary leads receive a

two

desired load current

to the

; the

wattmeter

in the

other.

The

voltage
equal

proper
current

primary

circuit

PEl"L.

"F31

Fig.

180.

"

Method

of

for heat

connecting apparatus

test, known

sition"
"oppo-

as

test.

the

measures

total

core

that

in the

secondary

the

loss.

method

Another

test"

loss,and

total copper

is shown

used

often

in

and

called the

this test

"motor

generator

two
are
Fig.
used, having their high-tension windings connected
together.
Proper voltage is applied to the low-tension winding of one of the
former
transformers, and the low-tension winding of the other trans-

is connected
s

open,

to

the wattmeter

and

with

loss

from

In

181.

the
reads

same

the

closed,it reads the

the total,the copper

requires (as is also the

losses be supplied from

case

the

Then

source.

losses

core

total
loss

in the

transformers

loss.

with

of both

the

transformers,

Subtracting the

is obtained.

This

oppositiontest)that

outside.

switch

core

method

only the

TRANSFORMER
At

the

TESTING
time

present

the

flow

IN

point of

PRACTICE

237

pounds
impregnating com90" C.
It is possible

the

gives a temperature limit of about

will soon
reach a stage
that the development of syntheticgums
of at least 125" to
to permit of actual operatingtemperatures
The
with such an operatingtemperature
150" C.
only difficulty
will be with
Certain

oil.

the

practicesof drying

(see Chapter

tests

temperature

to

it is

always
voltage winding and

FiG.

181.

Another

"

as

through
to

To

the

to

make

impress

out

short-circuit

to

sufficient

drying

voltage

about

cause

20 to 30 per

coils. This
of the

current

cent,

coils to the

low-

the

test

current

is found

formers
trans-

high-

the

on

of

temperature

normal

In

IX).

applicable

are

connecting apparatus for heat

"motor
generator" test.

transformer

raise the

transformers

convenient

more

method

voltage winding

out

known

to

flow

cient
quitesuffi-

desired

limit.

the
through the windings when
secondary is short-circuited requiresa voltage of about 3,3 per
the windings
cent, of the high voltagewinding, accordingto the way
connected
are
(seriesor parallel). For example: It is
desired to dry out a 100,000 volt, 10,000 kw. single-phase
transformer;
5000
a
kw., a 2500 kw., and a 1250 kw. of the same
will be the voltage necessary
to circulate
voltage, etc. What
20 and
30 per cent,
of noiynal current
through the coils of the

transformers?
table

The

current

answer

flow

to

this is best

given in

the

following

238

ST A TIONA

R Y

TRA

NSFORMERS

TABLE

XI

Capacity
Conditions

of

of transformers

in kw.

test

1250

high-voltage current

Normal
000

volts

on

Voltage required
when

100,-

at

12.5

amp.

full-load.
circulate

to

low-voltage winding

volts

3300

same

is short-

circuited.
At

20

per

normal

cent,

At

30

20

current

Voltage required for

30

2.5

amp.

660

volts

cent.

per

normal

cent,

per

current.
.

Voltage required for

3.75

cent.

per

amp.

volts

990

is

to short-circuit the highobliged by circumstances

suming
voltage winding, the same
voltage holds good. Asper cent,
the low voltage to be 5000 volts, it will require 33 volts

If

for

one

20

normal

normal

cent,

per

current, and

With

current.

the

50,000 volts,the

current

the

conditions

temperature

The
a

maximum

rise of 40" C. under

temperature

room

when
,satisfactorily
to

say,

around

of 25"

is obtained.

periods

time

of
and

copper

iron

on

the

found

an

that

their

at

loss,and

insulation

but

same.

been

best

and
efficiency

might mean
is required, hence

decreased

first cost

C. in the temperature;

about

temperatures
the
10

on

the
bad

cent,

per

their effect

deposition of hydrocarbon
cooling apparatus, and a further

copper

on

the

quite

full-load

that

for short

high ratio

is

that

of

of transformers.

objectionablein transformers.
at

stated

will operate

limitingtemperatures;

the

on
gradual
objection,this loss increasingabout

the

the

of this kind

overload

are

for

for

transformers

their effect
deterioration;

of 25"

about

earlier part it has

an

point where

condition

High temperatures
effect

In

C.

worked

that

connected

will be doubled

above

will remain

cent,

is
large transformers
load,this value having for its basis a
For
rated
overloads
C,
the limiting

rated

that, in general,it is

given

of temperature

rise is 55"

temperature

for 30 per

high-voltage
winding

values

values

volts

50

100"

C.

loss is
with

Their

an

means

decided
increase

oil is to increase

windings

and

effect is their

internal

tendency

to

increase

"aging"

the

get at, and

is measured

being

at

surface

the

rise in temperature

self-cooled

of this type

on
specified

oil used

effect

the

on

means

an

increase

rise in the

yet it has

As

laws

the

of

for

once

in the

circulation

velocityof

The

all that

been

formers
trans-

temperature

ingoingwater

and

this basis

On

C. less than

10"

in the

has

viscosityof
to

its

cooling

reduced, thereby causing

for

general

combination

of Transformation.

the

an

must

because

one

to

say

will indicate
is most

which

able
favor-

considerable accuracy

with

"

The

ratio of

It is the numerical

be correct,otherwise

The

the service

secondary voltage will be

paralleloperation,correct

too

relation

ratio of

will be

high

ratios

any

is tested

transformer

primary and secondary voltage.

the

creased
in-

theory

correct

which

cases

of conditions

regulation test is made.

the

between

the

flowing.

will be the average

only what
temperature rise in
rise.
given case, but also what will be the maximum

when

one

great

not

Ratio

surrounding air.

of the

possibleto formulate

cooling,and enable

to

the

frictional resistance
is

for

temperature.

not

of

increase

An

the

transformers

insulatingpurposes

for

temperature.

and

about

on

water-cooled

surrounding air.

will be

the

based

cooled

of the

basis of the temperature

class of

The

oil

the

is water,

of the

temperature

be

that

coolingmedium

The

in this type is that

rise to be considered

state

should

oil-insulated

for

transformer.

A.I.E.E.

forced-air

for

and

surrounding air,but
the
cooling medium

transformer

the

immediate

the

at

of the

surrounding air.

oil-insulated

not

core

transformer

of the

the

or

of

Rules
of

oil and

the

coils

the

temperature

not

of

top

Standardization

is the

ing
affect-

temperature

impossibleand only the average

during a regular test, the temperature

with

of contact

The

present

is almost

temperature
taken

maximum

the

measure,

insulation

the

239

(not including the

iron

of the

PRACTICE

silicon steel).

improved
To

IN

TESTING

TRANSFORMER

former
trans-

tory,
unsatisfacor

too

low.

essential;
otherwise cross-currents
will be established through the windings.
A method
in Fig. 182, where
the primary
of ratio test is shown
of the transformer
is in parallelwith the primary
under
test
of the standard
ings
ratio transformer, and the two secondary windFor

successful

are

connected

Standard

of 5

or

10.

are

in series^

transformer

ratios

are

usually

an

exact

multiple

TRANSFORMERS

STATIONARY

240

TABLE

XII."

RESISTIVITY

TEMPERATURE

OF

TABLE
IN

TEMPERATURES

Initial

temperature
cent.

Temp,
in per

COEFFICIENTS

AT

COPPER

DIFFERENT

CENTIGRADE

coefficient
cent,

degree

OF

INITIAL

Initial

Temp,
in per

temperature

per

cent.

coefficient
cent,

degree

cent.

per

cent.

0.4200

26

0.3786

0.4182

27

0.3772

25

0.3801

Low-voltage distribution
windings) 110, 220,

440

or

transformer
550

1,110/2,200,3,300, 6,600

volt
and

to

ratios

are

(low-voltage

ing)
(primary voltage wind-

10,000 volts.

TRANSFORMER

TESTING

High-voltagetransformers

IN

wound

are

44,000, 66,000, 88,000, 110,000 and

for

PRACTICE

241

11,000,22,000,33,000,

140,000 volts.

are
required with ratio-tapson
Occasionallytransformers
be operated at the maximum,
the primary winding so that they may

intermediate

minimum

or

ratio.

7 7
ImAMOAMmJ
^DqOO^

"

Fig. 182.

^^^'^

S.E

D.T.

Sw

tch

Method

"

lQfi.Q.0QQ.O.QO.Q.Qj
Primary
I Secondary

"

for ratio of transformation

test.

The
to
on

advantages of such taps are (a)voltage compensation due

line drop; (6)the possibility
of operatingthe complete system
(assumingneutralized system).
any of the intermediate ratios,

Both
be

of these

better

obtain

to

the normal

is

them

ratingof

It is evident

while

advantages

that

operatingon

operated

at

by other

cuttingdown

than

means

it would

the transformer.

if the
any

primary voltage is maintained

of the intermediate

greater voltage

greater iron loss than

loss is reduced

copper

desirable but

sometimes

are

when

the

somewhat

per

and

turn

total
so

taps, the

the

transformer

therefore
is used.

winding
that

constant

total

at

The

full-load

is reduced
materiallyincreased. The all-dayefficiency
very materiallysince the iron loss exists for 24 hours
of the day and the copper
loss only about three to four or five
hours.
And, as regards compensating for excessive line drop,
losses

are

it is true
and

at

16

not

that

such

if the transformer

places

as

have

is connected

excessive

line

for

lower

ratio

drop, the decreased

242

STATIONARY

TRANSFORMERS

primary voltage impressed

will produce

the

upon

approximately normal

decreased

primary

loss

turns

and

the

desired

secondary voltage during the period of full-load on

However, during lightload, when
a
heavy current

the

system.

in the

primary

is

longer
longer exists,the

excessive

no

drop no
and operating on
any of the intermediate
ratio taps will be subjected to full primary voltage

transformer

an

connected

lower

or

and

core

impressed

the

on

reduced

primary turns,

of

the

and

transformer
and

the

will

loss

core

become

cessive
ex-

the

creased
secondary voltage into a dangerous limit,that is to
dangerous so far as burn-outs of

say,

incandescent

lamps are concerned, for,

happen to turn on their
lamps during the period of light-load
to suffer from
operation, is sure
sive
exceslamp burn-outs.
Operation at 10.
whoever

should

per cent, above

lamp is designed,reduces

the
-n

T.^

100

FiG.

183.

necting

"

ratios

in

^,1

con-

least 20

in the

day,

and

excessive

excessive

lamps during the same

periodof time.
Decreasing the ratio of a transformer
from,
and
the
increase
maintaining
voltage constant,
20

voltageswill
full-load

result in

may
per

cent,
of

for
take

10

cent,

per

result in

And

current.

in ratios of

loss for

core

burning

say,
the

10-1

out

to

of

9-1

loss approximatel

core

primary

circulation of about

difference

of 2 per

100

and

ondary
sec-

cent,

per

in the

cent,

ratios

circulation of 20 per cent, full-load current, or a 1

tion
result in a 10 per cent, circuladifference in ratio may
a

full-load

current; thus

showing

the

absolute

having the ratios always exactly the same.

that the percentage
Fig. 183 and assume

of each

transformer

between

points

current
circulating

The

on

the

cent.

per

difference of about

Conse-

of

hours

21

to

value.

disadvantage of
at

its life to

transformer
a
q^ently by operatmg
its intermediate
ratio-taps,offers
parallel,

transformers

two

different

cent, of its normal

15 per

ofr

Effect

voltagefor which

normal

21 volts

is 5 per
and

with

open

shows

is effective in

windings

cent., and

against the

21

the

volts.

For

necessity
example;

impedance

measured
What

volts

difference
will be

the

secondaries?
current
former
circulating
through the transimpedance of the transformers the

244

ST

TRANSFORMERS

A TIONARY

if two

single-phasetransformers, both of positivepolarityor both

of negativepolarity,
to be operated in parallel,
are
they should be
connected
If all traiisformers
are
alike,they
together as shown.
have
the same
but if some
of different designs
are
polarity,
may

or

by different manufacturers, their polaritymay

made

are

be

different.

Single-phasepolarityis

easilydetermined;

since both

transformers

polyphase

very

not

phase relation and

so

with

rotation

B
^E-"
NOI

NO

Positive
I

Polarity

Negative

VJ Polarity

E-e

"

E-e

abba

Fig.

185.

and

^Positive

"

negative polarity of single-phasetransformers.

a large
considered;in fact polyphase polaritymay mean
number
of possible
combinations.
formers,
Consideringfirst,the test for polarityof single-phasetrans-

must

be

it is best to

consider

direction

the

of

voltages to know
whether
that is,180 degrees
they are in phase or in opposition,
of phase. Positive polaritymeans
that if,during the test,
out
A-b
is the sum
and a-h, positivepolarityis obof voltage A-B
'

"

i
'Noi

iryivn
n
Fig.

186.

"

Method

of

ryyv-n
findingthreee-phase polarity.

tained.

that if,the voltage between

Negative polaritymeans
is the value
A-b
of secondary voltage less than
A-B
and
a-h
See Fig. 185.
negative polarityis obtained.
In Fig. 185 we
have:
Positive

polarity

No.

1 transformer

={A

2 transformer

={A

"

B)-\-(a"h)=E-"re.

and

Negative polarity
=

No.

"

B)

"

{a"h)=E

"

e.

TESTING

TRANSFORMER
This

that, in order

means

different leads must

and

bb

aa,

side.

It

PRACTICE

No. 1 and

to connect

be connected

the other

on

IN

245

No. 2 in

parallel,
side

together. A A, BB on one
is always better,however,

when

is to be connected
in parallel
with
positivepolaritytransformer
the connections of
a
negative polaritytransformer, to reverse
cither the high-voltage
winding or the low-voltagewinding of one
a

of the transformers.

Fig. 186

shows

of

method

the

findingwhether

two

three-phase

polarity.
In making the above test similarlylocated terminals should be
If no voltage is indicated between
connected
together as shown.
the same
and
leads x' and x or between
are
y' and y, the polarities
the connections
be made
and if desired,put into regular
can
operation. If, however, there is a difference of voltage between
transformers

have

the

same

y'

"

Fig.

187.

x'

x,

or

and

same

determine
The
in

"

Testing for polarityin .three-phasesystems.

both, the polarityof the two groups is not the

to
paralleloperation is impossible. It is necessary
the polarity
of each three-phasetransformer
separately.
"

correct

or

connections

under

these

circumstances,are

given

Fig. 187.
Iron

or

Core

Loss.

"

The

loss includes

core

the

hystereticand

The
eddy-current losses.
eddy-current loss is due to currents
produced in the laminations,and the hystereticloss is due to

molecular

friction.

The

core

loss

remains

constant
practically

whether
from
measured
the
loads, and wUl be the same
in either case
primary or secondary side,the exciting current
The economical
being the same
per cent, of the full load.
tion
operaof a lightingplant depends in a largemeasure
the selection
on
at

all

of

an

economical

seldom

the

having

the

one

transfornjer.
of lowest

smallest

first

An

economical

cost, nor

full-load losses.

is it

It is the

necessarilythe
one

is

transformer

which

one

has the

STATIONARY

246

TRANSFORMERS

suitable division of losses for the service for which

most

it is to be

used.

(induction)or

transformer

table), while

the iron

on

in

causes

in

decrease

increase

an

increase

an

in the
loss

core

in

loss

core

given

of

power

in

the

voltage applied
(see following
in

results

frequency

sponding
corre-

density varying directlyas

the

"

1.6

in

and

used,

magnitude with the

magnetic density. An increase

varies

transformer

to

is dependent

loss
hysteresis

The

inversely as the frequency. The eddy current

loss varies in magnitude with the conductivity of the iron and
of laminations.
Both
the
thickness
the
hysteresis and eddy
the

and

voltage

losses decrease

current

if the

increases,and

slightlyas

the
be

temperature

increased

hysteresisloss might disappear entirelywhile

loss will show

with

decrease

this temperature.

to

Thus

increase in temperature
cause

may

the

on

in

used
72

per

core

the
sufficiently
the

eddy

current

increased resistance of the iron due

at

in other

full-load,or

limitingtemperature

to the

in

decrease

iron

of the

temperature

loss of about

5 per

words,

rise of 40"

cent,

an

C.

depending

impressed voltage. For ordinary steel

consist of
transformers, a given core loss at 60 cyclesmay
and
28 per cent, eddy current
cent, hysteresis
loss,the
form

wave

of the

hysteresisloss decreasingwith increased frequency while tlie eddy

loss is increased with increased frequency.
current
Low

power

factor

of

objectionable.This
made

one

silicon

steel

"alley-steel," Take,

or

The

loss of about

64 watts

loss

both

to be
power

of

only

2 per

of

up

transformers.

core

can

is not
in itself very
exciting current
best be explainedby taking two
formers,
transordinary iron and the other of modern

one

45

cent,

made

up

while that

watts; and,

of

for

example,

ordinaryiron

made

will have

with

taking the excitingcurrent

of the full-load current,

we

have

ordinaryiron:

64
=

5000X0.02

64

per

cent,

power

factor

^^^*"

P^^^^'

factor.

and
Transformer

with

silicon steel
45

P^^
5000x0.02^^^

core

of silicon steel will have

factors:

Transformer

5kw,

two

of

the following

TESTING

TRANSFORMER
which

means

19 per

cent,

As

that

no-load

on

better

IN

the

one

PRACTICE

using ordinary iron

247
has

factor.

power

lower

above, the

of the

appliede.m.f.

the

frequency the greater will be

In ordinary commercial
transformers
the iron loss.
a given core
consist of 72 per cent, hysteresisand 28
loss at 60 cycles may
cent,
former
transeddy-current loss,while at 125 cyclesthe same
per
have
50 per cent, eddy50 per cent, hysteresisand
may
loss is also dependent upon
the waveloss. The core
current
form
than

stated

peaked

With

sinusoidal

excitingcurrent
resistance

and

wave

is

flat top

vice

due
distorted,

is introduced

givesa greater loss

versa.

of e.m.f.

wave

wave

into the

applied on

transformer,the

the effect of

to

hysteresis.

however,
primary circuit,

If

the

HjiJiJlftiiiL^ Transformer

Fig.

current
exciting

e.m.f

.-wave

to reduce

188.

wave

more

the

densityvaries

Iron

"

or

becomes

peaked,

the

excitingcurrent
with

core

more

loss transformer

sinusoidal and the

effect of these
and

test.

core

loss.

generated
distortions tending
Since the magnetic

voltage and inverselywith the frequency,

increase in voltage applied.to the transformer
an
causes
an
increase in core
loss,while an increase in frequency results in a
corresponding decrease in core loss.
Of the several
methods
in use
for determining core
loss,the
the

248

STATIONARY
is the

followingmethod
results.

See

There
known

TRANSFORMERS

simplest to apply

while

when

operating

when

it is desired

other

conditions

to

at

the

other

core

losses of

these

figures are
losses

results

of

XIII."

VARIATION

-because
upon

quality of

the
are

transformer

the most
stone

"

with

steel

and

the

LOSS

VARYING

above

^The resistance
may
of

common

bridge"
method

resistance

order

to

mine
deter-

followingtable:
IN

60-CYCLE

VOLTAGE

table

only approximate
varying voltage depend largely
the

are

density at

which

the

formers
trans-

operated.

Resistances.
of

the

variations

the

In

CORE

OF
WITH

given in

voltage but
operation under

when
60-cycle transformer
voltage,the losses at rated voltage

TRANSFORMER

values

are

and

for

necessary.

operating at other than rated

be multipliedby the factors given in
may

The

accurate

transformer

given frequency

correct

approximately the

TABLE

gives very

Fig. 188.
occasions

are

and

may

primary

and

the

secondary
be determined
by several different methods,
"fall of potential" and
"wheatwhich
are

methods.

is the
be

of the

For
fall of

determined
Resistance

commercial

use

potential. In
Ohms

by

the

most

this method

factory
satisthe

law:

=-r

Amperes

(38)

The

requirescontinuous

measurement

voltmeter

in

shown
be

for

The

the

ous-current
continu-

connection

the

reading to

ammeter

be 11 volts.

taken

voltmeter

by

in transformer

is

What

0.022

ohms, and

the

1 1 volts

is,

amp.

coil =2.5

0.022

"

the

lJ

is 500

fore,
degrees centigrade. There-

at

reading includes

ammeter

in test

used

coil is 30

^
Current

With

reading to

of voltmeter

of transformer

current

and

current

example,

249

of coil?

resistance

temperature

PRACTICE

ammeter.

voltmeter

and

2.5 amperes,

The

and

Fig. 189, assume,

the resistance

IN

TESTING

TRANSFORMER

2.478

amp.

in the

current

voltmeter,

I
"*"

Res.

nmmD

Fig.

189.

and

in order

must

be much

Resistance

"

Method

to

of

findingthe

prevent

error

greater than
of transformer

resistance

the

of

resistance

transformer.

of

the

voltmeter

that of the resistance to be measured.

coil at 30

degrees centigradeis,

11
=

4.48

ohms.

2.478
It

is

important

that

possible,especiallyif the current be

it is equally important in alJ cases
at

rest

obtained

before

will not

the
be

be

measurements

quickly as
full-load values,and
as

near

the

that

the voltmeter

needle

is

observation
reliable.

taken

It

taken, otherwise
is possibleto have

the
a

be

values

current

of

STATIONARY

250

sufficient
reach
The

strength

heat

to

coil

the

of

the

the

per

to

it to

cause

is taken.

measurement

coil at

transformer

coefficient of 0.42

temperature

rapidly as

so

hot resistance before

constant

resistance

TRANSFORMERS

C, which is the
degree from and at

25"

cent,

per

4.39

ohms.

0"C., is,

4.48XJ00
i:-^

v^^

(0.42X5) +100
If the temperature
then resistance must
If the

be calculated

and

the average
the resistance

Copper Loss
copper

power,

for each

windings is the
voltage and current
calculated

from

for each

and

of the

temperature
then

windingsis different

of

first be

may

mined
deter-

values.

average

Impedance. ^When a transformer

loss takes
place, varying as the

and

taken.

for air observations,

same

the

observation,

the average

is delivering

"

square

of the

Primary

Secondary

Fig.

current.

eddy
The

It is due

currents

copper

Copper

"

the

loss may

be

It
and

through conductors
P

and

at

the

also

be

resistance

of

h^R2,

time

same

by introducing

to

the

as

the

windings and

themselves.

measured

may

h^Ri

impedance.

of the

conductors

measurement

in Fig. 190.

loss

resistance

the

to

within

impedance-drop
shown

190.

calculated

conductors,
in watts,

wattmeter
from
as

as

currents

follows:

252

STATIONARY

sistance

TRANSFORMERS

in continuous-current

circuits,that

^
/r

Current

circuits is

i mpedance

\/R^+{X's^
/ is the

current;

and

impressed

the

resistance

J^ the

of the

e.m.f. ; Xg

never

X.

in

ance

inductive

circuit.

{R-jx)R

up

of two

and

resistance.)

v'^T

components

Lw

be

may

/is

\/R^+X^=

the

the

henrys;

2.fL

and

X,

=^-l__J__

frequency in cycles per

C

and

is the

capacity in

latter

(46)

second;

It

(45)

Xc',this
inductive,Xg, or condensive
considered
when
dealing with transformers.

Reactance

^^"^
^

-fhw

~R-jx~Uj^^

impedance of a transformer is made

other.
at right angles to each
(Reactance
is expressed as

wherein

replaced in alternating-current

The

factor is

(42)

equivalent expression,

reactance;

pression
ex-

.^^^

Resistance

for continuous-current

where

the

say,

G.m.f.
r^

RD

circuits by the

is to

is the

induct-,

farads.

is measured
by short-circuiting
impedance of a transformer
the other winding
e.m.f. on
of the windings, impressing an
one
of voltage and
current.
measurements
and taking simultaneous
The
impedance voltage varies very nearly with the frequency.
the
transformers
In standard
impedance voltage varies from
the size and
design of the
1 to 4 per
cent., depending upon
The

transformer.

is the ratio of its

efficiencyof a transformer
net
output is the total useful power
output to its input. The
delivered
delivered and the input is approximately the total power
consists of the output power
plus the iron
to the primary; and

Efficiency.
"

loss at the
to

the

load

^The

rated

voltage and

frequency, plus the

copper

loss due

delivered.

efficiencyof a
full-load,and half-load
having an iron
to 200-volt, 60-cycle transformer
5-kw., 2000
loss of 70 watts, a primary resistance of 10.1 ohms, a secondary
Example:

resistance

Find

of 0.066

the

ohms.

TESTING

TRANSFORMER
of
efficiency

The

the

IN

253

consideration

under

transformer

PRACTICE

is taken

follows:

as

Full Load:

Primary

I^ R

63

watts

PR

42

watts

70

watts

175

watts

Secondary
Core

loss

Total

Output

Input

Losses

5,000 watts

5,000 + 175

Full load

efF.

5,175 watts

t^v?==96.6
per cent.

5,175
Half

Load:

Primary and

Total

Output

Input

Losses

2,500 + 96

The

tests

The

copper

the

watts

96

watts

the

loss

transformer

same

loss

copper

resistances

the

of

of each

should

remains

constant

all

at

of the load current.

the square
in all transformers
of a given

as

size,it is,therefore,only

one

watts

cent.

iron

loss varies

loss remains

and

on

that

noted

the

copper

design

watts

70

2,596 watts

load eff.=^^^-=96.2 per

will be

loads but

26

2,500

One-half

It

Secondary

loss

Core

rating and

preferably

windings, rather

be

than

these

make

to

necessary

type.
determined
from

from

the

the
loss

copper

loss
full-load,the copper
of the load, the core
loss remaining constant
varies as the square
The
the time
at all loads.
all-dayefficiencytakes into account
during which these losses are suppliedand is expressed as:

by

test

Per

cent,

other

For

wattmeter.

than

all-dayeff.

100 +watthours

w.-hrs. output +w.-hrs.

The
to

exact

copper

calculate

the

loss of

may

sine

wave

copper

efficiency. The
the

core

must

be

loss

should

transformer

current, otherwise

."v

loss-j-w.-hrs. core

transformer

exactly the rated voltage of

with

output

known

and,

considerable

be

loss

in order
taken

at

when

possible,
discrepancies

occur.

with a load of
Regulation. ^The regulationof a transformer
given power-factor is the percentage of difference of the full
load and
load secondary voltages with a constant
no
applied
"

254

STATIONARY

primary voltage.

TRANSFORMERS

It may

ascertained

be

by applying full load

the
transformer
and
to
noting the secondary voltage, then
removing the load and noting the secondary open-circuitvoltage.
The
secondary voltage drop will be very much
greater with
inductive load, such as induction
motors
an
or
arc
lamps, than
it will be with

regulation can

The

calculation
in the

only

incandescent

from

few

Since

observation

liable to be

are

measuring regulation is

measurement

of resistance

and

or

reactance

the

regulation of any transformer

impressed voltage,and as errors

of the

cent,

per

by direct

measurements

transformer.
a

determined

be

the

lamps.

fully1

cent.,the direct method

per

is
of
of

all reliable.

By connecting the
transformer
to a circuit at the required voltage and
frequency,
load
water
the
rheostat
a
the
or
using lamp
on
secondary
tion
regulabe
determined.
This method, is,however, unsatisfactory,
may
and much
reliance can
be placed on the results of
more
not

at

calculation.
Several

methods

but
regulation,

have

proposed for the calculation of

for inductive
followingis found quite accurate

the

non-inductive

and

loads.

inductive

For

loads:

regulation
=%X

Per

Er

cent.

Example.
a

cent, when

factor

of 87

The

Then

0.5.
Per

cos

cent,

0.87

from

is 30

the

degrees.

The

above

'V%

I R

drop of 2.0
circuit having a power-

sine of

2X0.87

3.48.

loads:

^^~q^^^

Regulation =%IR=

angle 30 degrees is

per

cent,

impedance

resistance

drop^" %

V%

excitingcurrent^"

iron

(49)

drop.

resistance

drop^= %

drop.
I

has

resistance

which

formula:

cent.
=

to

regulation 3.47x0.5

%
Per

load

transformer

cent.

non-inductive

For

and

cent,

per

deliveringa

per
=

drop.
resistance drop.
lag of load current delivered.
reactance

regulation of

the

0.

cos

total

angle of

of 3.47

drop

reactance

per

the

^Find

"

cent,

=per
^

cent,

per

(48)

d.

cos

E:, sin d+%Er

=the

Ex

cent.

smd+%1

Per

been

loss currents

ance
react-

TRANSFORMER

TESTING

IN

PRACTICE

255

TRANSFORMERS

STATIONARY^

256

non-inductive

For

load

O, sin

"

O,

"

cos

1,

have,

we

therefore:

regulation=%

%
The

above

angle 6, but

is

formula
the

simple
regulation is,
Another

and

non-induction

For

practicallycorrect

becomes

error

Er

greater

in

TV

for inductive

regulation =7

d is component
k is the

and

and

Take

with

in

drop

drop in

(51)

42QQ

phase with

drop

in per

terminal

the

in quadrature

drop

is total resistance

is reactance

IX

^^"^

7^20^

regulation =d

component

voltage, IR

loads:

%
where

calculating

for

use

loads:

%
and

of

values

0 increases.

as

method

accurate

small

for

with

voltage
terminal

the

of rated

cent,

voltage

cent.

per

for

example a 7.5 kw. 60-cycle single-phasetransformer

10 to 1 ratio,secondary voltage at full load
208 volts and
=4.3
resistance
ohms.
=0.0635
Primary resistance

Sec.
ohms.
Sec.
0.667

7/2

volts

2.165

0.985

Primary

%.

772

volts

14.65

%.

and
IX
For

V{%

non-inductive

77^2=

impedance drop) 2load, using

regulation
=

the

formula

above,

+^|^1.67

1.65

1.8

have

we

and

inductive

For

with

load

factor

power

of, say, 80%,

we

have

0 462

%
2.3 is taken

where
d
The

value

7X
IX

regulation
=

from

+ 772 Cos

2.3 +

formula,
^

(0.6X

(reactance drop in volts)

may

is:

and

"

1 .8)4also be

2.33 %

^^

(1.65

0.8)

2.3

expressed by the formula

V(B.--"^)
where

is the

rated

primary

voltage,

E^ being

and
winding
measuring
circuiting the secondary
P is the impedance
watts
through the primary.

the

impedance

the volts
measured
as

voltage

and

to

send

necessary

in the

is found
rated-load

short-circuit

teat.

by shortcurrent

TRANSFORMER

IN

TESTING

257

PRACTICE

and

is from

0.46
k

where

is the

"

IX

IR-

formula, and is:

Cos

wattless

(0.6XI. 65) -(1.8X0.8)

=046

factor of load.

time past it has been the practice

of certain transformer-testing
departments in America to subject
Short-circuit Test.

certain

of

types

For

"

some

transformers

short- circuit tests of from

It is
due
has

to the

5 to

well known

now

over

that

shown

given

k-v-a.

capacityto

25 times

rated

the

of many
burn-outs
of the transformers.

of power
that a certain

largeamount

also been

cause

back

current.

in

millingoccurs

is
It

transformers,

repeatedshort-circuits the transformer breaks down, its

coils being twisted in the shell type and displacedin the core
and

after

type.
short-circuit test

The

night
One

so

as

not

winding of

to

is

affect

usually done at specialtimes of the

the voltage regulationof the system.
is connected

the transformer

times

to the

power

system

the

capacity of the transformers) and the

other
winding suddenly short-circuited. The tendency of the
coils to flare out due to the excessive magnetic repulsion
is the
(always many

important point of

most

duration,as the
25

to

30

17

current

the

test.

sometimes

times full-load current.

This

test

reaches

as

is of very short
high a value as

XV

CHAPTER

SPECIFICATIONS.

TRANSFORMER

High-voltage
other

in that

more

their

form

and

in their

make-up

specification

specially made
voltage (the

mechanical

severe

considered

be

to

specificationsare

transformer

of

for

are

existing

iron

same

SPECIFICATION

WINDING

operating

at

was

lower

OIL-FILLED

2200-VOLT

TO

SINGLE-

TRANSFORMER.

Primary

Winding

cross-section, two

Conductor

ing
wind-

which

WATER-COOLED

22,700-39,300
PHASE

given

again).

over

FOR

900-KW.

60-CYCLE

coils,

of

transformer

transformer

used

being

is

Below

have

stresses

arrangement

different.

so

high-voltage

an

the

and

design,

electrical

and

interesting

always

in. X

0.170

in. double

0.080

cotton

covered.

Weight,

750

lb. double

Section.

Inside
Turna
in.

618

Winding

B.T.

coils

of 32

and

32

B.T.

coils

of

and

26

section

ps,

made

27

end

at

of

of two

0.012
1

V.C.

0.012

p^,

pi,

inside

turn

p",

pe,

p?,

and

pn,.

end

of

pa,

outside

in. thick

in. hercules

by 3/16
and

parchment

in.
one

Turn

12

turns

Insulation

(triple)turn

insulated, and

all turns

(double)

other

turns

turns

(double)

V.C.
varnish

turn

insulated,

and

all

V.C.

section, all

26-turn

pt,

\.CK

section, all

turns

pa,

in. mica.

section, last

26-turn

pz,

ft.) 0.015

0.005

Reinforced

0.012

fifth

(8300

turns

wide, consisting

26-turn

/
""

Section.

p^.

between

0.005

Outside

taps

Insulation

covered.

cotton

cambric.
258

turn

insulated,

and

all turns

260

STATIONARY
After

95

"C.).

at

least 100"

eighth

put

the

with

on

overlap not

1/2 in.

tied down

side of the

each

with

twine

and

tongue

of the

the

strap

as

far

the

strap with

is

wrapping
given

drill should

The

sewed

coil, A

Below

than

more

one-

added, before the taping

which is to be placed
drill,

strap, and

the

as

the

at

be

of No. 2 cotton

connecting straps.

the

lap, except

edge.

thickness

one

to cool to

varnishing is given.

one-half

it should

coils,where

be allowed

next

singlesection coils there should

is put on,
over

be

outside

at the

With

F. (38" C.) before

of the

corners

coils should

taping the

each

taping should

The

TRANSFORMERS

be

must

together

drill should

of cotton

neatly
up

be

should

least

at

and

outside

the

at

extend

terminal, and

extend

firmlyedge

outside

the

secured

of
of

the

to

tape.

of

form

as
general specification
presented to
former
The
is for a high-voltage
purchasers of transformers.
and the latter for a high-voltagecore-type
shell-typetransformer
a

transformer.

GENERAL

SPECIFICATIONS

FOR

WATER-COOLED

OIL-FILLED

Construction.

"

"SHELL-TYPE"
25-CYCLE

70,000-VOLT

SINGLE-PHASE

General

RECTANGULAR

TRANSFORMER.

Each

transformer

to

consist of

and
primary and secondary coils,
placedvertically
by a built-up steel core, the coils being spaced so as
flat

the

circulation

free

insulator

an

from

the

surrounded

admit

to

acts

as

of

only

not

cooling medium
by conveying
interior portions of the transformer
to the
but

of

the

as

heat

tank

by

circulation.

natural
The

them, which

of oil between

set

transformer

to

be

in

enclosed

boiler-iron

the

tank,

base

being of cast iron. The tank to be secured to the base

with a joint made
oil-tight
by heavy rivetingand caulking.
A coil of pipe for water
circulation to be placed in the oil in the
and
the cover
surrounding the ends
part of the tank over
upper
of the windings, the combined
surface of the coil and tank
being
and

cover

sufficient to
oil and
Core.

the
dissipate

-allparts of the
"

The
and

core

low

heat

generated and

transformer

to be built up

at

low

maintain

insulated

The
from

the

temperature.

of steel laminations

hysteresisloss.

and
carefully annealed
eddy-current losses.

thus

of

high permeability

laminations

also to

each

to

other

be

reduce

SPECIFICATIONS

TRANSFORMER

primary

The

Windings.

"

with

per

to

of fiat

up

form

layer so as to
large radiatingsurface

turn

one

present

secondary windings to

and

each built
coils,

into several

261
divided
sub-

be

conductors, wound

thin, high coils which

the

coil. The

will

conductors

to

compound, after
together with a specialinsulating
exterior insulating
wrapping to be appliedand separately
with
an
insulatingvarnish, making a very durable

cemented

be

which

an

treated

insulation.

adjacent
insulatingdiaphragm to be placed between
held
in
and
be
to
position
rigidly
primary and secondary coils,
by spacingchannels covering the edges of the coils.
The
assembled
coils,except at the ends, to be completely
stantial
which will interposea subenclosed by sheets of solid insulation,
the core.
the winding and
barrier at all pointsbetween
sufficient oil completely to
Each
transformer
to have
Oil.
immerse
the core, windings, and coolingcoil. In order to secure
the oil
and
the best insulatingqualities
a
high flashing-point,
solid

"

to

be
A

refined and
specially
valve for drawing off

and

treated
the

for this

tested

use.

in the base

oil to be located

of the

tank.

Water-cooling Coil. To consist of heavy wrought-iron lapwelded

welded
joints,and to stand a test
pipe with electrically
"

inch.
lb. pressure
per square
of the coolingcoil is to absorb that

of at least 1000
The
that

duty

which

will be

minimize

the

natural

dissipatedby

be

cannot

made

fit the

to

of oil and

amount

portionof

radiation from

the heat

the

closely,and

transformer

tank,
thus

floor space.

secondary leads to be brought out

cables
consist of heavy insulated
and
to
through the cover,
ness.
brought through porcelainbushings of ample surface and thickLeads.

"

primary

The

and

Performance. After a run of 24 hours at rated load,frequency,

former,
and
voltage, the rise in temperature or any part of the transmeasured
as
by thermometer, and the rise in temperature
of the coils,as measured
by the increase in resistance,not to
water
exceed 40" C, provided the temperature of the circulating
"

is not
If the

greater than

25"

C,

temperature of

the

rise in temperature

and
water

shoul^

be

that

the

supply of

differs from
corrected

by

25"

water

C,

0.5 per

is normal.

the
cent,

observed
for each

degree.
The

insulation

between

the

primary

coils and

the

core,

and

STATIONARY

262

secondary coils
for the

the

transformer

without

hours

to

the

90

cent,

per

core

of double

test

overload

an

carry

rise

the

normal

to

power

of 25

voltage
for two

cent,

per

exceeding55"

C.

give full kilowatt output

factor without
exceeding

when

temperature

transformer

The
at

and

length of time.

same

The

and

to stand
a test of
secondary coils,
alternatingcurrent for 1 minute, and between the

volts

140,000

primary

the

between

that

TRANSFORMERS

operating
above

the

perature
tem-

rise.
SPECIFICATIONS

GENERAL

FOR

"CORE-TYPE"

The

"

25-CYCLE

SINGLE-

built up

be

to

cores

70,000-VOLT

TRANSFORMER.

PHASE

Core.

OIL-COOLED

with

laminated

iron sheets

high permeability,low hysteretic

loss,and not subject to appreciable
The
be
sheets
deterioration.
to
magnetic
carefully
annealed
from
each other in order to reduce eddyand insulated
of

losses.

current

Windings.

insulated
and

stand

to

primary

The

"

from

each

and

from

the

core

greater than

the

rated

other

potentialmuch

secondary windings to
and

be

and

oughly
thor-

frame,

voltage of

transformer.

the

transformer

Each

Oil.
"

winding

and

treated
and

placed in

when

the

in order

refined

and

sufficient oil to

have

to

to

tank.
secure

the

cover

core

oil to be

specially
good insulatingqualities
The

high flashing-point.

Terminals

and

Connections.

"

The

primary and secondary

leads

carefullyinsulated and taken from the tank through porcelain

bushings, which shall have sufficient surface to prevent
perceptibleleakage to the frame of the transformer.
Performance. After a run of twenty-four hours at rated load,
voltage,and frequency the rise in temperature of any part of the
measured
transformer
as
by thermometer, and of the coils as
measured
45" C,
by the increase in resistance,not to exceed
provided the temperature of the surrounding air is not greater
be

to

"

than
the

C. and

25"

temperature

the

conditions

of the

of ventilation

surrounding air differs

rise in temperature should

observed
for each

be corrected

If

normal.

are

C. the

from

25"

by

0,5 per

cent,

degree.

Insulation

between

the

primary winding

and

the

secondary windings, to stand

for one
minute, and
140,000 volts alternating-current
the

primary

and

and

core,
a

test

tween
be-

of

between

TRANSFORMER

SPECIFICATIONS

secondary winding and

the

for the

current

transformer

The

without

hours

his

has

of the

any

cent,

per

for two

parts.

particularway

own

of

arranging

finds

specifications. One

information

useful

heatingof

of 50

it suits his purpose

to
generaldescriptionwhile another will sometimes
present

transformer

give but

nating
10,000 volts alter-

of

test

overload

an

carry

manufacturer

Every

core

length of time.

same

to

undue

the

263

detailed

specification
covering the
complete characteristics of the transformer, includinga complete
and electrical description.
and general mechanical
test record
of the

One

give

and

and
specifications

best

operating engineers is made

Detailed

Transforyner

cable

H.T.

Form
Specification.'

Width.
......

weight of oil

Volts

per
per

Volume

section

of

core

Core

path

ing
bush-

L.T.

Depth
Net
.......

weight
Type

Phase

VoltsL.T.

Iron

iron

Narrow

and

of mag.

cable

K. V. A

Weight of core
Exciting

clusters
clusters

Window
.....

Core

current

inches.

square

loss,amperes

IR

cent.

Total

curve

Corners

per

cribs

irons

irons

Core

leg
leg

and

^.T

End

Steel

"

of tank

Steel

Frequency
Amperes
Core.

I^R

long. L. T.
brushing (terminal) No
Winding
Length
Weight of coils and core

of oil

Gallons

Iron

Total

Weight

all

"

No

long. H.T.
(terminal)No

.......

of great interest to

one

follows:

as

up

Cribs

Tank

No.

Mag.

Length

amperes

per. cent.

H. T. Winding
No.

outs

coil to
in each

of

section

layer per

around

Diam.

of

Thickness
Resistance

turn
turn

Space
sion
exten-

of conductor

Weight
Copper density
Max,

volts per

layer

IR

Winding. Volts
of layers
Insulation
L. T.

Size

Volts per

/2/2

Turns

Insulation

Lbs. per M. ft
Mean

(R)

between

tion
Insula-

lag
layers

sections

core

conductor
of coil

per

Tap-

Length of section

Space between
Space

Turns

Sections

Insulation

core

of ends

Volts

Amperes
layers

"

"

Amperes
between
layers

......

Taps
Section

No.
per

in each

Turns

leg
sections

Space

around

Space

Insulation

Volts

of coil

Thickness

turn

Copper density

layer

volts per

Lbs. per M.
ance
(R) Resist-

im

IR

these two
not complete
are
specifications
specifythe efficiencyand regulation (these two

Like

all customers'

they do not
important factors

as

dielectric test
cool

the

Weight

Size of conductor

turn

per

of conductor

of sections

Length

Max.

Space between

Diam.

ends

at

core

Mean

section

layer per

extension

ft

to

TRANSFORMERS

STATIONARY

264

being

of the

transformer,

it be

whether

of the

water

necessary

transformer; lifting
supporting
in
method
former
moving the transemployed
truck
four-wheel
a
or
on
a
steel-rails,
the

of

the

nor

only); the

sheet

record

test

oil;the temperature

method

oil;the

the

the

on

on

racket-frame.

general characteristics

The

in the

record

test

and

given below

RECORD

TEST

sheets.

is for

of

high-voltagepower
FOR

SHEET

kw.,

such

is

sheet

transformer.
POWER

HIGH-VOLTAGE

(SHELL

TYPE)

(water cooled).

winding 30,000 60,000 volts; L.T. winding

H. T.

16.66; L. T.

T. amperes
Run.

H.
Heat

always given

are

of

cycle, 60,000-volt shell-type,single-phase

25

transformer

example

good

TRANSFORMER

1000

transformer

volts.

2300

435.

amperes

"

for 8 hours

Run

at

volts

2300

L. T., and

H. T.

18.5 amperes

(a).
Run

for

H.

hours

T. by resistance
resistance

L. T.

by
Temperature
Temperature
and

and

23.2

amperes

of

at end

35.0

for

37.0 for

run).
"

(a) and

50.0

for

(6).

(6)
.

of oil 18.0 for

(a) and

23.5 for

(b).
(a)

leaving the

of frame

of transformer

12.0

C. is 1796, and

for (b) is 21.32

ohms.

(b)is 0.02545

ohms.

transformer

10.0

for

of water

(6).

Temperature
for

T,,

L.

T. (6).

"Temperatures (degreesC.
H.

volts

2300

at

for

(a)

and

16.5

(b).

Resistances.

"

H. T. resistance
L. T. resistance

at

25"

at 25" C. is 0.0223

and

for

TRANSFORMER
Insulation.

SPECIFICATIONS

265

"

Voltage appliedto primary and

minute

secondary and

core

for

one

is 120,000 volts.

Voltage applied to L. T. and

for

core

one

minute

is 5000

volts.

(Applicationof alternating
current).
Efficiency.
"

commercial

At

125%

full-load,guaranteed eff. 98.0%

and

At

100%

full-load,guaranteed eff. 97.8%

and

commercial

eff. 98.36%.

At

75%

eff. 97.4%

and

commercial

eff. 98. 11%.

At

50%

and

commercial

eff. 96.93%.

and

commercial

eff. 94.52%.

full-load,guaranteed
full-load,guaranteed eff. 96.7%

full-load,guaranteed eff. 93.9%

Regulation (100 per cent. P. F.).
At

25%

eff. 98.38%.

"

Guaranteed

regulation 1.0

Commercial

regulation

General.

per

cent.

1.037 per

cent.

"

loss in watts

Core

Excitation

Impedance
Impedance
Water

per

in amperes
volts
watts

watts.

14.3.

1.653.

((a)=1.822

9.560.

((a)=11.720

minute

(ingoingwater
Detailed

7.335

2.6

25"

volts.)
watts.)

gallons.

C).

Specifications.
"

Height

over

cover

in.

135

in. X59

in.

Floor

space

Total

weight (without oil)=30,000

110

Gallons

of oil

Weight
Weight
Weight

of oil

Weight
Weight

of small

required

of tank
of

1300.

lb.

10,400 lb.
and

large cover
cover

base

lb.

2450

lb.

7500

lb.

550

coolingcoils and casing 2500 lb.

of coils and casing 70 in. X37
in. X32 in.
Dimensions
Coolingcoil (sizeof pipe)=1.5 in.
Length of coolingcoil pipe 830 ft.
in.X96 in.
30 in. X53
Cooling coil pipe dimensions
Weight of coolingcoil 2200 lb.
of

Weight of iron

cover

=14,000

lb.

STATIONARY

266

TEST

RECORD

TRANSFORMERS

SHEET

FOR

HIGH-VOLTAGE

TRANSFORMERS

200-kw.,

(CORE
volts

cycle, 57,500

25

POV/ER

TYPE)

type, water-cooled

core

transformer.
single-phase

H. T. winding 28,750, 57,500 volts; L. T. winding 2300

H. T. amperes
Run.

Heat

3.5; L, T.

87.

"

for 11

Run

hours

at

volts

2300

L. T., and

87

L. T.

amperes

(a).

current

for 2 hours

Run

amperes

volts.

volts L. T., and

at 2300

130.5 amperes

L. T.

(6).

current

Temperatures (degreesC. at end of run)

H. T. by resistance 30.0 for (a) and 49.5 for (b).
L. T. by resistance 38.5 for (6).
Temperature of oil 21.5 for (a) and 28.0 for (6).
Temperature at top of frame is 19.5 for (a) and 25.0
of frame
is 9.5 for (a) and 12.5
Temperature at bottom
"

temperature for (a) is

Room

and

18.5

for

for

(6).

for

(6),

(b) 17.5" C.

Resistance."
H. T. resistance at 25" C. is 56.6

ohms

on

winding connected

for 28,750 volts.

H, T. resistance for (6) is 68.1 ohms.

resistance

L. T.

H.

25"

C. is 0.1168

ohms,

and

for

"

T. to
for

L. T. and

core

115,000

volts

alternatingcurrent

minute.

one

L. T. and

core

for

10,000 volts alternatingcurrent

one

minute.

Efficiency.-^
commercial

eff. 97.9%.

and

commercial

eff. 97.8%.

and

commercial

eff. 96.8%.

commercial

eff. 94.5%.

At

100%

At

75%

load guaranteed eff. 96.2%

At

50%

load guaranteed eff. 95. 0%

At

25%

load guaranteed

and

load

Regulation (100

guaranteed

per

cent.

and

eff. 96.7%

eff. 91.2%

P. F. =1.6

per

cent.).
"

General.
Core

(b) is

ohms.

0.1307
Insulation.

for

loss in watts

=2.865.

Excitation

in amperes

Impedance

volts

(57,500

Impedance

watts

=1.750.

=10.3.
volt

winding) =1.017.

STATIONARY

268

TRANSFORMERS

oil-insulated transformer
Also, comparing the largestwater-cooled
in Europe with an
made
4000
kw. standard
ordinary
American
design of the same
type, we have:
4000-KW.,

OIL-INSULATED

33,000-VOLT,
SINGLE-PHASE

WATER-COOLED

TRANSFORMER

(American manufacture)
Dimensions, 107 in. X63 in. X150
Kilowatts
Kilowatts

per

square

per

cubic

foot

86

foot

Gallons

1950

kilowatt

per

0.49

Full-load

efficiency
Half -load efficiency
Gallons

of water

98.9
98
19

OIL-INSULATED,

(European

per

square

per

cubic

Gallons

of oil

Gallons

per

manufacture)

in. X59

in. X136

foot

in.
162

foot

14.2

kilowatt

0. 215

load

98.85

1.0)

0. 62

F. =0.8)

in

are

The
serve

0
.

per

cent.

per

cent.

per

cent.

per

cent.

50

of

Transformers

of

95
.

cent,

per

F.

98

Frequency

phase units

high)

1130

Efficiencyat 50
Regulation (P.
Regulation (P.

not

cent.

WATER-COOLED,

Efficiencyat full-load

have

per

TRANSFORMER

(Dimensions, 82

volts

cent.

THREE-PHASE

Kilowatts

per

25

45,000- VOLTS

Kilowatts

5
.

minute

per

Frequency
5250-KV-A.,

85
.

of oil

Gallons

in. high)

greater size than

much

built in

yet been

kw., and

7500

Europe.

5,000 kv-a

at

American

In

three-phase units

of

45,000

single-

14,000 kw,

operation at voltages above 100,000 volts.

three
transformers
following high-voltage power
is being done
what
in this direction:
to show

7500-KW.,

60,000-VOLT,

OIL-INSULATED,

SHELL-TYPE

Kilowatts
Kilowatts

THREE-PHASE
square

per

cubic foot

Gallons

of oil

Gallons

of oil per

Weight

without

OIL-COOLED,

TRANSFORMER
80
5.65
4000

kilowatt.

Efficiency at full-load
Frequency

foot

per

FORCED

oil

0.53
98

95
.

42
.

25

per

5 tons.

cent.

will

TRANSFORMER

SPECIFICATIONS

OIL-INSULATED,

138,500-VOLT,

5750-KW.,

SHELL-TYPE

Kilowatts
Kilowatts

WATER-COOLED,

SINGLE-PHASE

per

square

per

cubic

Gallons

of oil

Gallons

of oil per

269

TRANSFORMER

foot

71

foot

5.3
2500

kilowatt

Efficiency

at

full-load

Efficiency

at

75

per
per

0.7
98

per

cent.

load

98.7

per

cent.

load

98.3

per

cent.

load

96.9

per

cent.

Efficiency

at

50

Efficiency

at

25

cent,
cent,

per

in tons

weight

Total

cent,

28
60

Frequency
Test

voltage
(Length

Kilowatts

per

square

per

cubic

Gallons

of oil

Gallons

of

Efficiency

miles)

OIL-COOLED,

TRANSFORMER

foot

kilowatt

0.75

full-load
oil

Frequency
(The

99

per

60

tons.

cent.

60

winding

primary

25

1500

oil per
at

58

foot

without

Weight

is 4

FORCED

THREE-PHASE

SHELL-TYPE

Kilowatts

high-voltage winding

OIL-INSULATED,

100,000-VOLT,

10,000-KW.,

volts.

280,000
of

consists

(high-voltage winding)

of 10

miles

of

copper

conductor)

Practically every
operating

system
table
the

"Modern
Present

star

against

solid
"

several
delta

the

Time."

55,000

The

delta

for

21

and

delta

star

(the

in others

connections,
transformer

point

star

the

and

star

above

grounded
all

and

in

insulated).

disadvantages

looking

through

installations

connection.

are

as

being in

through

in

the

operating

connections

connections

are

given

are

Transformers

Power

advantages

highest voltage
toward

volts

transformer

connections

important
and

at

High-voltage

grounded

while

high-voltage alternating-current three-phase

some

high
In
are

the

practice

38

at

for

cases

resistance

Chapter
given
list of
appears

IV
for

the
to

APPENDIX

TIME.

PRESENT

THE

AT

TING
OPERA-

TRANSFORMERS

POWER

VOLTAGE

HIGH

"MODERN

"
Operating

and

1.

Sierra

2.

Power

3.

Eastern

4.

systems

Francisco

San

Hydro-pjlectric

Power

Hydro-Electric

Power

Comm-n.

110,000

Co.

Western

Power

Company.

Great

Western

Power

Company.

8.

Grand

9.

Georgia

River

Power

90.000

Co.

110.000

G.

River
River

Yadkin

Power

Co.

1 10,000

Company

Power

Truckee

11.

Mich.

Rapids

110.000

110.000

10.

C8

110,000

Great

Mississippi

as

140.000

Comm-n.

Power

Northern

7.

"

"

104.000
Co.

Power

Michigan

6.

"

140,000

Company

Mexican

5.

i!

110,000

E.

Company.

Power

104,000

Company.

104,000
.

Falls

12.

Great

13.

Southern

14.

Central

15.

Tata

16.

No.

17.

Yadkin

18.

Shawinigan

Power

Shawinigan

Power

"

P.

Water

Power

T.

Co..

Colorado

101.200
Co.

Power

100,000
.

Co.

Power

Hydro-Electric
State

102,000

Company

100,000
.

Co.

Hydro-Electric

100,000
.

River

19.

Central

20.

Rio

Power

Janeiro

de

L.

Company..

"

P.

90,000

Co

88.000
88.000

Company.
.

85.000

Company.

Electric

Paulo

85,000

P.

Power

Appalachian

100,000
.

100.000

Company.

Power

Appalachian

21.

Company.

Colorado

Company.

Company.

22.

Sao

23.

Tata

24.

Mexican

L.

"

P.

Co.

Ltd

85,000

Mexican

L.

"

P.

Co.

Ltd

81,000

25.

Madison

26.

Utah

27.

Riven

Light
Elect.

Butte

Power

"

Power
L.

"

88,000
.

85,000

Company..

Hydro-Electric

80.000

Company

80.000

Company
P.

80.000

Company
.

28.

Telluride

29.

Katsura-Gawa

30.

Southern

31.

Pennsylvania

"The
to

above

Edison
W.

cases

from
denotes

being

"

of
star

to

single

77.000

Co.

75.000

Co

70.000

Co

Power

connection

This

80.000

Company
Hydro-Elect.

Calif.

and

star

Power

given

systems
delta
or

are

is

here

constantly

three-phase

not

being

transformer

three-phase.

270

strictly
made
"

to

the

correct
suit
systems

"is
new

changes

from

delta

conditions.
themselves

in

all

the

271

APPENDIX

PRESENT

THE

AT

TRANSFORMERS

POWER

VOLTAGE

HIGH

MODERN

TIME."

TING
OPERA-

(Continued.)

^
M
*

Operating

systems

"S
O
"

32.

Missouri

River

33.

Southern

Wisconsin

Co

Power

Power

Co.

O
V

to
""

"

"

60

70,000

60

70,000

50

67,500

River

34.

Kern

35.

Northern

36.

Yakima

Company.

Power
Calif.

37.

Central
Northern

Company

39.

Eastern

40.

Idaho-Oregon

41.

Spokane

42.

Nagoya

Electric

43.

Toronto

Power

Power

Georgia

Co
Co

Hydro-Electric
Tennessee

Co

Power

Valley Power

38.

Co.

Power

Inland

"

44.

Washington

45.

Mexican

46.

East-Creek

47.

Great

"

L.

P.

Company

E.

R.

P.

Co. Ltd

L.

"

P.

48.

Niagara-Falls

49.

Pacific

Coast

"

Power

50.

Guanajuato

51.

Jhelum

52.

Michiacan

53.

Elect.

61.

Puget^Sound

55.

Canadian-Niagara

50.

Portland

57.

Calif.

58.

Pacific

69.

Winnipeg

Power

Co

Co.

E.

Company.
Company.

Power

Company.

Gas

"

Coast

P.

Power

L. "

P.

66,000

GO

50,000

25

60,000

60

60,000

60

60,000

25

60,000

25

60,000
60.000

60

60,000

60

60,000

25

60,000

60

60,000

25

60,000

60

60,000

26

67,000

60

57,000

60

55,000

Company
Co

Company

Company.

60

Co

Power

Electric

66,000

Development

L. "

Co

Electric

River

66.000

60

Company.

Electric

"

Co

Power

66,000

60

Company.

Power

66,000

25

Co.

Power

Northern

60

Co

"

L.

66,000

25"60
.

Company

Water

66,000

60

Co
.

Power

60

60

55,000

60

65,000

60.

The

subject of transformers

without

reference

It is deemed

systems

took

to

the

to

note

that

the

well

very

effects of altitude

safe to say that not one

this effect of altitude

specifying their system

careful

cannot

on

of the
into

be

their
above

concluded

operation.
mentioned

consideration

when

requirements, yet each and all were

and
common
day specifications
every

complied with.
With
the exception of water-cooled
oil transformers,manufacturers
rise and
of
should specifythe temperature
efficiency
transformers
at service-altitudes.
This is very
important for
the reason
that
and
insulation,temperature
efficiencyvalues
are
quite different at high altitudes to those at sea level. For
example, at an altitude of 3,500 ft. above sea level a higher
kv-a rating should be allowed a given unit and, when
transa
tests

were

APPENDIX

272

former

is

for

rated

operation
rise

temperature
1

into

service,

permissible
350
"V-

for

cent,

per

given

service.

=30

is

to

say:

cent.

transformer

LESS,
will

altitude,
reduced

be

350-ft.
at

rise

temperature
per

should

additional

every

that

this

at

thus
have

would

we

at

of

be

see

by

rise

altitude

an

the

normal

missible
per-

approximately
which

it
ft.

10,500

the

approximately
that

different

for

put
per-

10,500

higher

rating

is

for

altitudes

given

INDEX
Ability

of

at

current

deliver

constant

volt-

Admittance,

31, 32

Advantage

of

Cheap

to

system,

Aging
Air

iron

and

Air-blast

Chief

transformers,

and

11,

Close

of

Coefficients

and

Anhydrous

of

in

lighting,178-185

Assembly

of large power

Commercial

operated

Blotting

Connections

Building

74

of fire-proof construction, 8

Causes

transformer

failure, 145,

18

of

transformers,

of

large

constant

current

182-184

273

of

158

136

154

39

concentration

potential transformers,

in kw., 3, 52

of

two-

14,

185

Construction

Capacity

transformers,

current

178,

125

three81

grounding

and

systems,
Constant

133

action,

Breathing

core,

cooling

122

transformers,
for

Consolidation

11

49

grounding

for

phase

27

of

218-220

phase

224-226

of transformer

paper,

ers,
transform-

transformers,

transformers,

system,

43

of 175,000

method

Compensators,

tion,
transforma-

transformer, 26,

Best

of

wire, 32, 39,

return

Connections

shape

and

transformers,

power

Combination

33, 170-177

Best

150-153

manufacture

Common
ers,
transform-

and

regulators,

type

ore

single-phase

weights

volt

132

136-148

Balancing

and

42

Arc-series

Auto-transformers

shell

of

Comparative

copper

240

polyphase

sulphate,

copper

nections,
con-

cooling-

resistivityin

of

transformers,

engineers,

given steel,8

system
74

transformer

Comparison

239

transformer,

hysteresis in

Automatic

of

"Table,

Courts,

developed

heat

35

system,

transformer

Comparison
E.,

into

system

regulation, 156

European

I. E.

Amount

of

Cleaning

79
American

formers),
trans-

of fire,8

70,

246

dangerous

Law

other

144

15

impracticable,
fought in the

(using

coils, 125

Alloy steel in transformers,

currents

74

polyphase

any

danger

Choice

144

Air-cooling of transformers, 120-122

American

Changing

of frequency

any

7, 120,

All-day efficiency,14,

alloyed

83

coils,159

transformers,

Alternating

of system,

cost

Change

iron, 11,

for

agers,
man-

and

space

Cheapest

15

reactance

Air-chambers

copper

air reactance

coils, 159
of the

engineers and

iron, 153

75

of iron and

Advantages

75

star-delta

to

kw.,

200,000

over

153

delta-delta

the

delta-delta, 74,
delta-star

system

station

Central

16

age,

74,

Centralized

to

transformer

power

4, etc.
formers,
trans-

144

ers,
transform-

INDEX

274

Contact-making
of the

Control

Conversion

voltmeter, 224-226

Disadvantage

designer,9

of

connections

for transformers,

Disturbed

Cost of
Core

of the transformer

loss

-star

given

109, 113, 116

system,

109, 114, 116

system,

due

114, 116

to

of power

out

transformers, 10, 24, 125,

136, 137-139, 150-153, 158,

coil of

secondary

load, 31, 32
Drying of insulation,145

248

type

75

-tee, system,

Drop

153

incoming

to

transformers, 24

9,11

iron loss,8, 11, 14, 245-

or

each

Double-delta

for

service,5, 75,

due

system

transformers,
area,

transformer)

transformers, 28

surges,

9, 16, 250-252
given volume and

(two

Disc-shape coils,129

Dividing

153
loss in

I^ R

or

delta-delta

system, 80

Cooling-coil cleansing,125
Copper

"T"

Distribution

56

Cooling of transformers, 6, 117-130

Cooling medium,

the

system, 74, 75
of the

polyphase system
into another, 20
one

Conventional

of

transformers, 146-

148

Duration

of tests, 13

262

Cost

of total losses,6

Current, short-circuit,
154, 156,
transformers,
and

Dangerous

257

connections,163
Earthing of the neutral

rent,
impracticable cur-

space

ordinary

Edison, Thos.

iron,153
Delta-connected

of copper,

Effect of various

systems, 42, 53

systems, 47, 53, 73

-star

merits,53, 73

-delta systems,

Electrical

47, 54, 73

delta-delta

oil-insulated

characteristics

system,

transformers,

of temperature

Development
of the

rise,7

of transformers, 2
art

of transformer

struction,
con-

Diametrical

system,

Difference

former,
trans-

116

Electro-magnetic propertiesof alloysteel,11

Electro-static

capacity of parts

too

high, 95
Equal output and change in copper
loss,9
Engines, 3
Exciting current, 9, 10
159
External and internal choke-coils,

of potential,34

of opinion

as

regards grounding,

28

Difficulties of three-phase

operation,

from
the, 26
Factory, transformers
Faraday's historic experiments,1
Favor
of the shell-typetransformer,

84-96

Different

of

118

Determination

iron substances, 1 1

153, 252, 253

74-75

-Design of

system,

Efficiencyof transformers, 14, 16,

-delta merits, 48, 53, 73

of the

245-247

A., three-wire

51

-star

Demerits

formers,
trans-

30

Eddy-current loss,8,

and

of

161

Economy

'Dead," short-circuit,154
copper

Earth

186-208

Dear

of transformers,

Early development

ways

152

of
22

applying

formers,
trans-

of

the
152

core-type

transformer,

INDEX

276

Lamps,

incandescent, 178-

and

arc

Modern

high voltage

185

commercial

Large

formers,
trans-

power

of coils and

Moving

and

courts

alternatingcurrents,

94, 154,

core,

160

generators, etc., 3
Law

formers,
trans-

power

270, 271

Motor

auto-starters, 219, 220

Leakage

of

reactance

the

former,
trans-

National

Board

of

Liberal

oil ducts

74

system,

on

between

the

ous
vari-

National

Lighting transformers, 31
Limiting feature of transmission,2
rise in transformers,

of temperature

Ohm's

due

revenue

the end of long

at

of transformers,

leakage, 16
Magnetizing currents

constant

in

ers,
transform-

76, 152, 153, 155,

thermometers

78, 91, 239

Phase relations,22, 59, 68, 74, 87
Phase-splittingmethods, 21
in

selection

the

Polyphase regulators,220-226

74, 75

Positive
Power

of three-phase units,43

connecting three-phase

systems,

158

cooling transformers,
Steinmetz

244-245

(P) or electrical energy, 31

factor,10, 16, 19, 22, 203-204
ance,
limiting capabilitiesof reacttransformers, 43, 56, 66, 123,
145, 153, 267-271

Practicable

50,000

and

60,000 volt

systems, 3

117-130

same

direction,40, 56,

42

two-phase systems, 30, 33

of insulatingtransformers, 11

and

formers,
trans-

64, 243-245

perature
tem-

readings, 147
system,

of

Polarityof transformers, 55, 58, 59-

160
for

of the delta-star to star-delta

of

formers,
trans-

Parallel operation, 22, 38, 56, 64, 66,

Points

11

Methods

current

178-185

failure of transformers,

of

lines,1 1

64
engineer'sdifficulties,

Over-potential test, 229

transformers, 74

densities

Mercury

51, 52, 53,

236
Opposition-test,

price for

14

Meyer

system,

178-184

Operation of

Mechanical

partments,
com-

72

the frequency of supply, 9,

Magnetic

Method

Open-delta "V"

Operating

83

Merits

in separate

Operation of transformers, 153-169,

10

Lowest

transformers,7
8, 144

operatingtemperature,

average

Lowering

transformers

transformer

to

failure,6
Low

Law, 248, 252

drop, 16, 42
-filledself-cooled

magnetizing current,

to

in

161

Oil for transformers, 127, 130-135

Line-drop compensator, 221-225

Long-distance transmission lines,151
Losses, 8, 79
Loss due to magnetic leakage, 10

245

point, 39, 49, 76, 81, 86,

Ohmic

resistance,163

Electrical

Code, 28
Negative direction,40, 56, 244,
Neutral

parts, 6

Limit

writers,
Under-

227

154

potential strain

Least

Fire

systems

the

thing, 106 (Fig.101 A)

Primary

windings of transformers,
with

and

X., 5

INDEX
for

Principal argument

grounding

277

Series-pai'allel
operation,152

transformers, 28

step-up transformer, 205

Puncturing of the insulation between

transformers, 186-208

turns, 94, 117

Raising current, 205

of high voltage

Ratio

to low

voltage

Simple transformer manipulations,22

Single-phasesystems, 22, 42, 83
from three-phase,82, 83
and operaSix-phasetransformation
tion,

turns, 65, 67
of iron and

109-116

Solid

loss,5

copper

of transformation, 65, 67, 239-

internal

and

external,

154, 160

Recognized

commercial

Spark-gap"

Table, 228
Specificationsof transformers, 258-

operationof

270

Star

60,000 volts,3
sheet

versus

compensators,

system, 47, 53, 55

-star

256

209,

Station

delta,71, 73, 74
equipment and transmission
lines greater, 10

226

Relays

protection

for

of

formers,
trans-

Standard

rules

165-167

of
Reliability

transformers

in service,

(R), 18, 41,

31
phase,
per
of wiring, 31
grade,

failure,6

over-load,

154

Safety to

life and

property, 5, 154

Salt for the

earth

Scott, Chas.

F., system, 53, 80, 98,

connections,165

106

Secure

the desired

Step-up

copper

of 40,000

h.p.

pacity,
ca-

Chas.

P., system,

100,

-up

Strain

transformers, 205
transformers, 4

current

-down

to

E.,

106
a

11

Roasting of oils due

I. E.

Steinmetz,

effected imperfect iron of

low

turbines

248-250

loss due to transformer

A.

voltage test, 231

Steam

Resistance

of the

239

80, 151, 154

Revenue

47, 53, 73, 74

merits, 47, 73, 74

of tests, 264-269

and

system, 41-53

-delta system,

Regulation, 10, 16, 22, 155, 223, 253Regulators

"Y"

or

Receiving station transformers, 74

Record

for impregnation
windings, 11
insulation,11
of

241

Reactance,

compounds

transformers, 4,

23

between

high and low voltage

windings, 27
Lewis B., regulator,210
Stillwell,
Surges, 75, 159, 163
System giving cheapest cost, 74
Switches, 76, 165
Switching and its advantages, 76,

loss,9

165,

109-116

Self-coolingtransformers, 117-120,
Taylor,William

144

induction, 18
28
Short-circuits,

"T"

-circuit stresses, 154, 156, 257

Shell type transformer, 2, 10, 73, 79,

128, 139-144, 260

Series enclosed

arc

lightingfrom

T., system,

37, 71,

80, 106, 255

transformers, 205

system, 37, 53,

71, 80, 98
three-transformer

system,

71,
Telephone transformers, 206
Temperature rise of the oil,128
80

178-180
lighting,
constant

two-transformer

current

of electrical apparatus,

7, 147

37,

INDEX

278

123, 125, 128, 152,

Temperatures,

Two-phase,

232-239

Terminals

36

distribution,36

parallelcombinations, 38
three-phase methods, 107, 109

sheets, 264-267

record

Test

connections, 262

and

single-phase,
35,

to

multi-wire

ers,
Testing cooling coils for transform146

Underwriters,

of Fire

Board

National

the

specified by

Tests

Unbalancing, 32, 52, 68, 75, 85

Unduly moist transformers, 145
Unlimited

behind

power

impedence,

loss and

of copper

Use

of reactance,

252,
efficiency,

of iron

of resistance

253

loss,245-252

core

or

and

ternal,
ex-

neutral

of

154

polarity,243-245

of ratio of transformation, 239-

of

resistance

and

Vacuum

R.,

impregnation,11
42, 51,

53, 72

248-

Variation

of

loss,248
of copper
loss,251
Vector representation, 17, 30, 33, 40,

250

of short-circuits,
257
of temperature,

of

process

Varley's method, 1
"V"
or
open-delta system,

243

of regulation, 253-256

Third

in the

grounded systems,
delivered,9
energy

Useful

of insulation,13, 227-232
of

internal

154

250-252
of

ers,
transform-

156

12

232-239

harmonics, 75

core

44, 46, 53, 116

Three-phase systems, 22, 39,

to single-phase,82, 104,
to six-phase, 109-116

53

Viscosity,130,

105

Voltage compensator, 221-224

Voltmeter
contact-making, 224,

132

225

"

two-phase, 53, 97-109

two-phase methods, 107,
to

109

-cooled

kw., 3
service transformers, 24,

group

Three-wire

two-phase systems, 30,

relays, 169
-phase, 40

33

Time-limit

secure

the desired

Tra,nsmis8ion

144, 258, 261

copper

-wheels, 3
Wattmeter, 203, 204,

207

radiated

square

Watts

loss,9

engineers, 153

of

mechanically, transformers, 154

of 14,000 kw

Weight, comparative, 42, 79

261,
Windings, specifications,

262

of identical characteristics,

Xg

22

in separate

compartments,

Troubles

three-phase, 22, 53
three, four and five wire,34

or

inductive

reactance, 18

age
experienced with high volttransformers, 94
Turbines, 3
Turbo-generators of 30,000 kw., 3
Two-phase systems, 22, 30, 33
to

inch

link in the insulation,152

Weak

development, 1
capacity, 3
regulation, 10, 16, 17

per

surface, 119

Transformer

Transformers

and not expensive, 7

transformers, 7, 122,

124
-freezing difficulties,

26

To

available

Water

of 18,000

or

"Y"

admittance,
or

star

31

connection,

three-phase

to

41

two-phase

tem,
sys-

98

"Z"

(seriestransformer) connection,
200, 201