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TKANSFORMER
CONNECTIONS,
ASSEMBLING,
MANUFACTURE,
AND
OPERATION
TESTING
BY
WILLIAM
A.
FELLOW,
I. E.
80C.
AM.
M.
E.,
Second
Entirely
LONDON:
Enlarged
BOOK
YORK:
370
6
"
E.,
M.
I. E.
E.,
ETC.
Reset
and
Impression
Tenth
NEW
M.
Edition
Rewritten,
McGRAW-HILL
F.R.G.S.
TAYLOR,
T.
COMPANY,
SEVENTH
BOUVERIE
1913
Inc.
AVENUE
ST.,
E.
C.
Copyright,
1909,
McGraw-Hill
STATES
UNITED
THE
by
the
Company,
Book
IN
PRINTED
1913,
Inc.
OF
AMERICA
""""''"""
K""
THE
MAPLE
PRESS
"
COMPANY,
YORK,
PA.
PREFACE
writer
The
all
on
TO
seeks
induction
static
who
operating
are
written
with
the
difficulties
short
of
the
such
New
the
value
as
of
which
schemes
of
view
It
of
this
is
certain
any
kind
of
need
and
of
changes
will
be
solve
a
Peru,
August,
reference
and
transformers
of
ing
operat-
they
temporary
appreciated
America,
1913.
"
'i.'"
are
ment
arrange-
and
will
book.
South
is
and
certain
when
those
for
phases.
William
Chaplanca,
transformers
out
readily
for
intended
or
engineers
can
apparatus
and
particularly
plants
assisting
they
using
operation
constructing
or
right
practical
the
apparatus.
EDITION
book
with
connected
matters
this
keep
to
SECOND
T,
Taylor.
add
to
much
Although
of
has
installation
connection,
led
that
the
written
author
in the
up
to
fundamental
published
been
the
It
the
field
in type
a
the
on
and
put
of
course
EDITION
operation.
and
engineers in
and
operators
have
information
available
easily
written
been
little data
transformers,
FIRST
TO
PREFACE
to
concerning
this
was
widespread
lack
ot
desire
of
notes, which
of
of years
their
information,
such
possess
these
number
principles
had
been
experience in the
field.
A
working
knowledge
is
engineering
does
not
simply
go
states
into
the
the
facts
in
quickly
the
vector
various
e.m.fs.
diagrams
are
and
for
and
whys
as
principles
fundamental
and
presupposed,
understanding
the
of the
few
this
words
as
phase relations
involved
currents
given with
all
diagrams
the
reason
wherefores
Kashmir,
December,
India,
1908.
VI
treatment
deeply,
very
possible.
and
To
relative
in
T.
but
aid
values
given
of circuit
W.
Baramulla,
of electrical
in
of
system,
connections.
Taylor.
I
CONTENTS
Page
Preface
Chapter
I.
II.
Introduction
Simple Transformer
Manipulations
22
Connections
30
III.
Two-phase Transformer
IV.
Three-phase Transformation
V.
VI.
VII.
VIII.
IX.
X.
XI.
XII.
XIII.
System
39
Difficulties
Three-phase Transformer
84
of
and
Operation
and
117
Operationof Large
Transformers
Con.stant-current
Series Transformers
97
109
CoolingTransformers
Installation
Construction,
Auto
....
Transformers
136
170
Transformers
and
Their
and
Operation
Operation
178
186
209
XIV.
Transformer
Testing in Practice
227
XV.
Transformer
Specifications
258
Appendix
270
Index
273
....
Vll
TRANSFORMER
PRACTICE
I
CHAPTER
INTRODUCTION
Development
The
about
25
design
of the
transformer
operation
rating
However,
of
each
transformed
in
of insulation
for
unit
single unit.
considered
was
history
of
process
of evolution:
size up
in
ten
the
Going back
to
find
that
the
experiments
Varley
the
and
in the
magnetic
part
circuit
the
of electric
their
open,
end
of iron
interlaced.
nearest
of
than
ing
maintain-
500-kilowatt
The
interesting
increase
tenfold
be
may
principles
most
kw.
long
transformer.
used
pointed
gave
of
out
it
by Faraday
circuit
magnetic
closed
approach
1
to
ring
closed
of sheet
the
of
of
wire
core.
iron.
leaving
path by bending
modified
wires, strips
in his historic
disadvantage
the
straight iron
the
manufacturing
transformer
lighting Ferranti
by using, instead
The
history of
of the
1856
year
has
for
ago
shown
more
first transformer
for
years
has
10
power
methods
large size
marked
than
greater
of
mum
maxi-
the
day.
present
had
overlapping
early days
it has
to facilitate
designs embody
Ten
transformer
20
transformers
various
and
years' development
to
we
be
to
not
large
Such
high voltages
early days
system,
amount
operating temperature.
low
being
the
series
in
mission
trans-
of transmission
to
transmission
enormous
an
15
connected
been
constructing
of
engineer
the
In
as
many
transformer
which
by
as
long-distance
distances
transformers.
large
of
have
method
devised
been
of
and
garding
re-
long-distance
made
increased
the
development
windings
secondary
known
was
transformers.
transformer
design
the
stimulated
high voltages,
at
early
possible,and
work
the
the
of
high-voltage
The
little
very
dates
can
construction
in the
time
that
operation
for
day
present
alternating-current transformer
At
years.
Construction
Transformer
of
of the
development
back
of
Art
of
back
In
the
Varley's method
iron
present
bent
day
back
and
practice
TRANSFORMERS
STATIONARY
was
of
embed
either with
the
of the
ends
that
of laminations
sheets
received
its
the
the
"Shell"
core
stripsinterlaced
is good
prejectinglegs. There
this construction
from
with
or
built up
magnetic circuit
of
believe
to
reason
with
type transformer
of today
name.
00
00
at
a"
16.000
160
15,000
150
I
14,000
13.000
1
12,000
140
130
120
11.000
110
2 10,000
100
_^_
0)
Oi
9.000
90
80
"!
8.000
ii
wm-^,-^^wmm^
t" 7.000
70
M
6,000
60
5,000
50
4.000
40
I
3.000
30
__I___^___,,,j.:
2,000
1.000
20
=.^^
"
10
0
K.V.-Amp.
Fig.
Not
very
prominent
made
to
Before
many
for
years
time
the
development.
it
was
question
very
among
15,000-volttransformers
engineers conceived
not
was
solid material
to
between
coils
of transmission.
We
find
the
that
first
50,000-
idea of
could
oil space
transformer
have
and
drying
transformers
see
the
"
the
At
the
to
uncommon
time
insulation.
years
ago
K.-Volta
be
work.
limitingfeature
11
Transformer
"
engineers whether
oil,it
any
1.
only
former
trans-
without
being relied
was
to go
the
back
on
only
about
60,000-volt transformer
are
actually operating (see Fig. 1). At the present time we
at 145,000 volts with
as
great
actually operatingtransformers
break-down
o
f
than
with
less
and
liability
formerly was
safety
INTRODUCTION
the actiial
transmission
the
About
16 years
Increased
of
only
Glancing back
current
Just
and
'^
about
delta
of
manufacture
considered.
is
of
means,
"
voltage
was
made.
175,000-volt
regards the
as
ago
years
of
themselves
transformers
enter
we
dangerous and
systems
capacity of
kv-a
in
but
movers.
25 years
20
increased
course,
grievouslyfought
were
both
in the
limitingfeature
the commercial
prime
generators and
currents
on
being
Fig. represents the
singlecapacity transformers up to the year 1913.
voltage
units, not
voltage
the contrary
20,000-volttransformer
the first
ago
At
development
sight,but
of transmission.
the distance
or
yet in
upon
in the
time
Law
alternating
when
Courts
as
being
impracticable."
"
the
period when
electric distribution
three-phase
were
star
recognized as
oppositionto
find universal
for commercial
we
use
practicable
high voltages (above 1500 volts) and largeunits (above 500 kw.).
about
the period when
50,000 and
Going back only 10 years
"
"
60,000 volts
purposes
"
recognized
were
large commercial
as
units
practicable for
transmission
large commercial
and
electric
considered
universally
as
impossible,as absolutelyunreliable or decidedlydangerous.
of the three
view
In
above
decades, practicallyaccepted
throughout the entire engineeringworld, we actuallyhave at the
present time electric power
systems operatingas one
company
centralized system deliveringover
and
and
one
kw.,
200,000
power
systems,
single units
as
recognizedto-day,were
for commercial
electric power
turbines
purposes,
as:
(horizontaltype)
33,000 h.p.
turbines (vertical
Steam
type) of 40,000 h.p.
Water
turbines (vertical
type) of 20,000 h.p.
Turbo-generators (horizontaltype) of 25,000 kw.
Turbo-generators (vertical
type) of 30,000 k w.
Generators
(vertical
type) of 12,500 kw.
Steam
of
of 14,000 kw.
(shell-type)
and Transformers
(three-phasegroup of three) of 18,000 kw.
consists primarily
Fundamental
Principles. The transformer
of three parts: the primary winding, the secondary winding, and
iron core.
the
The
cuit,
cirin one
primary winding is connected
forms
the secondary in another, and the core
a
magnetic
circuit which
links the two together.
Transformers
"
STATIONARY
principleof
The
explained
if
TRANSFORMERS
transformer
constant-potential
the
slight effects
the
is
easily
drop in
of resistance
neglect
the
windings, leakage of magnetic flux, and the losses.
of e.m.f,,which
to a source
primary winding is connected
we
constitute
would
which
periodic changing
in
by the
current
generate
current
down
to
to
value
necessary
to
generate
and
opposite
to
the
the
If
an
e.m.f.
counter
in
e.m.f.
the
flux
which
nection
con-
for
the
produced
holds
the
to
This same
flux is surrounded
impressed e.m.f.
of the secondary winding,the same
e.m.f.
turn of wire whether
primary or secondary.
turns
being generated in
it not
were
permits
just sufficient
value
flux
by
short-circuit
The
each
wherein
number
e.m.f.
turn.
per
of primary
A^^is the number
of secondary turns.
ff
""
"
Then
turns,
if A^, is the
"
"
and
=~
ratio of transformation.
A^2 E^
Ni is greater
When
down
transformer"
"step-up
The
than
and
N2, the
when
transformer
A^^ is
less than
is called
N2 it is
called
"
stepa
transformer."
reader
will understand
that
step-up
transformer
may
be
INTRODUCTION
The
primary is
step-down transformer, or vice versa.
which the e.m.f. is impressed.
the winding upon
The
primary and secondary windings of a transformer
possess
be
both resistance and reactance, and the secondary values
may
of
reduced to primary terms
by multiplyingthem by the square
This appliesto the load resistance
the ratio of transformation.
used
as
Thus, consider
circuit
containing a
tain
in Fig.2. Obviously,to maintransformer, a load,etc.,as shown
is required,which
flux a magnetizing current
of
the core
must
course
pass through the primary winding.
and
reactance
(6) is
R
and
well.
as
duplicate of
exact
an
Xg
secondary winding,
and
in the
Selection
of
into
enter
loss,due
by
loss,caused
to
the
losses appear
These
mostly
are
its construction.
copper
of
the
of the
resistance
simplestfor
and
ment
treat-
electrical characteristics
upon
the
copper
that
dependent
iron and
the
losses
The
The
"
proportionof
and
quality,arrangement
factors
reactance
load
the
about
The
reactance
and
of Transformers
transformer
and
the
Xg"
(a).
circuits.
of the transformer
Points
and
R"
is
representation
This
reactance.
resistance
respective resistance
the
primary; R'X's
transformer
the
the
respectively
are
are
of
two
kinds:
the
current
for the
In
to
consider
(a)
for
of its total
The
cost
amount
losses should
of
which
be
transformer
must
and
transformer
of the transformer
cost
on
be
loss,which
copper
(b) The
is advisable
first:
The
given service,it
should
be
such
minimum.
for
cost
minimum.
for
paid for
of the
transformer
itself. In
to
and
life,
durability,
this apparatus
service.
are
These
sacrificed to
transformers
in its abilityto
economy
essential features of
are
give continuous
and
uninterrupted
so
much
insulation
has to be used.
This
STATIONARY
is not
considered
due
the
TRANSFORMERS
in
cent,
transformer
large power
saving of several
offset the
of 1 per
failure of
years
not
efficiency,
would
than
more
in
and
The
prestigeon the part of the customer.
tion
applicaof constant
of knowledge gained by many
and
ful
careyears
formers
study of all the properties and characteristics of transin actual practice has
placed this type of apparatus
call both safe and reliable for operaon
now
a plane which
we
may
the
ing voltages as high as 110,000 volts. Looking back over
of the
development
transformer
do
we
not
pass
many
very
years
large units
moderately high
considered by manufacturers
a tedious
voltage (20,000volts) were
if not altogethera dangerous undertaking, in fact quite as dangerous
put
as
designing and building a unit in these days to give an outbefore
enter
we
of
20,000
Cooling.
a
low
the
kw.
average
throughout
uniform
various
when
200,000 volts.
should
well-designedtransformer
"
at
time
of
temperature
but
is to
temperature
only effective
way
ing
of insurthe
between
be
should
form
be uni-
should
the temperature
The
tain
only main-
not
so
arranged
in relation to the
be
experiencehas demonstrated
For
various
of
and
expense
rise in
view
of the
of this
transformer
the extra
temperature
iron;in
type,
is warranted.
transformer
is
limited.
of
reasons
the
that
copper
The
radiatingsurface.
The
of heat developed in a transformer
amount
depends upon
former
transits capacity and
efficiency.For instance, in a 500-kw.
of 98 per cent,
efficiencythere is a loss at full load of
be
about
7.5 kw. ; and since this loss appears
as
heat, it must
the temperature of the transformer
or
disposed of in some
way,
faster than
the
INTRODUCTION
be
dangerously high. This hea,t may
in several ways;
removed
by ample radiation from the surface of
in which
is operated; by the
the transformer
the tank
or
case
in oil;or by the
circulation of water
through pipes immersed
will rise until it becomes
of the
removal
constant
oil and
heated
determination
The
thermometer
in
increase
the
of
the
by
or
temperature
the
loss
core
Committee
Standardization
that
C, and
made
referred
be
must
correction
variation
for any
to
the
of
1/2
the
of Electrical
electrical
of
cent,
per
that temperature,
from
an
as
of
temperature
room
per
perature
tem-
of
report
temperature
standard
well
Institute
American
of the
by
High
as
The
aging.
to
Engineers specifiesthat
apparatus
insulation
in the
due
made
be
may
of resistance.
measurement
deterioration
causes
be
being
after
off.
cooled
25"
its return
degree must
adding if less
subtracting if more.
and
The
rise may
temperature
be
determined
coefficient
resistance,using the temperature
degree from and at zero degrees.
Whenever
is available
water
and
0.39
of
change
the
by
cent,
per
per
expensive,water-cooled
not
of the large
preferableto air-blast transformers
sizes (1,500 to 5,000 kw.), as it permits operation
and moderate
and allows more
at lower
margin for overloads.
temperatures
transformers
Where
are
is not
water
air-cooled
of
the
transformers:
air-blast type
the
through
core
which
voltages
above
great thickness
and
has
or
much
written
small
amount
the oil-cooled
ignited.
by
and
flame
of
an
The
of inflammable
in
electric
arc
the outer
the
an
that
the location
of the
consequent
depends
of the
material
as
air-blast transformer
the
action
of the
is
usually
material,
forced
short
with
easily
more
tains
con-
compared
is much
as
formers
trans-
air-blast transformer
spreads
air;although the fire is of comparatively
soon
case
reliable
very
account
and
matter
break-down
followed
the
and
their construction.
on
as
a
this is
surrounding conditions
on
type, and
the copper.
about the fire risks of air-blast
from
oil-filledtransformers,but
needed
kinds
two
air circulation
is not
on
35,000 volts, principally
been
of
by a forced
by blowing air on
great deal
choice
is cooled
in radiating heat
difficulty
A
oil-filled self-cooled
the
coils
and
of the transformer.
for
is
available,there
lation
circu-
duration
8
it is
quite capable
near
the
of
TRANSFORMERS
STATIONARY
oil-filledtransformer
an
circuit in the
in the
burn
windings
presence
in
in transformers
fire
of
account
on
and,
air
can
as
get
the
to
chance
a
it.
is
oil at
of burning material
ordinary temperatures, a mass
extinguished as readily by immersing it in the oil as in
In
fact,the
by
any
defect
or
within
arc
the
that
transformer,but
that
oil
in open
burn
400"
only
pletely
com-
the
Moreover,
not
short-
oil will
transformer
easilyignited;it will
is not
everything
The
oil,no
its temperature
air unless
catching
is
unless
fireproofconstruction.
of oxygen,
submerged
used
is of
transformer
building
igniting the
of
be
a
can
be
water.
ignited
fire in the
"
"
defined
steel,and
from
the
work
done
in
reversing the
it may
be
considered
reversal
of
magnetism,
as
due
to
the
magnetism
molecular
in the
friction
manifesting itself
given steel varies with
this friction
hysteresisin a
the composition,with the hardness,with the frequency of reversal
of magnetism, with the maximum
induction at which the steel is
worked, and the temperature. The hysteresisloss varies approximately
quency.
the 1.6 power
and
of induction,
as
directlyas the freThe
loss varies inversely as the ohmic
eddy current
of the induction,and decreases
resistance,directlyas the square
as
as
heat.
the
as
The
amount
the temperature
than
in thin
of
increases.
It is greater in thick
(hysteresisbeing greater
in hard
laminations
steel than
in soft
INTRODUCTION
ations
it is also greater as the insulation between
adjacent laminsteels),
is less.
Lowering the frequency of supply will result in
increased hysteresisand higher temperature in the iron;reducing
the
from
frequency
133
say
cycleswill entail
125
to
increased
an
the
decrease
normal
the
will become
voltage current
loss and
Iron
exciting current
low
capacity of
all these
and
transformer
the
this iron
to the
loss is
constant
practically
varies
as
the
The
loss due
designer,as
providedfor the
of the
be
core
of
given
per
turn
cross-section
is evident
be
core
turn
the
that
as
copper.
the
mean
increased,provided
consistent
that
with
the
over
space,
copper
that of
loss
output
less cross-section
or
To
loss
low
livered
de-
plus
energy
copper
control
easy
of copper
low
as
If the
may
to
turn
the shortest
secure
the
all wire
rectangular it
or
been
of conductor
would
of
area
length per
it is necessary
have
corners
necessary
of the conductor
cross-section
same
length
mean
the
coil is
of
form
loss
copper
the
possible with
length per
the
desired
the
secure
of coil wherein
nected
con-
energy
loss is within
This
the available
high and
the
total useful
consists of the
good construction
in which
core
square
is the
or
copper
in both
current
form
is enclosed,so in order to
in order
for
of
kept
of
fixed.
are
taken
is
loads, the
greater
is
all
delivered.
load
operation,
transformer
what
at
primary, and
the
to
the
kw.
consumption,
coal
commercial
to
while
output
the
or
of the
square
voltage windings.
to
current
decreased
to
greater
mean
matter
no
in addition
loss is constant
system,
secondary
virtual overload.
being directlyopposed
factors
as
rated
cut
may
the
mean
adopt
off. Also,
to
be allowed
high
rectangular in shape, as by
is increased
by
about
33
permits
allows
STATIONARY
10
TRANSFORMERS
great part
winding.
The
loss due
to
The
due
loss
copper
the
to
construction
and
also has
and
each
to
generally has
in output
reduction
the
other
proper
and
the
less cost
iron
the
of its short
because
charge
core.
than
slightlyless capitalcost
high voltage
negligibleby
dispositionof
the
the
place in
loss to take
due
its
to
loss,
tion,
dura-
diversity
factor.
The
losses
determined
due
the
is received
power
from
in
component
the
phase with
are
test
the
as
The
rent
exciting curone
being
components;
the
iron
the
heating
by
or
factory.
of two
up
supply
to
necessary
and
current
guarantees
is made
transformer
energy
the
manufacturers'
from
transformer
of
magnetizing
the
to
which
e.m.f.
loss,the
represents
other
component
as
being in quadrature with the e.m.f. which is generally known
the magnetizing current
and is "wattless"
with the exception of
small
fluence
P R loss.
The
has very
littleina
magnetizing current
on
the
value
it is
operating
magnetizing
of the
full
at
total
in
current
load, but
load
the
as
when
transformer
decreases
the
effect
current
becomes
more
"
the
upon
load
therefore
and
the energy
sold.
causes
If,however,
regulationis maintained
voltage without regulation,the
will be the
same
revenue.
As
factor
power
in both
cases, hence
there
to the
will be
at low
load
the
inductance
into
and
effect,
is
shell type
type
transformer
coils.
transformer;
there
is
the
power
has
reason
better
customer
at
high
factor
mostly
possible. With
the
factor
not
former
trans-
direct loss of
no
power
be
comes
ducing
re-
constant
is affected
transformers
and
the
as
kept as low as
non-inductive
load the regulation is nearly equal
drop, the inductance having but little effect. With
by reactance,
should
value
same
by
revenue
voltagewith
mean
delivered
energy
mostly by resistance
both
the
at the
regulation of
the
direct loss in
so
to
an
ohmic
inductive
effect of resistance
of
the
load.
In
good regulationas
opportunity
the
for
in the
shell
interlacingthe
STATIONARY
12
operate without
the
of iron and
amount
and
insulation,
sufficient
this insulation
by
TRANSFORMERS
the less space
efficient will it be, with
more
occupied
given
copper.
present time
of solid
the
between
All
of any
the
use
turns
dried and
voltage,are
is
which
material
considered
now
and
method
impregnated by
be
to
the
vacuum
process
reliable
most
this
insulating.For
of
the
transformers
insulating
both
purpose
be
asphalts and resins are the materials available. They can
liquified
by heat and forced into the coil in that condition,and
on
coolingthey harden, forming a solid mass
(coiland material)
which
is,if well done, free from porosity and volatile solvents.
The
compound fills the porous covering of the wire-conductors,
in the coils no
increassmall,thus ing
the dielectric strength and preventingmoisture
from
soaking
oughly
into the coils. Before
applying this process, the coils are thordried either in a separate oven
in the impregnating
or
then
and
tank.
They are
placed in the impregnating tank
and
all other
spaces
is
applieduntil the
impregnating compound
heat
tank
is then
exhausted
has
exhausted
the
compound
by
vacuum
of
moisture
is drawn
tank
from
into
the
the
the
the
air in the
The
After
pump.
which
at
temperature
thoroughly fluid.
last traces
another
from
coils reach
is
how
matter
vacuum
coils,hot
impregnating
tank
of
an
coils
will
synthetic gums
actual
The
are
reach
soon
operating temperature
National
Board
of
insulation
of nominal
withstand
continuously for
Fire
2000-volt
one
of
stage which
130"
minute
permit
C,
Underwriters
transformers
will
specify that
when
difference
heated
of
the
shall
potential
INTRODUCTION
10,000 volts
of
coils and
the
13
primary
(alternating) between
and
core
no-load
of
run
and
secondary
voltage for 30
double
minutes.
should
All transformers
and
primary
the
transformer
in the
the
break
may
be
may
as
down
in the
somewhat
If the
transformer.
applicationof
yet continued
and
the
test
high-potential
or
a weak
insulation,
The
magnitude
the
insulation may
five
severe
or
applicationof
the
its
permanently reduce
the
are
Let
0
A
design of
found
Total
Total
high-power
to the insulation
spot
of the
test
may
voltage appliedto
it should
of
part
or
be
not
the
long
EQUATIONS
successful
transformers,the followingequations
of turns
number
of wire
magnetic flux.
Section of magnetic circuit
Frequency in cycles in
Lines
of force
Mean
effective e.m.f.
per
e.m.f.,and is much
is based
on
inch.
volts,frequency,
and
f6
i:^i^^-A
the
in the
used
inches.
Equation (1)
in square
seconds.
square
4 4^
then
in series.
J_.V2X;r
4.44=
we
strength.
If the
slightover-
reliable:
one,
the
readily withstand
six times the normal
even
strain,
voltage may injurethe insulation
FUNDAMENTAL
In
of the
be
of
duration
test
voltage
subjected to
strain to
imperfection
an
by the opening
insulation.
with
to
core.
resist the
inferior
an
to
yet due
when
caused
between
tests
secondary and
strength
down
applicationof
The
structure
vary
the
voltage such
will break
sufficient
have
insulation
circuit.
and
secondary,
may
it is
which
subjected to insulation
be
assumption
design
number
d)
of
sine
wave
of
of transformers.
of turns
are
known,
then
have
gxio"
._
,".
14
TRANSFORMERS
STATIONARY
volts,frequency, cross-section
If the
known,
of core,
and
density
have:
we
'^
4.44X/XB"XA
Magnetic densities
transformers
frequenciesand
densities employed
Current
circular mils
2000
to
considerably with
different designs.
of
different
the
are
Efliciency.
"
The
in
vary
transformers
vary
from
any
load
1000
ampere.
per
of
efficiency
transformer
at
is
pressed
ex-
as:
Efficiency
=
"
the
In
of
case
magnetic
"
"
output
ordinary
leakage, the
core
(4)
"
^j
loss
with
transformers
loss is
core
"
^,
loss -f-copper
appreciable
no
practicallythe
from
same
no-
required,therefore,in order to
the efficiencies of such
transformers
obtain
at all loads, with
of the
are
a
single measurement
by wattmeter
great accuracy,
lost in the core, with the secondary on
watts
circuit;and
open
of the primary and secondary winding resistances,
measurements
calculated
for each particularload.
which the P R watts
from
are
The
core
loss,which is made
up of the hysteresisloss and eddyin a constant-potential
current
loss,remains practicallyconstant
load
to
full load.
transformer
at
and
The
only
all loads.
others
tests
In
the
of constant-current
case
having considerable
often
the
copper,
and
when
magnetic leakage
considerable
causes
formers
trans-
in the
loss in
casing or
eddy
rents
cur-
other
rounding
sur-
may
increase
after
the
transformer
has
been
in
use
time.
load.
with non-inductive
being measured
All -day
importance in a
Efficiency. The point of most
in operation, which
is economy
transformer
depends not only
total losses,but
the
more
particularlyupon the iron or
upon
tical
with identransformers
loss. For
core
example, taking two
total losses,the one
showing the lower iron loss is to be
of the greater all-dayefficiency
obtained, and
preferred,because
output
"
INTRODUCTION
in
resultingincrease
the
the
represents
15
in
consumed
energy
in
economy
operation.
applying
This
iron
the
to
loss
the
necessary
quality of
in other
words,
the
number
of
lines of force
magnetic
flowing
through it.
mentioned
all-day efficiency
The
total
used
energy
the
by
is the
above
the
to
customer,
ratio
total
of
the
input
energy
The
usual
during twenty-four hours.
five hours
conditions of present practicewill be met, if based
on
hours
at no
at full load and nineteen
load; therefore,"all-day"
from
the followingequation:
be obtained
can
efficiency
of
transformer
the
All-day efficiency
=
Full loadx
Core
importance
The
station
of identical
transformers
only
the
method
the
upon
The
in
the
"aging"
kind
which
of
of
it has
to
that
steel is annealed
when
a
temperature
in
increases,
By
steel
loss
core
of
two
upon
some
cases
the
been
so
as
of from
tially
having iniwould
show
service,
transformers
conditions.
normal
material
treatment
per
of the
received,
as
considered,
depending,
practice,that
increase under
the
to
on
400
be
in
decided
to
variation
central
transformer
every
design may
constituents
found
iron
low
is due
loss
core
operation of
of treatment.
been
It has
economical
overestimated.
be
not
for
^^
-hFull loadx 5
-|-/i2 X5
the
to
testing
of
cannot
most
lossX24
iron.
The
used, and
subjected.
to have
85"C.
this increase
to
low
100"
being
This increase
aging
on
pends
de-
annealing
the
It has
iron
of
been
shown
jected
loss,and then subC, the loss usually
as
much
300
as
to
cent.
some
steel used
manufacturers
in their
cores
of transformers
is
non-aging,
or
it is claimed
that it has
that
been
the
cially
artifi-
aged by some
However, it should be remembered
process.
that
an
absolutely non-aging steel is not as yet a commercial
short
possibility. Within
periods the iron losses sometimes
very
increase,and
laminations
under
will become
very
high temperature
conditions
the
STATIONARY
16
The
the
it may
while
rapidly as
the
at full
for
far
below
the
day,
actual
iron loss
the
the
the
efficiencies,
of
iron
cheaper
is reduced, even
though
the
partialload
loss is
However,
having equal
manufacture
to
ated
oper-
of copper
loss.
transformer
than
for
copper
in which
one
loss is
copper
very
is seldom
watt-hours
is
loaded,
it decreases
suppliesonly
actual
is
transformer
transformer
cases
the
transformer
full load
at
watt-hours
iron losses is
and
As
in many
load, and
full-load
equal
considerable
falls off.
each
efficiencyof
when
only
occurs
be
load
hours
few
affectingthe
It
loss.
copper
and
factor
other
TRANSFORMERS
the
ingly
correspond-
increased.
"
current
load
at
conductors
of
it,is
upon
of
primary
of
abilityof
The
Regulation.
distribution
transformer
to
constant
practically
voltage regardlessof
highly important feature.
very
By the
large cross-section
and
by
the
liver
dethe
use
lacing
inter-
proper
and
secondary coils,
extremely close regulation
with loads of various power-factors,thus
be obtained
may
tending to lengthen the life of lamps and to improve the quality
of the light.
In well-designedtransformers,low core
loss and
good regulation
in direct opposition to one
another
are
yet both are desired
in the highest degree. The regulationof a transformer
is understood
to be the
or
While
so
few
central
within 2
voltage constant
present the point of best
from
to
about
2.00
per
5 kw.
up,
per
stations
it may
cent,
able
are
be
the
keep their
concluded
practicalregulation on
lies between
to
values
that
at
transformers
of 1.75 per
cent,
cent.
of
wire,but
with
fewer
If
we
we
need
adopt
a
turns
the
iron
is compelled to work
consequently with
larger cross-section
to
a
reduce
given number
an
the
increased
loss.
flux
density
of turns
which
INTRODUCTION
only is
to
the
secure
in resistance.
resistance
low
ordinary practicethe
loads
remaining expedient
while keeping
copper,
calculated
be
may
transformer
of turns,
ductive
non-in-
for
loss
(%
"
drop)^
reactance
200
inductive
For
the
loads
For
follows:
as
copper
number
good regulation.
for
necessary
regulationof
regulation %
The
larger cross-section of
density by employing a sufficient
use
the flux
down
to
increase
gives an
thus
17
regulation may
be
calculated
by
(6)
the
followingequation:
Per
regulation
cent,
cent,
per
drop
reactance
SiiT^
0 is the
wherein
the
and
angle
drop
^^
Cosl'
of
inductive
Regulation on
the number
resistance
cent,
the
rent
cur-
f.
m.
e.
per
is becoming
loads
operatingwith
of systems
important
more
mixed
load
as
(lamps and
motors) is
transformers
while
constantly increasing. Many
giving fair regulation on non-inductive
loads, give extremely
inductive
regulationon
poor
VECTOR
loads.
REPRESENTATION
In
of transformers
it is
simple and
graphical method
The
graphical methods.
representingquantitiesvarying in accordance
convenient
of
the
vector
involved,and
either in time
most
above
the
or
various
this method
angle
sine
clear
to
is shown
represents the
the
waves
with
another.
one
in
d represents
its
phase position
space.
circuit the
relation between
the
alternating-current
be represented by the method
important quantitiesmay
an
mentioned.
voltages or
values
line
the
of
one
relations of the
of the
length
be
to
principleof
The
In
use
found
been
has
law
to
of
represent
When
currents, the
such
length
the
quantities,while
the
angle
quantities.The
of
diagrams
of the
the
are
used
to
represent
angles between
phase difference
diagrams
are
constructed
between
from
the
data
lines
various
available
STATIONARY
18
in each
The
case.
resistance
and
TRANSFORMERS
below
diagram
inductive
represents
Since
reactance.
the
and
current
the
circuit
the
containing
R
drop is
e.m.f.
counter
of
4X
Fig.
self-inductance
3.
"
Vector
diagram.
in
which
time-quadrature with the current
produces the m.m.f., these two magnitudes will be represented
by two lines,o e^ and o e^, at right angles to each other; their
Fig.
4.
"
Assumed
vector
diagram
of
transformer, assuming
an
inductive
load.
value
the resultant
being represented by o e^^ representing
of these two
e.m.fs.,and is,therefore,equal and opposite to the
the circuit to produce the
be impressed on
e.m.f.,which must
sum
STATIONARY
20
E I the apparent
the
angle
of
It is very
with
the
watts,
TRANSFORMERS
P
or
it is sometimes
as
Cos
(f"
phase displacement.
evident
that
reactance,
the
when
resistance
the
angle
words,
the
large compared
large compared
very
be
almost
is in quadrature
current
is
time-lag is practicallyzero.
of
is
(See Fig. 174.) If the reactance
the angle of lag will
the resistance,
in other
called,and
90
with
with
time-degrees;
the
e.m.f.
vf
-Bs-*
/wwvww^
-Ihr^
(a)
-S.-*-
-*-Eii
(c)
Fig.
problem which
is the
Since
in the
can
convertion
always
of
one
6.
be
solved
by the
polyphase system
originalsystem there
must
be
at
least
use
of transformers,
into another.
two
compo-
INTRODUCTION
of
nents
the
values
through
In
reactance,
is
e.m.f.
an
time-phase,
resultant
devices
in
quadrature
e.m.f.
reactive
the
from
winding,
or
condenser,
is
stored
as
magnetic
or
as
electrostatic
but
such
devices
pressed
im-
current
necessary
the
core
of
the
in
of
the
the
energy,
are
desired
^"
condenser;
and
"
E^
winding,
the
of
ing
vary-
inductive
with
in
energy,
any
using
drop
P
energy
by
of
phase-splitting
an
obtained
inductive
in
components
obtained.
condensive
displaced
are
these
of
be
phase.can
or
which
e.m.f,
21
little
the
dielectric
practical
use.
of
the
CHAPTER
SIMPLE
There
to
are
TRANSFORMER
work,
three
or
five
(three, four,
of
ways
distribution
general
Two-phase
MANIPULATIONS
of different
number
and
power
II
are:
wire).
wire)
more
Three-phase
delta
Three-phase
star
(grounded
Three-phase
Tee
(grounded
Three-phase
open-delta.
Three-phase
star
to
Three-phase
star
and
Three-phase
to
two-phase
Three-phase
to
two-phase-three-phase
Three-phase
to
six-phase, or
(grounded
transformers
of which
some
more
or
applying
ungrounded)
or
Two-phase
Three-phase
The
principal
at
given
the
e.m.f.
subject
the
to
back
determine
the
terminals
close
the
volts, while
the
of
and
the
together
primary
if
e.m.f
same
has
through
two
If
the
22
nected
con-
at
no
inals
term-
in turn
small
fuse
be
disturb
efficiency and
better
to
In
right,
strips of
but
fuse
the
operate
order
with
proceed
blows,
will
will
separately.
all
volts.
of 99
volts
99
power-factor,
were
secondary
e.m.f.
an
transformers
two
the
at
will have
it is much
everything
switch.
regulation;
one
transformers
of
dition,
con-
cent,
volt, which
case
latter
other
the
the
have
regulation is
giving only
one
lower
two
polarity
the
the
cent,
3 per
transformer
e.m.f.
as
has
have
transformers
regards
2 per
full load
at
the
in
observed
terminals
the
As
a
be
must
and
give exactly
but
of the
parallel connection
the
instant,
capacity; in which
secondaries
the
which
that
which
will
relations
phase
combined
100
is that
result
The
versa.
versa.
with
one
secondary,
of, say,
vice
or
versa.
are
transformer
transformers
of the
versa.
vice
vice
versa.
versa.
characteristics.
in parallel with
load
vice
or
precautions
two
practically identical
suppose
vice
or
transformers,
two
polarity
same
delta
vice
or
single-phase.
to
connecting
star-delta
single-phase.
to
Two-phase
ungrounded).
or
six-phase, or
to
ungrounded).
or
to
the
connect
wire,
then
connections
SIMPLE
be
must
made
MANIPULATIONS
TRANSFORMER
reversed; if it
does
not,
then
the
23
connections
be
may
permanent.
dotted
primary
and
be
secondary windings of transformers
may
connected
to meet
practicallyany requirement. Fig. 6 represents
the ordinary method
of connecting a single-phasetransformer
to
a
single-phasecircuit. Referring to the graphical
in Fig. 6 it is shown
that 0 E p and O E s
representation
(the
primary and secondary e.m.fs.) represent two lines of constant
0 as
about
The
rate
center.
a
length, rotating at a uniform
direction of the secondary is not strictly180 electrical degrees
of time phase with the primary, but
for convenience
and
out
it is commonly
The
elementary purposes
represented as such.
The
line is vertical to 0
X,
so
that
as
the
pointsE
por
move
u
-1000-
-1000-
LqqqqJ
nm
cm
"400-
(W)
-10050-
-50^100
FiG.
two
7.
"
Straight
connection
ordinary single-phase
of
formers.
trans-
Fig.
former
8.
"
with
Single-phase
primary
coils both
in the
circle,
they
variable
occupy
distances from
trans^
and
ondary
sec-
in series.
0.
As
they
from
both
the e.m.fs
complete revolution,
varying as
the sine of the angle 0
0 E p A.
Since the changes of voltages in the primary and secondary
and minimum
windings of a transformer
go through their maximum
values at the same
time, the result of connecting the two
windings in series is to produce a voltage which is either the sum
the difference of the voltages of the windings,according to the
or
mode
of joiningthem.
If the windings of a step-up transformer
of the
are
joined in series so that their resultant voltage is the sum
of supply may
be convoltages of the two windings,the source
to
24
STATIONARY
nected
to the
terminals
the terminals
of what
windings
the
shows
fuses
that should
instance
of the
voltage
be
that
be
different limbs
on
on
outside
two
total
original
fuses
the
inductance
the
coil,
e.m.f.
counter
greater than
of section
that
wire
core
type and
core,
it will be
considerablysmaller
The
for this
reason
circuits
blow, say,
is,
for
on
of the
the outside
on
secondary coils
two
of the
wires.
half of the
the load
If this transformer
of the
will be
to
by
has
the
fuse
the
which
on
one
half-section
other
the
until the
transformers
ordinary single-phase
two
transformer
arranged
to have
the
than
in which
way
one
coils
advisable
be reduced
may
windings equals
in series.
connected
two
was
connected.
are
the
composite winding,instead of at
the primary.
If this is done,
originally
of the
of the transformer
TRANSFORMERS
of the
C,
impedance
greater
of which
than
the
will be neutralized
because
the
sections
two
in
are
in both
other,and the current must be the same
the primary
coils;therefore,the difference of potentialbetween
nals
yl,will be greater than that between the primary termiterminals,
of C, consequently the secondary voltage of C will be greatly
lowered.
avoid
Manufacturers
above
mentioned
disadvantage by
and connecting a
sections,
dividingeach
section of
the
one
that
current
in either
in coils about
pair of
on
the
the other
secondary
half the
the
the
coil
of the
same
capacityof
rated
ordinary distribution
on
the
two
Fig. 9
shows
To
obtain
the
voltage will
on
be
are
a
with
transformer
single-phase
coils
two
connected
secondaries
of load
all
transformers
side; with
one
practically
equal
sides.
primary, and
shown
the
both
in
on
the
parallelacross
also connected
higher secondary
in
secondary.
the
two
The
1000-volt
coils
on
the
primaries are
mains, and the
parallel.
voltage
the
coils may
be
con-
iiected
in
nected
con-
in series.
the
the
secondaries
per
coil.
paralleland
volts,or
be 200
the
case
25
difference of
connected
In this
Fig. 10.
and
parallel,
in
The
in
shown
as
MANIPULATIONS
TRANSFORMER
SIMPLE
volts
100
connected
in series will
;=
-10001000-
1000^
"
1000
*"
UxMJUmJ
-100-
-doo-
-200-
-100-
FlG.
"|-100-
^00
Fig.
9.
10.
-1000-^-500
"h
500-"
"iJO^
^50^
50
Fig.
Fig.
9.
with
Transformer
"
11.
primary
and
secondary windings
both
in
parallel.
Fig.
10.
secondary windings
Fig.
11.
"
"
represent
If
we
the
coils in
in
with
to
invert
the
primary
primary
windings
(10
one
connected
in
paralleland
connected
in series
and
parallel.
^For convenience
ten
primary windings
in series.
Transformer
secondary windings
Note
with
Transformer
"
to
will be understood
to
1).
arrangement
coils in
and
series,
in
ing
Fig. 10 by connectconnecting the secondary
shown
of
50,
way
as
of
ST A TIONA
26
connecting
connections
The
be.
may
in
transformers
NSFORMERS
TRA
R Y
scries
shown
parallel,just as
in Fig. 12 represent
or
case
the
right
the
in series,
in parallel,
or
connecting two transformers
and the dotted
solid lines showing the series connection
of
way
the
lines the
parallelconnection.
X
ZZ
"-iooo-"-^-iooo
fvwA
Lvwvv
lomJ
(WLJWi
Uoo^^ioo-J
i-lOO-^
^lOO-H
1000
-1000-
1000
1000
-100-200-
-100-
FiG.
12.
The
"
connecting single-phase
of
right way
transformers
in
Fig.
parallel.
13."
of
way
The
wrong
gle-phase
sin-
connecting
transformers
in
connections
The
the
transformers
the
carelessness,
to
shown
short-circuit
the
case
burn
out
sudden
are
leads
the
rush
in
Fig.
13
first received
are
two
often
the transformer
liable to
happen when
the factory. Through
are
from
brought
out
in such
coils if connected
of current
if not
parallel.
shown.
as
as
manner
this
In
in the
protectedby
fuse.
-3000-
'
cm
-100-^ -100-
cm
rw]
-lOOH
-100-
FiG.
secondary
14. "Three-wire
distribution.
Fig.
series
The
three-wire
arrangement
15."
transformers
shown
to
in
Three
1000- volt
connected
3000-volt
Fig.
14
in
circuit.
differs in every
care
of
center
by
of
TRANSFORMERS
STATIONARY
28
the
wire, B,
ground, and
and
is likelyto be established
trouble
the
by
first indication
or
fire,
of
any
such
coming
secondary
some
person
with
grounded.
avoid
To
this danger
distribution
to
life,the grounding
is
transformers
advocated
now
of secondaries
all
by
of
responsible
-1000""500-
-500
-1000-
-1000-
I" /WWW
WWW"
^A/\A__
AAA
"t"
50
60-"|
100^
H-lOo
-900-
FiG.
-1300-
18.
Fig.
19.
electric
Differences of
lightand power
companies in America.
opinionhave arisen as to general details both as regards the scope
of grounding and the methods
to be employed, but there is nevertheless
decided
secondaries
and
uniform
and
of distribution
expression that
transformers
the
should
be
low
voltage
permanently
effectively
grounded.
National
The
Electrical
Code
alternating-currentsecondaries
This
voltage was
decided
upon
provides for
for
after
voltages
extensive
the
up
grounding
to
250
of
volts.
investigationand
discussion.
series
principalargument
arc
metallic
or
incandescent
contact
with
for this
lightingline
conductor
may
come
into
trans-
SIMPLE
Both
former.
transformer
danger due
the
to
29
and
secondary
faults
of
and
high voltage.
of the accidents
Some
MANIPULATIONS
TRANSFORMER
handling of portable
recorded
and
incandescent
due
such
to
and
lamps
switching
the
are
causes,
lights
on
-10001000
-500^
"U
500
500-
""
SCO
^jlAMA/J
7VW\A_.
(*^
60"^
(*^
-50^
-500-
-1100-
FiG.
in
located
Fig.
17
If
made.
primary
of
single-phasetransformer
shown
are
in
with
transformer
floors,by
of
means
and
secondary
conditions
These
potential difference
of which
take
we
of
arrangement
an
be
accidentally
of other
some
stone
or
21.
lamp sockets.
to
represents
establish
used,
tile,cement
attached
number
Fig.
with
rooms
switches
the
20.
volts.
900
diately
immeA
combinations
great
be
may
22.
ratio
of
10
find
series,we
is
the
only
since
secondary
50
turns
number
the
the
ends
ratio
tively,
respec-
windings
two
quired
re-
-1000*"
600-
-500-
if the voltage
whole
of the
of
primary
still remains
turns
in
of turns
total of 500
appliedto
winding
and
join the
and
is
500
1, say
to
10
""-50-"J
to
to
K50*"
1,
-loeo-
and
with
in the
and
the
core,
the
the
and
is not
current
primary
e.m.f.
counter
exactly
but
magnetic induction
same
as
secondary
currents
of the
current
where
the
into the
which
windings
would
are
FiG.
same
secondary
have
also the
and
same
since the
manner
been
separated.
22.
mary
pri-
remains
will flow
of
main
re-
take
induced
the
before
as
primary
place
in the
of part
first
case
III
CHAPTER
TWO-PHASE
So
far
in
transformers
as
circuit
each
TRANSFORMER
is connected
transformer
other
In
secondary
the
which
of
in
point
The
in
of
current
such
of
which
have
and
drawn,
between
in the
diagrams
The
method
two-phase
in
be
to
are
of
system
the
in the
connected
windings
the
corresponding
positions
to
conception
representing
representing
also
are
considered
length
the
of
in which
order
of
alternating-
lines
the
sented
repre-
direction
physical
windings
number
are
dealing with
angular
lines; the
to
sponding
corre-
the
lines
connected.
connecting
is shown
in
in
that
independent
are
seen,
have
to
also
as
another
one
and
length
consider
to
windings
of the
to
are
results
The
currents
definite
currents,
the
lines and
other
the
by diagrams.
and
the
for
secure
proportional
turns
by
method
common
it is useful
are
one
currents
apart.
related
e.m.fs.
phase
diagrams,
angles
to
and
phenomena.
e.m.fs.
One
phase, supplying
connections
definitely
in which
To
various
the
cycle
readily determined
be
magnitude
a
ary
second-
supply
to
and
e.m.fs,
various
from
may
straight lines,is
and
phase, and
primary
two
one-fourth
diagram
vector
phase
other
other
the
system
or
time,
of
the
the
single-phase transformers,
of
primary
one
to
obtained
be
may
primary
shown
as
phase.
two-phase
time-degrees
90
to
phase, independent
secondary
other
is connected
transformer
the
only
of the
each
though
as
distribution,
two-phase
independently
treated
is connected
were
in
concerned
are
be
may
CONNECTIONS
two
transformers
Fig.
24.
they
to
Both
phases,
will be
as
in
transformed
are
four-wire,
separate
transformers.
A
in
method
is that
copper
transformers
the
or
connection
of
are
shown
outside
wire
in
connected
secondaries, are
neutral
commonly
changed
being
about
Fig.
24
used
where
independently
into
one-half
wires.
30
to
three-wire
larger
economy
primaries
the
to
obtain
the
two
system,
than
each
of
the
phases, and
the
center,
of the
two
When
having the
transformers
two
CONNECTIONS
TRANSFORMER
TWO-PHASE
ratio
same
are
31
in
connected
is
load, the total secondary current
them
divided between
very nearly in inverse proportion to their
impedances. This inverse impedance is usually expressed as
parallelwith
common
Consider,for instance,a
of 2.9 per
2.3
and
cent,
5 kv-a
4 kv-a
Lw
with
transformer
having
transformer
admittances
The
cent.
per
(13)
+\/_i
an
impedance
impedance of
an
will be
P\
n
6'
Ep. h
Fig. 23.
.y
Two-phase
"
four-wire
arrangement.
5
1.72
;r-^=
The
division of
ohms
total load
and^^=
of 9 kv-a
1.74 ohms
on
connected
these when
directlyin parallelis
1.72X9
for the
=4.57
-7^.'^''
5 kv-a
kv-a
or
91.5
per
cent,
rated
load.
kv-a
or
113
per
cent,
rated
load.
3.46
and
for the 4 kv-a
'
=4.53
^r.
3.46
the
3.46
value
3.46
is the total
sum
of
admittances
or
1.74 + 1.72
ohms.
gether
are
generally not mounted
Lighting transformers
closely towhen
paralleloperationis required,but are usually on a
secondary
net-work.
resistance
of
wiring
In
or
such
load
cases
between
where
the
the
two
drop
due
to
transformers
the
is
32
STATIONARY
ordinarilyexists between
different sizes would usuallybe automatically
difference
considerable,
any
different
TRANSFORMERS
designsand
such
as
Assume
at
distance
of about
500
of load
which
close
of
will be
the center
5 kv-a
transformer
the resistance
that
the secondary
1.94
the
4 kv-a
cent., and
per
former
trans-
from
the
of
the
of
and
kv-a
the
kv-a
creased
in-
will be
transformer
transformer
4.01
per
The
cent.
and
cent,
per
parallel
Neglecting altogetherthe
wires will doubtless be fairly
will be
component
4.15
to
in
resistance from
to
of load
impedance
the
Assume
their
take
connected
are
transformer
small, as
about
each
0 wire.
No.
to
ft. apart.
the 5 kv-a
wiring consists
reactance
transformers
two
same
would
2x9
kv-a
or
98.5
kv-a
or
102
4.92
-^^o"
=
rated load.
cent,
per
'
and
^
1 0X9
=4.08
"
the
value
2.2
being the
admittances
of the
sum
rated load.
cent,
per
1.2 + 1.0
2.2.
ohms.
So
long
it makes
the two
as
difference
no
which
to
it makes
no
connected
circuits
two
a
and
wires
c
is
the
to
b is
'\/2
and
the
\/2
Fig.
90
1.141
shows
times
wires
of the
one
and
outside
two
b'
shown
as
in
wires,a
Fig. 24.
secondary wires
two
wires of each
For
transformer
are
are
The
secondary system.
time-degreesapart, the voltage between
times
neutral,or
1.141
the other
outside
being
the
difference which
joinedtogether,so long as
of any
parallel
in
connected
not
are
secondary wire
is connected
transformers
two
transformers
of the
that
common
that
in any
between
return
one
one
any
wire.
of the
of the outside
The
current
outside
wires.
in
connecting transformers,
where
the common
is used on both primary and secondary.
return
With
this method, there is an unbalancing of both sides of the
if all the motors
on
system on an induction-motor
load, even
the system
should
be of two-phase design. The
unbalancing is
due to the e.m.f. of self-induction in one
side of the system being
25
another
method
of
in
in both
the current
and
18
be made
can
in the
e.m.f.
33
side,thus affecting
other
circuits.
combinations
Various
CONNECTIONS
TRANSFORMER
TWO-PHASE
of the
methods
two
shown
in
Figs. 16
B
-1000-
-1000-
Ismsu
ysmsu
mi.-m)
-100-
-loo"
"
HI
Fig.
as
24.
four-wire
Two-phase
"
similar
auto-transformers
primary
to
the
with
three-wire
secondary.
single-phase connections
just mentioned.
The
four
ordinary
representedby
values
vectors
of e.m.fs.
and
methods
in
of
Fig. 26,
transformers
connecting
a,
are
d, showing relative
b, c and
currents.
-1410-1000-
-1000-
-100-
-100-141-
FiG.
25.
"
Two-phase
Eah
Ea'h'
three-wire
primary
with
three-wire
2e
Eah
2e
Eaa'
2e
\/2e
(5)
Eab='e
Ea'a
Eab
\/2e
2e
Eaa'
2\/2e
Ea'b=2e
70
^/21
la and
766'
(C)
h
=
V2*
secondary.
34
STATIONARY
Let
TRANSFORMERS
impressed
=E
=i
Ic
current
\/2
volts
for
phase
per
and
for
A,
A,
D.
E
.
la',lb,la, Ih'
impressed voltage
current
U)
per
times
phase
\/2
times
phase
per
for A
the current
D.
B.
for D.
phase
per
and
for C.
and
phase
per
for C.
J,
b'
(G)
Fig.
Another
transformer
main
two
The
fa.
26.
(D)
three-, four- and
Two-phase
"
is to
arrangement
voltage of
the two
is 100.
between
the
times
circuits,
Another
and
the
method
of
the
two
the
voltage
times that
of two,
in any
or
across
any
one
of the
50X\/2
one
of
main
70 volts.
in
an
The
extra
shown
middles
in
But
root
square
systems.
This method
Fig. 27.
gives
four side circuits,
ad,dc, cf, and
d and /is 100,
main circuits,
between
and
the
connect
secondaries,as shown
a c and
circuits,
df, and
five-wire
wire from
difference of
the
center
of each
potentialbetween
and
transformer.
e
will be 100X\/2
STATIONARY
36
is effected
be
may
other
windings; or
by proportioning the
wound
for
ratio of transformation
1000
86.6.
to
is connected
transformer
of the
transformer
one
of 1000
50; the
to
/3\
ratio of
TRANSFORMERS
to
j-j. The
or
the middle
of the
secondary
of this
ing
secondary wind-
first.
-1000
"
uKlfMMJ
liMiKmJ
H"
"-75
-1000
"-35-" "r25
6'
100-
-100105.7-
/
Fig.
In
Fig. 30, a
29.
multi-wire
distribution.
transformer.
one
Two-phase
"
At
the
of 90
angle
degrees to
the
to
in
c d,
line,
c and
magnitude the voltage between
of the other
Across
the terminals,a c, ch, and
transformer.
h, it follows that three e.m.fs. will exist,each differingin
-1000-
-1000
"
liiim^
U^imilQj
*
"-50-*i
"
h-ee.e-^
'
c
-100-
FiG.
direction
that
A
in
and
c
and
30.
Two-phase
"
value.
c
or
The
100
to
single-phasedistribution.
e.m.f.
across
" is the
resultant
of
volts.
TWO-PHASE
TRANSFORMER
can
to
CONNECTIONS
37
be made
and
binations
com-
located
symmetrically
on
^
(3)
pq
U\aaaI
(4).
(6)
f^'^
PA
"
""v5"
""C^
fA
-e-v^-
FiG.
31.
"
Complete
listof
two-phase transformer
connections.
"
or
i!;x 0.866.
three-phaseprimary.
strain to
ground is E^/
-
of
two-phase four-wire
In
this
case
system
the maximum
voltagebetween
with
voltage
terminals
38
STATIONARY
"
{E) represents
strain to ground
is E
{F) represents
two
unit system.
the
The
same
as
maximum
(B)
two-phase interconnected
the
voltage
four-
or
five-wire
"
0.866, or
TRANSFORMERS
(5)
r'^^
V~^^
c^^!^
C2X^
1"^^
nr^
,^
r^
^
A
B
IWSAl
^A/^/J
INAAN
(9)
^^
A^
a
A^
b
AA
AA
WvaaI
Uaaa
Iwv^
(H)
/^s/\
AA
AA^^^^AA
b
Fig.
The
32.
"
maximum
Two-phase
parallelcombinations.
CHAPTER
THREE-PHASE
General
have
we
is
e.m.f.
line, B C,
and
to
third
with
deal
the
question
three
the
by
as
three-phase
A.
e.m.fs.
in
shown
line, A B,
line, C
by the
of
alternating
degrees,
120
represented
the
SYSTEM
considering
In
"
differingin phase by
currents
One
TRANSFORMATION
Principles.
transformation
IV
Fig.
another
These
and
34.
the
by
three
e.m.fs.
/'"^^
(i")b
Fig.
and
33.
currents
six
be
where
e.m.f.
phase
lines,ax,
wires, or
only indicate
the
and
the
grounding
carried
are
x;
two-phase
ends
B,
positive directions
39
at
diagrammatically
C,
and
in the
A.
mains
circuits
wire
return
common
joined together
are
represented
also,
systems.
independent
three
to
wire, or
neutral
three
relations
b x,
of
be
may
requiring
used,
Methods
"
The
and
x.
may
The
by the
arrows
through
ST A TIONA
40
TEA
R Y
the
be
must
that
remembered
direction
of
the
e.m.fs.
NSFORMERS
is chosen
these
not
represent
arrows
currents
or
arbitrarily,
therefore,it
at
the
actual
any
Fig.
e.m.f.
34.
be
must
receivingcircuit
upon
an
generated
main
from
to
give an
to
main
"
e.m.f.
acting
h, the winding, a,
currents
and
e.m.fs.
is
b to c, and
the
e.m.f.
degrees behind
b is 30
c, is
by
equal
the
to the
square
30"
cos
the
e.m.f.
a.
The
^3
e.m.f.
e.m.f. between
in each
between
its effective
and
value
is
(14)
E;
of the e.m.fs.
of each
value
this connection
With
or
is the
to
time-phase, and
in
where
main
from
b, and
any
winding,
c.
leads,ab,b
two
x,b
x,ov
ex
c,
plied
multi-
of three.
root
main
current
relations
A ; therefore,the
we
see
in
instantaneous
value
of the
current
in main
THREE-PHASE
is
TRANSFORMATION
"
current
"
mean
effective current
and
in each
in each
winding.
is 30
with
the current
this connection
of three times
root
currents
7^ in phase;
times
of three
that
is the square
degrees behind
root
receiving circuits
three
the
in main
main
current
When
"
is the square
different phases; so
of the
in any
41
I1
current
and
SYSTEM
the
the current
equal in resistance
equal; and each lags behind
ah
are
are
neutral
called the
three
is the
between
resistance
the
of the
phases
measured
as
The
resistance
e.m.f.
the
to
The
x.
current
in the
be
measured
directlybetween
phases in series.
alike,the resistance per phase
windings, or
are
terminals.
between
Should
of any
the
ances
resistbe
phase may
follows:
resistance
terminals
between
of
resistance
of
Ri.
"
of
"
is:
R^-^-R^.
terminals
between
Resistance
R^
6 is:
terminals
between
Resistance
Therefore
to
commonly
The
h x, and
ax,
be
Resistance
The
of
c.
The
The
c,
the
receivingcircuit is equal
of each
e.m.f.
ah
mains.
to the
connected
in each
mains, ah
remaining ends,
ends, or terminals
\/3 E, where
current
the
receivingends, are
the
between
to
point,x;
120
is:
R3+R2.
Res.
"
Res.
b c-|-Res.
_,
R3=
'
Res.
"
Res.
_,
^r,
R,
-j-Res.
6
,,
^i
'
Res.
"
Res.
6 -|-Res. b
c
"'
^.
(15)
TRANSFORMERS
STATIONARY
42
method
The
where
the
e.m.f.
called
and
the
that
in any
the
3,
connection.
delta
current
winding,
that
Assuming
all
the
on
each
on
that
as
A,
this connection
In
same
in Fig.34,
in series a,t
connected
are
receivingcircuit is the
the
on
and
windings,1, 2
C, is
and
of
the
mains;
\/3 times
to
\/3I, where / is the current in 1,2, or 3phases are alike,the resistance per phase is
or
B.
ratio of 3 to 2 times
to the
equal
In
connection
delta
through phase 1,
one
series.
resistance
the
the
From
two
to
of the
sum
and
law
or
there
the
are
the
resistance between
two
circuits between
other
circuits
circuits in
more
of
reciprocals
through phases
divided
of
have
we
parallelis
the
and
and
the
C,
3 in
and
joint
reciprocalof
branches.
37?
Hence,
-^
is the
winding with
one
terminal
resistance
two
to terminal
others
with
per
phase R being
in
current
resistance
the
drop
of
from
Ohmic
To
drop
2/X-R.
transform
employed. Several
single-phase transformers
different ways
1. Three
(16)
are
number
of
of the arrangements
in star
connected
are:
in
or
delta.
2. Two
in
connected
single-phasetransformers
open-delta or
in tee.
in star or in delta.
connected
three-phase transformer
three
With
the magnetic fluxes in
single-phasetransformers
the
differ in phase by 120
three transformers
time-degrees.
With
the magnetic fluxes in
two
single-phase transformers
ing
them
differ in time-phase by 120 degrees or by 90 degrees accordto the connection
employed.
With
there are
three magnetic
the three-phase transformer
One
3.
fluxes
The
than
the
three
are
also about
25
per
cent.
single-phasetransformers
losses
are
also
equal.
for the
same
per
cent,
total
less
rating;
less.
about
power
the
same
transmitted
44
STATIONARY
TRANSFORMERS
transformers
single-phase
three
the
service
same
in cost
decrease
that
may
be
frequently discussed
are
of the several
for obtaining
employed
the
on
types of transformers
basis of the
with
increase
in
rating; and on such basis it has been shown that the threeis the cheaper, while
the other combinations
phase transformer
of requiring an
more
are
expensive on account
equal or greater
transformers.
It
ever,
rating in smaller
aggregate
should, howin
borne
be
mind
generally speaking,
designed along the
that
is not,
three-phase transformer
efficient as
a
single-phase transformer
so
lines and
same
wound
for
the
same
total
output.
Fig.
It is shown
very
terminals,B C,
resultant
the
or
which
It
and
result
from
Vector
of effective
sum
e.m.fs.
the
clearly in Fig. 35 that a connection across
E, and x D, will receive a voltage which is the
e.m.fs. differingin time-phase by 120 degrees;
adding the e.m.fs. of E^ and E^ at 60 degrees,
equivalent to E^ \/3.
in Fig. 36, where
is shown
X
X
of
transformers
y,
is
b, X
This
zero.
that
of two
"
is
group
and
36.
where
current
equivalent
a;
many
summary
to
consequently
is in accordance
an
phase
reversed, the
the
the
of
with
star-connected
e.m.f.,x' y'
e.m.fs.,x c', x a'
resultant
component
resultant
of
Kirchhoff's
all three
e.m.fs.
which
law
is
states
in the main
effective currents
of the
is
one
circuit is the
in the
geometric,or
separate branches.
vector
The
sum
of the
modifications
laws
TRANSFORMATION
THREE-PHASE
to 60
a
45
in
it is noted
b' and
SYSTEM
c' is "'
o' and
b and
and
to be
unchanged.
For
example, in Fig. 36, consideringonly secondary coils of
that are supposed to be connected
three single-phasetransformers
of fact connected
in star, but as a matter
as
shown, let us assume
that E is equal to 100 volts:
will be the voltage between
terminals
of Ea, E/,
(a) What
and Ea, Eb, and Ee phases?
will be the voltage between
terminals a' and c',and
(b) What
a
and
6?
and
the
voltage
a'
across
y' and
y' c\ also
y 6?
voltage acting
The
(a)
E
will be
What
(c)
on
windings is equal to
of these
any
v/3
100X\/3
The
voltage acting on
Ea
,
Eb', etc.,is
;^ X 173.2=0.577
Ea
volts.
173.2
173.2=
100
a' and
c',or
volts.
v3
terminals
is evident
that
b,is equal
173.2
volts.
It
and
Ea- etc., or
100 X 173.2=
E\/3=
the
two
1
E
a"
-X173.2
y',eic.,=
Vo
In
X, y,
o,
Fig.37
z
6, c,
are
are
in shown
equal and
120
in each
0.577X173.2
a
120
diagram
three
of
volts.
three-phase currents
degrees apart
of the
100
and
circuits
in the
leads,
each
X,
currents
in which
and
Z.
rent
cur-
46
ST A TIONA
The
which
As
are
NSFORMERS
TRA
lead is shown
made
degrees apart.
example showing the use
an
three
in each
current
R Y
up
of two
60
transformers
single-phase
of
delta-connected.
Fig.
current
38.
"
37.
"
Geometric
Geometric
sum
of
of e.m.fs.
sum
three-phase
at
any
of
circuit,
will be the
What
Fig.
equal components
currents.
instant
equal
current
to
zero.
in h lead
is 500
amperes?
Since
one
component,
X,
has
same
sign as it has
TRANSFORMATION
THREE-PHASE
in its own
winding,and
transformer
SYSTEM
the other
47
Y,
component,
has
former
transoppositesign to that which it has in its own
in
in
vector
winding, X, is represented lead by the same
as
transformer
its own
winding; while the other component, F, is
representedin the lead by a vector 180 degrees from that which
therefore,X
circuit,
500.
=~^
v3
instantaneous
The
values
three-phase system
of the
in the
currents
sum
of e.m.fs.
fact
is shown
other
in
at
Fig. 38,
instant
any
geometric
the
is
equal
with
group
Star-star
with
group
Delta-delta
with
star-delta.
Delta-star
group
with
star-delta.
It
with
that
however, be remembered
the following combinations,because
phases which
when
occurs,
will
secondaries,
result in
with
Delta-star
with
Delta-delta
attempt
an
a
three-phase
it is
the
impossible to
displacementof
is made
to
the
connect
star-star.
a
star-delta.
with
delta-delta.
Star-delta
with
star-star.
is well known
lines,
partialshort-circuit.
Delta-star
As
three
star-star.
must,
connect
to
This
zero.
delta-delta.
group
group
star-star.
Star-delta
Delta-delta
of
delta-star.
with
group
to
of the
sum
wire
one
algebraicsum
Therefore, the algebraic
sides.
two
currents
or
currents
and
equal
are
in any
oppositeto the
of the
there
four
are
ways
in which
singleprimary and
three
be connected
between
phase transformers
may
be
secondary three-phase circuits. The
arrangements
may
and delta-star.
described as the delta-delta,
star-star,star-delta,
for high voltage the star connection
In winding transformers
has the advantage of reducingthe voltage on an individual unit,
thus
permitting a
increase
wind
in the
size of the
in the
has
if
disabled,the
The
probable advantage
one
transformer
two
number
conductors, making
easier to insulate.
and
in that
reduction
remaining
of
delta-delta
over
a
ones
of
turns
and
an
coils easier to
the
connection
theless
never-
group
of three
will continue
should
to
become
deliver three-
TRANSFORMERS
STATIONARY
48
phase
thirds of the
delta
originaloutput
in any
to
of the group.
e.m.f.
The
between
measured
transformer
one
line is \/3
in the
current
capacity equal
arrangement.
that
as
with
currents
times
terminals.
between
that
is the
mains
the
in any
The
transformer
one
winding.
transformer
Each
w^ound
be
must
line current.
cent,
for the
greater number
The
in
of turns
sitate
winding, together with the insulation between
turns, necesmore
a larger and
expensive coil than the star connection.
be preferable
the delta-delta connection
For another reason
may
the
Fig.
Delta-delta
"
star, inasmuch
the
to
39.
though
transformer
one
the
as
is not
arrangement
be
may
assumed
it is practically
case
of transformers.
connection
that
affected
even
entirelydisconnected,in which
the two remaining transformers
2
have
exactly
In
delta
carrying capacity
connected
displacement exists,the
per
of transformers
group
of 85
being
total
the
of
cent,
the
for the
the
to
system
and
the
acting on
The
voltage
be 1000
angle
each
e.m.f.
is the
on
of
between
volts; the
any
current
two
three
mains
in the
time-lag,45 degrees.
phase
phases will
of
mains,
What
in each
if
power
0.567.
current
be
(17)
three-phase
V3X^X/XCos^.
Assume
100
will be
amperes,
the
e.m.f.
same
as
that
across
the
terminals
of any
one
trans-
THREE-PHASE
former.
The
winding,
or
line current
57.7
a/3X
phase is 100
each
Cos
TRANSFORMATION
-y^
SYSTEM
is \/3 times
100
57.7 amperes.
that in each
therefore
amperes,
The
49
transformer
the
in
current
output beinga/3 E
I-
1.732 X
In the star-star
connected
to
kw.
123
each transformer
arrangement
approx.
has
terminal
one
are
number
100 X.7 1
common
remaining ends
The
1,000
in
of turns
of that
transformer
winding for
requiredfor
delta connection
star
tion
connec-
and
the
-1000-
-1000-1000-
677
"
577
"
577-
immMj
nnjn
rron
^57.7-
57.7
-67.7-"
-100-
-MO-
100
40.
Fig.
"
Star-star
The
output.
same
transformers,and
the whole
might
group
three
The
system,
is
and
must
be
anything goes
in
Fig. 40 is
outside wires is
of
"
known
especiallyconvenient
voltage between
the
he
with
wrong
of
one
them,
disabled.
distributing
systems, in that a fourth
neutral pointof the three secondaries.
The
correspondingly
greater
the
of
use
requires
connection
star
become
shown
arrangement
"Y"
if
of transformers.
connection
neutral
the
as
and
or
economical
in
led from
the
wire may
be
point and
any
voltage between
"star"
of the
one
outside
the
V3
wires,
namely
1000
The
current
is the
Fig. 41
4
X-7-
in each
same
shows
as
a
1,000X0.577
phase
of
577
volts.
star-connected
group
of transformers
star-star
connection
in which
one
of
the
ST A TIONARY
50
TRANSFORMERS
phase
degrees
120
connection.
that the
The
be noted
have
60
to
It may
resultant
e.m.fs., ac
and
be,
are
and
phase
c
from
transformer
each
"
^3
-1000
"
" "
1000-
-1000-
UWUq^
Fig.
41.
Star-star
"
mw
connection
57.7,but in realityshould
is 57.7 X\/3
of
be 1 00 volts
"
the
voltage between
and
In
formers
star-connectingthree single-phasetransit is quite possible to have
of the
transformers
one
reversed
as
100.
shown.
-577-
IM2MMJ
UM^M^
Fig.
In
the
42.
Star-delta
"
star-delta
arrangement
transformation
is
;^'
\/3
primary turns,
and
the
the
same
as
that
connections
"
between
or
0.577
e.m.f.
the
shown
times
acting on
mains.
of transformers.
in
the
Fig.
42
ratio of
each
the
ratio of
secondary
secondary circuit
to
is
52
ST A TIONA
each
that
the
transformer
voltage
the
In
the
resultant
TRA
be
NSFORMERS
wound
for
called
commonly
the
across
ends
open
of
of the
This method
than
of the
any
assuming the
only
57.7
per
cent., of
mains.
arrangement,
voltage
total
need
the
on
R Y
"V"
"open-delta"
or
two
transformers
two
phases;
see
is the
Fig. 44.
transformer
more
ity
capac-
shown,
transformation,heating, and
of
efficiency
saijie
transformed.
power
I
-1000-1000-
-1000-
1000-
-1000-
mmmJ
"
^100KO
Fig.
45.
"
"
"
connection
of
connected
In
comparing
connected
58 per
the
the
transformers
in
with
secondary windings
opposite directions.
kv-a
formers
capacity of two single-phasetransin open delta,with three similar transformers
connected
in delta,the kv-a capacity is approximately1 -^ ^^
=
cent.
and
current
voltage
of each
transformer
each
each
the
phase with
and
current
of
phase with
other.
With
due
in
are
to
the
open-delta
the different
outside
mains,
algebraicsum
the
of the
method
impedances in
impedance in
impedances in
slightunbalancing
the
middle
middle
the
the
two
main
main
may
and
exist,
the
being
two
the
outside mains.
The
with
the
in
reverse
secondary.
or
direction,
180
THREE-PHASE
The
diagram
vector
primary
TRANSFORMATION
the
of
requiresonly
the
tee
The
tee
is to
the
of
characteristics.
open-delta arrangement
the
method
tee
cost
delta methods.
the
or
formers
single-phasetranssay, connectingthe
transformation
same
of
single-phasetransformers.
two
regards the
As
star
obtain the
53
that
oppositedirection,
that of the primary, and
secondary like
the secondary, we
that
the
By connecting two
secondary.
to
in the
Like
shows
SYSTEM
is representedin
arrangement
is connected
transformer
middle
to the
Fig.46.
The
of
end
one
of the other.
.^"^
"60^
-^0
X
86.6
s^
-100-
-100-
-100
Fig.
The
number
46.
Tee
"
or
of turns
"T"
on
connection
6 is
of transformers.
=1.16
"
times
the
number
of
v3
turns
on
better
no
it
c.
Its
than
maintain
abilityto
the
open-delta arrangement,
star
delta
or
phase relations is
balanced
and
methods
in
of
no
case
is
connecting
transformers.
single-phase
three
It is
tapped
worthy
to the middle
for
exactly ^^^
age
of
one
can
that
of note
86.6
the
transformer
of the other
transformer
per
be 90 per
cent,
cent,
of the
of the
which
has
need not be
one
designed
other,without
end
volt-
rimental
producingdet-
results.
Another
is shown
three-phase combination
case
it is assumed
were
connected
originally
in star
diagram.
dotted
that
the
three
at
in
In this
Fig. 47.
single-phase transformers
by
oA, oB and oC as shown
TRANSFORMERS
STATIONARY
54
to the combined
change the transformation
system of the
with the point o'
star-delta,the end of winding oB is connected
of the phase oA, and
the end 0 of the phase oC with the point
o"of the phase oB so that the vector
o'E' and
oB becomes
oC
o"C'.
The
becomes
is proportional
length of the three vectors
of coils per phase, all coils having the same
to the number
num-
To
Kwwwl
mum
rmtm
ca
f"fc iX\
^^
-E-,
-E
Fig.
4".
Delta
"
ber of turns.
with
connection
phase
another
The
end
50
relation
of
cent,
per
of
for maximum
phase
oA
winding reversed
voltage.
is connected
to
to
obtain
point
the
of the
phase o"C\
the list of
Going over
there
three-phase connections
common
are
shown
use, these
common
find
being
kit]Uj
Q-O
Fig.
we
48.
"
Common
delta connections.
of them
be so arranged as to
These, and a combination
may
give not less than sixteen different changes; all these changes
being given in Fig. 49.
tions
combinatransformer
of each
of the above
one
Taking away
find open-delta connections
like those
we
given in Fig. 50.
On
the eighteen different delta-delta
carefullylooking over
combinations
it will be noted that the
given in the above figures,
first ten
represent changes of
one
or
two
of the transformers
while
THREE-PHASE
TRANSFORMATION
SYSTEM
55
in
the
There
also four
are
being
these
Like
in
generaluse,
Fig. 51.
the
arranged
in
shown
connections
star-star
common
to
Fig. 52.
Continuing
be
can
be
seen
from
delta-star
to
come
we
further
in
delta-star
star-delta and
or
of
star-delta
common
use
are
tions
three-phase connec-
combinations.
iLijj
iij "b=ur4i lAIAj
f=^ f^
aJyi
^^YJY^Cld~VP
Fig.
The
in
star
as
Fig. 54.
desired,thus
however,
from
one
These
IN
transformer
for
windings
of
none
THREE-PHASE
It is customary
be
may
to
about
number.
can
to
It must
deltabe
membered,
re-
changed about
be
another.
TRANSFORMER
that
connections
transformer
them
all transformer
so
CY?T^
changed
^Y^\^
delta connections.
of star-delta
set of combinations
POLARITY
n.^iH
Uncommon
"
systems
uncommon
shown
are
49.
The
left- and
CONNECTIONS
manufacturers
to
arrange
assumed
to
have
the
same
relative direction
of
primary
and
STATIONARY
56
TRANSFORMERS
transformer
tank
be
connected
together
leads leaving
for
parallel
operation if desired without the necessityof findingthe polarity.
high-voltagetransformers
are
Large and moderate-sized
rarely
used
be of singleor threefor single-phase
service. They may
phase design but they are used almost exclusivelyon three-phase
and
systems,
in star
connected
rvp rvi
Fig.
50.
to
delta
or
or
combination
of the
U-b
rv^
b^
d-\j
LrSj
^T^
^Vt^
P^
Uncommon
open-delta
"
connections.
and small
largeand medium
sizes (6000 to 0.5 kv-a) are very common.
They afford a better
than three-phaseunits,which
opportunity for different polarities
small
and
in large and
sizes (14,000 to
also made
medium
are
methods.
two
1.0
kv-a).
The
delta
"
to
in
Single-phaseunits
as
and
methods
star
"
conventional
uJ
Fig.
51.
"
in
wound
uJ uJ
cri_rn_r|p p p
u
kJ
understood
are
secondary windings
and
of connections
Common
to
opposite directions
b::^ Lj I
Urrzi
n
star
have
generally referred
all the primary
"
rj
around
I
"
|n_pi_p
connections.
always followed as
problems arise in every-day practiceshowing that it is not always
the
core.
This
conventional
method
is not
carried out.
Three
former
or
one
single-phase transformers
three-phase transhave their windings arranged in the followingmanner:
may
in the
(1) The three primary and secondary windings wound
direction
same
positivedirection.
in the
(2) The three primary and secondary windings wound
"
same
direction
"
negative direction.
TRANSFORMATION
THREE-PHASE
SYSTEM
57
in oppositedirection
primary windings wound
direction.
to the secondary windings positive
in opposite direction
(4) The three primary windings wound
to the secondary windings negative direction.
be wound
(5) One primary winding of the group of three may
opposite to the remaining two primaries and the three
(3)
three
The
"
"
secondaries
J d
n
r| p
"
positivedirection.
Lrbrb LrhnJ L b u
(rjJrL_r^rjn p_p_p
n
"^^-p-nH pi ^
Lrd-J
J fJ
r\-p-n
J L J Uxra
r^ p p
p rj p
r^-p_o
52.
Uncommon
"
cHx-J
LrrhJ JUL
Fig.
(6)
uuii
J u
p rj n
u
fhR-P
u
u
n
r|
L
n
connections.
star
three
secondaries
negative direction.
"
of three
be
primary windings of the group
may
wound
opposite to the one
remaining primary and three
secondary windings positivedirection.
(7) Two
"
W^
WmI
UwJ
IwmJ
Ivwl
Iwyj
ry^"^ (:^i_iq_r|
^^i-^ ^
Fig.
53.
"
Ck)mmon
star-delta
(8) Two
Ivwl
kwj
M*\
connections.
of three
be
primary windings of the group
may
wound
opposite to the one
remaining primary and the
three secondary windings
negativedirection.
have its primary and
(9) One unit may
secondary windings
different to the two remaining units, as:
(a) The unit on the left positivedirection.
(6) The center unit positivedirection.
(c) The unit on the right positivedirection.
"
"
"
"
TRANSFORMERS
STATIONARY
58
(10)
unit
One
windings different
in the
but
their
have
(a)
The
left and
(b)
The
rightand
(c)
The
left and
units
Two
U/w
U^
rp
ings
secondary wind-
and
right units
the
to
"
positivedirection.
positivedirection.
"
their
have
positivedirection.
"
units
center
may
in the
primary
units
center
windings different
but
secondary
units, as (9)
two
remaining unit,as:
different to the
(12)
remaining
the
to
the
not
negative direction.
units may
(11) Two
primary but
its
have
may
negative direction.
l\/\A
U/s/J U^
Iv\aI
PL_n
ryen
U/sJ U/vJ
Iv""a|
Lj L/J u/J
Iwj IwJL/j
IwAl
U/vJ
U/M
iJj uJ
U/SaI P^VsI
I,
I/WM
UvvrhJ^*lvvg
1^^
assumed
Uncommon
"
of the
Transformers
rule
54.
to
have
transformation.
In
same
the
all
i'^'*^
i*^^
star-delta
'
Uv/J
'
f*^
LvUrh
('^^
connections.
transformers
where
"
1*^^
make
rating and of the same
same
polarity,impedance and
cases
nnn
Fig.
U-rHljriwJ
lij
\it--LLr-\h uil uj
iL
are
not
are
as
ratio
of
of the
be
secondary connections
in delta or
subjected to polarity tests before connecting them
The
be made, are:
mistakes which can
star.
reverse
windings.
(1) One or more
same
make
it is advisable
(2)
Internal
(3)
Where
leads
that
the
crossed.
transformers
are
located
some
distance
apart,
STATIONARY
60
and
the
The
will
where
the
are
of two
concerned)
in
become
the
same
as
themselves
must
polarity. This
of
be
should
as
the
secondary
or
external
tions
connec-
winding.
star-delta
star-star, delta-delta,
polaritysince
changed in
be
distance,
some
primary
reversingone
the
reverse
at
crossed.
of either the
leads
line leads
leads
made
are
Reversing the
or
connections
leads may
reversal
reverse
TRANSFORMERS
order
to
the
make
noted
particularly
transformer
the
when
change
parallel
Time-Phase
Primary
Angle
Fig.
57.
"
Windings'
Secondary
Windings
operation is desired,
former
for,though the phase relations of two transbe
the
same
paralleloperationmight be sible
groups
imposmay
(see Fig. 55)
.
The
the
same
For
effect of
reversal
of
The
one
or
two
of star and
reversal
of
delta,but is:
primary windings
but
produce a short-circuit,
produce a difference in
phase relations and voltages. The maximum
voltage will not
be greater than the line voltage (seeFig. 58).
For Delta-delta:
The reversal of one
two
or
primary windings
will immediately produce a short-circuit when
the
secondary
will not
one
or
will
two
TRANSFORMATION
THREE-PHASE
is closed.
delta
double-line
or
The
reversal of
immediately produce
will
which
one
be
or
2E
60).
two
or
primary windings
when
the
secondary
delta will be 2E
closes the
and
short-circuit
maximum
The
delta is closed.
61
Star-delta:
For
maximum
The
SYSTEM
double-line
point
voltage.
Reveraed
B-b
Opposite
polarity
a-
a-
(b)
Reversed
Fig.
For
Delta-star:
will not
star
line
58.
produce
is made.
"
The
a
Three-phase polaritydifficulties.
reversal
short-circuit on
maximum
The
The
thick,black
lines shown
represent secondary
Fig. 57
as
one
or
two
primary windings
the
secondary side when
voltage difference will be E or
phase relations will be unequal.
in Figs. 55, 56, 57, 58, 59 and 60
the
windings.
possiblestar and
already explained.
or, sixteen
of
delta
tions,
polaritycombina-
62
STATIONARY
TRANSFORMERS
Correct
Wrong
Connection
Connection
a-b-c
"Reversed
e
kvvAl
JvvA/V-i-A/WV LAA^AJ
,*,
"
^v^^N
.A.
"
l^/vv^|
6
A-B-C
"
J'^N/'X-,.
n
E
2E
a-A-B
'z?
^
B-C-A
(a)
i?
Vi__:
arr
'
-2E
^
(a)
AC
K'SA,^
UaaaI
IvvvJ/
(J
Fig.
59.
"
Three-phase
polarity difficulties.
Fig. 58 shows
Unlike
the
SYSTEM
TRANSFORMATION
THREE-PHASE
the
effects of
delta-delta
or
winding or
reversed
star-delta
no
63
transformer.
Reversed
a-b-e
C-A-B
Reyersed
Fig.
60.
shown
"
at
(b)
Both
windings wound
Fig. 60 (a)
and
(b) also
of three
the maximum
and
(6) and
reversed.
transformers
two
are
show
in delta
reversed.
difference
(/),(g)and
in
(h)are
As
correct
when
and
two
before, double
voltage which
assumed
can
to have
incorrect
of
transformers
voltage or
exist.
of
way
2E
Both
is
(a)
STATIONARY
64
secondary windings
secondaries
Fig. 57
of
of
(c) and
polarity. The
same
assumed
(d) are
primaries and
opposite polarity.
to have
combinations
paralleloperating polarity
above
the
the
also have
may
represented as
From
TRANSFORMERS
that
and
the four
from
of
systems
obtain
star-delta,we
48
different combinations.
Delta
VAV
/
V
a
Delta
acccbbbaabcbab
-star
Vv.'^"-'
AVAVAVAVA
\
Delta
"" O'
"
'-""' "-"
star
star
b
IX\
Star
Delta
c
^"
a
PARALLEL
After
YAYAYAYAYA
YX
c
we
have
b b
"
CONNECTIONS
various
combinations
next
64 and
65.
whether
they
problem of paralleling
systems, no matter
into such
be
generating or transforming, resolve themselves
be in timefactors as equal frequency,equal voltages which must
is responsiblefor a fair part of
phase, etc. The manufacturer
The
the troubles
of
operatingengineersfrom
the apparatus
point of
THREE-PHASE
TRANSFORMATION
SYSTEM
65
manufacturer
The
J U
the
can,
and
daQ_q-q g q n
ryyi rvjYi
^Y^
lAIAjuUAj
c?iirauAJAj
Lrb-talAm
ih)
(g)
and
61.
Three-phase parallelcombinations
"
deliver
equal
to
same
capacityand
made
'
Lj L
'
(d')
Fig.
of another
62.
"
Common
manufacturer
of apparatus
which
obtained
polarity,
satisfactory
particular
and
dxhJ
'
re'/
Lrtrb
(o'J
cbt-ra lii
LniAj iLlii
lL
'
r/';
J J J L L
Lrhm
identical
that
lAIAj iF^4s
lAIAu
'
practice.
common
(b'y
crtte
such
in
la')
uAirU
be
cannot
J d J L
customer
paralleloperation
manufacturer
the
^"^
III
LI
Fig.
^^\^V^
^'^
^"^
LniAj
ul U
UU
three-phaseparallelcombinations.
who
may
designthe
differs in ratio of
same
size and
class
high-voltageto low-voltage
turns, in
The
the
STATIONARY
66
TRANSFORMERS
engineers themselves.
Large
and
moderate
size transformers
in
always operated
most
are
avoided
and
the
is to
apparatus
satisfactorily
operated
be
in
parallel.
In the paralleloperationof delta and
star systems, two
main
factors
after due
be kept in mind
consideration
must
has been
given to the design of the apparatus to be placed in parallel.
These
are:
cj-w-ft
c:i_pi_r|p
rypgL-n rp i^"p
tru
(a)
No
(b)
Some
m^^^Tff
"^^.w
Fig.
63.
"
Lrd-Q J U ul
u*U
n
Uncommon
condition
c^/rua
c::bfdtt-j:3
r^_,.ftn
iL [T^T3
pu
three-phase parallelcombinations.
is
unit connected
in
parallel,
as,
that
will
apparatus
not
for
of
group
of apparatus
cannot
exactly the same
instance,a delta-star may
parallelwith
connected
one
another
delta-star.
or
be made
have
polyphase unit
one
to
phase
polyoperate
combination
or
group
of
68
STATIONARY
(a)
Each
TRANSFORMERS
unit
single-phase
polarityis the
current
circulating
With
difference in
tied
was
'
65.
"
of delta
cdkL-u
ward
after-
uraLfcq fdkitKj
^
I
\j"")\\
L L LttttJ
three-phaseparallelcombinations.
are
offers
mixed
complications where
tion
employed. To reverse
phase rota-
terminal
and
ih""\
sometimes
star
would
Tfu'Tf
Lnd-u
Uncommon
and
become
which
directlytogether
\g"")
rotations
that
as
(e"")
J L
two
pronounced
so
CraFtq
systems
efficiency
may
total
y^wW
L L) LrtTiJ
Fig.
secondary voltages
delta.
or
^.^
Phase
ratio,unbalanced
impedence the
in star
connected
will result.
same
slightdifference in
each
or
be
and
worse
the
reversed
be reversed.
leads) must
sometimes
sent
pre-
polaritytwo
transformer
59 and
60).
and
two
or
more
groups
of different system
perhaps in
distribution
a
be
must
the
of
that
stations themselves
system.
list of available
Usually
transformers
certain
the
at
or
have
when
to
our
with
made
connections
for
"make-shift"
available
the
on
some
chief
each
be
tralized
cen-
parallel
apparatus,
operating engineer
station and
center
has
which
THREE-PHASE
facilitate their
of
and
of
or
both.
or
of
amount
will have
urgently needed.
in any
station
On
transformers
more
In
fact
energy
it may
and
necessary
the
of transformer
of odd
simple
mean
continue
stitute
sub-
ity
capac-
deliver
to
an
formers
trans-
or
mean
rence
occur-
issue
voltagesor kw.
in order
mean,
69
will
he
center
or
use
one
SYSTEM
temporary substitute
up
the
as
change
adoption when
breakdown
to make
order
TRANSFORMATION
the
operation,that
he
in series
connectingcertain transformers
and
others in multiple series,
It may
also mean
that such
etc.
unusual
in Figs. 66 and
those shown
as
parallelcombinations
66a
to
resort
will have
number
them
be
to
made.
of delta-star and
similar to above
phase
to
might
delta-delta
be made
but great
secondary windings
together,for, as in well known,
the
out
of
a
parallelcombinations
each
be taken
must
care
tying
before
group
to
straightdelta-star cannot
/
/
Fig.
be tied in with
66.
Unusual
"
delta-delta
parallelcombinations.
and
vice
versa,
nor
star-star
with
delta-star
are
the difference in
different
much
impedences of
in sizes.
The
phase positionand
various
the
two
former
rotation
transformers
and
also the
differing
very
difficulties show
themselves
rush
to
in
regular
70
STATIONARY
TRANSFORMERS
CHOICE
the
In
connection
there
is
OF
CONNECTIONS
of power
choice between
for transmission
transformers
four
combinations
main
and
phase
star, see
tems
sys-
for three-
namely,
delta
and
^J-
Fig.
Where
and
V3,
or
The
"
100
per
nearly
or
x^/x
67.
lines in
case
two
systems.
common
cent.
57.7
cent,
per
of the star
of full
voltage
between
connection;
or
100.0^V^3
The
connection, where
delta
that
shown
and
three-phase
and
between
to
three-transformer
57.7
100
cent.
per
per
100
per
cent,
two-transformer
"T"
between
former
trans-
Where
x/3
y
=
"-
=86.6
cent,
of
terminals
a'
per
the
V
,
voltage
and
c.
TRANSFORMATION
THREE-PHASE
y-100
=t/"
^
cent.,
per
terminals
former
Full terminal
to
full
or
71
SYSTEM
voltage
h' and
a\
between
trans-
c.
c,
corresponding
a^
7'
/
V
Fig.
Star
vs.
Delta.
68.
"
The
It is shown
"
systems.
uncommon
in
one
of the
of the
be cut out of star,or one
single-phasetransformers
leads joined to the neutral point be disconnected,
there will exist
the three different phases.
only one voltage instead of three,across
This
to three-phase working of
disadvantage is detrimental
three
the
star
arrangement,
inasmuch
as
two
phase
B
-IDOO-
"
-1000-
"
-1000
-677
577-
-OT.r-
-100-
Fig.
69.
"
Result
of
transformer
one
secondary
group
being
of
cut
are
to
primary
and
of circuit.
disabled,leaving one
some
degree, depending
conditions.
On
the other
delta-connected
as
star-connected
out
shown
in
hand,
group
should
be
one
phase, or
disconnected
will exist the
from
same
one
the
transformer
of
remaining two,
voltage
between
the
72
STATIONARY
different
three
The
result
TRANSFORMERS
phases,and practicallythe
obtained
by cutting out
of open
little
total
one-half
over
rating of
the
transformer
transformers
the
In
of delta
one
operating
ditions.
con-
transformer,is
capacity is
85 per
of three
same
of the
past it has
X 0.6666
cent.
0.5665
size connected
same
frequently been
in delta.
use
of
^1000
-1000"
-1000-
-1000"
-1000-
^rW)
0-
pRHTj
fMF|
100-
_-_o---H
-100-
"
-100
"
-100"
-~100
Fig.
70.
"
Result
of
delta-connected
transformer
of
group
transformers
with
one
disconnected.
or
circuiting,
through any other defect,it is impossibleto operate
to any
degree of satisfaction from the two undamaged windings
of the other phases, as would
if a single-phasetransbe the case
former
used in each phase of the polyphase system.
were
All that is necessary
is to short-circuit the primary and secondary
shown
windings of the damaged transformer
as
itself,
upon
in Fig. 71.
The
windings thus short-circuited will choke down
the flux passed through the portion of the core
surrounded
by
in
the
without
winding a current
them,
producing
portion of
any
greater than
small
fraction
of
the
current
which
normally
two
phase short-circuited
be
remaining phases may
one
on
itself as
reconnected
mentioned
in open
above,
delta
in
TRANSFORMATION
THREE-PHASE
tee
or
in star-delta for
SYSTEM
73
transformingfrom
be
phase; or the windings may
for single-phasetransformation.
transformers
of the shell type.
trouble is only applicablewhere
are
and
delta-star
delta-delta
The
relative advantages of the
and will always be disputed and wide open for
systems are still,
advantage
discussion.
They possess the following advantages and disrespectively:
Delta-delta
one
phase is cut out the
(non-grounded). When
to deliver approximately 58
remaining two phases can be made
Fig.
per
71.
"
Result
of
operating a
winding disabled and
of the
cent,
full load
delta-connected
short-circuited
ratingof
transformer
on
transformer
with
one
itself.
(in the
of
case
three
single-phasetransformers.
Delta-star
(neutral grounded). Advantage of reducing the
cost of high voltage line insulators for equal line voltage,which
is a very large item when
dealing with long-distancelines;their
size need
only be approximately 58 per cent, of that used on a
line using the delta system.
It is also possible,under
certain conditions,
to operate and
deliver three-phase currents
when one
phase or one line conductor
is on the ground.
The
disadvantages are:
Delta-delta
Delta-star
operate when
systems.
(non-grounded).
larger line insulators
and
Table
or
(neutral grounded).
one
gives a
Larger transformer
for the
Not
same
always
line
in
or
formers
trans-
voltage.
a
cut
positionto
out.
three-phase
74
STATIONARY
TRANSFORMERS
TABLE
Cheapest Cost.
and
This
"
(complete)of equal
system
kw.
pricefor
capacity
ers
transform-
and
terminal
line
voltage.
Best Operated. All the star connections
assumed
to have
are
their neutral points grounded, and the generators in each case
"
star-connected
and
either
on
line
one
disabled
by
Least
Potential
strain that
be
can
the result
ground
unit
Strain.
placed
or
is
case
or
phase
one
the
represents
voltage
worst
on
changes
receivingstation
phase relation might
of
have
to
fault.
connections,short-circuits
of open
figured
transformer
one
other
or
This
"
what
matter
no
as
the
burnt-out
Each
grounded.
or
any
formers,
transoccur
tion
combina-
of these.
It is
the
quite evident
best
all round
this system
operated"
for
list,
the
whereas
phase
place
that
reason
with
to
star-delta
It will also
have.
to
second
delta-star
the
system
takes
circuits that
that
of
a
the
be
system
noted
importance in the
ground
on
one
delta-delta
to
is
that
"
best
line shortdelta-delta
about
with
giving the
First.
Second.
as
good
and
equally
only
best
two
able
Star-delta
Fourth.
Star-star
operate
the
delta-delta
and
The
is:
to
Delta-delta
Third.
to
as
transformers.
system
Delta-star
reliable
star-delta.
to
delta-delta.
to
any
combination.
to
any
combination.
furnish
to
delta-delta
rents
three-phase cur-
rightorder
of
importance
76
STATIONARY
consequently
are
connected
star
further
TRANSFORMERS
liable to mechanical
more
disadvantage
delta-
high-voltageside).
high-voltagedelta is that
the
(staron
system
failure than
of the
if it is
to
necessary
phases
is
apparatus
has
star-delta
required
whereas
direct without
grounded
As
or
regards
any
of the
some
connection;therefore
the
delta-star
additional
system
can
be
expense.
switching,the
of
advantages
additional
delta-star
further
of switches
it is found
switches of any
disconnecting or single-pole
each
high- and low-voltage lead. Only two
break
on
instead
of four
per
transformer
are
to
necessary
needed,
the
use
air-
kind
installed
such
switches
remaining two
leads
neutral
to
bus-bar
a
being solidly connected
grounded
direct or through a resistance as thought desirable. Its advantage
in this respect is important on
systems
very high-voltage
where
take
stations
as
an
illustration of this
delta-delta group
of three
delta-star
of
three
star-star
of
three
transformers.
single-phase
Nine
Six
switches
are
required
for
single-phasetransformers.
switches
are
required for
single-phasetransformers.
arranged
that
spare
group
group
former
transsingle-phase
three
formers
single-phasetransof the group,
number
of switches,or
twelve, nine and six respectively.All the switching referred
the neutral
to here
only holds good when
point of the star is
grounded.
There
exist a largevarietyof system connections quite different
from
the
mentioned
For
above.
common
ones
instance, it is
unusual
in one
not
of three singlestation a group
to see
now
phase transformers
operatingin parallelwith two single-phase
in delta and opentransformers, the two groups
being connected
delta respectively. It is well known
that the open-delta system
does
not
to
claim to possess
above
mentioned,
any
but
merits
over
it is oftentimes
any
of the
necessary
common
tems
sys-
to fall back
TRANSFORMATION
THREE-PHASE
this system
on
view
point of
as
stand-by
it becomes
very
in
or
SYSTEM
an
from
and
emergency
useful.
77
in certain
Now,
this
cases
of
station
in those
stations operating
wiring layout, particularly
above
the delta
50,000 volts, it might be only possibleto use
for paralleloperation after considerable
loss of time
connection
rearrangingthe wiring. The wiring layout of a station,however,
that
might be such with respect to the location of transformers
with
unit of
disabled
it would
in
in
paralleland
Iwv
ers
transformothers
of three
group
A"
Iwv
vvv"
(1)
.
ABC
Ivwl
Ua/^
remaining
two
open-delta with
:b
the
connect
in delta-delta
connected
of three
group
possibleto
be
not
lw\^
B'
Ivvvv
(2)
V^/^^
(3)
j^c
Fig.
72.
some
station
bus-bar
p"
connecting
transformers.
the
is
compartments
combination
of
method
distance
located
c'
^.'
Correct
"
b'
a'
and
delta-connected
away.
arranged
that two
to
meet
of delta and
groups
transformers
delta
any
have
already
and
one
open-delta
of open
operating in
group
been
impossibleto get
per
unit when
delta group
just how to
a
to
be
done
an
of
any
more
than
80 per cent,
open-delta group
is
of the normal
output
operatingin parallelwith
transformers, it will be
an
easy
matter
to
and
be done
what
proceed. Just wha.^ can
are
given in Fig. 72 and Fig,73. Supposing
know
ought
groups
78
ST A TIONAR
No.
and
delta
No.
have
operatingin
been
and
respectively
TRANSFORMERS
closed delta and
open-
No. 3 has
of one
just had a burn-out
unit (seeFig. 72), it is quite evident that by connecting the three
shown
be delivered than
as
more
is possible
can
groups
energy
with those connections
shown
in Fig. 73.
In fact, it is possible
deliver
to
more
group
the
A'
U/VSaI
IvvN/nI
b'
bsA/V^
B"
a"
l~
b'
connections
WS'^S^
c'
in
shown
the
A"
I'vA/vJ
a'
with
B'
l/VwJ
transformers
transformers
seven
ABC
tvN/v4
six of the
from
energy
In/n/vJ
b"
c"
iS)
^c"
b"
J
Fig.
73.
"
Wrong
method
of
in
parallel.
the
As
of
art
Single-phase vs. Three-phase Transformers.
transformer
design and manufacture
improves, the three-phase
transformer
is sure
the single-phase
to be as extensivelyused
as
transformer,especiallyso for high voltages;its only disadvantage
being in the case of failure and interruptionof service for repairs,
but this will be offset by other
downs
important features since break"
will be of very
From
the
rare
occurrence.
of the
expense
delta
spare
If
system.
it
damaged
and
standpoint
the
be
can
other
unit would
one
cut
of the
out
be
not
three
with
warranted
as
transformers
minimum
in the delta-
should
amount
become
of trouble
on
operated at normal
temperature
open-delta at approximately 58 per cent, of the total capacity of
the
three.
With
a
a
three-phase transformer
damaged phase
two
can
be
considerable
would
cause
whole
transformer
would
inconvenience
have
to
be
for
the
reason
disconnected
that the
from
the
TRANSFORMATION
THREE-PHASE
of
system before repairs
SYSTEM
79
kind could be
is made.
of any approved apparatus that can
be
of high-voltageline disturbances such
In the absence
take
to
on
care
relied
as
we
transmission lines,
the whole
long-distance
burden
being thrown on the insulation of this important link
of a power
undertaking,the three-phasetransformer
appears
above
be
mentioned
to
as
handicapped. Its break-down
transformer
would
is
entirelyinterruptthe service until a spare
with
its
installed or the faultyone
temporarilyarranged
faultyof the shell-type.The enshort-circuited winding in the case
gineer
who
has the responsibility
of operating large power
systems has not yet taken very favorably to the three-phase
transformer for this very reason, his main objectbeingreliability
of service and not the first cost or saving of floor space.
It has for many
appreciatedby American and
years been
ing
European engineersthat apart from the decrease in manufacturof
size
unit has
cost with increase in
units,the three-phase
the advantage of requiringless material and is more
efficient
of
c
ombination
other
than any
transformers of the
single-phase
kw. capacity. The relative difference in the losses and
same
weightsbeing:
Three single-phase
transformers weigh about 17 per cent, more
than one three-phase.
transformers
have about 17 per cent, more
Three single-phase
losses than one
three-phase.
transformers
two single-phase
Used in open delta,
weigh about
have
the
on
some
same
as
of
our
three
transformers.
single-phase
transformers.
Two
about
transformers
single-phase
have
two
the
sum
weight of
transformers
single-phase
have
about
transformers
single-phase
losses than three single-phase
transformers.
total
5 per
cent,
less
TRANSFORMERS
STATIONARY
80
Two
Where
number
large
transformers
of
cent,
in
less losses
open-delta,
installed
are
in
one
Connected.
Delta
Connected.
Star
each, or
cent,
per
total
100
Three
"
of 33.3
each,
cent,
per
or
total
100
capacity.
kw.
cent.
per
of 33.3
capacity.
kw.
cent.
per
Three
"
Two
of 57.7 per
each,
cent,
or
Open-delta Connected.
115.5
units,173 per
per cent. kw. capacity. (For three
kw. capacity is required.)*
"T"
"Scott":
(Two-Transformer Connection)." One of
of 50 per cent, kw., or total
one
per cent. kw. capacity,and
capacity. (For three units,165.6 per cent.
per cent. kw.
"
capacityis
"T"
50
per
and
delta
is not
the
of any
A
star, and
open-delta and
advantage
"-three
one
Not
of time
amount
"T
always
in
in
and
107.8
kw.
best
combinations
of
the
open-deltaor
a
of
is lost in
from
transformer
service, hence
case
With
connections.
"T"
former
trans-
spare
break-down
of
cutting it
out
are
unit,
of service.
"T"
further
the three
(three-transformer)systems
"T"
warranted,
the minimum
With
that
three-transformer
the
57.7
of
{Three-Transformer Connection)." Three
cent, each, or total 150 per cent. kw. capacity.
this it is evident
From
cent,
required.)*
"Taylor":
maximum
total
three-transformer
"
loss
is,a
spare
methods
unit costs
the "T"-two-transformer
disadvantage.
"
delta,
less than
methods.
TRANSFORMATION
THREE-PHASE
FOR
CONNECTIONS
SYSTEM
THREE-PHASE
GROUNDING
81
SYSTEMS
shown
for grounding threeare
Fig. 74 several methods
phase systems. For (A) and (B) there is a choice between the
ground shown, or the ground at x. For (A) the ground as shown
In
Fig.
represents
and
74.
of
of
difference of
"t~
the
maximum
E, and
"
y^
potentialbetween
for the
ground
ground
at x.
{B),
ground
Method
maximum
line terminal
For
"
to
the
STATIONARY
82
maximum
voltage
voltage between
full
TRANSFORMERS
is
stress
only approximately 87
of
cent,
per
terminals.
of
delta-star
shown
system
at
(c)
have
100 +
ground
The
(0.57X 100)
of
diagrams
well-known
The
two
best
grounding
for
methods
only where
grounding through the
for
The
delta
systems
and
star
grounded
shown
at
B"
and
show
C"
(A')
are
and
(B').
The
be
cannot
connection.
star
shown
systems
as
auxiliaryapparatus
(B")
at
(A') and
For
voltage terminal grounded.
with
the
exception of ground
Both
neutral
of
(C)
their three
and
systems
(C) is used
method
strain from
star-line terminal.
to
two
had
volts maximum
157
and
(C") represent
high-
one
is insulated
the
at
Where
both
neutral
voltage or high voltage or both.
points
the
are
on
grounded, the high-voltage stresses
low-voltage
accidental ground occurs
the high-voltage
an
on
windings when
side is reduced to a minimum, but is of maximum
value
on
tems
sys-
operatingwithout
grounded neutrals.
Single-phase Transformation.
interesting
is given in Fig. 75.
For this service three
transformers
their equivalent
or
single-phase
in
their
(somewhat special
construction)are required,the
magnetizing current
being much
stronger than that used in the
ordinary static transformer in order that the iron may be supersaturated.
This modification
will result not only in satisfactory
Three-phase to
three-phase to single-phasearrangement
transformation
the
of
frequency
With
transformers
secondary windings
e.m.f.
becomes
across
so
times
three
The
A-C;
would
but
transformed
the
under
if the
that
frequency
advantage
connected
constant
an
extension
in
is saturated
e.m.f. is obtained
of
Fig. 75,
the
show
the
no
secondary
having
3f
or
primary.
of this arrangement
and
shown
as
ordinary conditions
iron
of the
lightingis required
The
transformation
current, but
well.
as
three
voltage and
An
"
where
is felt where
and
frequency is
the
of electric traction
arc
on
descent
incan15-25.
railways operating
CHAPTER
THREE-PHASE
of
Most
the
down
put
line
in the
be
their
and
times
those
neutral
grounded
short-circuit
of
until
so
complex
to
as
enon
phenom-
of
most
are
the
troubles
be
damaged
may
in
produce,
stances,
in-
some
voltage.
troubles
that
happen
can
ground
and
transformers,
to
three-phase
short-circuits.
and
grounds
system,
changes
fact
systems
unknown
some
themselves, which
normal
star
the
of
twisted
the
of
or
matter
disastrous
are
disabled
as
transmission
on
resonance,
relations
phase
most
system
a
surges,
DIFFICULTIES
occur
transformers
many
The
which
lines,and
on
might
TRANSFORMER
troubles
to
on
entire
the
phase is
one
any
Witli
a
becomes
group
made.
are
-4000
4000-
"
-4000-
"-4000
-"-4000
ma)
QMJ
^^^"^^Mm\^f^mmxjimm^
-600CO
"
"
-60000^
60000
^60000-^
103557
Fig.
The
76.
of
cent,
per
windings
that
and
move
If
one
circuits
as
to
circuit
and
the
core
star
increase
is
is likewise
and
the
the
ground
is
but
with
voltage
increased,
84
and
cut
out
insulation
in
an
to
The
point
neutral
ungrounded
the
be
as
of
cent,
57.7
the
between
per
between
may
delta.
proportion.
is 57.7
the
of
is limited
core
reduced
voltage
the
and
the
the
connection,
grounded,
ground
and
line, and
the
mains
voltage, with
so
of
the
voltage between
line
windings
between
voltage
short-circuited
transformer
One
"
the
may
system.
other
great
two
as
the
TRANSFORMER
THREE-PHASE
distribution
of the
With
would
employed, would
voltage.
star-delta
system
possibleto
obtain
and
cut
out
3 times
the
of e.m.fs.
on
the
impressed
on
the
transformers,which
should
phase relations
The
originalstar
Fig.
across
X"
are
7=
Fig. 76,
of delta
the
on
normal
of the
one
triangle
vector
or
former
trans-
secondary,
any
voltage
under
the regulation
where
potentialof
full line
77.
"
2300
changed
arrangement
to
an
reversed,the resultant
two
phases. See also
As
in
to
4000
volts,
conditions
be
4000
the
disastrous
represents the
Fig. 7Q A B
primary with
In
transformers.
unequal heating
three-phase system of
prove
shown
as
85
cause
four-wire
were
is short-circuited
it is
if
and
transformers
the
of
unbalancing
Such
DIFFICULTIES
volts.
open
degrees, converting
delta; one
phase is
phase
relations.
to
60
as
e.m.f.beingthe same
vector
diagram. Fig. 77.
that
across
any
each
transformer
is
the
34,600X1732X1732=103,557
volts.
or\/3X\/3X34,600=103,577 volts.
STATIONARY
86
This
is
TRANSFORMERS
77
are:
E.m.fs.
A
very
"nd
A'
and
and
The
4000
volts.
primary
the
be
6000X0.577
be
be 4000X0.577
the
be
line,are:
2300
volts;
2300
volts;
2300
volts.
are:
secondary lines,
60,000X0.577
103,577^2.99
60,000X0.577
in e.m.f.
34,600 volts;
34,600 volts;
34,600
per
cent,
300
per
cent,
173
per
cent,
above
b and
and
"
one
actual
the
173
three
volts.
are:
secondary lines,
above
normal,
above
normal,
ground and
The
any
volts,
be
and
ground.
circuit
and
volts,
that
across
where
of the
neutral
60,000 volts,
It is also found
and
be
increases
between
should
and
103,577 volts,
which
should
should
4000
should
which
and
60,000 volts,
which
4000
" andc
and
should
e.m.fs.
6
volts,
volts,
volts,
which
4000
should
which
The
4000
S'
C and
between
which
B
Aand
the
transformer
the
and
neutral
grounded,
partialground
normal.
on
cause
a
cause
the
currents
to
flow
current
to
flow
through the
line circuit will partiallyshortthrough
the
neutral.
strain between
high-tensionand
low-tension
ings
wind-
is
voltage alone.
If the
neutral
points of
windings are grounded, the
the
iron
THREE-PHASE
TRANSFORMER
87
Fig.
78.
and
are
e.m.fs.,and
Re.sultant
"
balanced
DIFFICULTIES
Fig. 78 represents
phase
connected
star-star
the
the
relations
group
result of
of
improper
delta-delta
of transformers.
delta-delta
and
star-star
mission
together at 120 degrees apart, both transof the same
lines receivingthree-phasecurrents
potential,
and frequency.
phase relations,
The
resultant voltage obtained in attempting to paralleltwo
combination
groups
thrown
of three
e.m.f. between
Star
The
transformers
any
=
two
(57.7X
combination
line
1.732
shown
star
is
connected
\/^
times
the
wires,or
100) X (1.732)
in
transformers
(threesingle-phase
173.2 volts.
Fig. 79 represents
in each
four
group) connected
groups
to
one
three-phasecurrent from
the primary
of supply and is so tied in on
independent source
to involve
and secondary busbars
as
a
partialshort-circuit.
is more
In common
often likelyto
practicethis combination
set
of busbars.
happen
on
Each
group
receives
all transformers
in
STATIONARY
88
groups
are
tied together
noticed,any
be
attempt
windings and
parallelwill produce
Fig.
79.
all
a
Representation
"
TRANSFORMERS
on
primaries and
to
connect
80
to
B.
"
to
delta-star
change
the
system
with
of each
As
wih
all
mary
pri-
group
in
short-circuit.
of
complete
delta-star
combination
group
Graphic illustration
delta-delta
of two
With
and
windings
secondary
delta-star transformer
Figs.
such
secondaries.
delta-delta
and
connections.
of e.m.fs. and
connected
of
groups
phase displacement
of transformers.
sible
presupposed paralleloperation it is imposfield
the
to
correct
magnetic
phase displacement
TRANSFORMER
THREE-PHASE
DIFFICULTIES
89
of generators which
in the case
though it is possible
for permitting the 30 degrees electrical displaceare
ment
necessary
to be corrected by a mechanical
twistingof the phases with
it is
respect to their magnetic fields; but with transformers
impossible.
The
phase displacements show a star connection introduced in
which
the relative e.m.f. positionsare
changed by an angle 30
the line potentialto be
degrees. If, for example, we assume
in
shown
the groups
as
60,000 volts,and we attempt to connect
diagram, the result will be voltages as high as 116,000.
which
Fig.
81.
occurs,
E.m.fs.
"
and
phase relation
group
The
delta-delta
to delta-star
connected
of transformers.
separately in Figs.80
of
and
shown
84,840 volts,which
should
be
volts,which
volts,which
volts,which
should
be
=60,000
should
be
=60,000
should
be
=60,000
B"
to
B''
to
=116,000
A"
to
=116,000
A''
to
=116,000
A'
toB
81.
by this experiment,are
They are correctly:
=
84,840 volts,which
should
be
=60,000
31,000 volts,which
should
be
=60,000
A'
to
to
=116,000
volts,which
should
be
=60,000
to
=116,000
volts,which
should
be
=60,000
to
84,840 volts,which
should
be
=60,000
B'"
to
31,000
volts,which
should
be
B"'
to
31,000 volts,which
should
be
A'"
to
31,000 volts,which
should
be
A"'
to
84,840 volts,which
should
be
fact not
certain
very
well
primary
followingcombinations
=60,000
=
=60,000
is the impossibility
of parallelrecognized,
ing
and
can
The
ST A TIONARY
90
Delta-star
Star-star
with
group
with
group
Delta-delta
TRANSFORMERS
delta-star.
star-star.
with
group
delta-delta.
Star-delta
group
with
star-delta.
Delta-star
group
with
star-delta.
Star-star
Fig.
82.
"
with
group
delta-delta.
^Practical representation of
group
These
primary
delta-star
to
necessitate
combinations
delta-star
ratios of
delta-delta
connected
of transformers.
and
changing
secondary turns,
Delta-star
is
constant
of VS
Star-delta
is
constant
of
=1.733
=0.577
"
;=
former
trans-
as:
1.
to
1.
to
\/3
needed
standard
the
star-delta
or
transformation
secondary side
connected
are
secondary
primary
to
transformers,
turns
in order
and
to
"=
1^
and
when
two
delta-star;the
Delta-star
duce
pro-
ratios.
of transformers
delta-delta
are
to
As
on
of
or
star-star
more
groups
having
delta-delta
ratio of 1 to
0.577;
ratio
with
occur
or
to
any
1,
or
\/3
any
ratio.
1
.
Delta-delta,ratio
1 to
1, with
star-star
ratio
~;Eto 1, or
vo
ratio.
any
92
STATIONARY
in each
of the
sum
will not
in
be
of the
the
carry
the
same
current
the
current
in the
cent,
greater than
of full-load
in
will
sum
the
equal
Whatever
^"N^^
j^S.^^
other, and
thus
there will
scheme
^"^^
f^
\a a\
\oc\
c\
83.
is decided
of transformers
it will
system
of
systems
100
Quite
two
groups
parallel at
all
transformers,both
times.
Assuming the
of
in delta-delta
and
one
becomes
damaged, it might
least
of the
one
greater than
80
other
cent,
per
open-delta
It is not
on
connections
generally
one
can
combinations,
of
as
to
in
shown
known
that
changed
such
as
0, 30, 60,
and
those
90
high-
numerous.
with
sub-stations
of
load
to
groups
load
be
in
nected
con-
is great, that
If the
out.
be
of the
one
rating it will
at
is not
possible
delta
group
Fig. 83.
there
are
star-connected
transformer
be
cut
of their total
ordinary circumstances
the
be
must
group
larger
of
transformers
if the
if
being operated
groups
transformer
mean,
of the
networks
are
given
scheme
that
some
distance
have
of systems
for
on
to
where
over
sub-stations
lines and
number
and
megawatts
transmission
voltage
phase
each
current,
the
cases,
Vv"^AA_,_/y/VAA'V^
Fig.
with
will
if,in addition,
in both
same
If,
l^'V^V.
"
under
the
perfectparalleloperation.
^AAAAJ
only
unit
both
same,
phase with
load
in each
line current.
the
current; and
is the
With
line,therefore
is the
units
the
of
units will be
two
their numerical
exist
line current.
phase with
will be
line,also the
the
the
per
in the
as
reactance
current
in the
current
to
impedance
same
the
of resistance
currents
the
however,
will be the
currents
unequal ratios
sum
TRANSFORMERS
about
shown
to
in
sixteen
group,
different
and
obtain
several
84
giving
Fig.
degrees (electrical).
that
nections
con-
these
parallel
the
time-
TRANSFORMER
THREE-PHASE
Primary
Conaection
DIFFICULTIES
of
Secondary
With
Transformers
In
Connection
Transformers
Phase
^^
60
degrees
out
of
phase
bt--
30
^
Y
X
"
degrees
out
of
phase
90
degrees
out
of
phase
Fig.
84.
93
of
ST A TIONA
94
includingthe straightstar
Not
different groups
same
group
internal
voltage windings.
troubles
The
(a) Puncturing
the
to
the
different
of
a
special
transformers.
strain
maximum
on
low
(Neutrals non-grounded.)
be classified
can
to
of
"
belonging
parallel,while if
is possible without
less than
no
are
in
connections
with
connection
delta
transformers
that
connected
of the
or
we
parallel connection
rearrangement
85.
to zero,
such
be
can
no
groups,
Fig.
NSFORMERS
TRA
R Y
formers
high-voltagetrans-
as:
of the
insulation
between
adjacent
turns
due
etc.
surges,
duo
to
switching on
and
off very
heavy
loads.
(c) Terminals
other
leads),due
There
are
some
of
puncture
to
(transformer insulator
either (a) or
large number
them being :
of
bushing and
(b) or both.
causes
for
transformer
layersand
turns.
downs,
break-
TRANSFORMER
THREE-PHASE
DIFFICULTIES
too
(4) Electrostatic
effect between
(5) Condenser
ground
capacityof
95
the end-turns.
great.
and
coils,
between
high.
windingsand
high.
too
after
(7) For
coil
of
want
(8) Concentrated
choke
construction.
in
condensers
in series.
reactance
or
parallelwith
transformer
windings.
-EB
W-E-^E-
Un^'V^V/^
^vA^N^
t'-N/S^.^
rrv^:^^^:^
"El
-Ey
"
Fig.
86.
(9) Two
"
^^e-
"E^A^JJ,
or
more
of the above
in connection
with concentrated
condensers.
(12) Improper
(13) Oil
not
treatment
of the
oil.
stopped.
(16) Breathing action
of
stopped.
cooling medium
installed
protective
(17)
Improperly
(18)
High
(19)
Defective
(20)
Variation
in
speed
(21)
Variation
in
generator
(22)
Roasting
(23)
Puncturing
(24)
When
and
winds
in
conductors
oscillation.
prime-movers.
or
of
generators.
voltage.
over-load.
constant
terminals.
transformer
of
and
85,
voltage
connected
are
having
bus-bars
and
86,
generating
to
total
given;
stations
capacity
kw.
of
the
other
grounded
many
strains
the
by
difficulties
subjected
to
at
in
the
conditions
for
windings
both
which
generating
high-
These
receiving-station
to
those
stations.
delta-delta
and
usually
the
system
and
grounded,
relations.
vector
showing
the
low-voltage
maximum
approximate
addition
high-
operation
of
system
one
with
system
The
shown
greater
transformers
low-voltage
grounded.
are
other
of
delta-delta
windings
conductor,
in
break-downs
delta-delta
live
point
neutral
for
insulated
an
for
causes
different
Three
for
one
other
show
87
transformers.
effects
with
by
live
bring
governors
apparatus.
greater.
Figs.
are
which
transformers
systems
times
are
TRANSFORMERS
STATIONARY
96
potential
serve
show
to
transformers
impressed
on
the
VI
CHAPTER
AND
SYSTEMS
TWO-PHASE
THREE-PHASE
TRANSFORMATION
With
have
two
primaries
three-phase
For
versa.
single-phase
three
or
less copper
system
is
the
line
for
than
l/N/vvJ
Uy^(\ri
of
adopted
universally
either
power
because
it
or
to
vice
or
electric
single-phase
the
possible
secondaries,
two-phase
transmission
long-distance
three-phase
with
it is
transformers
the
requires
the
two-
U./"^saI
i^'iddc
kiac
't
-r
-Ey-
Fig.
87.
"
This
shows
the
effect
of
phase systems
line
loss, and
offers
In
with
certain
applied
to
Fig.
7
given
advantages
local
88
transmit
to
distribution
is shown
the
grounding
both
the
in
minimum
voltage
given
amount
of power
line
voltage.
the
over
of electric
well
known
97
The
high-
and
low-
strain.
with
two-phase
three-phase
given
system
system
when
power.
three-phase
three-wire
to
ST A TIONARY
98
two-phase four-wire
is necessary
that
1 ratio and
Fig.
One
the
to
which
transformation.
The
"
Two
in this arrangement,
the other
88.
TRANSFORMERS
10 to 0.866.
three-phasetwo-phase
or
one
10
transformers
of which
are
has
all
10 to
to^.
connection*
(Scott system).
is connected
wire,6, of the 10 to 0.866-ratio transformer
middle point of the 10 to 1 ratio transformer, the ends of
connected
are
-1732
to
""
"
of the
two
"
three-phase mains,
d, the
c;
^1732
-1733
"-iooo-^
wooo
-1000
W[JW
!!!4 ^'H
-100-
100-
Fig.
end
89.
of the
"
Three-phase to two-phase
other
transformer
star-connected
is connected
to
the
transformers.
remaining wire
three-phase mains.
It is customary
for
to employ standard
transformers
transformer
the main
phase two-phase transformation,
of the
ratio of 10 to 1, and
*
Patent
No.
521051, June
the
other
5th, 1894.
transformer
the
three-
having
ratio of 9 to 1.
STATIONARY
100
It is evident
is
in
shown
as
trifle over
TRANSFORMERS
degrees; since
90
that
Fig. 90
the
the
two-phase relation
angle, 6
b"
degrees is equal
to
and
b b'
x, is
V3
degrees,and
60
the
angles, b
40.67) + (" a
0.866. the
V3
of the
tangent
sine of 60
a;
and
b ax,
equal
c, must
(a 6
40.67)+
90
degrees,nearly.
approximate voltage obtained
-^^=0.866.
degrees nearly.
is 0.866
tangent
likewise
are
is
an
angle
98.66) =40.67
of 40.67
+ 40.67 +
180
The
between
6 and
fea
is 133
volts.
Fig.
91.
With
Three-phase
"
two
or
transformers
with
are
distinct
phase
three-phase and
shown
in Fig. 91 only
arrangement
The two primary windings are
nected
con-
the
In
used.
ratio of transformation
ratio of 0.866
transformer
to
are
1.
connected
One
of
primary
The
b represents the
At
and
Patent
right angles to
809996,
January
6 the
16th, 1906.
The
1.
other
with
first.
quantity,the voltage,x
No.
to
is wound
transformer
and
the
to
10
of
secondary windings, respectively,
a
from
of
currents
three-phase mains.
the
to
it is possibleto transform
transformers
more
three-phase to two
two-phase systems.
two
to
to
to
6 in
one
former.
trans-
tion
line,x c',represents in direcc',of the second transformer.
SYSTEMS
TWO-PHASE
THREE-PHASE
101
At
current.
phase
-1000-
-1000-1000
UftMiKMiU
U51AMM5J
\'
z
X
-100-
hco" J
""
-ico-ico
FiG. 92.
"
It also follows
Three-phase
"T"
to
two-phase four-wire.
b and
c',two equal
by 90 degrees,
from
the other
voltages will exist,each differing
and giving rise to a two-phase current.
As will be noted, the
-1000-
-1000-1000-
npsm
m\
-100-
-8676-
-100-
-100-
B'
Fig.
93.
"
Three-phase
The
"V"
or
delta to
three-phasetwo-phase (Taylorsystem).
voltages obtained
between
open
in
the
STATIONARY
102
combination
Another
in
93.
Fig.
in
similar
somewhat
open-delta.
the
to
of the
primary windings
The
connected
in such
TRANSFORMERS
above
transformers
two
secondary windings
The
are
connected
are
distinct
circuits
of
86.6
and
the
x, the
three
The
also
B'
and
94.
Three-phase
"
in
shown
from
currents
operate both
to
shown
connected
middle
cent,
per
of those
of
four- wire
one
writer,
the
three-phase electric
of distribution;and
and
two-phase
system
parallelcircuit
in
of the
connected
in
delta, and
in delta.
distribution
The
used.
are
the
on
said four-
cent,
per
distribution
windings, 2a
Patent
No.
of the
length
line,9, tapped
and
869595,
3a;
October
from
on
the
distribution
29th, 1907.
one
windings
line,7, tapped
distribution
end
ings
primary wind-
secondary
\/3
B,
to
single-phasetransformers
are
-"
A'
A'
system.
Three
at
currents
,
will be 86.6
independent systems
operate
also
two-phase
delta
translatingdevices,on
wire
to
phase.
employed
to
three-phase
e.m.fs.
two-phase
method
Fig.
complete the
secondary.
By this
out
two-phase
it is possibleto obtain
and
brought
are
and
three-phase
A'
two
cent,
per
of connection
method
from
to
as
and
cent,
per
give
is shown
of the
connection
at
the
line,8, tapped
"
wmdmg,
the
between
line,10, tapped
3a;
at
-"-
end
per
TWO-PHASE
THREE-PHASE
length
of the
cent,
connected
means
three-phase
from
said
on
of
the end
SYSTEMS
windhig la,
103
and
lines both
distribution
translating
for
and
two-
on.
formers.
secondary windings of said transThe
secondary winding, la, is tapped at D, which is
also
about
86.6 per cent, of its length,by the line,
10; which serves
and three-phase circuits.
the twoas
a leg for both
At
la,
and
2a
3a
are
the
winding, 3a,
length from
is
tapped
end,
one
at
approximately 86.6
about
the point,B, by
at
per
a
of
cent,
line,8, to
its
serve
ft^
i
^
Fig.
95.
Three-phase
"
to
two-phase, giving
86
per
standard
cent,
former
trans-
taps.
one
as
the
windings
which
serves
another
as
connected
shown
are
leg
for
both
in
two-
the
series
and
circuit,
three-phase
circuits.
The
arrangement
apparatus
the
aid
consists
of
in
of
nous
accomplishes the operatingof non-synchrothree-phase design without
The
operation
split-phasedevices.
two-phase
transformers
or
and
in the
^TA
104
TIONA
NSFORMERS
TRA
R Y
EV3-
"
"
"
"
^^A/wJ
IAAW\
AAA
c^
e'
"
"
Fig.
at
and
in
circuits.
The
parallelwith
96.
the
two-
two-phase windings
and
used
on
three-phase
the
motors
current
must
be
J9
1000
-1000-1000-
WSAAA
sA/yw/s
-1000
-1000-
"
"
d
Fig.
independent
operate
A
on
as
the
interconnected
97.
type
of
winding
would
not
this system,
is shown
in
Fig. 98.
TWO-PHASE
THREE-PHASE
105
this connection
objectionto
The
SYSTEMS
a
voltages and phase relations of the three-phase when
single-phaseload is put on one of the phases. To obviate this to
be necessary
it would
to give the three-phase voltage
extent
some
relative
The
slightdistortion.
load
when
a single-phase
98, it having
the
effect
appliedbetween
point a'.
b-c
is
voltages and
unbalanced
is
phase relation
in Fig.
vector
appliedis shown
by the
of twistingthe phase relation when
shown
from
a symmetrical point as
load
at the
-1000-
-1000
"
"-
1000
"
"
Vv/VwJ
\AA/v/W
/S^V^
/S^"s.^
-100-
-100a
-100-
FiG.
98.
Three-phase
"
to
single-pha.se.
-1000-
-1000-
-1000-
-^50oH*-eoo-*
iMKMmJ
fToooD"!
nmm
-100-
100-141-
FiG.
It
and
is
99.
"
Another
possibleto
transform
All that
them
is necessary
their connections
are
three-phasesingle-phasesecondary operation.
take
from
three-phase system
(seeFig. 99).
single-phasecurrent
currents
into
is to
identical
three-phase transformation,
two
arrange
transformers
so
that
ordinary two-phase to
only difference being in the
with
the
the
TRANSFORMERS
STATIONARY
106
the
in series for
connected
components
half of the
winding
differ in
phase by
90
"Taylor*
v:
"
"Meyer'
"Scott"
Steinmetz
'
T7
/
Fig.
Two-phase
Transformer
Resultant
Resultant
degrees.
100.
windings.
transformer
windings.
"
two-phase voltages.
three-phase voltages.
However,
when
the
secondary
circuits
are
connected
of one
currents
these two component
are
phase.
series,
connections
The maj orityof three-phasetwo-phase transformer
This is particuemployed are for temporary or specialpurposes.
in
FiG.
101.
"
Combination
of systems
given
in
Fig.
100.
STATIONARY
108
single-phase
and
With
the
use
the
Fig.
using
of
can
winding
is
is
(g)
others
equal
two
connection
and
with
which
are
than
transformer
parts
former
trans-
one
open-delta
single-phase
other
made.
into
cut
ordinary
the
two-phase
be
star
an
(a)
three
transformers
three-phase
104
of
all
transformers,
the
in
(g)
exception
combinations
design,
(/)
reversed,
single-phase
shown
shown.
as
winding
By
with
transformers
connected
phase
TRANSFORMERS
tion.
connec-
consist
of
three-phase
two
two-
transformers.
standard
ratios
combinations
and
VII
CHAPTER
In
SIX-PHASE
TRANSFORMATION
transforming
from
different
ways
namely,
diametrical
double
of
primaries
the
voltage that
Fig.
104.
be
may
voltage.
connected
in tee.
may
the
be
with
winding,
double-star
coils
or
are
or
to
In
diametrical
used
double
winding
Three-phase
"
one
will
two-phase
the
last
central
may
double-delta
for
first three
case,
three
tap
from
be
six
the
to
obtain
primary
single-phase
each
to
required
tops.
windings
are
transformers
ary
second-
coils.
For
independent
transformer
secondary
two
cases
delta, according
or
or
point;
neutral
connection
each
star
the
four
are
transformers:
fixed
In
tee.
stand,
there
of the
the
either
connection
there
required
without
or
connected
each
six-phase
to
secondaries
the
delta; and
secondary
For
^with
"
star; double
the
three-phase
connecting
OPERATION
AND
set
the
ary
secondare
all
TRANSFORMERS
STATIONARY
110
first set.
in a similar manner
to the
reversed, then connected
Hence, the phase displacement is shifted 180 degrees.
the double-tee
connection
For
two
single-phasetransformers
of which
required,one
are
0.866,
to
There
10
or
to
0.866
of 60
degrees;
from
the
the
105.
each
transformer
e.m.f.
1 ratio and
",
For
a,
b',X
For
double-tee
c,
two
beginsin
the current
to
coils
relation.
the
double
connections
double-tee
and
phase
for
Hence,
reverse.
delta
and
e.m.fs.
before
direction,
one
star,
if the
ends
are
of
electrical degrees.
c'
as
,
graphically
connection
they
connection:
etc.,is
double-delta
xa,
10
phase displacements
electrical degrees
through
for
h' c,
180
move
double-star
For
other
ratios,and
to
and c
a a',hh'
instance,the e.m.fs.,
explained in Figs. 106 and 107, for a diametrical
are
equal io 2 a x, 2 h x, 2 c x, etc.
Take,
the
coils with
are
Six-phase diametrical
"
double
diametrical,
of the
there
coil must
begins
current
to
ratios.
positionwhere
Fig.
10
ratio.
six-phasecircuits
In
the
two
are
giving 10
to
has
3 times
a,
h'
x
,
c, etc.
connection:
etc., is "7-
=0.577
connection:
per
cent,
of
h' h" c,
,
a, etc.
AND
TRANSFORMATION
SIX-PHASE
OPERATION
111
than a' y, or a z.
b'," c, c a, etc.,is 13.3 per cent, more
between
e.m.fs. in Fig.
of relationship
The
general statement
that if the value of a a',etc.,is represented
demonstrate
106 may
of a' h, etc.,are
the values
of a circle,
repreby the diameter
a
Fig.
106.
"
the
sented
the
values
same
of
6, etc., are
circle.
|" 1000"^
1000
"=
"" "
"
looo
"
(VS^
nnnjTi
100
"
-100-
-100-
-60-
-50-
-50"^
Fig.
then
six
107.
"
Six-phase diametrical
secondary coils
in
secondaries
are
needed,
Fig. 107.
The
or
connection.
three
coils with
diametrical
center
connection
of
STATIONARY
112
whereas
necessary;
secondary wires
such
"
for each
transformer.
secondary wires
two
to the armature
apart
the
double-star,double-delta,and double-tee
require two
secondary coils,and therefore four
connections
The
TRANSFORMERS
winding
as
shown
of
at
from
each
rotary
a'
connection
c
,
c' ;
much
are
connected
are
converter
b h'
,
transformer
at
others.
A
secondary diametrical
for induction-motor
be used
service to start
-1000-
Fig.
108.
and
sufficient
when
of service.
this
with
The
-1000
with
connection
for
motor
the
is shown
in
connection,which
is made
equal
That
3.
is
equal
obtain
to
to
one
e.m.f.
By
cut
out
of
means
introduction
of
obtained, giving a
secondary winding times
may
of each
be
may
Fig. 108.
the
in
converters.
be
50X\/3=86.6
Similar ends
on
half the
motor
through
used
five-pointswitch
starting synchronous
speed is obtained
arrangement
may
-1000-
Six-phase diametrical
"
connection
connection
volts.
of the three
side of the
windings
five-poleswitch.
are
The
connected
three
to three
wires
on
points
the other
SIX-PHASE
TRANSFORMATION
AND
are
OPERATION
113
service. The
three-phasemotor
the
two
that
made
so
when
is closed
switch
the
are
star-connection
is
obtained.
With
the
shown
in
is that
in
double-star
of
arrangement
secondary windings,
to a given
Fig. 109, a rotary
may
three of the six secondary coils,
be connected
or
one
rotary may
to the six secondary coils. The
disadvantageof star connection
continue
case
109.
differs from
each transformer
for the
It is
double
"
-^
to
out, it is not possible
"
connection.
six-phasetransformation
that
of
is shown
Fig.
point of
neutral point
combination.
practiceto
wire,direct-current
in
common
"
^1000
"
Six-phasedouble-star
"
for
arrangement
10,which
1000
-*p--
"
Fig.
is burned
transformer
one
running.
"1000
An
be connected
converter
system
to
the neutral
connect
the
point
neutral
of the
star
connection.
It may
be
transformer
relation to
seen
or
certain
ends
of any
primary
coil
are
two
at
coils
any
coils of the
same
bearing the
same
instant of the
same
polarity.
The
double-delta
of circuit.
8
114
TRANSFORMERS
STATIONARY
set of the
One
ordinary way,
then
but
be
can
in
from
similar
the
second
set
that
two
reversed
are
and
it is desired to connect
case
in delta in the
manner.
Fig. Ill
from
seen
and
made,
the
in
connected
It
are
three
six
the
leads,ab
c-
six-phase rotary
to the proper
rings.
The double-tee
connection
requiresonly two transformers,and
far'as concerns
the cost of the equipment and the efficiency
in
to
converter
it is necessary
that
each
be connected
so
-1000
-1000
"
"
UMMiU
nyn
n^
"-50-H
UMMiU
-50
n)Fi
"^50-
-50-
nJFi
cw\
-50-
-50-
'V
"
-501^
VJ-
-100
"
"
UM^
nnn
"^-M
"
-1000
"
"
-100
"
-50
-100-
"
"S^
-50
vF-
-50F3=-50VsP-
110.
FiG.
Six-phasedouble-star
"
with
one
secondary
windings.
operation
delta
transformers
connections.
star
or
tee-connected
two
This connection
are
can
preferableto
be used
the
form
to trans-
and from
two-phase to six-phase,
three-phase to six-phase.
It is worthy of note that the transformer
with the 86.6 per cent,
winding need not necessarilybe designed for exactly 86.6 per
cent,
of
of the
one
can
e.m.f.
of the
be 90 per
cent,
other
of the
voltage
transformer; the normal
mental
other,without producing detri-
results.
Fig.
112
for
transforming from
Another
method
interesting
or
two-phase
to
or
star
of
six-phase is shown
connections.
ti'ansformingfrom three-phase
The
in Fig. 113.
transtwo
TRANSFORMERS
STATIONARY
116
connections
have
would
rotary
be
may
a
value
The
used.
equal
to the
three-phase
full
e.m.f.
obtained
for the
converter.
a'
B'
-1000-
-1000-
-This
wire
for
three-phase
JiMfiikilQ. \smmmj
-u
\mEm
"
Neutral
wire
Tnnnjwrsr-,
'n
.j^
Three-phase
-100-
Motor
-100-
Fig.
113."
Six-phase
from
three-phase
two-phase.
or
Double-delta
Delta
'1
Fig.
Fig.
use
at
114."
114
the
General
shows
group
all the
present
time.
of
six-phase transformer
six-phase transformer
combinations.
combinations
in
VIII
CHAPTER
Small
METHODS
OF
transformers
do
The
transformers.
transformers.
by
forced
current
Transformers
cooled
by
forced
current
Transformers
cooled
by
Transformers
cooled
by
cooling, the
forced
do
Oil
Transformers.
least
per
cent,
at
60
being
immersed
these
transformers
be
cases
oil
of the
is reduced
it will
in
liable
to
been
destroyed.
purpose
of the
made
thin
of
in
slight blow
again,
unless
metal
obtaining
transportation
is sufficient
to
117
for
the
heat.
the
insulating material
other
be
result
the
of
is
explosion
an
electric
plants have
radiating surface,
of many
cast
if oil is punctured
hand
case
necessary
cause
of
escape
less
the
with
in many
oil, and
this way
not
are
coils
and
core
inflow
which
or
employed
gained by immersing
In
steel
cooling.
can
transformers
corrugated
is
the
puncture
in
fire started.
tanks
the
the
transformer,
of
for
upon
of
introduce
On
are
special means
any
of
the
upon
etc.
large self-cooled
steel
handled
the
or
occur,
the
mica,
in
close
short-circuit
tanks
depend
and
the
by
kind
punctures
means
by ojfifering
itself,and, therefore,
cambric
as
For
repaired
manufacturers
Many
Insulation
oil,are:
this
of
in use,
advantages
two
means.
^This arrangement
"
The
immediately
temperature
such
in
require
not
of transformers
in oil.
of above
being depended
Self-cooling
for
of oil.
^Transformers
"
radiation
natural
of water.
combination
some
and
output,
air.
of
current
Transformer.
Dry
small
some
are:
cooled
of
losses.
radiation;
by natural
Transformers
usually
since
provided.
be
methods
Self-cooling oil-filled
Self-cooling
their
with
compared
cool
keep
must
cooling
Self-cooling dry
are
surface
will not
transformers
Large
TRANSFORMERS
not
large radiating
have
they
COOLING
manufacturers
iron.
sufficiently strong
the
transformers
the
oil to
leak
thin
The
to
in
at
the
be
rugated
cor-
safely
them.
soldered
TRANSFORMERS
STATIONARY
118
the
between
different sheets
the
between
seams
sides.
of thin
cast-iron
The
case
best,and the most suitable for oil transformers; the great strength
insure the safe transportationof
and stabilityof cast-iron cases
the
transformer.
distribution of heat
an
even
coils,and in the iron. These secure
and
throughout the transformer,
a
uniformity of temperature
be secured
results which
can
only by a free internal circulation
of oil.
Without
reach
an
external
this may
of the coils.
lead
transformers
number
The
planned
are
Such
cooled.
speedy destruction
and
all
keep
to
to the
ducts
parts
of the
or
ventilatingducts
about
transformer
available
necessarilyuse
of a given efficiency
more
much
lation
insu-
of the
evenly
and
space
transformer
cent,
loss
transformer
resist
there is
efficiency
as
heat, it
appears
temperature
to 3000
in the
must
is
kv-a
capacity and
blast) where
It
is
or
is not
minimum
requiresa
auxiliary apparatus
or
solved
in this type
was
radiate
the
heat
art
in demand
more
water
of the
one
This
of transformers.
manufacture
type will be
represents
now
made
of the
best
of transformer
than
the
in sizes
advances
a
very
manufacture.
(air-
air-cooled type
available,is expensiveor
amount
the
or
design is
new
this
Since
of 7.0 kw.
disposed of in some
way
will rise until it becomes
dangerously high.
important development
This
The
up
to
of
attention
not
cient.
suffi-
and
generated
and
keep
the
temperature
no
be
to
rise within
limits.
certain
The
total
corrugationsdepends
the
radiated
watts
of heat
amount
the
it,but
with
it is broken
as
defined
well
as
the
on
is found
as
be
to
come
is
corrugations,the efficiency
into
up
oil
into
up
be
plain surface
both
as
broken
efficiencywhich may
inch of surface,as
radiated.
be
to
efficient
most
square
119
of surface
amount
its
on
per
TRANSFORMERS
COOLING
OF
METHODS
modern
self-cooled type is proslightly. The most
vided
with auxiliarypipesor radiators whereby the actual surface
time the
and
be greatly increased
at the same
of the tank
can
radiatingefficiencyof the surface kept very high. The method
of cooling consists essentiallyof fittingthe outside of a plain
decreased
cast-iron
top and
ends
by making
the
near
surface
in both
the
as
that
would
to
of
times,while
increased
be
the
of
same
cooling.
For
this
or
one-fourth
limits it is
proper
that
area
comparison it is
size of the
greater than
the
about
heating within
increase
much
40
this method
the
keep
for
and
only
losses. From
in order
capacity,and
capacity. Now, if the
kv-a
4000-^100
considerablyto
necessary
widely
kv-a
100
copper
increased
of radiation
much
of
transformers
two
obtained
be best
can
losses
has
will be
losses
of 4000
one
obtain
transformer
transformer
small
large transformer
densities
the
near
capacities.
for
Assume
the tank
enter
bottom.
rough comparison of
different kv-a
seen
of which
ends
upper
vertically
of
number
An
as
with
plain boiler-platetank
or
of
transformer,
a
transformer
self-cooled
reason
in
generally manufactured
For sizes up to about 500 kv-a, the tank
sizes above
2000
kv-a.
is singlecorrugated and above
this size compound
corrugations
used
obtain
the
to
surface.
radiating
are
necessary
Hot
air tends
flow
to
upward, so that, in providing for
station ventilation,it is essential that the inlet of the cool air
should
the
be
inflow
transformers
low
down
and
not
of
outflow
and
are
being
well
the
roof,
about
the
near
distributed
station.
Self-cooled
oil-insulated
The
darkening
of the
or
transformers
first indication
oil and
of
of increased
slightdepositon
be
will be
temperature will be
the
inside surfaces
120
STATIONARY
of the
transformer.
TRANSFORMERS
this
Once
is quickened because
from
the
In this type
deposit begins to
of the decreased
form
the
of
efficiency
ency
tend-
heat
pation
dissi-
transformer.
of transformer
the
is
transformer
which
over
convenient, the
more
the
is
transformer
blower
be
may
if it is
located,or
located
at
distance
the
station,and
the
transformers
air
an
usually spaced above
is maintained
chamber, in which a pressure
slightlyabove that
air for cooling the iron passes from
of the surrounding air. The
the lower housing selected to suit the transformer
capacity. When
the efficiency
of an air-blast transformer
is known, an approximate
of air required can
estimate of the amount
be made
by allowing
150
cu.
minute
are
kilowatt
for each
satisfactory
operation,the velocity of
should
be
minute.
should
volume
by
500.
as
low
That
as
possible,and
is,the
should
cross-section
air to the
air in the
never
exceed
least be
transformers
is
so
small
to only
amounting in most cases
capacity of the transformers.
as
a
to
For
the
of the
at
lost.
the
most
chamber
500
ft. per
in square
feet
representing the
total
chamber
the
the
be
fraction
transformer, divided
blower
for furnishing
practicallynegligible,
of 1 per
cent,
of the
delta
three-phase, air-blast shell-type
transformer,when
formers
advantage as three single-phasetransconnected, has the same
total rating that is,by disconnecting and
of the same
former
both windings of a defective phase, the transshort-circuiting
be operated temporarilyat two-thirds,or thereabout,
can
of the total capacity from
the two
remaining windings.
transformers
cooled
of
Coming under this heading
by forced
The
METHODS
of
current
air,there exist
cooled
those
and
through
in the
ducts
air-cooled
forced
The
been
of the
directlybetween
tank,
coils,
the
transformer
the former
be
may
for
largeor
or
sizes.
moderate
has
question of air-blast against oil-cooled transformers
settled in practicelong ago in favor of the oil-cooled type.
of the
Some
due
the outside
on
formers
trans-
laminations.
core
air-blast
an
air is forced
the
121
methods, viz.,oil-insulated
two
of
means
in which
and
The
by
TRANSFORMERS
COOLING
OF
to
chief
advantages claimed
of the oil round
the presence
the
additional
the
are
windings,and
the
safety
sion
exclu-
of air and
forced
current
of the
out-goingair compared
with
the
sufficient
in-goingair is the best indication whether
passingthrough the transformers, but in general,and on the
the
of 25"
C,
the
incoming
the
the
results
best
air is not
temperature
of the
obtained
are
greater than
surrounding
the
transformer
when
the
this value.
air
or
air is
basis
or
of
temperature
Depending
entering air,the
greater
of
temperature
smaller
as
on
going
out-
the
case
be.
The
must
be
impervious
have
moisture,and must
superiorstrength and durability.
It must
also permit the ready discharge of the heat generated
in the windings,as otherwise the transformer
temperature
may
reach a value high enough to endanger the life of the insulation.
In building such
dried
the coils are
a
moisture-proofinsulation,
to
at
temperature
the
boilingpoint
of
water, by
vacuum
all moisture.
After
ment
treata
thoroughly removes
with a specialinsulatingmaterial,
they are placed in drying
the insulatingcoating becomes
where
hard and
strong.
process
ovens,
above
which
the coils
taped with
the
same
are
thickness
an
of the best
insulatingoil.
122
STATIONARY
Transformers
TRANSFORMERS
Cooled
This type
by Forced Current of Water.
of transformer
is usually called
water-cooled."
oil-insulated,
Inside the cast-iron tank and extending below the surface of the
brass tubing through which
the
oil,are coils usually of seamless
circulates.
coils are
These
furnished
with valves
cooling water
flow
of water, and
for regulating the
the proper
adjustment
been
the
transformer
will run
having once
indefinitely
made,
Another
method
of cooling is by
with practicallyno attention.
drawing off the oil,
coolingit,and pumping it back, the operation
In the design of oil-insulated,
water-cooled
being continuous.
transformers, interior ventilation is provided by oil passages
the coils,
and in the iron.
These
bution
distribetween
secure
an
even
of heat and
a uniformity of temperature
throughout the
"
"
Without
transformer.
large size
of that
internal
an
external
of the
of
means
reach
may
securing the
oil
good
greatly in
temperature
in contact
surface
of
circulation,transformers
with
the
excess
oil.
As
best
as
advantage inasmuch
and secondary windings. It effects great economy
of space, and
freedom
deterioration
from
its fluidity and
greatly assist in
insulation.
Its
solving the difficult problems of transformer
into play with remarkable
good qualitiescome
advantage in
building high-potentialtransformers.
standing
Water-cooling coils are made of seamless tubing capable of witha
Transformers
cooled
Cooled
by this
the oil.
The
the
the
outside
of the
Combination
oil is forced
pounds
per
Method.
of
at the
top,
With
"
upward through
iron laminations.
increase in size
and
^Transformers
pump
spaces
passes
such
inch.
square
for circulating
left around
down
scheme
over
formers
trans-
as
than
the largest
larger capacities
transformers
of the ordinary type, without
to show
prohibitivecost and to necessitate
the
place of installation.
of the
250
built of much
transportationof
transformers
The
oil to be increased
circulation
positive
efficiencyof the fluid.
and
to
existingwater-cooled
such
150
overflows
coils,
between
be
by
method
and
can
of from
pressure
in parts for
forced-oil system
to any
which
allows
erection
at
the
the circulation
rapid
cooling
a
124
ST A TIONARY
certain
above
shown
in
given
TRANSFORMERS
in the
value
water
The
lamp shown.
soon
as
the
the
is
bell alarm
reaches
in such
arranged
so
of the
temperature
thermometer,
In
is
the
as
balance
relay or
water
which
if the
that
manner
is
outfit
to
ceases
or
This
transformer.
it will operate
that
transformer,
indicated
as
by
certain limit.
water-cooled
of
disposed
as
?rmometer
Th
0
Lamp
K"^
Low
VoltapJe
Relay
Resistance
-x:(^
Water
Fig.
115.
Relay
and
Water, thermometer,
"
voltage
bell
indicator
danger
large high-
transformers.
power
littleheat is dissipatedfrom
for
the
tank
and
Its
cost
boiler-iron tank.
standard
advantage in
to
are
Fig.
a
no
116
shows
and
transformer.
one-quarter
of 17" C.
The
15
greater than
cent,
per
corrugated type
climates
result of
the
rise of 35"
temperature
This
cold
very
to
has
used
been
culties
water-freezingdiffi-
where
common.
water-cooled
in
10
(57-40
hour
=
cooling coil
duration
17"
of
cutting off
(60
shows
"
25
an
water
duration
five-hour
C.
the
35"
has
supply
of
resulted
C), while
two
increase in temperature
C).
this type
of transformer
is sometimes
METHODS
coated
outside
the
on
COOLING
OF
with
TRANSFORMERS
the
depositfrom
125
in the coolingwater,
by impurities
of cleaningthe inside of coolingcoils is to pour
A good method
equal parts of hydrochloric acid and commercially pure water
into the coil. After the solution has been standing for about
is lined
coil,it is
to
necessary
depositcan
The
accumulated
deposithas
When
this,the transformer
of the oil should
has
should
never
tank
cooling
cleansing.
of the
for
the
at
be
go below
used, which
been
the
water.
scraped off.
in
located
when
of "breather"
or
is condensed
moisture
transformer
it from
clean
outside
the
on
remove
wiped
be
Sometimes
thoroughly with
coils out
flush the
hour,
one
10" C.
In
consists of
some
a
cases
form
vessel of chloride
of condensation
underside
the
all
On
should
for
continuous
by
of
and
transformer
without
tank
filters the
and
sampling and
removing the unit
withdrawing
at
the bottom
oil and
the
from
service.
and
top
it
filtering
by
series of about
removes
The
0.75 in. of paper.
paper
all moisture, returningit to the tank
of almost
About
entire contents
a
The
clean.
the station.
of
provision
filtration of the
tanks
should not
capacityof oil-containing
less than
the oil capacityof any one
transformer, but preferably
in
slightly
greater in capacitythan the largesttransformer
dry
be
oil and
on
top.
installations
of valves
means
of rust
through a
twentycontainingfive 8-in. by 8-in. filter papers,
total thickness
at the
cover
200-lb. pressure,
each
five filter sections,
making
accumulation
high-voltage transformer
made
forcingit,at
is the
of the transformer
large
be
of moisture
of any
four
hours
should
transformer
filterequipment may
be
and
be
on
capacity
provided for.
DISTRIBUTION
TEMPERATURE
Core-t3rpe (verticalcylindrical
coils,turns of the conductor
being in a horizontal plane). With this type of winding the
"
ends
which
of the
passes
adjacent
to
coils will be
out
the
somewhat
cooler, owing
to
the
heat
those
STATIONARY
126
the
coil. The
in the
resistance
will be
there
bottom,
is
tendency
heat transmitted
high
temperature
of
much
than
The
the
the
transmit
heat
downward
portion
of
temperature
the
of
difference
temperature
important
most
top
to
with
compared
as
in this direction.
higher
TRANSFORMERS
will be
result
coil will be
oil
adjacent
as
that
almost
the
as
that of the
80
40
30
Temperature
(a)
(6)
"
i-c)
"
"
(^)
"
low
"
by reslatance
thermometer.
"
"high
"
(.d)
80
"
"
"
oil.
water
70
"
60
50
40
30
no
Fig.
bottom
course,
to
the
duct.
related
8a
Hours
Run
10
11
18
13
14
116.
the
oil adjacent to it,assuming, of
portion is above
the
coil
that the equivalent thermal
resistance from
oil is practicallyuniform
throughout the length of the
The
not
total
to
the
average
surface
temperature
temperature
of
at
the
the
coil is therefore
bottom
of
the
METHODS
coil but
to
considerably higher
than
should
be
and
near
top
problem with
the
surface
surface
solid surface
coils to
of the
circulation
natural
distribution of temperature
correct
coils may
average
figured from
bottom
at the
maximum
the
that
be
perature,
tem-
temperature
of the coil.
difficult
The
at
temperature
127
considerablyhigher than
be
may
the
is average
temperature which
which
and
TRANSFORMERS
COOLING
OF
oil from
through the
surface
the
of the
oil is:
of the
tank,
the
cooling
or
resistance
given velocitythe equivalent thermal
is constant, the temperature
drop from coils to oil being directly
proportional to the watts
per sq. in. discharged from the coils.
forced-oil circulation (returningthe oil to the ducts at a
With
coil. For
relation
the
of
circulation
natural
the
and
duct
will be
With
circulation.
than
natural
the
of the
duct
since the
than
thin duct
rise
temperature
upon
forced-oilcirculation
forced-oil circulation
for
natural
will be better
temperature
of the
surface
the
Thinning
the
as
temperature rise
to
the
rise
though
same
external
an
as
duct
does
might
not
be
temperature
cause
and
Velocity,
hence
oil,as well
as
to
to
as
expected, up
rise of the
will be
the
oil between
oil inside
of the
coils
oil.
With
on
one,
give lower
the
to
thick
will
thickness
different for
very
oil. With
the
duct.
the
effect of the
The
at
by the difference in
temperature
average
outside
of the
that
exit from
and
to
the
between
temperature
is caused
oil flow
the
resistance
equivalent thermal
the
velocity of
the
coils and
of the
surface
the
between
cause
reduce
great
to
net
an
that
a
certain
to
give practically
obtained
thin duct.
increase in temperature
point,since,
passing through
produce
drop from
smaller
the
as
for
oil while
rise tends
will
temperature
the
higher
coils into
rise in the
oil
itself.
The
dischargeof
both
sides,as compared
in
discharge from one side only, is an important matter
connection
with cooling. It is found that with a duct of a given
thickness,if the heat is dischargedinto it from both sides,at a
with
its
128
STATIONARY
TRANSFORMERS
twice
Thus
the
rise.
temperature
while
is carried away
by the duct, with a smaller
This
smaller
rise of the
oil
temperature
heat
passing through
heat, indicates
that
this accounts
and
the
velocityof
the
for
the
absorbing twice
duct, though
is
flow
than
more
the
double,
reduced
is
much
than
greater
is
being
coils)."With
this
when
heat
discharged.
Shell
(verticaloil-ducts between
type
flat
in the
path of heat
mal
flow,
insulatingcovering is thin. The equivalent therresistance is uniformly distributed throughout the length of
and
the
duct, since
the
the
this resistance
will change
discharge because
oil would
the
of the
coil and
The
bottom.
be
much
as
of the
temperature
discharged
from
the
The
is more
the
per
of
sq.
the
of the
the
at
is greater than
in the
effect
the
the
as
its temperature
of
copper,
that
at
as
coil would
passage
being
bottom
top
bottom
through the
heat, the
temperature
at the
same
top part
result
downward
in. from
is
more
part of the
siderable
con-
which
is
heat
coil than
temperature
temperature
the
in the copper
giving a
more
temperature.
were
the
If the
top.
portion of
the
would
heat
conductor
between
its temperature
This
entrance.
good
at
heat
opposite,the
throughout its passage
be the
portion of
is
difference
of
rate
different.
which
rate
oil would
the
oil will be
the
but
throughout,
same
changes in
uniform
the
greater than
temperature
at
at
and
that
is the
any
duct,
with
velocityof
receive heat
through
the
the
generated in
heat
of oil flow
rate
oil where
the same,
drop
duct
from
than
the
uniform
On
from
the
it leaves
at the
top
the
top.
The
temperature
temperature,
other
the duct
since it absorbs
as
well
hand, though
would
the
same
be the
total
as
gradient
is thus reduced,
a
the
same,
lower
average
temperature
of
if its velocity
METHODS
OF
COOLING
TRANSFORMERS
129
of
throughout the duct will be greater on account
the largerproportion of heat which
it receives near
the bottom.
This will result in an increase in the velocityof circulation,
which
temperature
tends
and
reduce
to
the
actions
both
temperature rise
the
the
reduction
affectingfurther
oil in the
of the
in the
oil,both
duct
of these
of
temperature
the
coils.
Disc-shape
between).
Coils
These
"
with
layers, or
all
practically
ducts, but in
coils may
several turns
the
the
(horizontalposition with
layer.
per
will be
heat
either
wound
be
thrown
horizontal
In
out
outer
in
the
ducts
single turn
former
into the
case
horizontal
it
heat.
absorb
to
ceases
solid matter
of the hydrocarbons
quite evident that more
will deposit at those pointsof the maximum
temperature; that
as
is,at those pointscommonly known
"hot-spots." If 80 per
It is
of the transformer
cent,
the
remaining 20
designed and
the
maximum
distribution
the
various
from
the
per
operates
cent,
the weakest
at
C, the
80"
at
of the
part
of 40"
temperature
C. and
is
transformer
insulation is at the
point of
things which
standpoint
throughout
this
effect
of
all those
badly
of the
transformer, and
of
is important
distribution,
who
operate transformers;
oil-cooled transformer
The
measurements
The
transformer
mm.
9
of mercury.
of
25"
are
C.
pressure
of 20"
C. and
mm.
are
on
condition
normal
of 760
measurements
based
the
of
of mercury.
based
on
an
barometric
pressure
of
TABLE
II." HEATING
normal
All
GUARANTEES
transformer
water-cooled
supply
of
corrections
transformers
by 0.5
variation,or
are
per
for
at
variations
AIR-
TRANSFORMERS
measurements
ingoing water
for
OIL-COOLED,
FOR
WATER-COOLED
AND
BLAST
The
TRANSFORMERS
ST A TIONARY
130
temperature
in the
based
are
three
of 15"
above
on
C.
types
of
cent,
each
made
mm.
deviation
in barometric
pressure.
OIL.
TRANSFORMER
the
here.
The
most
interest the
important characteristics of
operating engineer are summed
table.
TABLE
III
transformer
up
in the
oil which
following
STATIONARY
132
TRANSFORMERS
it is desired to determine
insulatingqualitiesof an
oil when
and
there are
no
high voltage testing transformer
When
this is the case,
apparatus available for making a test.
be
a
good idea of the insulatingpropertiesof the oil can
very
with anhydrous
of water
obtained
by testing for the presence
the anhydrous copper
sulphate. To prepare
sulphate,
copper
heat some
on
top of a
sulphate crystals (blue-vitriol)
copper
Often
hot
The
stove.
leaving
as
white
the
of
water
crystallization,
is known
powder, which
as
drous
anhy-
sulphate.
copper
Fill
heat
residue
the
with
be
always
bottom,
tube
found
use
end
tightlyover
one
Remove
thumb
tightlyover
the
at
the
end
obtain
To
bottom.
the
of small
plunge it to the
lettingthe air escape,
and
from
sample
diameter, hold
and
of the tube
of the
bottom
then
the
press
the
it with the
withdraw
the
thumb
barrel.
thumb
sample
oil.
of
The
mineral
down
and
importance
real
seal
on
the
the
oil is that
bottom
transformer
of the
it tends
of
the
light oil
to
known
decrease
transformer
coils themselves.
The
to
the
the
trade
as
depositthrown
tank, cooling-coils
(A)
class referred
to
is
dark-colored
oil
METHODS
flash and
low
COOLING
OF
points but
fire
TRANSFORMERS
does
throw
not
133
down
deposit
heating.
subjectedto long
oils depends altogether on
the thoroughness with
transformer
which
the oil is protected againstabsorptionof moisture, and,
when
heavy oils are used, the temperature at which the transformei*s
are
operated, the higher the operating temperature the
more
rapid are thin oils affected. It is the generalpracticeto use
tendency
keep
to
free
practically
down
from
the
the
usual life of
The
mineral
the
continuous
and
when
transformers
and
temperature
of its
because
it is
also because
slimy depositreferred
to
With
above.
of class
use
last five
it
or
years
might
last
five
only
under
but
months,
ers
ordinary service conditions the oil for high-voltagetransformshould
be good for at least 18 months.
Several
good oil
drying and
purifyingoutfits
are
of this modern
in
now
common
the
use,
cipal
prin-
outfit
rods
each
of the press.
in such
sheet.
hours
at
The
that
way
air is accessible
blotting paper
temperature
not
over
should
85"
small
the
because
quantity of
will take
up
the
drying.
C,
from
for
It should
be
sides of
both
to
dried
least
at
and
then
put into
the
oven
and
few
minutes
not
come
24
tank
before it is
is sufficient
into contact
with
of the
danger of absorbingperspiration.A
anhydrous calcium chloride placed in the oven
moisture
in the
air and
quicken
the
between
The
of
the
used
material
separationof this filtering
of the greatest importance. Specialcare
be exercised
must
drying the blotting paper, which should be suspended from
the
to
are
paper
process.
scorch
the
the paper
134
STATIONARY
is somewhat
weakened
handled
TRANSFORMERS
by saturatingwith oil,it
removal
after
from
suspended
in. from
or
in. above
the
top of the
the
anything
prevent
the
of
It
pump.
should
paper
of the
oil level
be
paper
should
strainer
paper.
be
fully
care-
of suitable
tank
edge
The
bottom.
bath.
the
should
the paper
carefully
being kept
be
least
at
is
provided to
inentering and juring
should
be cleaned
is usually for
rating in gallons per minute
clean heavy oil or dirty lightoil.
conditions in filtering
average
best oil temperature
for filtering
is between
The
75" C.
25 and
occasionally.
the
In
oil falls
that
With
with
the
and
paper
the
as
as
will take
pump
will remain
volume
placed
nearly
the
so
it.
stant,
con-
pressure,
rapidly.
With
slowly
more
gained by an increase in
inch. In general,class (B)
square
the class (A) oil,and
the greater
per
fast
be
is little
there
pounds
75
and
fast
and
pressure
over
pressure
as
should
pump
volume
dirty oil
than
by gravity and
clean
the
but
The
as
inch.
as
at
any
100
over
pounds
per
square
The
the
of the
,to fall
and
not
pressure
off,and
it is best
that
begin again.
the
paper,
The
oil is apt
the
of paper
to
discard
of oil which
amount
full
can
charge
be filtered
through
quality and
ture,
temperadepends entirelyon
of its low
because
hot oil being filtered with great facility
be dried to withstand
oil may
a
viscosity. By this process
one
set
puncture
gap
the
of papers
test
from
consistingof
40,000
two
0.5
60,000
to
volts
in. diameter
with
standard
discs spaced
spark
2/10
in.
or
With
bad
oil of
burn-out
an
average
may
be
treated
in this
purifyingoutfit,
METHODS
TRANSFORMERS
COOLING
OF
135
the sediment
removed
Water-
Fig.
The
water
water
order
curve
Curve
"
Fig. 117
in amounts
to
obtain
Parts
10,000 by
In
Volume
very
less than
present in the
standard
1^
117.
clearlyshows
0.010
oil must
dielectric
the
per cent.
exceed
not
in oil.
serious effects of
It shows
0.001
strength of 40,000
0.5 in. disc).
that the
per cent, in
volts in the
IX
CHAPTER
AND
INSTALLATION
CONSTRUCTION,
OPERATION
OF
LARGE
TRANSFORMERS
There
various
are
in
much
so
they
of
are
what
of
transformer.
Transformers
in their
assembled
countries
the
they
for
are
high
very
shipment;
home
boxing,
boxes
and
the
to
coils
which
size
(in a
factory
call
tion
construc-
of
the
core
is
will warrant.
the
usually
but
abroad
left
is
type
loose
state)
if
they
tanks
the
are
for
unprotected
in
weatherproof
in strong
packed
the
When
case
large capacity,
shell
completely
as
transportation facilities
carefully packed
are
if of the
of moderate
and
strictly
through
pass
shipment
the
the
size and
and
voltages
core
from
their
as
have
for
usually protected
fact,
others
design
are
; in
type)
core
high-voltage large-capacity
of
sent
disassembled,
sent
are
tanks
they
the
whether
exactly
manufacture.
always
are
or
ing
differ-
market
transformer
here
to
respectively,
of American
design, and
in
referred
types
tell
to
shell
However,
transformers
shell
and
call
the
on
design (shell
other
manufacturers
some
core-type
the
or
transformers
it is difficult
that
design
one
of
types
of the
core
wooden
type
core
being shipped
and
box
into
in its
end-laminations
is built up
should
put
already
the
transformer
it
be
the
essentiallyof
form
made
up
in. in
they
or
It is shown
the
stampings
are
paper
in
be
to
are
to
used
to
limit
Fig.
1 18
the
that
and
the
from
136
of
are
of
eddy
three
other
factory
and
"heat-run."
consists
assembled
when
different
each
which
from
vary
frequency
there
removed
cores
the
flow
be
should
These
which
insulated
the
transformer
circuit.
magnetic
from
yokes which
and
cores
the
permanently
giving it
before
core-type
according
laminations
varnish
cleaned
and
being
is sent
done, it
Whether
one
already assembled,
sent
before
in
packed
boxes.
or
transformer
seldom
three
or
of laminated
thickness
which
The
two
complete
the
first with
deal
in separate
inspected
is very
inspected
thoroughly
us
If
tank.
leg being
each
at its destination
thoroughly
tank, which
Let
assembled
and
yokes
0.010
the
to
are
0.025
system
on
manufacturers.
by
coat
currents.
cores
of
equal
cross-
of
OF
CONSTRUCTION
joinedby
section
the
as
that
and
cores,
and
top
upon
LARGE
bottom
each
TRANSFORMERS
yoke
core
are
of the
137
cross-section
same
placed the
low
and
high
designsof core-type
usual
The
have
manufacturers
between
high and
Fig.
low
118.
transformers
distribution
uniform
of
by the best
dielectric flux
voltage windings,excepting at
Three-phase core-type
"
made
the
ends
of
transformer.
the
As
tions
has its laminaalready stated, the core-type transformer
shipped already assembled,wrapped in insulatingmaterial
and
of horn-fiber
a
binding
intact.
the
and
thus
keep
to
The
with strong
bound
the
laminations
different sections
size of the
in the
are
bindingtape
of
the
assembled
which
assembled
on
wooden
serves
as
sections
pins of
direction,
in one
laminations; first,
this end in the oppositedirection,
then
alternatingspaces
The approxibeing left for assembling the end laminations.
mate
inch
number
of laminations
in
building up
required
per
holes
TRANSFORMERS
STATIONARY
138
tliese laininuted
detoniiiiied from
be
may
iron
be about
solid,would
built up laminations, 36 and
the
that
sections
90
tion
informa-
the
of
cent,
per
the
64 laminations
height of the
per
of laminations
the number
inch being about
required for the two
in. respectively. The
and
0.10
standard
thicknesses, 0.025
built in an insulatingchannel
of laminations
are
required number
tions
piece,and on the top of the channel pieceand the pileof laminachannel
another
piece is placed, the whole being pressed
and
the channel
down
piecesstuck together with
to dimensions
the
under
shellac
sections
then
are
influence
and
of pressure
assembled
with
heat.
pins
wooden
various
The
to
hold
them
the
spaces
form
cores
this
positionthe
over
the
end
bottom
laminations
with
clamp
and
its insulation
is fastened
raised
other
by the help of anends
vertical position,with open
the
whole
connect
after
at
coils
the
the
are
bottom
in
should
are
raised
All of the
be
connected
position. Between
the
by
means
coils which
ately
immedi-
cylinder low-
when
leave
the
the
and
coils may
be
coil connections
the
steel
the
coils of the
board
the
tank.
The
easily turned
as
distant
top connections
to
as
such
positionsas
possiblefrom
should
be
made
the
will
side of
after
all
ST A TIONARY
140
order
TRANSFORMERS
of
zontal
assembly. The assembly of coils is begun in an horiplane, and stacked one above the other as shown in Fig.
121, the outer
press-board insulation piece being set on two
wooden-horses, correctlyspaced, depending on the size of the
transformer
be
to
Fig.
of
the
stack
by
is
assembled.
119.
first
taken
coil,
from
the
top
Three-phase shell-typetransformer.
placed in positionwith
of
means
"
The
its inner
lated
edges insu-
channel-shapedinsulation pieces.
Each
coil
it is
tion
placed in the assembly has the same
shaped insulapieceson its outer edges; insulation separators are arranged
before
Fig.
120.
Single-phase transformer
"
in
and
largesize
bottom
can
of
coils.
easilybe
The
lowered
the
low
channel
iron
and
high-voltage coils
piecesset
assembly
into
assembly.
of
at
these
position.
the
inside
coils if of
OF
CONSTRUCTION
iron laminations
Tlic
used
the
keep
to
must
TRANSFORMERS
LARGE
be laid with
which
alignment,on
141
the
butt.
(SeeFig. 120).
connecting the coils together,all the solderingis best done
the assembly progresses,
also all taping of the connections,
as
since the short stub connections
are
only accessible at this stage
be
Before
of erection.
commencing to solder, a cloth should
the ends of coils to prevent splashing solder
on
spread over
which might get inside of the coils and ultimately cause
them
a
should
be
burn-out.
During the assembly of coils,
great care
and
the insulation separator in alignment.
taken to keep them
In
facilitate
To
their four
through
this,all
and
corners
the
as
coils and
the
coils
the
long round
being built
are
placingof
insulation
the outside
separators
stripof
is threaded
wood
After
up.
slit at
are
the
assembly
of
pieceor collar
top insulating
While the
clamped down to dimensions.
end
holding down the coils to dimensions, strong
clamps are
cloth tape is wound
the two
around
the coils,
between
clamps,
under
considerable tension,
the ends of tape being finally
secured
by sewing them down, after which the whole is painted with
the
position,
whole
is
black,insulatingair-dryingvarnish.
Getting the assembled
they
rest
to
the
coils from
vertical
the horizontal
positionnecessary
positionin which
for the
assembly
of
and
The
set
bottom
into
which
end
frame
position where
or
core
support
it is desired
to
is
now
build
ready
up
the
to
be
iron,
is
coils should
The
arranged in a similar manner.
be
be exactly vertical.
should
Lapping of the laminations
avoided, otherwise difficultywill be experienced in getting
in all of them.
be used
for driving
Raw-hide
mallets should
the
laminations
in case
into line; or
these mallets are
not
available,hard wood
pieces pressed against the laminations
may
be
they
should
hammered.
be
During
pressed
down
the
two
142
STATION
ARY
TRANSFORMERS
160 Turns
188 Turns
188
Turns
PI
Not
P2
Crossed
P3
Not
P4
Crossed
P5
Not
P6
Crossed
P7
Not
P8
Crossed
P9
Crossed
PIO
Crossed
Crossed
Crossed
Crossed
Crossed
Pll
Not
P12
Crossed
Not
Crossed
Crossed
S7 Crossed
S6
Not
Crossed
S5 Crossed
S4
Not
S3
Crossed
S2
Not
Crossed
Crossed
SI Crossed
Fig.
121."
Assembly
of coils for
shell-type transformer.
CONSTRUCTION
size of
the
TRANSFORMERS
LARGE
OF
being built.
transformer
143
this
For
clamping,
the
is
In the
rigidframe
constructed
especially
an
laminations
should
built up to
forced
into
be
core-plate to be
driving. It is always
the
that
available
are
from
come
without
of transformers
case
After
height
as
The
used.
will
permit
considerable
ations
put in all of the lamin-
specialfacilities for
the
laminations
right manner;
being
care
sing
pres-
been
have
and
a
to
factory as
there.
be
positionunder
difficult matter
the
may
of wood
such
pieceor frame,
top
be supin
taken
supportingthe
is located
above
oil-cooled and
terminate
water-cooled
Of
or
part
at
the
transformers
the base
into their
loweringtransformers
be
In
core.
part
brought
are
their leads
have
and
of
case
at
the
top of
coils.
to
should
coils and
assembled
the base
at
assembled
In
that
the
at
out
the
see
must
be
taken
properly
centered
in the tank.
one
of
the two
tanks, care
in the
and
is
whereas
the
shell type
to
varies
in many
assemble, especially
largersizes.
Air-blast
4000
of
manufacture,
every
ways
types
kv-a
regularlybuilt in capacities
up to
ciency
voltages as high as 33,000 volts. The effi-
transformers
and
for
of this type of
required amount
are
of air pressure,
is sometimes
better
with
than
the
the oil-
144
STATIONARY
filled water-cooled
TRANSFORMERS
type of the
capacityand
voltage. Its
former
ordinary shell-typetrans-
same
like the
general design is very much
with the exception of a few
of air.
in
certain
where
assembly
of the
excess
enters
this
that, where
so
for the
number
is considerably
transformer
the
at
of air
provided
are
of transformers
transformer
bottom
divides
and
iron
tion
circula-
the pressure
dampers
reason
a
in the
transformers
required for
area
For
left open
in these
area
actual
for cooling.
specified
each
air-spacesare
air space
The
modifications
volved,
in-
are
air
to
always
into rate
sepaducts controlled
that
so
them.
have
to
be
holds
above
These
brick
or
eddy
as
allowed
be
leads, and
transformers
well
the
for
the
and
be
on
the
where
basis
temperature
of
Transformers.
tion
fric-
chamber
these
occur,
should
space
high- and
low-voltage
inspection. Three-phase
sufficient.
the
minimize
of
formers
single-phasetrans-
The
of
temperature
of the
incoming
sufficient air is passing through
than
20" C. difference,
the
more
is not
found
made
to the
whether
transformers; if there
when
of
repairs
out-goingair compared
obtained
blower
than
larger air-chambers
aggregate capacity.
same
to
Sufficient
off.
location
smooth
the
the
occurrence
air-chamber
an
From
rounded
necessary
have
rare
possibleof angles,and
as
be
of the
the
of air.
currents
free
should
placed over
sides being made
are
the
concrete
be
should
is of
disassembled,but as this
for practically
all sizes.
transformers
and
they
is
of transformer
type
of
25"
of the
As
C.
transformers
the
best
results
are
are
this value.
Installation
voltage
transformers
of
the
"
^In
self-cooled
the
installation
of
high
water-cooled
oil-filled,
OF
CONSTRUCTION
TRANSFORMERS
LARGE
145
oil,or burning of the oil in any unit will not interfere with
the continuityof service.
(b) In generating and
receivingstations the transformers
be so
should
formers
located that the high voltage wiring from transof the
to bus-bars
is reduced
to
minimum.
of a
tanks, which are, of course, made
metallic or non-combustible
material,should be permantly and
effectively
grounded, preferably to the ground cables to which
the station lightningarresters
connected.
are
(d) Sufficient working space should be allowed around each unit
(c)The
transformer
facilitate the
to
making
of
repairsand
inspection.
for necessary
entire process
of
of assembly of transformers
voltage,the best and most careful workmanship is
(e) During
the
high
of utmost
impoi'tance.
in the installation
(f) (This might be considered as the last process
of transformers
but
the least important.)
by no means
Extra
the part of all
on
specialknowledge and care is necessary
those whose
is
^the difficulty
duty it is to dry out transformers
is usuallysupposed, but the drying
not in drying out the coils,
as
and
the core.
No
surrounding them
of the whole insulaiion
what
the factor of safety the transformer
has been built
matter
for it avails littlein the case
of carelessness
or
neglectto dry out
the transformer
properly.
leave
the factory they are
Before transformers
given a highthe
standard
the
twice
to
rated voltage
being, apply
voltage test,
between
the high- and low-voltage windings, the latter being
connected
to the iron core.
The main
object of applying this
of the windings,
induces twice the rated voltage to one
test which
low
or
"
is to
determine
properly
the
insulated
greater
punctures
whether
causes
between
from
of
the
various
each
other.
failure in
turns
and
not
portionsof
It is
between
coils
believed
now
high-voltage
the
transformers
the
high
and
are
that
are
low-
voltage windings.
To install properly and place in good working order high-voltage
transformers
is quite as important as their design,
power
since upon
this depends the life of the transformer.
All transformers
of high voltage should
be thoroughly dried out
on
which
show
arrivingfrom the factory, and all transformers
evidence of being unduly moist,or that they have been subjected
that would
to conditions
them
to be unduly moist,should
cause
be taken
specialcare of in the drying process.
10
146
STATIONARY
Testing
put
are
in
and
Before
Cooling Coils
into operation they are
the
of
case
subject
assembled
before
evidence
show
high-voltage transformers
subject to a "heat-run,"
with cooling coils,
the coils
"
made
are
TRANSFORMERS
transformers
to
the
heat
run
of
determine
to
testing for
for
establish
the
the valve
and
period
of about
one
it is
be
to
make
to
usual
method
of
water,
between
gauge
be
out
through-
taken
that
no
In
removing
disconnect entirelyfrom
preferableto
the
and
cooling coil by
indication
should
it with
filling
indicated
coils
inch, disconnect
pressure
the
Care
be
the
The
full
in the
water
the
the
of the
resulted.
maintains
coolingcoil in
of pressure
source
the
hour.
If
cooling coil
whether
note
coolingcoil
the
and
valve,
has
100
to
made.
heavy indentations
should
be given the
fill the
holding
of pressure,
of
of 80
coils must
as
break
is to
leaks
pressure
source
means
whether
be
can
These
test.
pressure
water.
that
sure
whether
note
the
of
source
the
lowering
coolingcoil,
to leakage
to
by
gauge
to leakage through the
cooling coil valve or
indicates a
through a hole in the cooling coil. If the gauge
in the cooling coil,it should
be inspected
lowering of pressure
The
throughout its entire length until the hole is discovered.
will gradually form
water
at the hole and
begin to drip. After
the cooling coil is filled with water, a small
air-pump may be
used for givingthe required pressure, in case
there is not a satisfactory
for obtaining the pressure.
water
As
the test
source
is only to determine
whether
the cooling coil has a leak in it,it
pressure
connected
is due
will in
no
case
lb. per
JOO
inch.
square
the
cooling coil
per
square
bubbles
necessary
in
inch
for
establish
Some
liquid,under
a
period of
of the
engineers prefer
an
air pressure
about
than
greater pressure
of 80
hour,
one
to
and
submerge
to
100
note
lb.
the
liquid.
Several
Drying-out Transformers.
out
high-voltage transformers, the
exist for
methods
"
best
drying
being considered
as
follows:
1.
admit
to
Short-circuit
sufficient current
approximately
effect
either
this
80"
temperature
the
to
C.
high
raise the
The
will range
low-
or
of
amount
on
necessary
one-third
between
current, depending
heat
the
room
and
to
one-
temperature
STATIONARY
148
APPROXIMATE
IV"
TABLE
TRANSFORMERS
HIGH-
OUT
HOURS
POWER
VOLTAGE
NECESSARY
IN
DRYING
TRANSFORMERS
chance
to
harden, it will be
found
easier to obtain
much
the
required vacuum.
of the transformer
One
(1),although
reach
by
be
actual
90" C. instead
the
When
process.
the
of 80"
C,
current
reached,
might
and
the
The
be
up
after which
it should
the
be
in method
as
is allowed
to
temperature is determined
80"
of the
C.
during
it is found
quickly,and
given until
case
temperature
approximately
startingthe heat-run
at
temperature
in this
temperature
increase in resistance.
maintained
bring
the
windings is short-circuited
to
oil should
the
drying
advantageous
do
to
this, full-load
is
approximate temperature
value.
reduced
to the specified
CONSTRUCTION
TRANSFORMERS
LARGE
OF
149
of
certain amount
a
heating by electric current
of the
of the base
the bottom
be applied under
should
heat
of applying heat
The
most
transformer.
satisfactorymethod
is to use
to the base
grid resistances supplied with sufficient
The
the grids at full red heat.
current
to maintain
grids should
the heating fairly
under
the base so as to make
be distributed
addition
In
to
general,and
confined
not
to
In
the surface.
portionof
one
case
care
heating the base is used, extreme
too
should be taken that the supply of the heat does not become
ing
intense,otherwise the oil may be injured. The idea of supply-
method
of
the base
is to
other
some
heat
oil
to
the
throughout
transformer
C.
80"
of
maintain
structure
is found
It
uniform
that
of the
temperature
at
the
uniform
perature
tem-
the
of
temperature
ing
of the oil'sreachwindings reaches 90" C. considerably in advance
either to disconnect
80" C; and, for this reason, it is necessary
the current
occasionallyor to reduce it to a small percentage of
be
relied on
The
base
to
full-load current.
heating should
maintain
oil has
time
used
be
for
cooling coil.
which
to
the
base
the
condenses
heating,the
heat
is not
air
tank.
the base
valve
temperature
be
may
used
surface
for
in. of
the Hmit.
refer to the
vacuum.
low
after
pressure
through the
the base heating; in
should
base
of the
should
Care
be
the
This method
recommended,
taken
jected
be submitting
in ad-
of
temperature
of
applying heat
principallybecause
the steam
tank.
of the
of
the
size, the
air should
of heated
source
top
cover
of tank
be
this temperature
moderate
20
on
being admitted
approximately
under
not
at
to
carried
does
steam
available,
quantity
C. and
of 80"
will,
referred
be
must
point and
of the steam.
exceed
not
of hours
it
as
sufficient
on
of heated
C.
steam
entire bottom
steam
is not
Also, steam
the
case
80"
long
as
process
and
established,
the
electric current
the
temperature
been
reach
to
necessary
When
may
reached
in. has
of 20
vacuum
time
actual
the
for
are
after the
at
C.
be almost
may
above
at
of 80"
temperature
constantly,provided
heat is applied. These
specifiedlimits
which
of
oil at
the
same
C,
and
for
the
process
period
discretion
connected
partlyremoved.
should
used
to
The
be maintained
should
of three
being
be
be
days
as
carried
for
units
mentioned
on
of
in
150
STATIONARY
methods
(1) and
(2). The
the
transformer
of
drying
transformers
no
electric current
enters
oil may
The
should
is
dried
be
Where
filled to within
the
refer
not
a
air
inches
to
tank
tank
to
the
to
of the
method
is
method
tank
heat
mentioned
top,
that
so
the
condensation
without
its transformer
to
necessary
put
of
C.
with
be
may
be
cover
is used
12-hour
bracing
this does
under
run
in. of
20
In
for this
vacuum;
oil.
transformer
tanks
above
of moisture.
less than
dry
in
must
temporary
collapsingunder
A
cylinder form.
not
to in the
prevent
be
The
it
as
localities where
to
through it,referred
quite sufficient to
installations are provided with
being of the cylinderform.
should
air
This
C.
prevent
of 80"
temperature
heated
100"
vacuum
method
it is sometimes
inside of the
the
by
vacuum
few
the transformer
purpose,
exceed
not
especiallyadapted
heated
warm
kept sufficiently
case
of the
temperature
is available.
(2),or by blowing
method.
TRANSFORMERS
vacuum
All
large
the
tanks
necessary
size estimated
for the
reach
desired
to
the
electric heater
an
or
for
bottom
of
the
used, its
it must
uniform
should
pressure
Whether
be
be
coil
steam
maintain
to
In
throughout.
not
sary
neces-
placed directlyon
it is necessary
as
about
temperature
temperature.
is used
tank
of
purpose
is
steam
lb. per
10
oil
the
case
greater than
the
square
inch.
The
tank
same
circulation
from
and
of air.
the
valve
then
down
In
in the
to
be
and
process
the
by
heated
used
this
base
the
adjustable opening
oil must
be
may
to
oil
of transformer
the
permitting
until the
up
the
the
run
above
air to
of forced
means
to
top of the
of
temperature
continued
by
it is necessary
case
air pump,
for
drying
for
oil level,
the
tank
piping
having
circulate.
approximately
oil becomes
dry
an
The
100"
C,
mined
deter-
as
test.
Comparison
of any
of
Shell
Core -type
and
type should
not
be
Transformers.
selected
at
random
"
formers
Transbut
only
CONISTRUCTION
TRANSFORMERS
151
and
of design,reliability
investigation
careful
after
LARGE
OF
simplicity
repair.
is a difficult piece of
In general the shell type transformer
increases
to repair in case
of a break-down; the difficulty
apparatus
to
in almost
in the
and
from
man
has
been
number
advisable
largersizes it becomes
the
is
and
factory
do
to
conditions
to-day considered
practice,and
which
to
capacity,
for
former
trans-
only
send
to
companies operatingtheir
of power
in
increase
proportion with
direct
lines at
fail
never
transformers
of
cause
high
ages
volt-
realize the
to
subjected
are
large
in
to
for transformers
they ask manufacturers
seldom fail to go thoroughly
to their high-voltagelines,
to connect
into the factor of insulation,
continuity
which, to them, means
It is well-known
that the insulation
and uninterrupted service.
is subject to very severe
of a high-voltage transformer
potential
of which, are:
strains,some
increase in generator voltage.
(a) Sudden
local causes.
increase in line voltage from
(b) Sudden
(c) Direct and indirect lightningdischarges.
whenever
(d) Ground
(e) Internal
external
or
(f) Line
surges,
Reliable
data
lines
of the
one
on
depending on
"
arcing grounds.
etc.
taken
from
number
companies
of power
the
core
With
of
large sizes
such
apparatus
important, if
to
can
very
not
the
put
from
has
every
been
side.
wrong
or
Late
turns
idea.
there
well
most
reliable
looked
To
operatingto-day, this
class
of
one
as
modifications
of the core-type
the
most
nected
important piece of apparatus consatisits reliability
to factorily
system, and
on
think, as
with
some
much
interest
do, that
operationit will
once
be
has
given
it
wonder
transformer
to
operate
attention
any
must
been
once
and
continue
without
satisfactorymanner
It requires attention,and
that
the
more
considered
be
ating
oper-
than
been
are
lines,show,
indefinitelyin
a
for
service,is
into
as
transmission
operate
connection.
the
is
tion
given atten-
on
better
the
end
stand-
ST A TIONA
152
itis now
ing,and
considered
in
upon
R Y
this
TRA
NSFORMERS
to
regard equally
well
as
and
the
as
be
can
pended
de-
shell-type
transformer.
these
of the most
Some
two
Favor
in
Advantages
of coils and
surface
core
parts of transformer.
strength
"
life of
insulation;the
the
insulation
of the
the
transformer
of the
hottest
depending
on
the
part.
to
times
the
in the
the
As
stresses.
of the
square
normal
electro-magnetic stresses
current,
short-circuit
will produce
full-load current
portional
pro-
of many
abnormal
strain
transformer.
Satisfactoryseries-parallel
operation. This
on
are
large transmission
in Favor
Advantages
Disadvantages of the
Disadvantages of
designed
for
being
sary
neces-
systems.
of the
Core
Shell
Type.
the
often
Core
volts
Type.
^Easier to
Difficult to
"
Type.
"
"
^With
repair.
remove
coil.
low-voltage winding
and
of insulation
above, the amount
of winding; the temnext
to the core
turn
perature
means
a larger mean
and P R loss being increased thereby.
the
on
Radiating surface
low-voltage winding very poor,
in
It is a disadvantage if,say,
resulting higher temperatures.
90
per
50"
22,000
of
cent,
C. and
tiheweakest
the
the
transformer
remaining
10
operates
per
cent,
at
at
80"
temperature
C.
as
this
of
point is
arrangement
of
one
or
the
of coils
other
would
depart
from
the
regular standard
CONSTRUCTION
from
struction,
particularly
dear
break-down
is
shell-typetransformer
The
alloyed iron).
transformers
cost
is
care
is necessary.
results,although in
get good
and
applied. Many
has
been
resultingfrom
recorded
all of which
them.
could
cannot
natural
cooling.
cause,
top
of transformer
a
about
three
as
The
most
the
it reaches
important
transmission
given
been
limit
transformer
taken
has
been
of anything
the
cooling
of
by
stopped by
care
under
ature
temper-
tions
ordinary condideliveringpower
must
be taken
must
at the
an
continue
to
to
coolingmedium
be
reaches
close watch
very
of
or
air-blast,
an
transformer
a
have
be
of the
kept
of service
out
as
this limit.
of
efficiency
engineers and
most
the
apply
temperature
hours;
and
circulation
of
case
cannot
be
to
way
coolingmedium,
load, without
no
transformer,
This
C.
the
may
in the
permit
temperature
soon
case
water-cooled
of 80"
will
In
at
no
known, high-voltage
form
some
and
it might
had
care
is well
As
loss alone
the transformer
any
of
iron
the
they will
continuously,even
since
medium,
formers
trans-
transformers
of the
if proper
saved
run
when
that
cases
large power
cessation
in this direction.
transformers
for
been
amounts
but
fortunate
of
the
Hourly temperature
wrong
case
have
core-type
equally expensive.
are
attention
some
losses
space
attention
further
copper
shell- and
or
after
operate quite satisfactorily
the shell-
than
(low
space
words,
The
"
require any
not
cheaper
iron spaces
and
ordinary iron)
possible equal
as
of Transformers.
Operation
do
other
nearly
as
of copper
volumes
equal
In
and
the
core-type with
the
factor
space
And
factor
153
occur.
cheaper than
(largecopper
space
copper
TRANSFORMERS
the
repairs,should
of
exception
LARGE
OF
is
transformer
feature
by
the
operating
managers
important, the
usually considered
majority of central
distribution
is
not
the
station
By
systems.
considered
important being
most
be its
to
to
be
insulation
the
and
mechanical
should
not
cannot
be
be
neglected in
considered
as
the
the most
choice
of
but
transformer
important feature
of
it
large
154
STATIONARY
TRANSFORMERS
The
trunsforiucr.
writer believes
high-voltage power
order of importance to be:
1. Reliability,
and
or
abilityto supply continuous
the
right
rupted
uninter-
service.
Safety, or
2.
condition
conforming with
safety to life
and
property.
or
Efficiency,
3.
has
been
made
condition
with
conform
to
with
met
1 and
after
allowance
proper
2.
nal
Reliabilityas referred to here means
things both intermany
and
It might be stated, but
external.
not
generally,that
is the principalpoint in discussingtransformers
from
efficiency
their operating point of view.
Where
large high-voltage power
transformers
can
concerned, efficiency
are
said to
be
take
the
third
at
day in connection
present
that
causes
would
coils,moving
of failure
Causes
systems.
and
are
sometimes
coils and
of both
with
sion
long-distance transmis-
do
about
bring
is to
that
numerous;
complete failure
iron,and
say,
burn-outs
of
of
transformer.
Use
Value
and
reliable
but
electrically
bring
about
We
know
to
the
of Reactance.
be
of
the
to
time
to
keep
"dead"
such
enough
need
may
large
the
Several
and
short-circuit
shock
and
take
be
methods
interesting
to
and
15 times
even
brace
the
certain that
care
of
experience.
their experimental stage,
more
other
Some
are
transformer
take
is
mechanical
severe
the
methods
but,
upon,
current
to
the transformer
of
on
care
Use
of reactance, internal
(6)
Use
of resistance
or
stresses
tried
and
external,or both.
neutral
of
grounded
of
quite strong
(a)
in the
normal
time
from
are
experimented
of them
some
down
current
inverselyproportional
are
power
suggested
stresses
of the
reactance
current.
to
be
absolutely
might
mechanically which
weak
short-circuit
the
correctly,high automatic
with
transformer
its wreck.
leakage
systems
"
systems.
we
in
STATIONARY
156
will be
equal
reactance,
the
to
load
divided
full-load current
by
the
percentage
or:
/"=
which
TRANSFORMERS
577
1^
represents
=20,000
0029
in
amount
an
(18)
amperes
times
of 30
excess
normal
full-
current.
^=/.^i.X
short-circuit
At
secondary coils
10^
little
very
joules
(19)
magnetic
flux
through
passes
the
exist sufficient to
of transformers
lines,but
primary coils.
the
through
passes
of
maintain
located
roast
results
Thus
and
them)
will do
that
a
end
current
current, and
one
at
with
can
never
distances
behind
2.9 per
the
and
of
systems
on
transformers
cent,
reactance
of
voltage
constant
30
of 2.3 per
reactance
current, while
full-load
of
condition
(sufficient
of close regulation, it is possible to get
much
so
damage as to wreck them entirely.
power
with
transformer
short-circuit
times
the
comparatively short
for
unlimited
practically
to
constant
at
Such
with
one
would
times
cent, would
per
cent,
give a
full-load
give 40
reactance
of 25 times.
This,
produce only a short-circuit current
that more
in the transreactance
former
then, certainlydemonstrates
circuit for better
protection is required, and that the
should
be designed proportional to the current
reactance
so
as
would
be
effective.
The
terminal
is taken
from
to
during short-circuit
voltage at the transformer
of the transformer, therethe leakage inductance
fore
810
"
is the
work
force
done
exerted
in
1"
0.706
g.c.m.=
on
moving
the
the
jr-j
transformer
r.
mch
"
lb,
coils and
(20)
represents the
CONSTRUCTION
coincide
centers
TRANSFORMERS
LARGE
OF
with those
coils (an
primary
of the
157
impossible
flux to pass
between
reactance
zero
cause
condition)which
primary and secondary coils.
in question has three
Now
assuming that the transformer
primary coils between
four secondary coils,and the distance
of the adjacent coils,
between
the magnetic centers
or
half-coils,
would
is three inches.
its
The
respectivecoils
would
If the
force
the
distance
exerted
if the
and
between
every
force exerted
tons,
which
or
426
-"
the
on
65
tons
design of
primary
secondary coils,and
of the
on
=71^,
tons
adjacent coils
would
transformer
have
130
been
instead
would
been
1,750,000 lb,,
of three
have
coil;this is
for each
the
been
inches,
under
average
400
force,
tons.
coil the
reactance
had
4.3 inches
been
0 and
such
of the three
force of:
-^=
6
had
varies between
In the
is used
about
faces
transformers
distance
tons.
six faces
the
the
between
the
on
and
transformer
something like:
be
corresponding
the
such
on
coils and
exerted
force
followingformula
/"i6A^
4.44
E
0)
Jos"
in which
the
of turns, ((f))
(/) is the frequency, (A^) the number
flux enclosed
The
flux produced by a coil
by the conductor.
iron core
without
an
being:
where
a
{N) is the
constant
in the
The
width
1
which
number
(21)
~j^
of turns,
(jA
equals 0.28+0.125"
and
/ the current
coil.
tendency
of the
of
coil of
leakage
a
flux
is not
transformer,
D
the
mean
but
diameter
uniform
throughout the
of
STATIONARY
158
the
circuit should
tendency
will not
break
insulation
the
point
the
The
lie in the
tape
same
bindings, and
intense
of most
and
corners,
tendency,
conductor
hence
heap
buckle,
up
are
upon
liable to
each
on
other
density.
coils have
shell-typetransformer
their outer
plane, and
short-
to
this
be
conductor
at
the
occur,
in
sufficiently
strong to overcome
its equilibrium be disturbed, the forces of
and
at
imbedded
coil be
it not
should
and
TRANSFORMERS
the
tendency to twist
vertical portions of the coils to
the
into cable.
form
The
forced
upward
current
coils
If, however,
coincident
or
into
downward
being, in
entire
have
the
iron
the
tendency
to
be
(the heaviest
core
most
the centers
the
coils
transformer
core-type
of
force
would
be
in
exerted
horizontal
be no
direction,and there would
tendency for any of the coils
to move
the primary or secondary is forced
vertically. Whether
which coil has its center
line above
the center
depends upon
up
line of the
is
It
reactance
the
in
other.
marked
the
to
come
the
toward
movement
central
power-limiting capabilitiesof
This has largelybeen
due to
fore.
the
station
consolidation
concentration
and
of
which
fluctuate
gigantic proportions,the loads upon
may
suddenly through a wide range or, still worse, short-circuits on
such
high powered systems may
give rise to rushes of current
the volume
of which
hitherto unknown
in previous systems.
was
In the last few years we
have
to largerand
come
largersystems,
and
consequently greater difficulties of operation. The
centration
conof power
for economical
in these
huge power
dependence
enterprisesand for
ever
our
increasingtransportationsystems, as well as for lighting
and
industrial power
from
or
thrity substations
ten, twenty
distributed over
and
vast
it
areas
supplying large cities,make
ance,
absolutelyessential that they shall l^e protected against disturband
that every
possibleprecaution should be taken, which
in operaexperience or ingenuitycan provide,againstirregularity
tion,
plants, the
because
for
if these
huge
vast
reasons
industrial
transformer
systems
are
going
be.
to
be
factors
to
gain
CONSTRUCTION
LARGE
OF
TRANSFORMERS
159
coils in
advantages of iron and air reactance
station are many,
provided the former type is worked
low magnetic density so that it will not become
The
at
the maximum
the
leakage,and
that
effective in
are
and
At
and
both
of
not
types
strong
used
an
only
protectingtransformers
external
when
ficiently
suf-
ated
satur-
too
are
at
vided
pro-
magnetic
needed.
They
againstsurges, lightning,
short-circuits.
At
the
peak
power
the
transformer
is free from
over
is
thus
an
inductive
apparatus,
and
as
such
all
high-frequencydisturbances,such as traveling
etc.
impulses, stationaryoscillations,
High-frequency
waves,
the
transformer,
but
cannot
enter
the
the
inductance
the
oscillations
is
transformer.
A
coil
choke
transformer
danger.
might
which
does
not
between
reactance
or
might
It protects the
but
this choke
or
transformer
originateinside
coil has
the
in this
not
protect the
its
the
transmission
become
case
from
certain
windings; in
to
throw
fact
back
the
the
source
of
line disturbances
itself from
transformer
tendency
line and
ances
disturb-
addition
of
disturbance
and
of
per
cent,
reactance
for the
protectionof
trans-
STATIONARY
160
TRANSFORMERS
formers, switches,generators
and
mechanical
due
high
the
To
increase
modifications
stresses
the
reactance
are
possible,as,
of
excessive
given
system
against
currents.
transformer
one
or
several
for instance:
may
not
inductive
concerned
are
with
located
be
is
high systems
at
to
necessary
in
important, but
in
form
any
where
formers
trans-
end
the
reactance
of
use
for
the
If it is desired
output.
same
by increasingthe
windings, the same
results
are
increase
the
primary
obtained
and
between
space
to
the
and
the
reactance
secondary
efficiencyof
in the transformer
Placing reactance
whereas
external
itself is very
effective on
an
short-circuit,
will not
reactance
generally be so effective
current-limiting
it is not on
because
general principlesdesigned for the shortcircuit current
and its value
consequently is about frustrated by
is required only during the
magnetic saturation. A reactance
short-circuit. In that case, why then should
an
expensive and
the
transformer
inefficient
might
to
transformer
only
occur
arrange
is reduced.
once
reactance
be
considered
in five years;
would
external
that
so
when
it not
short-circuit
be
much
its maximum
better
flux
on
CONSTRUCTION
short-circuit is about
TRANSFORMERS
LARGE
OF
equal
its
to
voltage flux?
161
If
reactance
magnetic
lines possess
that
so
less
which
reactance
will be
reactance
tend
reduce
to
similar
requiredfor
the
those
at the
The
chief
age
voltformers
trans-
generating
station.
Neutral
the
Earthing
of resistance in the
the
earth
current
resistance
where
on
load
and
voltage
conditions
and
solid-grounded
system.
while
worse
It
system
to
seems
disconnect
of
the
or
appear
the
that
Of
broken
exactness
of the
will
is not
all times
being
disturbed.
not
the insulated
system
two, experience so
far has
will work
methods
factory
satis-
depending on
the
best
be
would
way
the
kind
of disturbance.
limit the
to
current
and
same
to
come
short-circuit which
are
of
of
current
close value
we
grounded system, and whether
"dead"
ground the method depends
itself. Both
circuit at the
system
these
ideal condition
operationare
would
through resistance,
in the
the
certain conditions
both
of
at
current
the
impossible;
cases
two
entirelyon
earth
advantage
system is to limit
arrive at
short-circuit. To
The
extreme
"
star-connected
that
the
of
neutral
in fact in most
easy,
of Transformers.
automatic
into
effect
kind
resistance
when
the
line
actuate
interruptthe
resistance in the
add
on
the
service
line,develops a
depending
on
the
it is correct.
neither
It may
be
stated
that
it is not
correct
for
group
11
the
of star-connected
transformers
as
shown
in
Fig. 122,
or,
ST A TIONA
162
if these transformers
be
must
With
used,
this connection
strain between
to
per
cent,
the
Fig.
of its
of
"
made
shown,
as
secondary
grounding and
or
Method
of
under
maximum
terminals.
voltage between
122.
and
ground connection
similar to Fig. 123.
the maximum
insulation
method
of full
might be
grounded
any
NSFORMERS
available
not
are
substitute
TRA
R Y
grounding
an
the
be greater than
insulated
87
former
trans-
operating conditions
same
Grounding
be
the
delta system
58 per
neutral
cent,
point
tance
through induc-
coils.
connected
to a
high-voltage windings of transformers
line will immediately operate the relays or circuittransmission
fall to the ground.
should
of the line conductors
breakers
one
of
the
subject
to very
high-voltage
windings
necessary,
and
points of
where
stresses.
both
the
The
best
method
of
delta-delta systems
are
used, ground
A common
in Fig. 123.
condition found
windings as shown
in practiceis the non-grounded delta-delta
On systems
system.
where
the ground connection
of the ground
is used, the character
the
An
of 2000
average
an
TRANSFORMERS
STATIONARY
164
ground
15
gave
several
gave
and
driven
give
to
pipe
pipe restingon
same
earth, it is found
the
conductance
found
was
dry pebble
of ohms.
thousands
adds
foot
ground
same
the
pipe penetrates
the
As
The
ohms.
ohms,
the
each
that
proportionalto
about
tional
addi-
the
added
upon
what
length.
resistance
specific
The
chemicals
exist around
is present.
there
infinite. In
dry
salt
will
earth
metal
the
In
the
of
plate and
sand-bank
marsh
depend
how
moisture
much
resistance
is tically
pracis
resistance
specific
the
the
of earth
Resistances
ohm.
one
extremely low, being about
in the same
will vary greatly even
connections
locality.
The
engineer is interested mostly in the earth connection in
the immediate
vicinity of the earth pipe or plate; because in
main
the
body
of
the
earth,
the
of cross-section
area
through
if the
enormously great that even
specificresistance is very high the total resistance becomes
conducting
negligiblysmall. If the earth plate should lie in the dry nonof the top layer, it is advisable
to
stratum
get
of introducing better conductivity,not only in the
some
means
the
between
the plate and
the earth, but also between
contact
of
earth
The
best
means
conducting layer deeper down.
the iron
accomplishing this is to pour a salt solution around
to
a
pipe and allow it to percolate down
good conducting
which
the
order
In
stratum.
by
is current, is
there
so
this solution
that
filtration of rain
natural
not
may
be
it is well
water,
washed
to
out
leave
pipe at
crystal
surface, so that rain water
flowing through will dissolve
salt and
Salt has
strata.
carry it continuously to the lower
additional value of holding moisture.
to the use
Objections have from time to time been made
be destructive to the metal
of
salt in stating that it would
considerable
pipe.
Under
action
on
cheap,
and
did
quantity
usual
the
iron
an
destroy
the
conditions
pipe is
it would
be
pipe
salt
of
around
it is found
that
negligiblevalue.
of
better
within
the
Iron
the
the
the
of
the
chemical
the
pipe is very
if it
does
not.
If it is desired
it is necessary
sufficient to
to
decrease
to drive earth
keep
one
out
the
resistance
pipesthat
of the
are
dense
of earth
connections,
a
distance
field of current
of the
separatedby
CONSTRUCTION
TRANSFORMERS
LARGE
OF
165
other.
them
current
together, and
proportionto
The
more
the
number
salt
water
earth, the
pipes have
Earth
which
they will
applicationof
the
lose
boiled
out
and
evaporated
tends
in the
diameter
small
the
surface
earth
As
diameter
of
the
a
from
resistance
pipe
effect
that
earth-
moisture
the
pipe,the
of the
this moisture
The
the
supplied,but
being
pipe effects
of the
an
quickly and
ground.
is
bad
so
out.
is
rounding
sur-
the vapor
pipe.
comparatively
the
decreases
the
resistance
"
more
should
the
intricate systems
operation many
tie-lines between
tions.
receiving stations and generating staThis arrangement
in providing propresents difficulty
tection
present time
on
any
dried
drying
of current
percentage.
Switching.
with
at
have
as
drive away
to
At
will be
its effectiveness
generated
continuouslywithout
pipe
critical value
maximum
moisture
The
certain
less
pipe-earth,the
the
near
carry
around
earth
plate
by
placed around
the concentration
more
in
almost
pipes.
of
potentialgradient
the
will decrease
resistance
the
are
of the
account
line may
one
there
cause
an
in
interconnections
interruptionof
and
a
in
disturbance
large portionof
the
system.
Systems
cannot
is that
he
are
sometimes
"overrelayed,"relays which
thoroughly understand
oftentimes
plugging with
wood
to
renders
some
prevent
what
of connections
careful
the
of
he
be at
them
inoperativeby
considers
the
Before
study should
ator
operresult
unnecessary
expense
deciding
be made
of needed
upon
to
the
mine
deter-
ST A TIONA
166
and
their
and
other
TRA
R Y
from
protection
both
NSFORMERS
internal and
short-circuits
external
faults.
Figs. 124,
125
and
show
120
different methods
four
for
high-
Eelay
lelay SI
Primary
"
r^
Switcheshes
Disconnecting
Bars
Bus
Volt
110,000
*];
Switches
-Disconnecting
Switches
on
Swltcihes
Dteconnecttog
Dteco:
Primary
Series
~~
Relays
Disconnecting
Switches
Power
Transformers
on
[o]
Switch
6. Disconnecting
Bars
Bus
Fig.
124.
attached
the
to
of
Method
"
Switch
protection of transformers.
switching and
switchboard
panels
located
on
operating
the
gallery.
secondary relays (relaysenergized from the
be used on highseries transformers) or both, may
Series relays,or
secondaries
of
voltage circuits.
operated by
source
the
as
main
air-break
where
the
case
an
may
be;
in the
transformer
low-voltage switches
of
small
supply or
switches
are
disconnecting switches
and
are
circuit is most
bus-bar,
isolatinga circuit,
If
these
The
single-poletype
A, B, C, etc.,
auxiliarysource
from
switchboard.
break
marked
of intermediate
means
oil-switches
The
the
which
same
located
are
are
on
of the
etc.
is switched
direct
on
to
high-voltagesystem
LARGE
OF
CONSTRUCTION
167
TRANSFORMERS
to
equivalentin its suddenness
in high-frequency
what
experiments, and the exact
usually occurs
the local capacityof
of the rush will depend largelyon
amount
their connections,that
and
the high-voltageswitches
is, the
there
be
may
distance
rush
they
of current
from
located
are
the
transformers
which
to
they
connected.
are
usual
The
switching
shocks
dependent
are
end
the
to
load, character
the
upon
Disconnecting
Switch
on
Oil Switch
"A"
Transformer
Relay
Switch
Trans^formers
Power
Series
Series
yr
:p-'^||forA*H
Transformer
Transformer
over-load
Tlme-llinlt
for C
Relay
^t
type
of switch
time
allowed
regards
the
transformers
methods
Two
(oiltype
Switch
Low
of
or
switching
air,and
the
and
there
switching itself,
be switched
(1) Switching in
(2) Switching
the
non
to
on
transformers
-energized
Bars
Bus
Voltage
opening,
for
can
Disconnecting
(/
"f To
"
Relay
c
cnrrent
Switches
|6|
Switch
125.
Keverse
Reverse
"
Switch
Disconnecting
Fig.
Switch
Series
tlme-
series
for
load,
Disconnecting
Switch
Umlt
of the
to
Volt
110,000
Inverse
due
transformers
of
turns
and
protecting transformers.
are
in which
ways
a
on
an
line.
open
transformers
on
an
energized
line.
or
reactance
in series.
to
energizied transformers.
and
above
afterward
conditions
raisingthe
but
with
STATIONARY
168
TRANSFORMERS
on
the
Transformer
Series
Disconnecting
Switcli
Disconnecting
Vh\
Switch
Switch
-^[pjoil
Bars
Bus
o^Si Disconnecting'
Switch
Definite
"
Time
Relay
limit
Relay
lijiiit
Switches
Tlme-
Inverse
for
Series
"
for
Switches
Transformer
Disconnecting
Switch
Oil Switch
Disconnecting
Non-automatic
Switch
Oil Switch
Generator
Fig.
Most
to
126.
Another
"
of
the
excessive
on
the
to
in
the
(4) is generallynot
above
being
case
best
are
the
on
and
bad
and
windings
is to
do
three-phase circuits.
possiblebecause
protection.
may
of the
lead
formers.
trans-
switching
possible using only 3-pole
method
whenever
of
switching
shown
thrown
(4), the
low-voltage side
oil-switches
of transformer
methods
surges
Next
method
Busses
of the
all
The
method
necessityof lowering
CONSTRUCTION
voltage
the
where
of
the
high-voltage
all
A
switches
it is necessary
If
point
to
but
where
can
The
amount
of current
to
up
open
If
it
might
can
be
be
circuit
Aside
from
is
for
only
will
with
permit
it is needed
of
that
switch
safely.
operate
switches
be
current.
the
of this
kind,
it
whereby
arrangement
some
when
of
care
to
work,
should
flow
take
very
on
the
instance,
or, for
the
of
circuits
opening
of
methods
above
conditions
two
do
to
the
it is able
connection
provide
use
and
for
which
under
in
to
limit
to
it is set
load
into
brought
the
are
well
time-limit.
the
instantaneously
which
is used
reactance
when
its
the
to
is
large enough
reactance
with
energized
of
economy
made
be
be
to
is
method
first.
circuit
has
switching
about
open
and
closed
being
169
preferential
next
is "dead"
station
important
very
TRANSFORMERS
The
system.
receiving
LARGE
OF
which
be
should
avoided,
as:
(1) Opening
line
long transmission
under
load,
heavy
on
high-voltage side.
the
(2) Opening
with
long transmission
high-voltage side
the
on
no-load.
Method
(2)
to
is to
be
of
safely breaking
most
comparatively
Where
circuit
is, one
good
lead
each
on
practice
the
delta
connections
through
for
or
the
open)
of
air-break
this
for
that
bad
phase
switches
capable
with
necessary,
and
not
fused
to
use
This
group.
fuse
blown-out
distortion
are
For
connection,
delta
three-phase
reason
kind
and
is still customary
of
low-
should
conditions.
extreme
inside
installed
the
are.
construction
it
If
transformers
power
under
installations
small
fuse-switches
expulsion
large
mechanical
substantial
of
(leaving
for
from
done
conditions
load
the
be
method
"dead."
made
be
to
all it should
at
what
switches
be
is not
out
matter
no
High-voltage
the
cut
short-circuits, and
to
required
line
high-voltage
voltage side
that
principally
refers
(1)
live circuit
made
line
they
may
occur.
should
switches.
be
CHAPTER
TRANSFORMERS
AUTO
ordinary
The
The
winding.
the
and
ratio
or
the
circuit
and
Thus
h.
For
and
example,
b d
taking
1050
the
the
127.
in
whole
or
Fig.
or
two
taps
taken
to
the
has
127
part
two
brought
taps
winding
of the
vasiy
be
auto-transformer.
Step-up
"
voltage
lower
tap
volts.
obtain
X
550
and
wound
being
each
a
primary
the
from
out
the
raised
volts
d,
or
for
and
all that
and
b, is wound
by moving
And
voltage maybe
from
550
between
of turns,
connections.
the
to
raise the
to
number
total
the
across
the
shown
Fig.
used
applied
one
of turns.
auto-transformer
at
the
across
but
having
transformer
is connected
winding,
same
of numbers
The
words,
is usually
voltage
in other
secondary
off from
out
primary
winding,
total
is
auto-transformer
from
50
d,
the
the
to
volts.
far
1050-1-50
secondary
volts.
170
end
=
then
be
seen,
gives 1000-1-50
winding,
the
of
1100
is to
volts,
1000
will
As
secondary
is necessary
c; the
for
volts.
bring
two
gives
In
leads
1050"500
by
=
a,
order
out
=
TRANSFORMERS
STATIONARY
172
actual power
The
this service?
requiredfor
auto-transformer
delivered
over
ratingof
the
actual
45,000 + 750
Fig. 128
In
The
to
line will
to the
The
thus
action
act
of
as
33,750 kilowatts.
step-up
auto-transformer
the
is similar
portionof
the
to
that
of the
between
the
two
the
insulated
former
auto-trans-
transformer.
essential difference
and
separate
are
primary
the
The
step-down
or
in the transformer
from
circuit.
the
primary.
the
than
subtracted
auto-transformer
an
be,
the
be,
kilowatts.
3750
will
auto-transformer
delivered
total power
will be the
what
the line?
5000X750
The
and
from
in
other, while
each
to both
winding is common
-1000-
-100-
-1100-
FiG.
primary
and
in both
types
129.
in
an
the
auto-transformation.
primary
The
of transformers
Two-phase
secondary.
each
In
"
and
in the
are
foregoing explanation
between
of
currents
opposite direction
auto-transformer
difference
secondary
to
portion of the
the primary and
a
auto-transformation
the
by
in this
case
is 10 to 1, therefore
we
obtain
get
the
connection
1000
100
as
900
volts.
us
to
TRANSFORMERS
AUTO
If
we
should
take
in
it as shown
end of the
one
Fig. 130
we
obtain
would
173
50 per
cent,
of the
connect
primary
say,
two
systems,
independent single-phase
Ob
Fig.
130.
we
would
have
auto-transformation.
four-wire
Two-phase
"
100=
from
600
volts.
the
middle
The
points,x
points of the
Another
131.
Fig.
system
from
between
a'
131.
"
Two-phase
which
we
and
h c'
auto-transformation.
three-wire
obtain
and
1550
secondary voltage of
volts between
1100X1.41
A
1550
a' and
1100
c', or
volts.
combination
giving a five-wire,
two-phase
interesting
it
transformation
is shown
in Fig. 132.
this arrangement
From
is seen
of different voltages and
that quite a number
phase
very
TRANSFORMERS
STATIONARY
174
obtained,and
be
can
o'
-1000
"
^1000
"f
"
600-"k-500-
"-500
^-nmPi
U
-100-
-1100"
"
"
-1100-
300-
FiG.
100
"
-500-
132.
Two-phase
"
auto-tranformation.
five-wire
-IflOO-
-1000-
immJ
-1000
*"
"
liK^^mJ immJ
n^^'^'iij^
-100
-100-
-^00-
-1040
-1040-
-1040-
FiG.
mately
1040
1732-volt
with
133.
"
volts to
primary
ratio of 10 to
Between
Three-phase
source
1, or
500
auto-transformation.
secondary mains, 1, 2
of supply, using three
the
points ah,h
star
c,
1000
c,
we
X\/3=
to
100
volts.
obtain
866
volts.
and
3,
from
transformers
TRANSFORMERS
AUTO
points 1 2, 2 3,
Between
500 + 100
and
X
3, there
\/3
175
1040
exists
approximately
volts.
*" "
1000
"
-loco-
"
^1000
"
M^^sinJwmsiSiSirisismsi^
|"-ioo^
=H
-500
-im-SCO
Fig.
134.
"
auto-transformation
Three-phase
with
secondaries
open
circuited.
three-phase 500-volt
if
required,may
is installed.
motor
be used
at
the
same
ings,
secondary windtime for lightingor
The
To
obtain
Fig.
135.
100-volt
"
Three-phase delta
is often
connecting transformers
transformers
of correct
shown
in
are
found
not
useful
in
places where
obtainable.
combination
ratio
auto-transformation.
TRANSFORMERS
STATIONARY
176
it is connected
to one
leading out to the secondary distribution,
at 1, 2 and 3; the result
end of the secondary winding as shown
in the vector
of which
represents a phase displacement as shown
of
diagram.
Fig.
Using
136.
the
connecting
for
us
obtain
to
transformers
same
to
"
in the
as
500X\/3=866
volt
of different
number
distribution,such
-1732-
auto-traiisformation.
Three-phase double-star
"
as
three
at
previous examples,
supply, it is possible
voltages
1000,
for the
ary
second-
600,
three
secondaries
open-
three
at
^1732-
-1783
-1000-
-1000-
"1000
"
"\
-100-
-500V3-
-500"^-
Fig.
137.
"
Three-phase
star
B^
auto-transformation
with
circuited.
at
520, six
at
500, three
(Fig.136).
at
173,
According
and
to the
it is shown
three
at
it is understood
are
spectively
volts,re-
raito of transformation
will vary.
is shown
in
three-phase combination
that the primary windings
100
that
the
connected
in star, and
the middle
From
at
leads, ABC,
three
the
6 and
The
are
of each
connected
to
primary winding
1732-volt
a
a
tap is
supply.
brought out
c.
volts.
177
TRANSFORMERS
AUTO
100-volt
-1350-
ab,
and
secondary winding
may
is 500X\/3 =866
be
used
for power
-1850-
-1^-1000-
-1000-
Lm|Mi"-[
^100-
-1000-
U^^^ioaoMm^^
"^100-
-500-
-500-500
Three-phase auto-transformation
FiG.
138.
and
"
upon
the
size and
on
12
1-3.
XI
CHAPTER
CONSTANT-CURRENT
TRANSFORMERS
operating
For
constant-potential,
is
nearly
constant
current
potential circuits,and
winding
secondary
Thus
the
full
from
by
distance
the
line.
cut
of
series
still
with
respect
of
lamps,
maintaining
in
the
the
current
such
stant
con-
manner
is balanced
coil
which
coil
secondary
decreases
hold
resistance.
number
any
counterweight,
and
to
variable
transformer
secondary
primary
or
out
its
from
self-regulating characteristic
the
against
as
to
constant-
current
of
take
to
from
lag
automatically
The
or
increases
amount
circuit
constant-
designed
constant
load, while
zero
of
the
from
through
permits
to
This
vary.
of
reactance
the
circuit
the
irrespective
constant
of
load.
For
the
majority
current
transformer
reliable
in service
one
possible
primary
between
such
deliver
receiving
to
levers
automatically
in
to
constructing
the
of
system
it
It is
angles
operates
the
on
is obtained
either
varying
load
rated
current
that
at
transformer
load, making
the
to
to
mains,
used.
frequently
OPERATION
lighting systems
alternating-current
transformer
current
incandescent
and
arc-
AND
element
the
incandescent
will be
than
found
lower
reactive
the
of
advantages
coil
the
systems
in
constant-
initial cost
method,
more
it combines
as
regulating device
and
and
in
an
ing
insulat-
the
double
transformer.
One
type
of
magnetic
type
enclosing
the
the
primary,
of the
repulsion
for
system
For
the
while
vertical
three
central
limb.
the
upper
and
of
limbs
The
lower
one,
or
is free
to
of
core
and
along
fixed, is
is carried
secondary,
move
is
coil, which
coils
flat
two
on
limb
central
the
core.
The
in the
with
suspension,
balanced
consists
transformer
between
the
fixed
and
windings
moving
to
the
of
the
current
windings.
series
enclosed, arc-lighting
usually
consists
is
transformer
constant-current
of
movable
on
alternating-current circuits
universally
secondary
178
and
used.
fixed
This
primary
type
wind-
maries
When
separated.
are
together should
position;that is,when
full-load
less than
be
when
primaries
the
secondaries
effective force
distance,the
them
draw
primariesand
the
maximum
the
separated by
to
TRANSFORMERS
STATIONARY
180
are
tending
they
in
are
secondaries
and
close
are
For
one
together.
capacitiesof 100 lamps, or less,there is one primary and
the
secondary coil, the primary being stationary,and
secondary
each
from
secondary,
the
maximum
operated
at different
being operated
loads, the
load
than
one-half
may
be
of
to
rated
connected
to be
up
carried upon
transformer.
in
to
at
unequal
of the other
greater,
total
coils
transformer, the
multi-circuit
the
the
the
However,
circuits
two
of
capacty
loads
operated separately,
being less,and
together
will allow
the
the
operate
circuit
one
the
when
circuit,
capacity of
total
the
it is necessary
which
two
of each
load
will be one-half
when
circuits
be
may
if desired.
currents
The
circuit of lamps
separate
arrangement,
capacity of
the
former
trans-
circuit.
one
not
the
that
necessary
loads
the
on
two
circuits from
each
coil be
type is surrounded
with
base
by
and
by
away
the
top of
cast-iron
working parts
The
air- and
of the
are
are
oil-cooled type.
corrugated
sheet
iron.
The
cast
case,
iron
or
The
air-cooled
cast-iron
oil-cooled
type
casing
is
rounded
sur-
immersed
in
oil,which
ing
assists in conduct-
heat.
Constant-current
transformers
usually located
in stations
electric energy
are
in district sub-stations
is
and
close
to
distribution
centers.
TRANSFORMERS
CONSTANT-CURRENT
They
made
are
systems, and
to
for
operate
reasonable
any
to furnish
60-
on
125-cycleand even
primary voltage.
for
125-cycletransformer
60-
181
133-cycle
tomary
cus-
133-cycle
125-
is
It
system.
The
current
maintains
transformer
a
within
1.5 per
the
one-third
of
constant
potential
its regulation
over
capacitywill come
the
constant
its rated
if properly adjusted.
efficiencies of constant-current
The
load
cent,
maintain
and
potential,
uniform
full-load to
from
range
than
accurately
more
even
will
transformer
constant-current
lamps vary
100-lamp transformer
arc
to
about
cyclesfrom
60
at
about
with
transformers
96
full
for
cent,
per
25-lamp
transformer.
Another
transformer
known
replacingthe
older
constant-current
wound"
type
is fast
the
as
wise
"edge-
mentioned
type
above.
this modern
From
of construction
method
which
is the
derived, principalamong
of an
internal short-circuit,
as
are
any
of the
The
consists of
conductors
adjacent
two
transformer,
construction
at
or
of
the
most
this type
about
several
almost
the
advantages
possibili
im-
absolute
voltage
between
turn
10 volts.
different.
is somewhat
The
tends
thereby requiringa
support itself,
to
very
thin
angle
for
flux
path
as
well
as
permitting a
smaller
diameter
coil.
wise
secondary consist of four concentric edgeThe
coils of double cotton
wound
covered rectangularwire.
with wooden
four sections are
assembled
together concentrically
spacing stripsto maintain at all points an air-duct of sufficient
conductor
therefore
Two
surfaces of each
width.
are
exposed
creasing
of air passing through the air-ducts,
to the currents
thereby inthe effective radiating
surface of each coil by about threefold.
The
ning
large radiatingsurface with the consequent cool runThe
primary
allows
copper
per
course,
and
very
high
ampere-turn,
cheaper
current
less
transformer
density which
weight,
for the
mentioned.
less floor
same
permits of
space,
kilowatt
less
and,
of
ratingthan
STATIONARY
182
Construction
modern
most
of Transformer.
type
of laminations
TRANSFORMERS
of
of
The
"
iron,which
annealed
specially
Each
sheet
speciesof
are
lamina)
or
japan,
loss in the
current
is built up
sheared
to the
transformer
constant-current
of
core
is treated
which
to
serves
This
core.
by
japan
rolls which
applied by passing each individual sheet between
are
constantlykept moist with the japan. After passingthe rolls,
the piecesof iron are
carried along a travellingtable, where
they
is
dried
are
air is blown.
through which
by passing nozzles
Short-Circuit,
Flug
l-x-^^J
*"""""H
Fig.
140.
"
for single,or
Connections
multiple of
series
arc
or
incandescent
circuits.
commences
in
horizontal
together
"horn-fiber," the
iron
press
the
position.
stacked
under
the construction
potentialtransformer
iron, the iron legs being assembled
and
After
all the
laminations
have
been
sheets
necessary
of
placed in a press
the weight of the
which
will reduce
considerable
pressure
In the factory an
to
the required dimensions.
hydraulic
is generally used, the pressure
applied being equivalent to
several
tons; the
whole
temperature
legs in
each
be
is also increased
to
about
250"
F.
of
rectangular
of "cruciform"
one
shape which is larger in crossshape, and
the two
section than
rectangularlegs each legbeing assembled
and handled
separatelyuntil completed, after which the three are
and
raised vertically
accurately spaced for the placing of end
There
are
three
transformer
"
two
"
laminations.
After
the
end
laminations
have
been
put in and
TRANSFORMERS
CONSTANT-CURRENT
whole
the
completed iron
is turned
core
is similar
in every
placuig of coils,the
the
for
ready
upside down.
form
The
made
assembly
183
constant-current
type
former
trans-
on
all,there
each
with
coil. For
interesting. In
in this
wound
and
coil. For
primary
coil is the
movable
the
coil for
former
is used which
cylindrical
the requiredinside diameter
as
edge
insulating
movable
has
the
of the
collapsible
inside
same
coil. The
around
manner
coil
of the
the
formers
trans-
wire
diameter
is set
former.
In
on
the
wire
winding
In
it is
lighting
incandescent
and
arc
movable
The
dimensions.
with
concentrically
rectifier systems
arc
mercury
to
of cruciform
one
the lowest
make
to
customary
is the
coils located
four
are
between
spaces
use
leg which
center
respect
the
is fed
from
baked
at
distance
wire.
of the
turn
one
After
equal
the
former
collapsible
the
temperature
of about
the
to
it is set
F. in
180"
insulated
into
ness
thick-
finished and
a
clamp
well-ventilated
and
oven,
until the
coil is then
turns
of tape
are
insulation
with
wound
by
used
will take
one-half
in the
which
is varnished
which
is treated
to
each
one-third
no
turn
varnish.
more
overlappingthe
Various
its width.
insulatingof coils,such
The
ceding
pre-
kinds
cotton
tape,
cambric
tape,
as
applying, varnished
applying,and mica tape.
after
after
tape,
up
Mica
tape
is
ST A TIONA
184
NSFORMERS
TRA
R Y
Where
cotton
high-voltage transformers.
only used on
very
tape is employed it receives a brushing of the best quality of
and
baked, revarnished
rebaked,
insulating varnish, is then
this process being repeated several times for each tape.
within one-tenth
of
The
comes
regulation of this transformer
1
above
amp.
below
or
normal
from
current
full-load
to
no-load.
show
different methods
three
transformers
constant-current
or
of
for
circuits. Method
incandescent
C.T.
Tx
Fig.
141.
of
Method
"
constant
shows
two
a
in each
transformers
independently.
Fig. 141 (A)
simple circuit;(B)
and
(B) represents
transformers
constant-current
case.
and
two
methods
series-arc
operating
of
lighting
separate
volts and
as
two
from
pendent
inde-
two
2000X\/3/2 volts
show
two
singlesecondary winding
circuits operated in series or singly as
desired; (C)
circuit being operated
multi-circuit secondary, each
(A) represents
with
current
from
operation
also
(B)
two
parts
shown.
shipment,
Before
subject
primary
to
an
and
constant-current
insulation
test
transformers
of 10,000 volts
between
between
are
made
secondary,
primary, secondary
and
all
TRANSFORMERS
CONSTANT-CURRENT
duration
The
parts.
insulation
the
of
however,
the
primary voltage
the
the
insulation
case,
has
above,
based
the
is greater
room
of
be
should
25"
than
added
cent,
per
rarely
referred
exceeding
If the
C.
0.5
to
55"
C.
of
temperature
for
each
degree'
rise of temperature;
observed
the
to
is very
If
voltage.
rise not
25"
C,
minute.
one
transformer
constant-current
temperature
room
on
normal
guaranteed temperature
difference
if
type of
modern
The
is
test
5000, which
is above
is twice
test
185
less,subtracted.
record
The
of
tests
transformer
current
100-lamp
CONSTANT-CURRENT
air-cooled
amp.,
RECORD
TRANSFORMER
Full-load
=100
constant-
below.
shown
are
6.6
lamps"
6.6
amp.
"60
TEST
cycles
Lights connected
Test
60
Core
loss in watts
loss in watts
Copper
Sec.
892
402
6930
open-circuit voltage
Pri. current
at
At
75
per
At
50
per
33
per
At
12
hours'
run
C.)
Efficiency in
per
factor
Power
18.7
voltage
rise after
(Temperature
55"
2200
cent,
at
full-load.
98.5
.
cent,
full-load
94.1
cent,
full-load
91.4
cent,
full-load
in per
at
cent,
70.2
full-load
.
At
75
per
cent,
full-load
53.2
At
50
per
cent,
full-load
36.4
At
33
per
cent,
full-load
When
operating
line loss,the
Volts
Power
per
load
voltage and
of 6
.
power
factor
of
lamp
=83
=
84
6 amp,
factor
per
per
lamps
plus
the
lamp
at
cent.
cent.
per
are
cent,
XII
CHAPTER
TRANSFORMERS
SERIES
characteristics
The
circuit
amnaeters
and
is
high
so
directly into
than
greater
with
series
when
to
the
the
alternating-
the
current
very
voltage
connect
of
is
measured
it is also
and
the
instrument
be
to
instrument,
of the
used
relays.
transformer
with
it unsafe
and
capacity
the
in connection
The
circuit
the
with
where
not
are
connection
in
render
OPERATION
transformer
wattmeters
to
as
series
the
is used
It
generally
current
of
known.
THEIR
AND
considered
first
was
lighting systems,
street
but
and
was
in
used
entire
an
nection
con-
failure.
im
n
Sa"-^*r-
^P
Ip
Fig.
Figs.
For
and
142
almost
20
commercial
this
At
on
the
introduction
insulation
the
higher
that
circuit
magnetic
within
current
without
this
The
rings
For
core.
number
meant
they
the
were
To
primary
in
limits
order
turns
considerable
in
of
this
insulation
of
place it
was
time
186
core
to
and
money,
to
be
take
also
use
of
accuracy
of sheet-
serious
care
on
problem.
This
increased.
and
magnetizing
being placed
a
had
to
made
was
became
difficult
but
the
windings
secondary
waste
with
the
required,
was
the
keep
compared
accomplish
and
to
the
with
Also
essential
found
was
into
instrument
instruments
the
once
it
on
came
improved,
insulation
better
joints
reasonable
transformation.
iron
went
other
any
increased.
only protect
not
time
As
to
it
instruments.
of instruments
device
voltages
would
operator.
equal
accuracy
accurate
more
of
the
as
until
measuring
was
relations.
vector
background
with
its accuracy
and
the
143.
transformer
series
in
kept
in connection
time
for
it
years
market
demand
Fig.
^Fundamental
"
7^
142.
143.
use
*"
even
of
the
after
heat
it only
such
means
the
the
resistance in the
the
secondary
increased
the
through
current
e.
increase the
would
as
to maintain
secondary e.m.f. sufficiently
flux and
ordinary conditions
that
in the current
decrease
resultingmagnetic
so
TRANSFORMERS
STATIONARY
188
f. is low
m.
resistance.
Under
and
also the
resultant
netic
mag-
flux.
secondary be short-circuited
If the
that there is no
so
in the
e.m.f.
an
that
in the
secondary which
primary.
windings will
The
be reduced
result
to
value
io
Fig.
144.
"
voltage
Thus
that
Direction
establish
to
the
of
sets
current
up
is that
the
which
will
flux
on
magnetic
the line,a
flux
produces
opposed to
threading the
produce
sufficient
three-phase currents
"
chosen
arbitrarilyfor
venience.
con-
current
magnetomotive
of the
the
circuit,
vector
of the
sum
When
decrease
flux, which
in turn
the
In
transformer
order
secondary e.m.f.,which
the
When
current.
greater secondary
to
determine
the
it is in general necessary
of the
reactances
transformer
decreases
secondary
there is
current.
and
the magnetizing
being equal to
the secondary resistance is increased,there
will be a
in the secondary current
which allows a largerresultant
current
reached
and
secondary current
the primary current.
and
primary
and
f. and
e.m
condition
stable
a
less
characteristics
to
know
secondary
the
creases
inis
secondary
of
series
resistances
windings
of the
the
external
SERIES
TRANSFORMERS
inverse
be the
this ratio
ratio of the
the
nearly
as
force is
that very
so
curve,
is worked
transformer
the shunt
large cross-section
of
to
attain
considerably
little magnetizing
from
electrically
about
at
one-tenth
differs very
much
mechanically and
shunt
transformer;the latter maintaining a
of the
voltage on the secondary irrespective
constant
practically
The
the
series transformer
In order
iron is worked
possiblethe
as
magnetic density of
that
of turns.
required.
series
The
number
of the B-H
the "knee"
below
of the
189
expressionfor
same
for
as
^
I
or
of
current
series transformer
potentialtransformer, or
constant
the
order
KN
(22)
^
^
where
primary
primary
I p
secondary
turns
constant
ratio of transformation.
N
A^
current.
secondary
in series.
is known
ratio of transformation
If the
current.
of wire in series.
turns
and
primary
turns
and
current
is in time
and
e.m.f.
as
the load
phase with
the
is non-inductive
the
primary
primary voltage.
where
0 I p
O I
primary
secondary
and
In
0 E
current.
current.
0 I
0 E
primary
secondary e.m.f.
e.m.f.
magnetizing current.
TRANSFORMERS
STATIONARY
190
0 I p
being equal
to
multipliedby
line current
the
/ p
turns
of two
up
components
and
primary
the
determine
To
turns
0 I p
/ p and
primary ampere-turns
turns
To
the
ampere-
this value
divide
and
p'
find
to
the
by
from
the
secondary
s.
determine
the
the
know
to
loss
per
unit
weight
of iron at
loss current
Iron
(24)
and
N
P
turns
ampere-
(ironloss)=1
secondary ampere-turns
1 p
"
(25)
"
^^
(26)
Ep"
and
secondary
amperes
Pj^-
(27)
"
p
1
is made
equal
to
-^"
the
second-
1 p
P
current
ary
amperes.
will be
The
less than
error
the
desired
To
compensate
diminished
will
equal
from
Is.
cent,
error
ratio
the
I p
j^
so
amount
"
that
"
....
(28;
-^
I sXi^
secondary
s
the
PXlOO
rj"=i"
I p
for this
the
of
error
by
is
in the transformation
As
per
^
value
turns
the
must
be
secondary
slightly
current
SERIES
191
and
secondary is on short-circuit,
there is no
magnetic leakage between
that
Assume
TRANSFORMERS
the
that
for
venience,
con-
primary
the current
is started,flux is
secondary. At the moment
e.m.f.
in the primary winding. This flux produces an
set up
in the secondary which
current
sets
a
opposed to that
up
and
in the
is that
the
primary.
secondary
145.
Fig.
"
The
Method
by
primary
an
of
required
the
to
vector
that the
ratio between
of load.
Such
its
a
of
readingsby
the
that
of the
secondary
current
flux
and
current
primary
series transformer
force
this
of
to the
magnetomotive
three-series transformers.
or
is less than
the
sum
being equal
A
such
send
the
flux
obtainingequal three-phasecurrent
of two-
current
amount
Thus
currents.
use
the
result
and
condition
magnetizing
current
current.
maintain
should
primary
the
constant
practically
magnetizing
current
becomes
TRANSFORMERS
STATIONARY
192
ratio.
preventing a constant
is accomplishedin commercial
factor in
formidable
magnetizingcurrent
by having
of iron
abundance
an
in the
transformers
working
thus
core,
minimum
the
below
"knee"
the
allowed
the
low
very
for
and
wattmeters
ammeters,
curve,
secondary.
either
In
other
and
the
for
and
C A ; the
two
phases
of the
to
two
in
toward
current
will be
the
that
found
of
60
leads
to two
is shown
ammeters,
and
resultant
neutral
not
are
the
to
point 0.
arranged in
phase relation
120 degrees. In
the
or
it becomes
series transformers
is the
in the
that
of transformers
group
secondary
phases
opposite directions
of series transformer
the
reverse
connected
are
are
the
connection,the direction
the star
star-connected
or
change
in
arrow
system
of
in C
current
of
Fig. 144,
the
in the two
resultant
three
delta-
necessary
when
the
secondaries
the
between
a
and
direction,it
same
either
will follow
of that
the
With
in
shown
arrows
is the
direction
delta-connected
resultant
C.
currents
If all the
in B
C B; and
point,and
neutral
current
in lead
and
C and
two
the
return
common
instantaneous
the
With
is the
considered
be
may
to follow
of the
current
of that in A
direction.
in lead A
current
the
and
direction
opposite
the
are
Assuming
two.
in leads
the
leads
of the leads
one
star-connected
or
three
other
current
then
delta-
in the
currents
B-H.
the
of
connection
prising
com-
In the vector
wire at 0.
to a common
winding connected
in lead A
that 0 A is equal to the current
diagram it is shown
in lead
both
in magnitude and direction and 0 C the current
has
C which
a
phase relation oi 120 degrees. The resultant
wire O is equal in magnitude
current
that is in the common
and
direction
in lead
B,
0 B'.
to
its
and
The
ammeter
reading is equal
(2) indicates
to
the
the
value
current
in
shown
Fig. 145.
Assume
Fig.
that
146.
current
one
of
Referringto
in lead
both
the
transformers
is reversed
as
at
C
,
the vector
in value
the
diagram,
represents
and direction,0 C the current
TRANSFORMERS
SERIES
in lead
the
and
C,
direction the
and
current
on
the current
in
one
currents
bear
"
^Another
and
sls
0 C
are
5X'\/3=8,66
and
lead
0,
or
in the
that
90
0 C.
give 5
primary,
to
So
amperes.
it is found
by
wound
sultant
re-
one
that
of the
to reverse
secondary leads.
method
volt-amperes
great
of
it is simplynecessary
relation,
of
using
with
The
that
The
(2).
ammeter
transformers
V
as
0 A
will be
of the transformer
Fig. 146.
be V3
to
their secondaries
across
the
represents in value
displacedfrom
transformers
two
connectingseries
phase
is
current
through
current
is found
degrees,and
Thus, if the
amperes
resultant
193
on
each
three
two-
and
three-series
transformers
ammeters.
transformer
of
two-transformer
like
Fig. 147
are
factors.
194
TRANSFORMERS
STATIONARY
non-inductive) and
non-inductive)
and
(loads A
power-factor.
lagging power-factor in load
with
tendency
the equivalent load on
the leading phase, and
factor
which
on
both
50
power-factor.
cent,
per
and
(loads A
transformer
the
diminish
10 per
is to increase
which
is connected
to
former
equivalent load on transin the lagging phase.
is connected
Low
powerA and
with high power-factor in C
B combined
to
the
Fig.
are
147.
number
"
series transformers
more
used
be
may
and
voltage.
Some
Figs. 148
to
low
in
an
ammeter
and
three
reverse
power,
connections
of the
is sufficient for
and
at the
wattmeter
or
factors
power
phase,
reverse
are
149.
single-phasesystem,
with
two
transformers.
overload,
series transformer
One
connecting
in connection
for
to
of
ways
One
or
more
polyphase system.
with alternating-currentrelays for
to
operating circuits
shown
different
of
or
and
time
same
as
in
shown
three
opening
is used
circuit of
in connection
Fig. 148.
For
series transformers
wattmeters.
series transformers
the
should
may
It is often
be
used
threebe
mended
recom-
for three-
TRANSFORMERS
STATIONARY
196
series transformer
relays one
when
be used
for operating a three-phase system, and
may
operating three-phase wattmeters, two are all that is 'required.
The
shown
in Fig. 150 will be found
to give good
connection
has its own
tripping arrangement.
results,as each transformer
Three
transformers
are
operating together on a
quite common
point grounded or
system, neutral
three-phase, star-connected
connection
In
with
overload
ungrounded.
If all the
direction
the
arranged in
not
outside
one
the
wire
same
the
and
Lr-rrH-
-400-
-400-
iL
-400-
UlAAflJLr
nnnnnn
"eooo-
-60006000-
FiG.
150.
middle
"
Method
wire,and
of
and
middle
the
and
the other
outside
relays
wire
to
will be
difference whether
becomes
to
necessary
when
120
connection
very
the others
A
the
is shown
in
method
reverse
or
60
much
of connection
one
transformer
be
delta
with
or
star, it
respect
to
the
series transformers
have
197
TRANSFORMERS
SERIES
-10)0-1000
^1000
s" *
"
w
00"
h*^ioo
"j
173
"
100"^
"
^173-
-*
^
^
-i-T" i=F
i_""
w
-173-
FiG.
151.
Method
"
and
three
-10)01000
"
"
"
1000-
-577-^
-m-
QOQ06QQ
ULMMiJJlJ UilMMJU
r-fws^^
r-^wr"-|j-'Tnnp-|
t
Fig.
152.
"
Three-phase
star
arrangement
connected
in
showing
opposition.
two
series transformers
STATIONARY
198
their
TRANSFORMERS
opposite terminals
relations
tend
to
The
connected.
in
operate
outside
two
its
and
in the
current
other
latter
when
be great
occur
to
value
which
transformer,
tend
operate
phase
become
of
loaded
over-
that
to
in turn
to
one
any
above
current
enough
on
phase
current
secondary will
the
C,
of the
secondary
wires
that
parallelso
exists in the
secondary
of
the
the
reverse
will allow
the
v"-
Six
Fig.
and
153.
Method
"
relays
to
two-
phase
of
with instruments
connecting two series transformers
or
three-phase system inducing six-phase secondary
currents.
primary
flux
to
raise the
voltage
twice
and
the
current
algebraicsum
the
current
are
current
'currents
operate the
of the currents
in each
wound
This
two
at
For
leg.
for 5 amperes
of
the
additional
current
value
degrees apart,
120
example:
on
value
former
current
to
will not
be
transformers,but will
If
two
their secondaries
algebraic sum
or
be
\/S
the
times
series transformers
with normal
of the
two
is
\/3X
Fig.
the
the
the
cause
relay.
through
to
153
shows
two-phase
8.66
amperes.
arrangement
of
connecting
two
SERIES
series transformers
noticed
be
for
in all the
of all transformers
TRANSFORMERS
199
working instruments
connections
shown
and
relays.
that
the
It will
secondaries
r;
Wm
C^S
u]
1L
UflflAJLr'
'-vAfliULr
-vjjflfl4^
wsom
1!
ABO
Fig.
154.
Three-phase
"
transformers, and
with
direct-current
primaries
is measured
side
of
current
The
to
the
they
are
system
as
of
the
in the
measured
are
series transformers.
the
used
where
by
the
The
the
ammeter
shown
is shown
wire
in
in connection
series transformers
two
shown
connected
value
directlyto
to
obtained
wattmeters
of two-shunt
connected
neutral
phases by the
of the
geometrical sum
ammeters.
three
The
transformers.
series transformers,
two
supply.
interestingconnection
Another
currents
be
may
three
and
wattmeters,
two
showing
arrangement
star
may
of
use
currents
two
in
are
installed,
the
grounded
is that
be
of the
connected
mains.
TRANSFORMERS
STATIONARY
200
of series transformer
polyphase combinations
of one
connections
to four transformers.
covered by the use
are
In three-phase work
either the star, delta,open-delta,
connections
reversed
might be applied.
open-delta and "Z"
In
general,singleand
tM/'*^'^
y'"^^/"/"^'K.
'^^^^^^i
"
Fig.
155.
"
Three
same,
but
the
thought
to be
much
the
are
it is
-tUf^
shown
in
transformer
potential
in the
the. currents
connections.
star
connection
delta and
transformer
secondary
through C is
current
than
better
Fig.
155
delta.
leads
A
For
V3.
and
is
In
B
relays
^NHk
W-H^H^
VM^"\
V-co^
Fig.
156
"
It is also
Two
possibleto
series transforiners
in
is shown
on
"
transformer
and
Fig. 158.
the left,the
V"
only
two
inverted
"
three-phase
measure
To
and
one
read
ammeter.
the
current
switches, a and
V"
connections.
currents
The
two
arrangement
through
b, are
with
the
former
trans-
closed.
To
TRANSFORMERS
SERIES
read
through
the
transformer
switches,c
two
When
the
in the middle
the current
and
d.
measurements
switches,a
on
201
are
and
being taken
not
d, should
be
it is necessary
that
the iron of the two
closed;as
transformers
is worked
which
at a high degree of saturation,
produces an abnormally largesecondary voltage,giving rise to a
serious heating of the transformer.
Since series transformers
connected
are
directlyin series with
the line,.
if not properly installed,
they will" offer a convenient
occur
path for the escape of high frequency charges which may
the line,and
which
in discharging,not
on
only burn out the
a
transformer, but are likelyto form an arc and probably cause
fire,or
loss of life.
fHHi^
"rmWr
W^
^
fWf^
Fig.
The
157.
"
Three
transformer
special connections.
of
is
drying out air-insulated series transformers
current
accomplished by simply passing normal
through the
is thoroughly warmed.
This may
winding until the transformer
the secondary through an
be done
ammeter
by short-circuiting
and sending enough alternatingcurrent
through the primary to
the secondary, the primary current
current
on
give normal
being
obtained from a low voltage source.
If not convenient
to obtain
low voltage alternatingcurrent
the same
result may
be accomplished
normal
direct current
by passing
through the primary
the transformer.
long enough to thoroughly warm
In case
of oil-cooled transformers,the winding should be dried
before
out
the transformer
is filled with
by this same
process
oil. In doing this the temperature
of the coils should
be
not
allowed
much
process
to
exceed
less than
in the transformer.
65"
C, which
normal, owing
may
to
the
mean
fact
the
that
use
of
there
current
is
no
oil
STATIONARY
202
All secondaries
and
TRANSFORMERS
casingsof
and
the
serves
double
purpose
should
be
grounded,
to which
of
This
they are connected.
protectingthe switchboard
attend-,
and
freeingthe instruments
charges which might otherwise
ant
transformers
from
collect
the
on
and
cases
cause
errors.
If for
or
of
it becomes
any
reason
any
current
carrying device
from
to
necessary
remove
the
should
ment
instru-
an
secondary circuit
be
short-circuited
r^rnjr^r^iy^jr*-! r-npsv^
Fig.
158.
by
Method
"
to
wire
or
considered
other
some
as
part
of
Series transformers
means.
the
and
in any
line
circuit.
When
ammeter
one
lead.
should
be
it becomes
necessary
material.
By
of
reason
when
errors
to
due
to
used
with
such
displacement.
series
The
have
meters,
watt-
certain
percentage
of
TRANSFORMERS
STATIONARY
204
TABLE
of less than
power-factors
At
VIII
50
the
per cent,
will greatly
errors
increase.
It will be
transformer, greater
circuit of
at
error
The
"
true
the
same
by
power
obtained
in
used
when
that
factor,but
power
the
greater.
will indicate
means
the percentage
sign
opposite
in the
error
more
minus
The
shown.
will indicate
means
be
may
power-factorbecomes
plus sign (+ )
the
than
accuracy
approximately
lower
seen
direction.
(c) are
slip
bus-bar
to
over
type transformer
It is sometimes
shows
Fig. 159
of
to
step up the
that both
transformers
employed
the
evident,from
is
For
200
Tables
that
the
a
some
transformer
VII
and
and
should
street
of
former."
trans-
series transformers
is
transformer
desired value.
be
ing
Assum-
amp.), it is
testinginstrument
standard
current
5-ampere
coil when
load
coil and
a
the
5-ampere
b.
the purpose
VI,
any
current
transformation,may
in its current
amperes
low-voltage scries
lightingsystems.
For
to
other puiposes,
circuit has
1 transformer
service meter
current
diagram
type
open
the wound
as
using two
equal; No.
the ratio of
are
as
test and
arrangement
on
well
is, "step-up
ratio but
inverted,and, depending
load
use
an
desired
any
of the
former,
trans-
secondary).
for meter
inverted
in No.
switch-stud
or
(5 amp.
desired to
primary type
wound
for transformers
primary
indicates
has been
lightingin connection
with
used for
series
arc
VIII
are
representativeof
therefore not
be considered
certain
general.
type of series
SERIES
in series with
the
is desirable
obtain
TRANSFORMERS
series
205
as
under
has
been
secondary
in
practicethat
current
obtain
of
with
constant-current
is
load
50
per cent,
load
lation
regu-
impossible,but
circuit voltage
open
not
2 per
possiblein the
as
and
at 100-75
to
conditions
exceeding
not
the current
course,
abnormal
found
constant
near
Of
secondary winding.
arc
the
voltage, and
varying
and
on
it
than
more
lamps
on
the
secondary is satisfactory.
.standard
W,
"~_l In verterf
"
To
Fig.
Fig.
with
159.
Series
"
160.
for
Method
low-voltage
Certain
obtained
power
from
expense.
"
Fig.
159.
primary load
Fig.
and
Load
transformer
of 5-40
of
volt
using
used
to
lamps,
700
are
amperes
series transformer
series incandescent
current,
step-up
or
for
as
instance,
obtained.
series
cuits
lighting cir-
arc
lighting.
the
central
station
or
substation
circuit,a
obviating a large item
of expense
and
on
run
at
considerable
the series
when
arc
lighting
required, thus
providing a
very
flexible
of distribution.
system
The
ratio of transformation
of series transformers
used
for
culty
generally been 1-1, bur there is no diffiin winding either primary or secondary for any reasonable
lightingpurposes
current.
has
'
STATIONARY
206
The
leg
center
is
20,000 volts
which
transformer
fits simply
secondary coil
is
the
over
also
form-
secondarp coil,
break-down
and
the
test
the
to
of
Its
core.
work.
in the
used
high-voltagetransmission
circuit voltage
assembled
are
is not
appearance
core
it will withstand
that
the
to
of the
primary coil
insulated
so
two
tognue
or
coils. The
wound
but
with
punchings
the
On
is of the
of this transformer
core
circular
TRANSFORMERS
Its
secondary.
the
on
exists
there
acteristic
drooping voltage char-
purpose
It has
secondary.
is to
limit the
open-
been
obtained
by
so
to the
coil to
current
should
transform
power
location x, the
the
to
secondary
the secondary
have
of
transformer,
potential
of
series
and
its
If the
transformer.
accessible neutral
an
potentialtransformer
point, at the
be connected
according
may
line.
dotted
shows
three-phase circuits
is the
current
correct
such
to
as
branch
give
of unbalanced
voltage
or
one.
is for
three-wire
coil connected
three-phasesystem.
phase through
dance,
impe(c.t.),and its potentialcoil to a "Y"
and resistance
has equal reactance
of which
series transformer
each
condition
its current
has
wattmeter
next
for any
connection
Fig 161(C)
The
the
the
voltage
proper
to
the
to
one
potentialcoil
of the
meter.
Fig 161(D)
two-element
used
in
better
whole
connection
accuracy
is obtained
if
we
unlike
is.employed
wattmeter
preferenceto
is not
two
here,
and
single-phasemeters.
consider
without
(B).
the
that
the
record
of
possibility
error
The
polyphase or
should
It has
of the
that
always be
a slightly
meter
comes
as
from
SERIES
207
TRANSFORMERS
P.W.M.
W.M.1
W,M
Fig.
161.
"
Other
important
uses
for
series
systems.
transformers
on
three-phase
TRANSFORMERS
STATIONARY
208
the
reading
total
sum
and
is not
might
be
may
subjected
Fig
balanced
the
The
phase
superior
and
(G),
for
the
is
transformers
subjected
to
belonging
to
Fig 161(7)
method.
greater
the
to
method
of
that
reason
required
and
of
each
three-wattmeter
in
voltage
the
in
shown
than
singleinto
is considered
energy
of
wattmeters
greater
nated.
elimi-
combined
inter-connection
because
star-star,
independent
method
no
meters.
phase
measuring
three-wattmeter
variations
(E), (F),
potential
be
cannot
those
properly
circuit.
the
shows
This
of
voltages
(F) is practically
three
as
transformers
connected
and
same
reason
by exchange
three
and
used,
should
Abnormal
are
(E)
conductor
one
This
return.
be
to
with
in
is the
arrangement
systems
common
to
method
three-phase,
transformers
referred
objection
the
of the
transformers
four-wire
potential
The
method.
but
shows
1Q1{H)
Fig.
three
are
established
are
which
(E) and
unbalanced.
are
individual
in the
prevented
are
loads
secondary
be
would
in
This
circuits
secondary
the
an
impedence
transformers
star-delta.
primary
the
with
and
primary
method
methods
to
the
on
voltage.
potential
in
on
normal
which
load
transformers
two
wattmeter
three
preference
voltages
the
case
three-
and
through
of current
in
in
used
their
connected
being
be
always
times
transformers,
latter
the
shows
(GO
its
This
loading
unequal,
transformer
remaining
the
\/S
almost
to
161
series
that
reduced
so
system.
unbzlanced
very
single-
three
star-star.
unequal
With
become
one
on
of
side.
might
voltages
short-circuit
accidental
because
the
in
connected
are
secondary
the
the
secondary,
their
adding
three-wire
three-phase
recommended
on
occur
for
transformers
of
arrangements
two
method
potential
method
show
(F)
wattmeter
The
and
separately
meters
afterward.
together
Fig 1Q1{E)
phase
single-phase
two
method
simplicity
and
four-
wire, three-phase,
is
preferable
convenience.
to
polyphase
method
(H)
wattmeter
and
offers
XIII
CH.APTER
REGULATORS
Potential
Feeder
transformer
lines
the
circuit
It
are
the
of
consists
surface, in
placed.
hand
carries
the
of
core
in
direction
one
position
due
the
that
to
14
the
of
be
can
wheel.
magnetic
through
by
primary
C"
any
generated
S.
the
to
secondary
That
in
the
is,when
its
windings
spindle
by
and
the
and
secondary
in
magnetic
direction
core
C, the
winding, P,
winding, S;
the
on
position by
primary
other
162.
regulator.
desired
carries
core
voltage in the
209
position indicated
due
Fig.
slots
deep
on
turned
the
in
secondary
feeder
winding, P,
winding,
and
single-phase
flux
the
four
is mounted
the
In
with
controlled,
be
to
across
in series
connected
ring with
core
Type
"
it
primary
secondary
C
162.
indicated
the
the
of the
are
connected
regulator is shown
iron
laminated
The
arranged
means
which
regulators
windings
is to
feeder
laminated
all
windings
which
of
single-phase
of
Almost
"
primary
secondary
voltage
Fig.
so
their
with
their
and
type
inner
Regulators.
type,
the
COMPENSATORS
AND
flux
through
is in the
winding
the
tion
posi-
has
its
STATIONARY
210
TRANSFORMERS
C C and C C
When
is midway between
the core
highest value.
the generated voltage in the secondary winding is zero, and the
feeder voltage is not affected.
When
the core
is in the position,
C C
the generated voltage in the secondary winding is again at
the generits greatest value, but in such a direction as to oppose
ator
,
voltage.
On
of the
account
Stillwell
The
regulator is another
for raisingand lowering
type of transformer
the
circuit the
varied.
By
of which
voltage
of
means
is to be
switch
arm,
less of the
secondary winding
thus
be introduced
into the circuit,
may
"boosting" by a corresponding amount
more
the
163."
Fig.
well
Type of Stillregulator.
or
voltage
switch
is
winding
may
subtracted
be
added
of the
provided
is
by moving
the
switch
to
which
connected, so
to
generator.
arm
the
to
the
that
the
reverse
primary
the
age
volt-
right,and
left.
above, with an
for connecting the various sections of the secondary
arrangement
in Fig.
winding to a dial switch and reversing switch, is shown
The
feeder
be controlled
in the following
163.
potential can
manner:
Starting with the regulator in position of maximum
left as
boost, that is,with the dial switch turned to the extreme
of the dial
far as it will go, a continuous
right-hand movement
switch for two
During the
complete revolutions is obtained.
A
first revolution
the switch
cut
ten
sections
212
STATIONARY
Fig.
165.
of leads
Further, by bringing a number
winding, 2, 8, the secondary voltage, 1, 3,
of the
decreased
or
connected
are
In
step by step
the
to
circuit.
winding, 3, 4, taps
The
^^
-pj^
jgg
one
The
reduces
that
initial
^^
the
both
position,
lamps, the
is
each
voltage
two
arms
and
the
arm
at
on
zero.
rest
order
of
handwheel
other
counter-
In
contact
decreased
or
on
order
and
the
central
to the
final
block.
added
neutral
contact
the
voltage
age
right,and the voltposition is reached
to
increase
To
to
the
arms
rests
connected
the
type
of
the
left,the
blocks;
contact
arm
secondary winding is
voltage thus
the
potential between
decrease
to
each
position,
the
In
one
of
by
is effected
on
an
treme
ex-
into the
initial voltage
the
ranged
ar-
the
transformer
regulator differs from
stantly
contype in that all the primary and secondary windings are
in use.
There
are
types that vary the secondary voltage
either by moving part of the iron core
of the windings,
one
or
of the windings (primary or secondary) and
or
one
part of the
iron core; the whole
or
part of the magnetic flux generated by
the primary threads
the secondary according to the positionof
the moving part.
The
induction
This
final
circuit is that
of the
7, 8.
difference
is turned
extreme
an
its total
system.
on
the
is turned
lamps, the handwheel
being gradually separated on the
of potential between
the
difference
of the
these
connect
the
the
contact,
circuit and
of
and
arms,
arms
the
handwheel
step by
the
decreased
with
rotation
in
shown
sliding contacts, 5, 6.
operated by a handwheel,
the other through a
and
clockwise
arm
primary bi^g]^^^nd
the
be
7, 8,
arms,
secondary voltage
primary, increased
*^"
them
at
that
of
blocks
contact
two
contact
cent
2, 3,
clockwise.
rp
of series incandes-
of
regulator,
primary winding connected
portion of the secondary
two
7, 8, may
gearing, so
of this form
the
to
in direct
turns
"*
blocks
arms,
one
3TW55jn*
^^
From
brought to
diagram. The
contact
1000
creased
in-
the
are
the
ZZ
connections
the
1, 2, represents
the
across
parts
be
may
different leads
the
as
from
secondary circuit.
is shown
Fig. 165
compensator.
or
TRANSFORMERS
type
REGULATORS
COMPENSATORS
AND
213
regulator is either self-cooled oil immersed, oilwater-cooled, or forced air-cooled depending on the
This type
immersed
of
capacity.
Single-phase regulatorshave only
magnetizingflux is an alternatingone
parallelto
the
through
varied
with
with
the
diameter
that
With
respect
the
its direction is
and
movable
the
winding,the
which
core
always
passes
of the
center
to
the
to
respect
of
excitation
one
in such
armature
to
the
field that
the
primary winding
when
true
induces
relation
flux
is in the maximum
the armature
in
positionwith current
with
positionof the armature
lower
With
the flux
on
generated by
neutralize
If the
side
of
the flux
primary
the current
series
current
no
in the neutral
the armature
either
the
boost
or
no
in the
or
winding,
in the
boost
or
and
in any
secondary.
lower
position
equally
the primary coils,
which
cannot, therefore,
the
generated by
secondary.
core
were
not
secondary
maximum
provided ^ith
passes
short-circuited
214
STATIONARY
winding, and
rotated
TRANSFORMERS
maximum
from
positionso
as
to reduce
the
primary
and
correspondinglyincreasingflux
This
flux
would
voltage
neutral
the
become
to
have
with
maximum
position,due
would
fact
the
to be
the
generated.
in
armature
in this
position the
series windings and
that
considerable
used
force
to
result
The
the
would
absorbed
would
part of the
be
poor
power
short-circuited
inductive
coil
as
on
factor
the
the
on
which
the
the
on
to
be
The
feeder.
armature
short-circuit
have
voltage so
line voltage, and the
the
to
relation to the
acts
position,
neutral
right angles
at
coils.
these
through
current
be
is in
armature
direct
is in the
secondary winding,
^-E,
Fig.
166.
"
Phase
of
single-
full load
the voltage necessary
force
to
thereby reduces
than
that
current
through this winding to only a trifle morethe secondary and
represented by the resistance drop across
of the secondary
short-circuited windings. This short-circuiting
is gradual, from
to the maximum
zero
boosting positionof the
in the neutral position,
regulator to the maximum
short-circuiting
that by the combined
effect of the primary and
short-circuited
so
coils the reactance
of the secondary is kept v/ithin reasonable
and
limits.
The
losses
for
either
primary diminishes
so
increases,
the
to
that
as
the
neutral
the
total
current
position,the
in
the
ampere-turns
current
in
short-circuited
of the
the
coil
primary plus
REGULATORS
the
short-circuited
the
of
ampere-turns
COMPENSATORS
AND
to the
approximately equal
215
winding
always
secondary.
of the
ampere-turns
are
graphicallythe values
Fig. 166 there is shown
phase position of primary and secondary voltages
In
phase induction
of
single-
regulator.
positionin
mechanical
the
When
time-
and
electrical
the
of
degrees
of
moving part is shifted to 0 F on 0 X followingthe curve
semi-circle in the position of negative boost, or 0 Y' and 0
in the position of positiveboost, the secondary voltage can
considered
0
and
C and
and
respectively,
X'
be
0 C
respectively.
A'
When
the values
to have
the
the
mechanical
part
90 electrical
occupiesa mechanical
position0 E s' and 0
positionof
E s the value
degrees from the
the flux due to the
0 B oi the secondary voltage is zero, because
through the secondary core
primary exciting current
passes
parallelto the secondary windings. The resultant voltage is
equal to the primary voltage.
The
kilowatt capacityof any regulatoris equal to the normal
boost
of the
regulated times the maximum
regulator,and as the lower is always equal to the boost, the
is equal to twice the kilowatt
total range
capacity or 100 per
line current
cent,
to
with
Kilowatt
boost
lower
1 to
2 ratio.
capacity of
times
lower
or
be
might
secondary
be
the
current,
expressed in
For
current.
In
single-phaseregulatoris maximum
terms
maximum
the
or
of kilowatts
divided
by
3 and
divided
Regulators
other
by
the
primary voltage
this
the
across
multiplied
secondary current.
induction
of the
or
by the
it is one-half
two-phase type
boost
type should
be
not
used
for any
10
than
frequency differingmore
from
that
for which
they are designed,because an
per cent,
increase in voltage or
decrease
in frequency increases the
a
magnetizingcurrent and the losses and an increase in frequency
increases the
impedance.
must
not
these
deviations
occur
regulator
voltage
should
and
or
the
in
both
The
the
deviation
frequency and
tend
to
neutralize
not
be
subjected to
same
per
of 10 per
cent,
each
a
other.
10
per
allowed
voltage
For
cent,
unless
instance,a
increase
in
frequency, but it
voltage and frequency are
decrease
the
cent,
in
TRANSFORMERS
STATIONARY
216
Induction
the
one
the
operate
voltage as
obtained
the
or
way
will start
other
the
regulator
should
movement
the
or
motor
as
so
in the
lower
to
line
voltage is
be stopped by opening
line
correct
_L
Tt
"
Regulators
egruiaiors
Eegixlators
-E^e
-Eie-
-E"e-
Fig.
167.
Connections
"
of
single-phaseregulatorsoperating
on
three-phase
system.
the
switch.
the
movement
soon
the
as
depending
circuit
closes the
from
the
does
not
on
as
the
positions. The
extreme
interfere with
direction
soon
the
which
oppositeto
regulatorarmature
operationof
of the
movement
it may
be
each
recedes
limit switch
regulator in
the
going.
these
in the
conditions
two
is therefore
If three
there
windings
reduced
the current
phase between
effective voltage of the secondary
is a difference in
and
from
the
its normal
value.
single-phaseregulatorsare
used, each
phase
can
be
REGULATORS
adjusted to
that
COMPENSATORS
AND
the range
equal to
the
between
the
voltage
phases
effective voltageper regulator,
but that due
so
217
of the
is not
that
to the effective
of the
10
regulation per
cent,
per
boostingor loweringneed
7,5 per
in feeder
is the
circuit. For
volts
instead
cent,
which
where
E.I.\/S,
voltage
the
to
In this case,
regulatortimes Vo.
the phases of
across
desired,only 57.7 per cent,
of each
regulator,
due
of
have
not
10
per
cent,
regulatoris used.
three-phaseregulatoris rated
one
boost
lower
or
six-phaserotary
and
I the
at
amperes
service,kw.
capacity of regulator is: (double-delta connection)=J5J. 7. 3.46
(29) and (diametricalconnection) =E. I. 3 (30).
For fKjlyphasecircuits the system may
be regulated by introducing
the
so-called
"induction
of
regulator." This form
regulatorhas a primary and a secondary winding. The primary
the main
across
winding is connected
line,and the secondary
winding in series with the circuit. The voltage generated in
each phase of the secondary winding is constant, but by varying
the relative positions
of the primary and secondary, the effective
voltage of any phase of the secondary on its circuit is varied
from
maximum
boosting to zero and to maximum
lowering. In
order
avoid
converter
They can
by hand,
and
operated by
the
shaft.
distant
is
be
trouble
the
movable
of
hand
wheels
is rotated
core
it is desired
When
point,the apparatus
to
by
motor
controlled
and
of the
be
may
of
means
operate the
is fitted with
The
When
motors.
or
direct-current
the
or
handwheel
regulator from
small
turn
operated
motor
which
movable
induction
core.
type,
convenient
place.
The
theory of this form of regulatoris described graphically
in Fig. 168 in which
the voltage of one
phase of the regulator
is,eo
generator voltage or the e.m.f. impressed on the primary:
e.m.f. generated in the secondary windings, and is constant
ao
at
any
with
constant
with
the
generator
generator
construction
e.m.f. : 6'a'
e.m.f. :e'a'
line e.m.f., or
resultant
of
the
secondary e.m.f.
the regulator is such that the secondary
the
of
218
STATIONARY
voltage, oa,
is made
the
TRANSFORMERS
to
assume
When
oc,
positionwhen
phase relation
etc.
as
to
is the
the
desired
any
north
generator.
e'
Fig, 168.
"
I'
represented by
d in the
electrical
to
that
of
the
induction
an
diagram, while
of
Graphical representation
design of
induction
the
in the
motor.
regulator,
h represents the
neutral
induction
a'
position.
regulator is very
Its
shape
efficiencyis
similar
somewhat
induction
of the same
motor
higher than the average
rating.
The primary winding is placed on the movable
has
either
and
core
delta or star connection,while the secondary or stationary
a closed
winding is placed on the stationary core and is an open winding,
each
in series with
section or phase being connected
the
sponding
correof
the
line.
phase
The
maximum
is 60
arc
through which the primary moves
degrees for a six-poleand 90 degrees for a four-pole. Induction
potentialregulators are built for single-phase,two-phase, threephase and six-phase circuits.
Compensators are used in connection with startingalternatingcurrent
with
motors,
voltmeters
and
in
to
some
extent
they
are
used
in connection
generating station.
Compensators for startingalternating-currentmotors
of an
inductive
winding with taps.. For polyphase
the
consist
work
the
TUANSFORMERS
STATIONARY
220
be thrown
is then
to the
over
cut
suitable
and
out
fuses
provided
causing
breakers.
prevent
are
minute
thrown
to
an
the
line
the
switch
The
winding
is
to
through
generally
prevent
the
line,thereby
the
of current.
designed
after
the
to
bring
switch
to
rush
one
is connected
motor
with
Compensators
within
the
circuit
or
from
operator
the compensator
running position;
rush
unnecessary
of
the
has
that
motor
been
current
to
speed
into the
thrown
kept in
finished accelerating,
switch
the
has
up
when
be
the
switch
is
running position.
still further
is moved
to a notch
stopping, the switch handle
of the switch
along than the running position,the movement
handle
direction as in starting. In the latter
being in the same
position the switch handle is released to that it can be moved
back
to the off positionready to start again.
The
other form
of compensator
used
to
of
all conditions
point of distribution under
and
no-load
between
load
without
overload,
appreciable error
variable
three
of
consists
reactance,
parts: a series transformer,a
is adjusted to
The
variable
resistance.
and
a
compensator
of
voltage
allow
at
for the
the
resistance
and
inductive
reactance
of the
line.
If
sponding
correproperly adjusted, a local circuit is obtained
and any change in the line
exactly with the line circuit,
causing the
produces a corresponding change in the local circuit,
voltmeter
always to indicate the potentialat the end of the line
It is
of distribution,
center
or
according to which is desired.
circuit is dependent
well known
that the drop in a direct-current
these
are
REGULATORS
due
resistance
The
reactance
usually
to
if the resistance
it would
that
necessary
load
at the
at
lines,but
of the
the
causes
drop
it is
be
greater than
were
compensator
all
221
circuit
alternating-current
an
the
only
not
in
but
resistance,
the
upon
COMPENSATORS
AND
times, whatever
be
may
the
current
and
power-factor.
Fig. 171.
^Form
"
the
of compensator
point
used
of distribution
indicate
to
the current
both
in the line.
The
the
line;and
always
current
reactors
voltageat
of load.
series with
a
of
variation
all conditions
under
the
and
tional
propor-
resistors
are
wound
that any
of the voltmeter
and
three-phasecircuits one
In
adjusting this type
calculate
arm
at
the
the
ohmic
compensator
of
compensator,
point which
will
is sufficient.
and
it is advisable
set
the
to
resistance
then
called the
"
Line-dropcompensator.
"
222
STATIONARY
Its connections
in
shown
are
center
which
each
the
proper,
provided with
practiceat
line of which
Each
is to
in
used
as
Fig. 172,
of distribution
be
must
TRANSFORMERS
present time
the
the
voltage at the
be indicated or recorded
in the station,
shown
in Fig. 172, No. 1,
voltmeter
as
be
and
reactive drop of
adjusted for the ohmic
line respectively. For example, take such
line giving
a
factors shown
in Fig. 173; where
R is ohmic' resistance of
must
10, Xs is
the
reactance
of
To
of E
of
supply
and
the
With
voltmeter
unity
drop is due
No.
factor
power
independent of
is the
load
voltage.
that the voltage
to nearly 110.5,
100, it is necessary
it will
entirelyto
almost
and
voltage be increased
2 of Fig. 160
will indicate
generator
or
ohms,
10
the
be
noted
that
this value.
total
the
the
live
is practically
line reactance.
Current
Transformer
j; fji
"
"
Fig.
As
the
172.
"
Connections
for
"
Line
Drop
Compensator
live-dropcompensator.
line
factor
of the
reactance.
The
where
cent,
114
voltage diagram
R
and
Xs and
of such
are
as
power-factorload. The
which
gives "' 100.
=
conditions
for
loads; for, as
which
the
circuit is shown
before, but
vector
For
the
compensator
line
the
Eg
above
in
line has
in this
or
case
any
Fig. 174,
an
80
per
represents
other
is set it is correct
for
live
all
will be incorrect.
Automatic
regulation
of
single-phasefeeders
presents
no
AND
REGULATORS
in that
diflficulties,
at
"
is but
there
223
definite
one
point to regulate
regulatoris directlyadded
If regulation
subtracted
from the voltage of the feeder.
or
is necessary
the station is desired,only a potentialtransformer
distant point
if regulationfor compensation of drop at some
is
"boost"
the
and
to
COMPENSATORS
desired, a
of the
"lower"
or
connected
series transformer
in series with
the
feeder is added.
JP"
=10
100
It very
the
power
100
per
factor
would
cent., but
remain
the
should
constant
factor
power
and
vary
approximately
considerably,
Eg^lU
'\oi_^^
"^
Fig.
it-may
such
cause
an
extent
For
such
174.
the current
that
Constants
to
service
be
the
series
out
best
of
arrangement
would
be
to
in
connected
transformers, one
B of the phase
series with each conductor
as, for instance,A and
the primary of the
which
across
regulator is excited. With
is
this connection
(see Fig. 175) the line drop compensator
for ohmic
and inductive
set to compensate
drop to the load
and
the voltage will automaticallybe maintained
at the
center
of changes in load or power
factor.
desired value irrespective
use
two
cross-connected
224
ST A TIONAR
TRANSFORMERS
Hand
replaced with
of the
automatic
automatic
regulator
D.T.
Fig.
175.
"
Single-phaseregulatorand voltage-dropcompensator
to a three-phase system.
connections
Regulator
Regulators
-o
T=f
C.V
9
'1^
"?
C.T.
Fig. 176.
"
Two
single-phaseregulators
use
there
has
followed
which
of the contact
perfection of
displacesthe operator
a
the
and
meter,
contact-making voltregulatesthe voltage
REGULATORS
AND
COMPENSATORS
instrument
automatically. This
is
225
of
composed
solenoid
in
windings; a shunt winding which is connected
parallelwith the secondary of a potentialtransformer, and a
series winding (differential
with respect to the shunt winding)
with
two
which
transformer,
circuit. A
movable
with
is set
lever
core
an
by
its contacts
are
of
means
set
series
the
the
feeder
of
which
of contacts
core,
lower
and
the
pivotedlever.
make
stationarycontact.
lower
between
midway
of
center
is attached
core
the
through
end
and
upper
secondary
is in series with
passes
to
the
of which
lever
contact
primary
the
solenoid,and
The
in series with
is connected
The
so
that
stationary
contacts
normal
of this instrument
connections
The
lightingis connected
on
and motors
to the same,
in each
connected
regulatorsand
conductor) are
middle
the
only
conductor
three
for
phases of
two
three-phasesystem
in Fig.1 76.
shown
are
series t{||hsf
ormers
If the
necessary.
Two
gle-phase
sin-
(one transformer
series transformer
in
not
pensation
cominstalled,
phase were
proper
could
be secured, owing to both phase displacenot
ment
and an
of
in
the
three
current
unbalancing
phases.
Three
single-phaseregulators are
usually employed when
taken
from
all the three phases of a
are
lightingand power
One
three-phasesystem.
three-phaseregulatormay be used, in
which
it is better to employ only two
series transformers
case
cross-connected, so
or
as
to
get
an
With
shown
be
the
single-phase
regulatorsas
adjusted independentlyof
established
to
at the
three
use
in
Fig. 177
others
of each.
For
and
this
each
constant
reason
in preferenceto
single-phase
regulators
phase regulator.
15
load center
of unbalanced
average
current.
phase can
voltage
it is better
one
three-
ST
226
TIONAR
employed
are
conductors
to
independent
three
systems,
their
having
conductor
phase
TRANSFORMERS
four-wire
three-phase
For
with
and
their
This
neutral.
single-phase
secondaries
is
excited
tors
regulain
connected
primaries
method
single-phase
from
equivalent
series
phase
to
three
circuits.
if
y
Fig.
An
177.
"
installation
giving
and
perfect
regulation
operated.
when
properly
installed
228
STATIONARY
Where
suitable
TRANSFORMERS
electrostatic
is available
voltmeter
the
high-
tension
connected
In
making
should
the
to
the
be
core
and
frame,
test,connect
as
and
shown
grounded.
in
Fig. 178.
The
sparkvoltage, which
set
TABLE
Table
Points,
of
for
centimeters.
Sparking
Various
to
IX."
SPARKING
DISTANCES
Distances
in
Effective
Sinusoidal
Air
between
Opposed
Voltages,
in
Sharp Needleinches
and
in
TRANSFORMER
After
transformer
is
every
insulation
The
depends
difference
strain
be
points should
applied
be
therefore
be
tested
insulation
of the
stand
with-
should
a
200-volt
least
2000
volts.
the
tude
magni-
at
the
long,
for
of
the transformer
primary
2100-volt
winding
the
to
renewed.
as
tion
injure the insula-
may
and
229
of
continued
be
not
PRACTICE
the
upon
voltage applied to
of the
the
should
instance,a
For
secondary should
The
length of time
should
which
test
designed.
a
IN
TESTING
its
reduce
permanently
strength.
Transformers
by their
tested
side
is
voltage. One
high-tension winding
the
of
connected
own
low-tension
the
to
and
winding,
sometimes
are
iron, and
the
transformer
operated
above
normal
the
is
test
of
end
voltage
give the
at
to
The
voltage.
test
necessary
Testing Transformer
the
same
the
other
repeated when
the high-tension winding is
and
connected
the
side
one
connected.
dis-
Fig. 178.
Method
"
for insulation
apparatus
insulation
making
In
should
care
adjacent
the
to
to
protect
terminals,only one
it should
be
possible,
whenever
of the
for the
of
purpose
also
the
others
test.
If
it is necessary
should
be
handled
at
beyond
any
insulated
called
test
"over-potentialtest"
to
time,
bility
possi-
between
is made
between
adjacent turns
windings. In applying
and
but
Another
not
under
apparatus
test.
great
the live
handle
and
be taken
tests
of connecting
of
is
transformer
always increased.
This
times
test
the
winding open-circuited.
volt
be
winding,
appliedto
at
one
three
end
is to
If this test
times
of the
its normal
winding
in
be
made
voltage, 6000
question,or:
on
volts
2000may
TRANSFORMERS
STATIONARY
230
3000
volts
to
1200
volts
to
300
volts
to
winding,
1000-volt
winding,
100-volt
winding.
be applied at high frequency
400-volt
the
be
The
be reduced.
that
double
and
tested
was
85
280,000 volts, or
designed.
per
than
this would
be
followed
by
minute
half times
defect that
and
of transformer
yet
not
normal
may
have
to
burnouts.
apply twice
another
test
the
normal
the
test
the
and
is
at
to
turns
practically
of
test
surer
voltage
apparent in
between
better
60
present time
the
Double
and
current
cycles
rents
133-cycle curcycles.
60
at
The
of
amount
least
for power
that
so
for
and
one
one
one-
discover
any
double-voltage test,
short
time
the
double
applied.
voltage was
The
former
applicationof a high voltage to the insulation of a transis the
of determining whether
the
only real method
Mechanical
dielectric strength is there.
examination
of the keenest
kind
very
is false,and
of insulation
measurement
much
when
measured
by
voltmeter
comparativelylittleresistance
may
or
may
with
low
resistance is not
not
show
voltage,but
ance
resistoffer
current.
high-voltage
the primary and the
In working the high-voltagetest between
the secondary, the secondary should
core
or
always be grounded
for the reason
that a high voltage strain is induced
between
the
and
the
other
be greater than
the
core
winding which may
strain to which
insulation is subjected to under
the
normal
operation,and, of course, greater than it is designed to stand
the
testing between
tage
primary or high-volconstantly. When
side of, say, a high ratio transformer, and
the core, the
induced
the low-voltage winding and
voltage strain between
be
broken
be
core
high and the secondary may
very
may
down
by an insulation test applied to the high-voltage side
under
conditions which would
not exist during normal
operation
time
of the transformer.
shorter
The
the
the voltage is kept
to
TESTING
TRANSFORMER
on,
with
IN
PRACTICE
correspondinglyhigher voltage
because
get
deterioration
tested
be
this
for
conditions
abnormal
many
to
231
desired
the
of
the
with
at
lation.
insuleast
is
being necessary
of operation which
side of the winding
occur.
very
connectingthe
across
latter to the
110,000-voltwinding,or
between
shall
we
core
induced
an
receive
220,000
voltage of
160
volts
volts
turns.
Several
years
it
ago
was
agreed
to
lower
the
standard
high-
all
to 1.5 times the rated voltage,and
voltage test specifications
made
of breakdowns
sorts
to the
happened until a change was
higher test. The double voltage test is not too high and not too
how
former
test no
matter
severe
a
high the rated voltage of the transand
industrial purposes.
For
mercial
commight be for power
it will not
former
testing transformers
apply. Such a transfor 400,000 volts and
before
it was
was
recently made
shipped from the factory it was
given a full half-hour test at
650,000 volts with the center of the high-voltagewinding grounded.
Since
then
highest
test
that
of
was
has
one
made
far, on
so
14,000
made
been
kv-a
for
750,000 volts.
commercial
100,000 volt
power
About
the
transformers
transformer
which
was
system
former
was
volts
give
transformer
across
its
high-voltage
was
fitted
with
test
of
180,000 volts.
oil-filled terminal
The
bushings
TRANSFORMERS
STATIONARY
232
during
and
was
the
visible
even
was
fitted
which
is made
bushings
of these
test
in
when
with
the
darkness.
utter
condenser
corona
latter
The
former
trans-
of terminal
bushings
and conducting
insulating
type
layersof
of alternate
up
270,000 volts,no
at
material.
In the
operation of
confronted
rise between
only effective
that
burn-out
In fact it is
a
that
turns
small
but
across
part where
total
of the
in
voltage
ficient
suf-
voltage
itself
short-circuit
and
voltage is concentrated.
100
times
turns
and
at
at
the
voltage
of the
are
we
transformer
to
as
excessive
the
quitepossibleto get
percentage
turns
the
that
line
the
high in
so
few
appreciable increase
no
be
found
taking care
increase
not
may
be noticeable
to
and
it has been
transformers
normal
the
voltage
across
time
same
terminals
have
of
the
tra,nsformer.
With
without
or
insulation
extra
on
end
the
of transformers
turns
operating on
end
the
on
of
out
way
turns
it safe
make
the
always provided.
This double
voltage test is
been
thoroughly dried out and
made
the
after
to
are
has
transformer
oil could
result
not
Temperature.
be
may
upon
drying-out
completed,
and
the
"
The
applied in
determine
of the
as
temperature
several
nearly as
ways,
heat
test of
all of which'
up
are
transformer
arranged
service.
starting a temperature
test, transformers
for them
left in the room
a sufficient length of time
alike by the room
temperature.
a
transformer
temperature
temperature
has
so
remained
many
that it has
throughout,
the
to
tions
condi-
transformer
or
should
Before
If
ately
immedi-
occurred
burnouts
cases
many
were
the
because
occurred,
desired value.
the
to
been
burnouts
many
In
age.
transformers
had
process
relied
be
decreasing with
the
that
was
the
reached
in
hours
to be
room
approximately
temperature
of
the
be
affected
at
stant
con-
uniform
surface
may
TESTING
TRANSFORMER
be taken
be that
to
however, the
transformer
of the interior.
of the temperature
ascertain
233
internal temperature.
or
interior,
If,
the
is radiating heat to
the
room,
will be found to give little indication
of the
of the surface
temperature
PRACTICE
IN
rise of
eters
transformer, thermomsometimes
are
used, which give only comparative results
useful only
in temperature
and such measurements
are, therefore,
in ascertainingan
increase in temperature
during the heat run.
from
If thermometers
used they should be screened
local airare
be read
without
and placed so that they can
currents
being
To
the
temperature
If it is desired
removed.
readingsshould
the
In
order
determine
to
it is necessary
resistance,
resistance
remained
throughout the
temperature
resistance
The
in
to reach
is called
after
constant
of
measurement
first what
uniform
ature
temper-
room
the
temperature
"cold"
former
trans-
for
out
temperature through-
rise
rise of
each
of
the
windings, separate
of each.
be taken
of
of resistance
by means
the followingequation:
R
or
by
rise
temperature
use
of
room
out
through-
is constant.
measurements
readings should
by the
rise
the
mometer
ther-
rise
by resistance gives the average
windings of the transformer, and to obtain
temperature
average
temperature
to determine
length of time
its windings.
sufficient
The
test
thermometer
by
has
under
curves,
intervals
difference between
and
temperature
at half-hour
be taken
until the
and
test
obtain
to
may
be
Ro(l +0.0040;
mined
deter-
(31)
by equation
Resistance
where
R'
is the resistance
at
at
S"C
any
~^^^~R'
temperature
(32)
t.
temperature
rise.
of
transformer
60"
C.
Ascertain
correct
perature
tem-
234
STATIONARY
The
correction
corrected
of
apparently
is 5" lower
temperature
room
a
is
temperature
TRANSFORMERS
0.5X5
2.5
60
20
"
than
the
cent,
per
40"
standard
requirements,
be
must
added
giving
of
temperature
100X2.5X40
41" C.
100
Thus
with
calculated
from
cent., or with
the
a
should
of 20"
temperature
room
temperature
room
be
equation should
above
decreased
by
be
added
of 15"
temperature
should
If the
C.
This
in
increased
be
so
should
for each
0.5
per
room
on.
differs
rise in
observed
the
temperature
by
temperature
room
25"
2.5
C, the rise
cent., and
5 per
from
with
cent.; and
per
by
of 35"
temperature
by
pic
rise in temperature
C. the
corrected
be
degree centigrade.
is intended
correction
to
pensate
com-
tion
for the change in the radia2000
constant
involved
error
Sinn!
well
as
for
as
in the
the
assumption
100-
that
Umj!jImJ UjiMWHL
m
the
0.004,
coefficient is
temperature
correctly, 0.0039,
more
or
"mmmm
remains
-3000-
with
constant
varying
temperatures.
room
-4000-
To
Fig.
179.
Method
"
of
and
transformers
for
an
let
example.
over-potential test
and
ohms,
of
Temperature
The
when
primary
referred
during
room
temperature
The
certain
tance
primary resis-
test
is
30"
ohms.
Ascertain
C.
is
transformer
rected
cor-
rise.
resistance
to
sistance
re-
ing
follow-
the
operating temperature,
its maximum
at
take
us
of
increase
ment
instru-
of
8
the
measure
necting
con-
taken
temperature
at
temperature
coefficient
of
0.4
per
of
30"
cent,
C,
per
for incoming
of reference
cooling
the standard
transformers,
temperature
In testing water-cooled
of the transformer.
be 25" C, measured
at thfe intake
within
5" C.
water
of the ingoing
maintain
the temperature
it is important
to
ambient
temperature
this is impracticable, the reference
of the surrounding
air, but where
the disconnected
when
of the windings,
should
be taken
that indicated
by the resistance
as
the temperature
and
of
of cooling water
is being supplied with the normal
transformer
amount
For
water-cooled
should
transformers
water
the
windings has
become
constant.
STATIONARY
236
in the
oil,on
method
"
various
and
tank
cores,
other
parts of
the
possible,
when
transformer
A
the
TRANSFORMERS
of heat-run
used
to
extent, and
some
known
as
the
connected
to
as
way
each
oppose
two
to the
; the
wattmeter
in the
other.
The
voltage
equal
proper
current
primary
circuit
PEl"L.
"F31
Fig.
180.
"
Method
of
for heat
connecting apparatus
test, known
sition"
"oppo-
as
test.
the
measures
total
core
that
in the
secondary
the
loss.
method
Another
test"
loss,and
total copper
is shown
used
often
in
and
called the
this test
"motor
generator
two
are
Fig.
used, having their high-tension windings connected
together.
Proper voltage is applied to the low-tension winding of one of the
former
transformers, and the low-tension winding of the other trans-
is connected
s
open,
to
the wattmeter
and
with
loss
from
In
181.
the
reads
same
the
case
the
Then
source.
losses
core
total
loss
in the
transformers
loss.
with
of both
the
transformers,
Subtracting the
is obtained.
This
oppositiontest)that
outside.
switch
core
method
only the
TRANSFORMER
At
the
TESTING
time
present
the
flow
IN
point of
PRACTICE
237
pounds
impregnating com90" C.
It is possible
the
oil.
the
practicesof drying
(see Chapter
tests
temperature
to
it is
always
voltage winding and
FiG.
181.
Another
"
as
through
to
To
the
to
make
impress
out
short-circuit
to
sufficient
drying
voltage
about
cause
20 to 30 per
coils. This
of the
current
cent,
coils to the
low-
the
test
current
is found
formers
trans-
high-
the
on
of
temperature
normal
In
IX).
applicable
are
transformer
raise the
transformers
convenient
more
method
voltage winding
out
known
to
flow
cient
quitesuffi-
desired
limit.
the
through the windings when
secondary is short-circuited requiresa voltage of about 3,3 per
the windings
cent, of the high voltagewinding, accordingto the way
connected
are
(seriesor parallel). For example: It is
desired to dry out a 100,000 volt, 10,000 kw. single-phase
transformer;
5000
a
kw., a 2500 kw., and a 1250 kw. of the same
will be the voltage necessary
to circulate
voltage, etc. What
20 and
30 per cent,
of noiynal current
through the coils of the
transformers?
table
The
current
answer
flow
to
this is best
given in
the
following
238
ST A TIONA
R Y
TRA
NSFORMERS
TABLE
XI
Capacity
Conditions
of
of transformers
in kw.
test
1250
high-voltage current
Normal
000
volts
on
Voltage required
when
100,-
at
12.5
amp.
full-load.
circulate
to
low-voltage winding
volts
3300
same
is short-
circuited.
At
20
per
normal
cent,
At
30
20
current
30
2.5
amp.
660
volts
cent.
per
normal
cent,
per
current.
.
3.75
cent.
per
amp.
volts
990
is
If
for
one
20
normal
normal
cent,
per
current, and
With
current.
the
50,000 volts,the
current
the
conditions
temperature
The
a
maximum
temperature
room
when
,satisfactorily
to
say,
around
of 25"
is obtained.
periods
time
of
and
copper
iron
on
the
found
an
that
their
at
loss,and
insulation
but
same.
been
best
and
efficiency
might mean
is required, hence
decreased
first cost
C. in the temperature;
about
temperatures
the
10
on
the
bad
cent,
per
their effect
deposition of hydrocarbon
cooling apparatus, and a further
copper
on
the
quite
full-load
that
for short
high ratio
is
that
of
of transformers.
objectionablein transformers.
at
stated
will operate
limitingtemperatures;
the
on
gradual
objection,this loss increasingabout
the
the
of this kind
overload
are
for
for
transformers
their effect
deterioration;
of 25"
about
an
point where
condition
High temperatures
effect
In
C.
worked
that
connected
will be doubled
above
will remain
cent,
is
large transformers
load,this value having for its basis a
For
rated
overloads
C,
the limiting
rated
that, in general,it is
given
of temperature
rise is 55"
temperature
for 30 per
high-voltage
winding
values
values
volts
50
100"
C.
loss is
with
Their
an
means
decided
increase
oil is to increase
windings
and
effect is their
internal
tendency
to
increase
"aging"
the
is measured
being
at
surface
the
rise in temperature
self-cooled
of this type
on
specified
oil used
effect
the
on
means
an
increase
rise in the
yet it has
As
laws
the
of
for
once
in the
circulation
velocityof
The
all that
been
formers
trans-
temperature
ingoingwater
and
this basis
On
C. less than
10"
in the
has
viscosityof
to
its
cooling
for
general
combination
of Transformation.
the
an
must
because
one
to
say
will indicate
is most
which
able
favor-
considerable accuracy
with
"
The
ratio of
It is the numerical
be correct,otherwise
The
the service
too
relation
ratio of
will be
high
ratios
any
is tested
transformer
creased
in-
theory
correct
which
cases
of conditions
the
between
the
flowing.
when
one
great
not
Ratio
surrounding air.
of the
possibleto formulate
cooling,and enable
to
the
frictional resistance
is
for
temperature.
not
of
increase
An
the
transformers
insulatingpurposes
for
temperature.
and
about
on
water-cooled
surrounding air.
will be
the
based
cooled
of the
class of
The
oil
the
is water,
of the
temperature
be
that
coolingmedium
The
rise to be considered
state
should
oil-insulated
for
transformer.
A.I.E.E.
forced-air
for
and
surrounding air,but
the
cooling medium
transformer
the
immediate
the
at
of the
surrounding air.
oil-insulated
not
core
transformer
of the
the
or
of
Rules
of
oil and
the
coils
the
temperature
not
of
top
Standardization
is the
ing
affect-
temperature
with
of contact
The
present
is almost
temperature
taken
maximum
the
measure,
insulation
the
239
iron
of the
PRACTICE
silicon steel).
improved
To
IN
TESTING
TRANSFORMER
former
trans-
tory,
unsatisfacor
too
low.
essential;
otherwise cross-currents
will be established through the windings.
A method
in Fig. 182, where
the primary
of ratio test is shown
of the transformer
is in parallelwith the primary
under
test
of the standard
ings
ratio transformer, and the two secondary windFor
successful
are
connected
Standard
of 5
or
10.
are
in series^
transformer
ratios
are
usually
an
exact
multiple
TRANSFORMERS
STATIONARY
240
TABLE
XII."
RESISTIVITY
TEMPERATURE
OF
TABLE
IN
TEMPERATURES
Initial
temperature
cent.
Temp,
in per
COEFFICIENTS
AT
COPPER
DIFFERENT
CENTIGRADE
coefficient
cent,
degree
OF
INITIAL
Initial
Temp,
in per
temperature
per
cent.
coefficient
cent,
degree
cent.
per
cent.
0.4200
26
0.3786
0.4182
27
0.3772
25
0.3801
Low-voltage distribution
windings) 110, 220,
440
or
transformer
550
1,110/2,200,3,300, 6,600
volt
and
to
ratios
are
(low-voltage
ing)
(primary voltage wind-
10,000 volts.
TRANSFORMER
TESTING
High-voltagetransformers
IN
wound
are
for
PRACTICE
241
11,000,22,000,33,000,
140,000 volts.
are
required with ratio-tapson
Occasionallytransformers
be operated at the maximum,
the primary winding so that they may
intermediate
minimum
or
ratio.
7 7
ImAMOAMmJ
^DqOO^
"
Fig. 182.
^^^'^
S.E
D.T.
Sw
tch
Method
"
lQfi.Q.0QQ.O.QO.Q.Qj
Primary
I Secondary
"
test.
The
to
on
Both
be
of these
better
obtain
to
the normal
is
them
ratingof
It is evident
while
advantages
that
operatingon
operated
at
by other
cuttingdown
than
means
it would
the transformer.
if the
any
of the intermediate
greater voltage
copper
desirable but
sometimes
are
when
the
somewhat
per
and
turn
total
so
taps, the
the
transformer
therefore
is used.
winding
that
constant
total
at
The
full-load
is reduced
materiallyincreased. The all-dayefficiency
very materiallysince the iron loss exists for 24 hours
of the day and the copper
loss only about three to four or five
hours.
And, as regards compensating for excessive line drop,
losses
are
it is true
and
at
16
not
that
such
if the transformer
places
as
have
is connected
excessive
line
for
lower
ratio
242
STATIONARY
TRANSFORMERS
the
upon
approximately normal
decreased
primary
loss
turns
and
the
desired
the
system.
in the
primary
is
longer
longer exists,the
excessive
no
drop no
and operating on
any of the intermediate
ratio taps will be subjected to full primary voltage
transformer
an
connected
lower
or
and
core
impressed
the
on
reduced
primary turns,
of
the
and
transformer
and
the
will
loss
core
become
cessive
ex-
the
creased
secondary voltage into a dangerous limit,that is to
dangerous so far as burn-outs of
say,
incandescent
should
lamp is designed,reduces
the
-n
T.^
100
FiG.
183.
necting
"
ratios
in
^,1
con-
least 20
in the
day,
and
excessive
excessive
voltageswill
full-load
result in
may
per
cent,
of
for
take
10
cent,
per
result in
And
current.
in ratios of
loss for
core
burning
say,
the
10-1
out
to
of
9-1
loss approximatel
core
primary
circulation of about
difference
of 2 per
100
and
ondary
sec-
cent,
per
in the
cent,
ratios
full-load
current; thus
showing
the
absolute
of each
transformer
between
points
current
circulating
The
on
the
cent.
per
difference of about
Conse-
of
hours
21
to
value.
disadvantage of
at
its life to
transformer
a
q^ently by operatmg
its intermediate
ratio-taps,offers
parallel,
transformers
two
different
15 per
ofr
Effect
voltagefor which
normal
21 volts
is 5 per
and
with
open
shows
is effective in
windings
cent., and
against the
21
the
volts.
For
necessity
example;
impedance
measured
What
volts
difference
will be
the
secondaries?
current
former
circulating
through the transimpedance of the transformers the
244
ST
TRANSFORMERS
A TIONARY
if two
or
made
are
be
different.
Single-phasepolarityis
easilydetermined;
since both
transformers
polyphase
very
not
so
with
rotation
B
^E-"
NOI
NO
Positive
I
Polarity
Negative
VJ Polarity
E-e
"
E-e
abba
Fig.
185.
and
^Positive
"
a large
considered;in fact polyphase polaritymay mean
number
of possible
combinations.
formers,
Consideringfirst,the test for polarityof single-phasetrans-
must
be
it is best to
consider
direction
the
of
voltages to know
whether
that is,180 degrees
they are in phase or in opposition,
of phase. Positive polaritymeans
that if,during the test,
out
A-b
is the sum
and a-h, positivepolarityis obof voltage A-B
'
"
i
'Noi
iryivn
n
Fig.
186.
"
Method
of
ryyv-n
findingthreee-phase polarity.
tained.
polarity
No.
1 transformer
={A
2 transformer
={A
"
B)-\-(a"h)=E-"re.
and
Negative polarity
=
No.
"
B)
"
{a"h)=E
"
e.
TESTING
TRANSFORMER
This
that, in order
means
bb
aa,
side.
It
PRACTICE
No. 1 and
to connect
be connected
the other
on
IN
245
No. 2 in
parallel,
side
together. A A, BB on one
is always better,however,
when
is to be connected
in parallel
with
positivepolaritytransformer
the connections of
a
negative polaritytransformer, to reverse
cither the high-voltage
winding or the low-voltagewinding of one
a
of the transformers.
Fig. 186
shows
of
method
the
findingwhether
two
three-phase
polarity.
In making the above test similarlylocated terminals should be
If no voltage is indicated between
connected
together as shown.
the same
and
leads x' and x or between
are
y' and y, the polarities
the connections
be made
and if desired,put into regular
can
operation. If, however, there is a difference of voltage between
transformers
have
the
same
y'
"
Fig.
187.
x'
x,
or
and
same
determine
The
in
"
correct
or
connections
under
these
circumstances,are
given
Fig. 187.
Iron
or
Core
Loss.
"
The
loss includes
core
the
hystereticand
The
eddy-current losses.
eddy-current loss is due to currents
produced in the laminations,and the hystereticloss is due to
molecular
friction.
The
core
loss
remains
constant
practically
whether
from
measured
the
loads, and wUl be the same
in either case
primary or secondary side,the exciting current
The economical
being the same
per cent, of the full load.
tion
operaof a lightingplant depends in a largemeasure
the selection
on
at
all
of
an
economical
seldom
the
having
the
one
transfornjer.
of lowest
smallest
first
An
economical
cost, nor
full-load losses.
is it
It is the
necessarilythe
one
is
transformer
which
one
has the
STATIONARY
246
TRANSFORMERS
most
it is to be
used.
(induction)or
transformer
table), while
the iron
on
in
causes
in
decrease
increase
an
increase
an
in the
loss
core
in
loss
core
given
of
power
in
the
voltage applied
(see following
in
results
frequency
sponding
corre-
the
"
1.6
in
and
used,
varies
transformer
to
is dependent
loss
hysteresis
The
and
voltage
losses decrease
current
if the
increases,and
slightlyas
the
be
temperature
increased
with
decrease
this temperature.
to
Thus
increase in temperature
cause
may
the
on
in
used
72
per
core
the
sufficiently
the
eddy
current
in other
full-load,or
limitingtemperature
to the
in
decrease
iron
of the
temperature
loss of about
5 per
words,
rise of 40"
cent,
an
C.
depending
wave
of the
power
factor
of
objectionable.This
made
one
silicon
steel
"alley-steel," Take,
or
The
loss of about
64 watts
loss
both
to be
power
of
only
2 per
of
up
transformers.
core
can
is not
in itself very
exciting current
best be explainedby taking two
formers,
transordinary iron and the other of modern
one
45
cent,
made
up
while that
watts; and,
of
for
example,
ordinaryiron
made
will have
with
we
have
ordinaryiron:
64
=
5000X0.02
64
per
cent,
power
factor
^^^*"
P^^^^'
factor.
and
Transformer
with
silicon steel
45
P^^
5000x0.02^^^
core
factors:
Transformer
5kw,
two
of
the following
TESTING
TRANSFORMER
which
means
19 per
cent,
As
that
no-load
on
better
IN
the
one
PRACTICE
247
has
factor.
power
lower
above, the
of the
appliede.m.f.
the
stated
peaked
With
sinusoidal
excitingcurrent
resistance
and
wave
is
flat top
vice
due
distorted,
is introduced
versa.
of e.m.f.
wave
wave
into the
applied on
transformer,the
the effect of
to
hysteresis.
however,
primary circuit,
If
the
HjiJiJlftiiiL^ Transformer
Fig.
current
exciting
e.m.f
.-wave
to reduce
188.
wave
more
the
densityvaries
Iron
"
or
becomes
peaked,
the
excitingcurrent
with
core
more
loss transformer
effect of these
and
test.
core
loss.
generated
distortions tending
Since the magnetic
248
STATIONARY
is the
followingmethod
results.
See
There
known
TRANSFORMERS
simplest to apply
while
when
operating
when
it is desired
other
conditions
to
at
the
other
core
losses of
these
figures are
losses
results
of
XIII."
VARIATION
-because
upon
quality of
the
are
transformer
the most
stone
"
with
steel
and
the
LOSS
VARYING
above
^The resistance
may
of
common
bridge"
method
resistance
order
to
mine
deter-
followingtable:
IN
60-CYCLE
VOLTAGE
table
only approximate
varying voltage depend largely
the
are
density at
which
the
formers
trans-
operated.
Resistances.
of
the
variations
the
In
CORE
OF
WITH
given in
voltage but
operation under
when
60-cycle transformer
voltage,the losses at rated voltage
TRANSFORMER
values
are
and
for
necessary.
The
accurate
transformer
given frequency
correct
approximately the
TABLE
gives very
Fig. 188.
occasions
are
and
may
primary
and
the
secondary
be determined
by several different methods,
"fall of potential" and
"wheatwhich
are
methods.
is the
be
of the
For
fall of
determined
Resistance
commercial
use
potential. In
Ohms
by
the
most
this method
factory
satisthe
law:
=-r
Amperes
(38)
The
requirescontinuous
measurement
voltmeter
in
shown
be
for
The
the
ous-current
continu-
connection
the
reading to
ammeter
be 11 volts.
taken
voltmeter
by
in transformer
is
What
0.022
ohms, and
the
1 1 volts
is,
amp.
coil =2.5
0.022
"
the
lJ
is 500
fore,
degrees centigrade. There-
at
reading includes
ammeter
in test
used
coil is 30
^
Current
With
reading to
of voltmeter
of transformer
current
and
current
example,
249
of coil?
resistance
temperature
PRACTICE
ammeter.
voltmeter
and
2.5 amperes,
The
and
the resistance
IN
TESTING
TRANSFORMER
2.478
amp.
in the
current
voltmeter,
I
"*"
Res.
nmmD
Fig.
189.
and
in order
must
be much
Resistance
"
Method
to
of
findingthe
prevent
error
greater than
of transformer
resistance
the
of
resistance
transformer.
of
the
voltmeter
degrees centigradeis,
11
=
4.48
ohms.
2.478
It
is
important
that
rest
obtained
before
will not
the
be
be
measurements
quickly as
full-load values,and
as
near
the
that
the voltmeter
needle
is
observation
reliable.
taken
It
taken, otherwise
is possibleto have
the
a
be
values
current
of
STATIONARY
250
sufficient
reach
The
strength
heat
to
coil
the
of
the
the
per
to
it to
cause
is taken.
measurement
coil at
transformer
coefficient of 0.42
temperature
rapidly as
so
constant
resistance
TRANSFORMERS
C, which is the
degree from and at
25"
cent,
per
4.39
ohms.
0"C., is,
4.48XJ00
i:-^
v^^
(0.42X5) +100
If the temperature
then resistance must
If the
be calculated
and
the average
the resistance
Copper Loss
copper
power,
for each
windings is the
voltage and current
calculated
from
for each
and
of the
temperature
then
windingsis different
of
first be
may
mined
deter-
values.
average
and
taken.
same
the
observation,
the average
is delivering
"
square
of the
Primary
Secondary
Fig.
current.
eddy
The
It is due
currents
copper
Copper
"
the
loss may
be
It
and
through conductors
P
and
at
the
also
be
resistance
of
h^R2,
time
same
by introducing
to
the
as
the
windings and
themselves.
measured
may
h^Ri
impedance.
of the
conductors
measurement
in Fig. 190.
loss
resistance
the
to
within
impedance-drop
shown
190.
calculated
conductors,
in watts,
wattmeter
from
as
as
currents
follows:
252
STATIONARY
sistance
TRANSFORMERS
in continuous-current
circuits,that
^
/r
Current
circuits is
i mpedance
\/R^+{X's^
/ is the
current;
and
impressed
the
resistance
J^ the
of the
e.m.f. ; Xg
never
X.
in
ance
inductive
circuit.
{R-jx)R
up
of two
and
resistance.)
v'^T
components
Lw
be
may
/is
\/R^+X^=
the
the
henrys;
2.fL
and
X,
=^-l__J__
and
is the
capacity in
latter
(46)
second;
It
(45)
Xc',this
inductive,Xg, or condensive
considered
when
dealing with transformers.
Reactance
^^"^
^
-fhw
~R-jx~Uj^^
wherein
replaced in alternating-current
The
factor is
(42)
equivalent expression,
reactance;
pression
ex-
.^^^
Resistance
for continuous-current
where
the
say,
G.m.f.
r^
RD
circuits by the
is to
is the
induct-,
farads.
is measured
by short-circuiting
impedance of a transformer
the other winding
e.m.f. on
of the windings, impressing an
one
of voltage and
current.
measurements
and taking simultaneous
The
impedance voltage varies very nearly with the frequency.
the
transformers
In standard
impedance voltage varies from
the size and
design of the
1 to 4 per
cent., depending upon
The
transformer.
Efficiency.
"
loss at the
to
the
load
^The
rated
voltage and
copper
loss due
delivered.
efficiencyof a
full-load,and half-load
having an iron
to 200-volt, 60-cycle transformer
5-kw., 2000
loss of 70 watts, a primary resistance of 10.1 ohms, a secondary
Example:
resistance
Find
of 0.066
the
ohms.
TESTING
TRANSFORMER
of
efficiency
The
the
IN
253
consideration
under
transformer
PRACTICE
is taken
follows:
as
Full Load:
Primary
I^ R
63
watts
PR
42
watts
70
watts
175
watts
Secondary
Core
loss
Total
Output
Input
Losses
5,000 watts
5,000 + 175
Full load
efF.
5,175 watts
t^v?==96.6
per cent.
5,175
Half
Load:
Primary and
Total
Output
Input
Losses
2,500 + 96
The
tests
The
copper
the
watts
96
watts
the
loss
transformer
same
loss
copper
resistances
the
of
of each
should
remains
constant
all
at
as
size,it is,therefore,only
one
watts
cent.
iron
loss varies
loss remains
and
on
that
noted
the
copper
design
watts
70
2,596 watts
will be
loads but
26
2,500
One-half
It
Secondary
loss
Core
rating and
preferably
windings, rather
be
than
these
make
to
necessary
type.
determined
from
from
the
the
loss
copper
loss
full-load,the copper
of the load, the core
loss remaining constant
varies as the square
The
the time
at all loads.
all-dayefficiencytakes into account
during which these losses are suppliedand is expressed as:
by
test
Per
cent,
other
For
wattmeter.
than
all-dayeff.
100 +watthours
exact
copper
calculate
the
loss of
may
sine
wave
copper
efficiency. The
the
core
must
be
loss
should
transformer
current, otherwise
."v
loss-j-w.-hrs. core
transformer
output
known
and,
considerable
be
loss
in order
taken
at
when
possible,
discrepancies
occur.
with a load of
Regulation. ^The regulationof a transformer
given power-factor is the percentage of difference of the full
load and
load secondary voltages with a constant
no
applied
"
254
STATIONARY
primary voltage.
TRANSFORMERS
It may
ascertained
be
regulation can
The
calculation
in the
only
incandescent
from
few
Since
observation
liable to be
are
measuring regulation is
measurement
of resistance
and
or
reactance
the
of the
cent,
per
by direct
measurements
transformer.
a
determined
be
the
lamps.
fully1
per
is
of
of
all reliable.
By connecting the
transformer
to a circuit at the required voltage and
frequency,
load
water
the
rheostat
a
the
or
using lamp
on
secondary
tion
regulabe
determined.
This method, is,however, unsatisfactory,
may
and much
reliance can
be placed on the results of
more
not
at
calculation.
Several
methods
but
regulation,
have
the
non-inductive
and
loads.
inductive
For
loads:
regulation
=%X
Per
Er
cent.
Example.
a
cent, when
factor
of 87
The
Then
0.5.
Per
cos
cent,
0.87
from
is 30
the
degrees.
The
above
'V%
I R
drop of 2.0
circuit having a power-
sine of
2X0.87
3.48.
loads:
^^~q^^^
Regulation =%IR=
angle 30 degrees is
per
cent,
impedance
resistance
drop^" %
V%
excitingcurrent^"
iron
(49)
drop.
resistance
drop^= %
drop.
I
has
resistance
which
formula:
cent.
=
to
regulation 3.47x0.5
%
Per
load
transformer
cent.
non-inductive
For
and
cent,
per
deliveringa
per
=
drop.
resistance drop.
lag of load current delivered.
reactance
regulation of
the
0.
cos
total
angle of
of 3.47
drop
reactance
per
the
^Find
"
cent,
=per
^
cent,
per
(48)
d.
cos
=the
Ex
cent.
smd+%1
Per
been
loss currents
ance
react-
TRANSFORMER
TESTING
IN
PRACTICE
255
TRANSFORMERS
STATIONARY^
256
non-inductive
For
load
O, sin
"
O,
"
cos
1,
have,
we
therefore:
regulation=%
%
The
above
angle 6, but
is
formula
the
simple
regulation is,
Another
and
non-induction
For
practicallycorrect
becomes
error
Er
greater
in
TV
for inductive
regulation =7
d is component
k is the
and
and
Take
with
in
drop
drop in
(51)
42QQ
phase with
drop
in per
terminal
the
in quadrature
drop
is total resistance
is reactance
IX
^^"^
7^20^
regulation =d
component
voltage, IR
loads:
%
where
calculating
for
use
loads:
%
and
of
values
0 increases.
as
method
accurate
small
for
with
voltage
terminal
the
of rated
cent,
voltage
cent.
per
for
Sec.
ohms.
Sec.
0.667
7/2
volts
2.165
0.985
Primary
%.
772
volts
14.65
%.
and
IX
For
V{%
non-inductive
77^2=
regulation
=
the
formula
above,
+^|^1.67
1.65
1.8
have
we
and
inductive
For
with
load
factor
power
we
have
0 462
%
2.3 is taken
where
d
The
value
7X
IX
regulation
=
from
+ 772 Cos
2.3 +
formula,
^
(0.6X
may
is:
and
"
1 .8)4also be
2.33 %
^^
(1.65
0.8)
2.3
V(B.--"^)
where
is the
rated
primary
voltage,
E^ being
and
winding
measuring
circuiting the secondary
P is the impedance
watts
through the primary.
the
impedance
the volts
measured
as
voltage
and
to
send
necessary
in the
is found
rated-load
short-circuit
teat.
by shortcurrent
TRANSFORMER
IN
TESTING
257
PRACTICE
and
is from
0.46
k
where
is the
"
IX
IR-
wattless
=046
factor of load.
certain
of
types
For
"
some
transformers
to the
5 to
well known
now
over
that
shown
given
k-v-a.
capacityto
25 times
rated
the
of many
burn-outs
of the transformers.
of power
that a certain
largeamount
also been
cause
back
current.
in
millingoccurs
is
It
transformers,
after
type.
short-circuit test
The
night
One
so
as
not
winding of
to
is
affect
the transformer
times
to the
power
system
the
important point of
most
duration,as the
25
to
30
17
current
the
test.
sometimes
This
test
reaches
as
is of very short
high a value as
XV
CHAPTER
SPECIFICATIONS.
TRANSFORMER
High-voltage
other
in that
more
their
form
and
in their
make-up
specification
specially made
voltage (the
mechanical
severe
considered
be
to
specificationsare
transformer
of
for
are
existing
iron
same
SPECIFICATION
WINDING
operating
at
was
lower
OIL-FILLED
2200-VOLT
TO
SINGLE-
TRANSFORMER.
Primary
Winding
cross-section, two
Conductor
ing
wind-
which
WATER-COOLED
22,700-39,300
PHASE
given
again).
over
FOR
900-KW.
60-CYCLE
coils,
of
transformer
transformer
used
being
is
Below
have
stresses
arrangement
different.
so
high-voltage
an
the
and
design,
electrical
and
interesting
always
in. X
0.170
in. double
0.080
cotton
covered.
Weight,
750
lb. double
Section.
Inside
Turna
in.
618
Winding
B.T.
coils
of 32
and
32
B.T.
coils
of
and
26
section
ps,
made
27
end
at
of
of two
0.012
1
V.C.
0.012
p^,
pi,
inside
turn
p",
pe,
p?,
and
pn,.
end
of
pa,
outside
in. thick
in. hercules
by 3/16
and
parchment
in.
one
Turn
12
turns
Insulation
(triple)turn
insulated, and
all turns
(double)
other
turns
turns
(double)
V.C.
varnish
turn
insulated,
and
all
V.C.
section, all
26-turn
pt,
\.CK
section, all
turns
pa,
in. mica.
section, last
26-turn
pz,
ft.) 0.015
0.005
Reinforced
0.012
fifth
(8300
turns
wide, consisting
26-turn
/
""
Section.
p^.
between
0.005
Outside
taps
Insulation
covered.
cotton
cambric.
258
turn
insulated,
and
all turns
260
STATIONARY
After
95
"C.).
at
least 100"
eighth
put
the
with
on
overlap not
1/2 in.
tied down
side of the
each
with
twine
and
tongue
of the
the
strap
as
far
the
strap with
is
wrapping
given
drill should
The
sewed
coil, A
Below
than
more
one-
strap, and
the
as
the
at
be
of No. 2 cotton
connecting straps.
the
lap, except
edge.
thickness
one
to cool to
varnishing is given.
one-half
it should
coils,where
be allowed
next
is put on,
over
be
outside
at the
With
of the
corners
coils should
taping the
each
taping should
The
TRANSFORMERS
be
must
together
drill should
of cotton
neatly
up
be
should
least
at
and
outside
the
at
extend
terminal, and
extend
firmlyedge
outside
the
secured
of
of
the
to
tape.
of
form
as
general specification
presented to
former
The
is for a high-voltage
purchasers of transformers.
and the latter for a high-voltagecore-type
shell-typetransformer
a
transformer.
GENERAL
SPECIFICATIONS
FOR
WATER-COOLED
OIL-FILLED
Construction.
"
"SHELL-TYPE"
25-CYCLE
70,000-VOLT
SINGLE-PHASE
General
RECTANGULAR
TRANSFORMER.
Each
transformer
to
consist of
and
primary and secondary coils,
placedvertically
by a built-up steel core, the coils being spaced so as
flat
the
circulation
free
insulator
an
from
the
surrounded
admit
to
acts
as
of
only
not
cooling medium
by conveying
interior portions of the transformer
to the
but
of
the
as
heat
tank
by
circulation.
natural
The
them, which
of oil between
set
transformer
to
be
in
enclosed
boiler-iron
the
tank,
base
cover
sufficient to
oil and
Core.
the
dissipate
-allparts of the
"
The
and
core
low
heat
generated and
transformer
to be built up
at
low
maintain
insulated
The
from
the
temperature.
of steel laminations
hysteresisloss.
and
carefully annealed
eddy-current losses.
thus
of
high permeability
laminations
also to
each
to
other
be
reduce
SPECIFICATIONS
TRANSFORMER
primary
The
Windings.
"
with
per
to
of fiat
up
form
layer so as to
large radiatingsurface
turn
one
present
secondary windings to
and
each built
coils,
into several
261
divided
sub-
be
conductors, wound
the
coil. The
will
conductors
to
compound, after
together with a specialinsulating
exterior insulating
wrapping to be appliedand separately
with
an
insulatingvarnish, making a very durable
cemented
be
which
an
treated
insulation.
adjacent
insulatingdiaphragm to be placed between
held
in
and
be
to
position
rigidly
primary and secondary coils,
by spacingchannels covering the edges of the coils.
The
assembled
coils,except at the ends, to be completely
stantial
which will interposea subenclosed by sheets of solid insulation,
the core.
the winding and
barrier at all pointsbetween
sufficient oil completely to
Each
transformer
to have
Oil.
immerse
the core, windings, and coolingcoil. In order to secure
the oil
and
the best insulatingqualities
a
high flashing-point,
solid
"
to
be
A
refined and
specially
valve for drawing off
and
treated
the
for this
tested
use.
in the base
oil to be located
of the
tank.
inch.
lb. pressure
per square
of the coolingcoil is to absorb that
of at least 1000
The
that
duty
which
will be
minimize
the
natural
dissipatedby
be
cannot
made
fit the
to
of oil and
amount
portionof
radiation from
the heat
the
closely,and
transformer
tank,
thus
floor space.
"
primary
The
and
is not
If the
greater than
25"
C,
temperature of
the
rise in temperature
and
water
shoul^
be
that
the
supply of
differs from
corrected
by
25"
water
C,
0.5 per
is normal.
the
cent,
observed
for each
degree.
The
insulation
between
the
primary
coils and
the
core,
and
STATIONARY
262
secondary coils
for the
the
transformer
without
hours
to
the
90
cent,
per
core
of double
test
overload
an
carry
rise
the
normal
to
power
of 25
voltage
for two
cent,
per
exceeding55"
C.
when
temperature
transformer
The
at
and
length of time.
same
The
and
to stand
a test of
secondary coils,
alternatingcurrent for 1 minute, and between the
volts
140,000
primary
the
between
that
TRANSFORMERS
operating
above
the
perature
tem-
rise.
SPECIFICATIONS
GENERAL
FOR
"CORE-TYPE"
The
"
25-CYCLE
SINGLE-
built up
be
to
cores
70,000-VOLT
TRANSFORMER.
PHASE
Core.
OIL-COOLED
with
laminated
iron sheets
losses.
current
Windings.
insulated
and
stand
to
primary
The
"
from
each
and
from
the
core
greater than
the
rated
other
potentialmuch
secondary windings to
and
be
and
oughly
thor-
frame,
voltage of
transformer.
the
transformer
Each
Oil.
"
winding
and
treated
and
placed in
when
the
in order
refined
and
sufficient oil to
have
to
to
tank.
secure
the
cover
core
oil to be
specially
good insulatingqualities
The
high flashing-point.
Terminals
and
Connections.
"
The
leads
to
"
than
the
C. and
25"
temperature
the
conditions
of the
of ventilation
observed
for each
be corrected
If
normal.
are
C. the
from
25"
by
0,5 per
cent,
degree.
Insulation
between
the
primary winding
and
the
primary
and
and
core,
a
test
tween
be-
of
between
TRANSFORMER
SPECIFICATIONS
the
for the
current
transformer
The
without
hours
his
has
of the
any
cent,
per
for two
parts.
particularway
own
of
arranging
finds
specifications. One
information
useful
heatingof
of 50
transformer
give but
nating
10,000 volts alter-
of
test
overload
an
carry
manufacturer
Every
core
length of time.
same
to
undue
the
263
detailed
specification
covering the
complete characteristics of the transformer, includinga complete
and electrical description.
and general mechanical
test record
of the
One
give
and
and
specifications
best
Transforyner
cable
H.T.
Form
Specification.'
Width.
......
weight of oil
Volts
per
per
Volume
section
of
core
Core
path
ing
bush-
L.T.
Depth
Net
.......
weight
Type
Phase
VoltsL.T.
Iron
iron
Narrow
and
of mag.
cable
K. V. A
Weight of core
Exciting
clusters
clusters
Window
.....
Core
current
inches.
square
loss,amperes
IR
cent.
Total
curve
Corners
per
cribs
irons
irons
Core
leg
leg
and
^.T
End
Steel
"
of tank
Steel
Frequency
Amperes
Core.
I^R
long. L. T.
brushing (terminal) No
Winding
Length
Weight of coils and core
of oil
Gallons
Iron
Total
Weight
all
"
No
long. H.T.
(terminal)No
.......
of great interest to
one
follows:
as
up
Cribs
Tank
No.
Mag.
Length
amperes
per. cent.
H. T. Winding
No.
outs
coil to
in each
of
section
layer per
around
Diam.
of
Thickness
Resistance
turn
turn
Space
sion
exten-
of conductor
Weight
Copper density
Max,
volts per
layer
IR
Winding. Volts
of layers
Insulation
L. T.
Size
Volts per
/2/2
Turns
Insulation
Lbs. per M. ft
Mean
(R)
between
tion
Insula-
lag
layers
sections
core
conductor
of coil
per
Tap-
Length of section
Space between
Space
Turns
Sections
Insulation
core
of ends
Volts
Amperes
layers
"
"
Amperes
between
layers
......
Taps
Section
No.
per
in each
Turns
leg
sections
Space
around
Space
Insulation
Volts
of coil
Thickness
turn
Copper density
layer
volts per
Lbs. per M.
ance
(R) Resist-
im
IR
these two
not complete
are
specifications
specifythe efficiencyand regulation (these two
Like
all customers'
they do not
important factors
as
dielectric test
cool
the
Weight
Size of conductor
turn
per
of conductor
of sections
Length
Max.
Space between
Diam.
ends
at
core
Mean
section
layer per
extension
ft
to
TRANSFORMERS
STATIONARY
264
being
of the
transformer,
it be
whether
of the
water
necessary
transformer; lifting
supporting
in
method
former
moving the transemployed
truck
four-wheel
a
or
on
a
steel-rails,
the
of
the
nor
only); the
sheet
record
test
oil;the temperature
method
oil;the
the
the
on
on
racket-frame.
general characteristics
The
in the
record
test
and
given below
RECORD
TEST
sheets.
is for
of
high-voltagepower
FOR
SHEET
kw.,
such
is
sheet
transformer.
POWER
HIGH-VOLTAGE
(SHELL
TYPE)
(water cooled).
H. T.
16.66; L. T.
T. amperes
Run.
H.
Heat
always given
are
of
25
transformer
example
good
TRANSFORMER
1000
transformer
volts.
2300
435.
amperes
"
for 8 hours
Run
at
volts
2300
L. T., and
H. T.
18.5 amperes
(a).
Run
for
H.
hours
T. by resistance
resistance
L. T.
by
Temperature
Temperature
and
and
23.2
amperes
of
at end
35.0
for
37.0 for
run).
"
(a) and
50.0
for
(6).
(6)
.
(a) and
23.5 for
(b).
(a)
leaving the
of frame
of transformer
12.0
C. is 1796, and
ohms.
(b)is 0.02545
ohms.
transformer
10.0
for
of water
(6).
Temperature
for
T,,
L.
T. (6).
"Temperatures (degreesC.
H.
volts
2300
at
for
(a)
and
16.5
(b).
Resistances.
"
H. T. resistance
L. T. resistance
at
25"
at 25" C. is 0.0223
and
for
TRANSFORMER
Insulation.
SPECIFICATIONS
265
"
secondary and
core
for
one
is 120,000 volts.
for
core
one
minute
is 5000
volts.
(Applicationof alternating
current).
Efficiency.
"
commercial
At
125%
and
At
100%
and
commercial
eff. 98.36%.
At
75%
eff. 97.4%
and
commercial
At
50%
and
commercial
eff. 96.93%.
and
commercial
eff. 94.52%.
full-load,guaranteed
full-load,guaranteed eff. 96.7%
25%
eff. 98.38%.
"
Guaranteed
regulation 1.0
Commercial
regulation
General.
per
cent.
1.037 per
cent.
"
loss in watts
Core
Excitation
Impedance
Impedance
Water
per
in amperes
volts
watts
watts.
14.3.
1.653.
((a)=1.822
9.560.
((a)=11.720
minute
(ingoingwater
Detailed
7.335
2.6
25"
volts.)
watts.)
gallons.
C).
Specifications.
"
Height
over
cover
in.
135
in. X59
in.
Floor
space
Total
110
Gallons
of oil
Weight
Weight
Weight
of oil
Weight
Weight
of small
required
of tank
of
1300.
lb.
10,400 lb.
and
large cover
cover
base
lb.
2450
lb.
7500
lb.
550
Weight of iron
cover
=14,000
lb.
STATIONARY
266
TEST
RECORD
TRANSFORMERS
SHEET
FOR
HIGH-VOLTAGE
TRANSFORMERS
200-kw.,
(CORE
volts
cycle, 57,500
25
POV/ER
TYPE)
type, water-cooled
core
transformer.
single-phase
Heat
3.5; L, T.
87.
"
for 11
Run
hours
at
volts
2300
L. T., and
87
L. T.
amperes
(a).
current
for 2 hours
Run
amperes
volts.
at 2300
130.5 amperes
L. T.
(6).
current
Room
and
18.5
for
for
(6).
for
(6),
(b) 17.5" C.
Resistance."
H. T. resistance at 25" C. is 56.6
ohms
on
winding connected
L. T.
H.
25"
C. is 0.1168
ohms,
and
for
"
T. to
for
L. T. and
core
115,000
volts
alternatingcurrent
minute.
one
L. T. and
core
for
one
minute.
Efficiency.-^
commercial
eff. 97.9%.
and
commercial
eff. 97.8%.
and
commercial
eff. 96.8%.
commercial
eff. 94.5%.
At
100%
At
75%
At
50%
At
25%
load guaranteed
and
load
Regulation (100
guaranteed
per
cent.
and
eff. 96.7%
eff. 91.2%
P. F. =1.6
per
cent.).
"
General.
Core
(b) is
ohms.
0.1307
Insulation.
for
loss in watts
=2.865.
Excitation
in amperes
Impedance
volts
(57,500
Impedance
watts
=1.750.
=10.3.
volt
winding) =1.017.
STATIONARY
268
TRANSFORMERS
oil-insulated transformer
Also, comparing the largestwater-cooled
in Europe with an
made
4000
kw. standard
ordinary
American
design of the same
type, we have:
4000-KW.,
OIL-INSULATED
33,000-VOLT,
SINGLE-PHASE
WATER-COOLED
TRANSFORMER
(American manufacture)
Dimensions, 107 in. X63 in. X150
Kilowatts
Kilowatts
per
square
per
cubic
foot
86
foot
Gallons
1950
kilowatt
per
0.49
Full-load
efficiency
Half -load efficiency
Gallons
of water
98.9
98
19
OIL-INSULATED,
(European
per
square
per
cubic
Gallons
of oil
Gallons
per
manufacture)
in. X59
in. X136
foot
in.
162
foot
14.2
kilowatt
0. 215
load
98.85
1.0)
0. 62
F. =0.8)
in
are
The
serve
0
.
per
cent.
per
cent.
per
cent.
per
cent.
50
of
Transformers
of
95
.
cent,
per
F.
98
Frequency
phase units
high)
1130
Efficiencyat 50
Regulation (P.
Regulation (P.
not
cent.
WATER-COOLED,
Efficiencyat full-load
have
per
TRANSFORMER
(Dimensions, 82
volts
cent.
THREE-PHASE
Kilowatts
per
25
45,000- VOLTS
Kilowatts
5
.
minute
per
Frequency
5250-KV-A.,
85
.
of oil
Gallons
in. high)
much
built in
yet been
kw., and
7500
Europe.
5,000 kv-a
at
American
In
three-phase units
of
45,000
single-
14,000 kw,
7500-KW.,
60,000-VOLT,
OIL-INSULATED,
SHELL-TYPE
Kilowatts
Kilowatts
THREE-PHASE
square
per
cubic foot
Gallons
of oil
Gallons
of oil per
Weight
without
OIL-COOLED,
TRANSFORMER
80
5.65
4000
kilowatt.
Efficiency at full-load
Frequency
foot
per
FORCED
oil
0.53
98
95
.
42
.
25
per
5 tons.
cent.
will
TRANSFORMER
SPECIFICATIONS
OIL-INSULATED,
138,500-VOLT,
5750-KW.,
SHELL-TYPE
Kilowatts
Kilowatts
WATER-COOLED,
SINGLE-PHASE
per
square
per
cubic
Gallons
of oil
Gallons
of oil per
269
TRANSFORMER
foot
71
foot
5.3
2500
kilowatt
Efficiency
at
full-load
Efficiency
at
75
per
per
0.7
98
per
cent.
load
98.7
per
cent.
load
98.3
per
cent.
load
96.9
per
cent.
Efficiency
at
50
Efficiency
at
25
cent,
cent,
per
in tons
weight
Total
cent,
28
60
Frequency
Test
voltage
(Length
Kilowatts
per
square
per
cubic
Gallons
of oil
Gallons
of
Efficiency
miles)
OIL-COOLED,
TRANSFORMER
foot
kilowatt
0.75
full-load
oil
Frequency
(The
99
per
60
tons.
cent.
60
winding
primary
25
1500
oil per
at
58
foot
without
Weight
is 4
FORCED
THREE-PHASE
SHELL-TYPE
Kilowatts
high-voltage winding
OIL-INSULATED,
100,000-VOLT,
10,000-KW.,
volts.
280,000
of
consists
(high-voltage winding)
of 10
miles
of
copper
conductor)
Practically every
operating
system
table
the
"Modern
Present
star
against
solid
"
several
delta
the
Time."
55,000
The
delta
for
21
and
delta
star
(the
in others
connections,
transformer
point
star
the
and
star
above
grounded
all
and
in
insulated).
disadvantages
looking
through
installations
connection.
are
as
being in
through
in
the
operating
connections
connections
are
given
are
Transformers
Power
advantages
highest voltage
toward
volts
transformer
connections
important
and
at
High-voltage
grounded
while
some
high
In
are
the
practice
38
at
for
cases
resistance
Chapter
given
list of
appears
IV
for
the
to
APPENDIX
TIME.
PRESENT
THE
AT
TING
OPERA-
TRANSFORMERS
POWER
VOLTAGE
HIGH
"MODERN
"
Operating
and
1.
Sierra
2.
Power
3.
Eastern
4.
systems
Francisco
San
Hydro-pjlectric
Power
Hydro-Electric
Power
Comm-n.
110,000
Co.
Western
Power
Company.
Great
Western
Power
Company.
8.
Grand
9.
Georgia
River
Power
90.000
Co.
110.000
G.
River
River
Yadkin
Power
Co.
1 10,000
Company
Power
Truckee
11.
Mich.
Rapids
110.000
110.000
10.
C8
110,000
Great
Mississippi
as
140.000
Comm-n.
Power
Northern
7.
"
"
104.000
Co.
Power
Michigan
6.
"
140,000
Company
Mexican
5.
i!
110,000
E.
Company.
Power
104,000
Company.
104,000
.
Falls
12.
Great
13.
Southern
14.
Central
15.
Tata
16.
No.
17.
Yadkin
18.
Shawinigan
Power
Shawinigan
Power
"
P.
Water
Power
T.
Co..
Colorado
101.200
Co.
Power
100,000
.
Co.
Power
Hydro-Electric
State
102,000
Company
100,000
.
Co.
Hydro-Electric
100,000
.
River
19.
Central
20.
Rio
Power
Janeiro
de
L.
Company..
"
P.
90,000
Co
88.000
88.000
Company.
.
85.000
Company.
Electric
Paulo
85,000
P.
Power
Appalachian
100,000
.
100.000
Company.
Power
Appalachian
21.
Company.
Colorado
Company.
Company.
22.
Sao
23.
Tata
24.
Mexican
L.
"
P.
Co.
Ltd
85,000
Mexican
L.
"
P.
Co.
Ltd
81,000
25.
Madison
26.
Utah
27.
Riven
Light
Elect.
Butte
Power
"
Power
L.
"
88,000
.
85,000
Company..
Hydro-Electric
80.000
Company
80.000
Company
P.
80.000
Company
.
28.
Telluride
29.
Katsura-Gawa
30.
Southern
31.
Pennsylvania
"The
to
above
Edison
W.
cases
from
denotes
being
"
of
star
to
single
77.000
Co.
75.000
Co
70.000
Co
Power
connection
This
80.000
Company
Hydro-Elect.
Calif.
and
star
Power
given
systems
delta
or
are
is
here
constantly
three-phase
not
being
transformer
three-phase.
270
strictly
made
"
to
the
correct
suit
systems
"is
new
changes
from
delta
conditions.
themselves
in
all
the
271
APPENDIX
PRESENT
THE
AT
TRANSFORMERS
POWER
VOLTAGE
HIGH
MODERN
TIME."
TING
OPERA-
(Continued.)
^
M
*
Operating
systems
"S
O
"
32.
Missouri
River
33.
Southern
Wisconsin
Co
Power
Power
Co.
O
V
to
""
"
"
60
70,000
60
70,000
50
67,500
River
34.
Kern
35.
Northern
36.
Yakima
Company.
Power
Calif.
37.
Central
Northern
Company
39.
Eastern
40.
Idaho-Oregon
41.
Spokane
42.
Nagoya
Electric
43.
Toronto
Power
Power
Georgia
Co
Co
Hydro-Electric
Tennessee
Co
Power
Valley Power
38.
Co.
Power
Inland
"
44.
Washington
45.
Mexican
46.
East-Creek
47.
Great
"
L.
P.
Company
E.
R.
P.
Co. Ltd
L.
"
P.
48.
Niagara-Falls
49.
Pacific
Coast
"
Power
50.
Guanajuato
51.
Jhelum
52.
Michiacan
53.
Elect.
61.
Puget^Sound
55.
Canadian-Niagara
50.
Portland
57.
Calif.
58.
Pacific
69.
Winnipeg
Power
Co
Co.
E.
Company.
Company.
Power
Company.
Gas
"
Coast
P.
Power
L. "
P.
66,000
GO
50,000
25
60,000
60
60,000
60
60,000
25
60,000
25
60,000
60.000
60
60,000
60
60,000
25
60,000
60
60,000
25
60,000
60
60,000
26
67,000
60
57,000
60
55,000
Company
Co
Company
Company.
60
Co
Power
Electric
66,000
Development
L. "
Co
Electric
River
66.000
60
Company.
Electric
"
Co
Power
66,000
60
Company.
Power
66,000
25
Co.
Power
Northern
60
Co
"
L.
66,000
25"60
.
Company
Water
66,000
60
Co
.
Power
60
60
55,000
60
65,000
60.
The
subject of transformers
without
reference
It is deemed
systems
took
to
the
to
note
that
the
well
very
effects of altitude
cannot
on
of the
into
be
their
above
concluded
operation.
mentioned
consideration
when
complied with.
With
the exception of water-cooled
oil transformers,manufacturers
rise and
of
should specifythe temperature
efficiency
transformers
at service-altitudes.
This is very
important for
the reason
that
and
insulation,temperature
efficiencyvalues
are
quite different at high altitudes to those at sea level. For
example, at an altitude of 3,500 ft. above sea level a higher
kv-a rating should be allowed a given unit and, when
transa
tests
were
APPENDIX
272
former
is
for
rated
operation
rise
temperature
1
into
service,
permissible
350
"V-
for
cent,
per
given
service.
=30
is
to
say:
cent.
transformer
LESS,
will
altitude,
reduced
be
350-ft.
at
rise
temperature
per
should
additional
every
that
this
at
thus
have
would
we
at
of
be
see
by
rise
altitude
an
the
normal
missible
per-
approximately
which
it
ft.
10,500
the
approximately
that
different
for
put
per-
10,500
higher
rating
is
for
altitudes
given
INDEX
Ability
of
at
current
deliver
constant
volt-
Admittance,
31, 32
Advantage
of
Cheap
to
system,
Aging
Air
iron
and
Air-blast
Chief
transformers,
and
11,
Close
of
Coefficients
and
Anhydrous
of
in
lighting,178-185
Assembly
of large power
Commercial
operated
Blotting
Connections
Building
74
of fire-proof construction, 8
Causes
transformer
failure, 145,
18
of
transformers,
of
large
constant
current
182-184
273
of
158
136
154
39
concentration
potential transformers,
in kw., 3, 52
of
two-
14,
185
Construction
Capacity
transformers,
current
178,
125
three81
grounding
and
systems,
Constant
133
action,
Breathing
core,
cooling
122
transformers,
for
Consolidation
11
49
grounding
for
phase
27
of
218-220
phase
224-226
of transformer
paper,
ers,
transform-
transformers,
transformers,
system,
43
of 175,000
method
Compensators,
tion,
transforma-
transformer, 26,
Best
of
return
Connections
shape
and
transformers,
power
Combination
33, 170-177
Best
150-153
manufacture
Common
ers,
transform-
and
regulators,
type
ore
single-phase
weights
volt
132
136-148
Balancing
and
42
Arc-series
Auto-transformers
shell
of
Comparative
copper
240
polyphase
sulphate,
copper
nections,
con-
cooling-
resistivityin
of
transformers,
engineers,
given steel,8
system
74
transformer
Comparison
239
transformer,
hysteresis in
Automatic
of
"Table,
Courts,
developed
heat
35
system,
transformer
Comparison
E.,
into
system
regulation, 156
European
I. E.
Amount
of
Cleaning
79
American
formers),
trans-
of fire,8
70,
246
dangerous
Law
other
144
15
impracticable,
fought in the
(using
coils, 125
74
polyphase
any
danger
Choice
144
American
Changing
of frequency
any
7, 120,
All-day efficiency,14,
alloyed
83
coils,159
transformers,
Alternating
of system,
cost
Change
iron, 11,
for
agers,
man-
and
space
Cheapest
15
reactance
Air-chambers
copper
air reactance
coils, 159
of the
engineers and
iron, 153
75
of iron and
Advantages
75
star-delta
to
kw.,
200,000
over
153
delta-delta
the
delta-delta, 74,
delta-star
system
station
Central
16
age,
74,
Centralized
to
transformer
power
4, etc.
formers,
trans-
144
ers,
transform-
INDEX
274
Contact-making
of the
Control
Conversion
voltmeter, 224-226
Disadvantage
designer,9
of
connections
for transformers,
Disturbed
Cost of
Core
of the transformer
loss
-star
given
system,
system,
due
114, 116
to
of power
out
coil of
secondary
load, 31, 32
Drying of insulation,145
248
type
75
-tee, system,
Drop
153
incoming
to
transformers, 24
9,11
or
each
Double-delta
for
service,5, 75,
due
system
transformers,
area,
transformer)
transformers, 28
surges,
9, 16, 250-252
given volume and
(two
Disc-shape coils,129
Dividing
153
loss in
I^ R
or
delta-delta
system, 80
Cooling-coil cleansing,125
Copper
"T"
Distribution
56
the
system, 74, 75
of the
polyphase system
into another, 20
one
Conventional
of
transformers, 146-
148
Duration
of tests, 13
262
Cost
of total losses,6
Current, short-circuit,
154, 156,
transformers,
and
Dangerous
257
connections,163
Earthing of the neutral
rent,
impracticable cur-
space
ordinary
Edison, Thos.
iron,153
Delta-connected
of copper,
Effect of various
systems, 42, 53
-star
merits,53, 73
-delta systems,
Electrical
47, 54, 73
delta-delta
oil-insulated
characteristics
system,
transformers,
of temperature
Development
of the
rise,7
of transformers, 2
art
of transformer
struction,
con-
Diametrical
system,
Difference
former,
trans-
116
capacity of parts
too
high, 95
Equal output and change in copper
loss,9
Engines, 3
Exciting current, 9, 10
159
External and internal choke-coils,
of potential,34
of opinion
as
regards grounding,
28
Difficulties of three-phase
operation,
from
the, 26
Factory, transformers
Faraday's historic experiments,1
Favor
of the shell-typetransformer,
84-96
Different
of
118
Determination
iron substances, 1 1
74-75
-Design of
system,
245-247
A., three-wire
51
-star
Demerits
formers,
trans-
30
Eddy-current loss,8,
and
of
161
Economy
'Dead," short-circuit,154
copper
Earth
186-208
Dear
of transformers,
Early development
ways
152
of
22
applying
formers,
trans-
of
the
152
core-type
transformer,
INDEX
276
Lamps,
incandescent, 178-
and
arc
Modern
high voltage
185
commercial
Large
formers,
trans-
power
of coils and
Moving
and
courts
alternatingcurrents,
94, 154,
core,
160
generators, etc., 3
Law
formers,
trans-
power
270, 271
Motor
Leakage
of
reactance
the
former,
trans-
National
Board
of
Liberal
oil ducts
74
system,
on
between
the
ous
vari-
National
Lighting transformers, 31
Limiting feature of transmission,2
rise in transformers,
of temperature
Ohm's
due
revenue
at
of transformers,
leakage, 16
Magnetizing currents
constant
in
ers,
transform-
selection
the
Polyphase regulators,220-226
74, 75
Positive
Power
of three-phase units,43
connecting three-phase
systems,
158
cooling transformers,
Steinmetz
244-245
Practicable
50,000
and
60,000 volt
systems, 3
117-130
same
direction,40, 56,
42
and
formers,
trans-
64, 243-245
perature
tem-
readings, 147
system,
of
160
for
of
formers,
trans-
Points
11
Methods
current
178-185
failure of transformers,
of
lines,1 1
64
engineer'sdifficulties,
transformers, 74
densities
Mercury
236
Opposition-test,
price for
14
Meyer
system,
178-184
Operation of
Mechanical
partments,
com-
72
Magnetic
Method
Open-delta "V"
Operating
83
Merits
in separate
10
Lowest
transformers,7
8, 144
operatingtemperature,
average
Lowering
transformers
transformer
to
failure,6
Low
magnetizing current,
to
in
161
245
Ohmic
resistance,163
Electrical
Code, 28
Negative direction,40, 56, 244,
Neutral
parts, 6
Limit
writers,
Under-
227
154
potential strain
Least
Fire
systems
the
Primary
windings of transformers,
with
and
X., 5
INDEX
for
Principal argument
grounding
277
Series-pai'allel
operation,152
transformers, 28
transformers, 186-208
Ratio
to low
voltage
turns, 65, 67
of iron and
109-116
Solid
loss,5
copper
internal
and
external,
154, 160
Recognized
commercial
Spark-gap"
Table, 228
Specificationsof transformers, 258-
operationof
270
Star
60,000 volts,3
sheet
versus
compensators,
-star
256
209,
Station
delta,71, 73, 74
equipment and transmission
lines greater, 10
226
Relays
protection
for
of
formers,
trans-
Standard
rules
165-167
of
Reliability
transformers
in service,
failure,6
over-load,
154
Safety to
life and
property, 5, 154
earth
Scott, Chas.
connections,165
106
Secure
the desired
Step-up
copper
of 40,000
h.p.
pacity,
ca-
Chas.
P., system,
100,
-up
Strain
transformers, 205
transformers, 4
current
-down
to
E.,
106
a
11
I. E.
Steinmetz,
turbines
248-250
A.
Resistance
of the
239
Revenue
of tests, 264-269
and
system, 41-53
-delta system,
"Y"
or
for impregnation
windings, 11
insulation,11
of
241
Reactance,
compounds
transformers, 4,
23
between
loss,9
165,
109-116
Self-coolingtransformers, 117-120,
Taylor,William
144
induction, 18
28
Short-circuits,
"T"
arc
lightingfrom
T., system,
37, 71,
transformers, 205
71, 80, 98
three-transformer
system,
71,
Telephone transformers, 206
Temperature rise of the oil,128
80
178-180
lighting,
constant
two-transformer
current
of electrical apparatus,
7, 147
37,
INDEX
278
Temperatures,
Two-phase,
232-239
Terminals
36
distribution,36
parallelcombinations, 38
three-phase methods, 107, 109
sheets, 264-267
record
Test
connections, 262
and
single-phase,
35,
to
multi-wire
ers,
Testing cooling coils for transform146
Underwriters,
of Fire
Board
National
the
specified by
Tests
behind
power
impedence,
loss and
of copper
Use
of reactance,
252,
efficiency,
of iron
of resistance
253
loss,245-252
core
or
and
ternal,
ex-
neutral
of
154
polarity,243-245
of
resistance
and
Vacuum
R.,
impregnation,11
42, 51,
53, 72
248-
Variation
of
loss,248
of copper
loss,251
Vector representation, 17, 30, 33, 40,
250
of short-circuits,
257
of temperature,
of
process
Varley's method, 1
"V"
or
open-delta system,
243
of regulation, 253-256
Third
in the
grounded systems,
delivered,9
energy
Useful
of insulation,13, 227-232
of
internal
154
250-252
of
ers,
transform-
156
12
232-239
harmonics, 75
core
53
Viscosity,130,
105
132
225
"
109
-cooled
kw., 3
service transformers, 24,
group
Three-wire
33
Time-limit
secure
the desired
Tra,nsmis8ion
copper
-wheels, 3
Wattmeter, 203, 204,
207
radiated
square
Watts
loss,9
engineers, 153
of
of 14,000 kw
262
of identical characteristics,
Xg
22
in separate
compartments,
Troubles
three-phase, 22, 53
three, four and five wire,34
or
inductive
reactance, 18
age
experienced with high volttransformers, 94
Turbines, 3
Turbo-generators of 30,000 kw., 3
Two-phase systems, 22, 30, 33
to
inch
Weak
development, 1
capacity, 3
regulation, 10, 16, 17
per
surface, 119
Transformer
Transformers
124
-freezing difficulties,
26
To
available
Water
of 18,000
or
"Y"
admittance,
or
star
31
connection,
three-phase
to
41
two-phase
tem,
sys-
98
"Z"
(seriestransformer) connection,
200, 201