Circuit breakers

When selecting a circuit breaker for a particular application the principal factors to
consider are; system voltage, rated load current, and fault level at the point of
installation

Voltage rating
At medium voltages the phase to neutral voltage may be 250v but the potential
difference between two phases with the neutral insulated would be 440v. At these
voltages no difficulties should arise in selecting the circuit breaker equipment.
However, on a 3.3kV insulated neutral system the phase to neutral voltage is
3.3kV/ 3 = 1.9kV. If an earth fault develops on one phase the potential of the other
two phases to earth is 3.3kV. To ensure the insulation is not subject to excessive
stress a circuit breaker designed for a normal system voltage of 6.6kV may be fitted.
Also on insulated neutral systems high over voltages may be caused by arcing faults.
Medium voltage systems switch gear insulation should be able to withstand such
voltages, but 3.3kV and above, the margin of safety is reduced. When a high voltage
system is installed both the voltage rating of the circuit breaker and the method of
earthing must be considered.

Current rating
Consider three factors;
a. Maximum permissible temperature of circuit breaker copperwork
and contacts
b. temperature due to LOAD CURRENT
c. Ambient temperature
In industrial use the ambient temperature considered is usually 35 oC. If
uses in a marine environment temperature of 40oC (Restricted areas) and 45oC
(unrestricted areas) are used, therefore the circuit breaker rating may be 'free air'
value and this does not consider the degree of ventillation, the number and position
of the circuit breakers or the layout of the bus bars. The final switchboard
arrangement could be only 80 to 90% of the free air rating

Fault rating
Breakers should be rated to accept a breaking current of about 10 times the full load
current. The breaker should also be able to make against a fault condition where the
making current may be 25 times the full load current when the contact first make.
Circuit breakers must remain closed for a short time when a fault occurs in order to
allow other devices which are nearer to the fault to trip first. The breaker should be
capable of carrying its breaking current for a specified time of usually about one
second.

Arc suppression

Blow
force
at
right
angles
to
arc
and
field.
The blow out coils, which are connected in series with the circuit breaker contacts,
form an electro-magnetic field which reacts with the arc to give a deflecting force
which tends to bloe the arc outwards. The increase in effective length of the arc
causes it to extinguish more quickly. The blow out coils are protected form the arc by
arc resistant material which may be in the form of an air shute.

Hot ionised gases around the arc and contacts are displaced by cold air
forming eddy current air flow. This helps to increase resistance between contacts.

Contacts
Attention should be paid to all contacts likely to deteriorate due to wear, burning,
inadequate pressure, the formation of a high resistance film or becoming welded
together. Faulty contacts are often indicated by overheating when loaded. Different
contact materials may need different treatment.
Copper is widely used but is liable to develop a high resistance film, and
copper contacts may become welded together if the contact pressure is low and the
contents have to carry a high current. Copper is commonly used for contacts which
have a wiping action when closing and opening., this action removing the film.
Copper contacts are used on knife switches, laminated (brush) contacts of regulators
and other controllers, drum contacts, etc.
Carbon and metallized carbon contacts are unsuitable for carrying high
currents for long periods but, as they do not weld together, they are used for arcing
contacts on some control gear. Pure silver and silver ally contacts tends to blacken in
service but the oxide film has a low resistance. Copper- tungsten (sintered
compound), grey I colour, is used in contact facing. This material has a high surface
resistance which resists heavy arcing and does not weld. Silver tungsten (sintered)
has similar properties to copper tungsten but has a lower contact resistance and is
less liable to overheat on continuous load..

Servicing contacts
Copper contacts should be filed up if necessary to restore the profile required to
ensure correct wiping action. Copper contacts which have become burnt or pitted or
otherwise damaged, may be carefully dressed with a file. Emery cloth should not be
used. Some contacts are provided with pressure adjustment, so if the contact
pressure is reduced by dressing it should be readjusted. Using a spring balance
pulled in a direction normal to the contact surface a reading should be taken when a
piece of paper placed between the contacts is released. Inadequate spring pressure
may also be due to the pressure springs becoming weak due to fatigue or
overheating.
Carbon contacts should receive the same attention as copper contacts
except that they should not need lubrication. Silver, Silver alloy and copper tungsten
contacts do not require cleaning. As there is no need to remove surface film from
pure silver contacts they may be used for light butt contacts.
Where some contacts have the appearance of pitting on both faces this is
sometimes referred to as being 'burnt in'. Some manufacturers recommend that the
contacts, unless there is loss of material, are not dressed as this may destroy the
contact area.

AC switchboards
If voltages exceed 250 volts d.c. or 55 volts A.C. then the switchboard must be dead
front (no exposed live parts at the front) of the metal clad type.

Bus bars
High conductivity copper rated to withstand the thermal and electromagnetic forces
which would arise in the event of a short circuit at the bus bars with all the
generators in parallel. The bus bars will withstand these conditions for the length of
time it takes for the alternator circuit breakers to trip or back up fuse to blow.
Certain instruments and controls require a feed direct from the bus bars.
Any connection between the bus bars and protecting fuses must be capable of
withstanding maximum fault level. Standard practice is to provide a three phase set
of fuses, known as 'Back Up' fuses, as near to the bus bars as possible. Connections
are then led to the racks of the many instruments fuses fitted.

Circuit breakers
Must be capable of making and breaking under normal conditions and also abnormal
conditions such as a short circuit. As the circuit breaker must be able to withstand
closing onto a fault conditions without sustaining damage, it is of heavy construction.
Fitted with an over current release and overloads with time lags, a circuit breaker
can be used as follows;
a. To control the output of a generator
b. As a direct on line starter
c. Control outgoing feeder circuits
On modern switchboards 'draw out' circuit breakers may be fitted. In the open
position the whole circuit breaker can be wound clear of the bus bars, thus full
inspection and maintenance can be achieved without the necessity of de-energising
the bus bars so providing a separate isolating switch.
The 'plug in' contacts joining the circuit breaker to the bus bars are not
capable of taking the breaking load and it is essential that the circuit breaker is in the
open position before any attempt is made to withdraw it. A mechanical interlock is
fitted arranged to trip the circuit breaker before the winding handle can be inserted,
The breaker also has a mid position, in this position the control circuits
are still connected with the bus bar connection isolated. The electrical operation of
the breaker can then be tested.
Circuit breakers are normally fitted with under voltage protection and
tripping is accomplished by shorting or open circuiting the no-volt coil which releases

the latching in mechanism. The no-volt coil may also be open circuited by a reverse
power relay and an overload trip fitted with a time delay

Instruments
The following instruments are the minimum that must be fitted;
Bus bar voltmeter and frequency meter
Volt meter and frequency meter, with selector switch to measure
incoming machine conditions
Ammeter with phase selector switch for each alternator
Watt meter for each alternator
Synchroscope and if check synchroscope not fitted lamps
Earth leakage indicator
Additional instruments that may be fitted
Watt hour meter
Power factor meter
Alternator excitation ammeter
Alternator excitation volt meter
kVAr meter
Share connection supply meter
Emergency batteries on discharge meter
When a check synchroniser is fitted it is there to prevent connecting an incoming
machine to the bus bars whilst out of phase, it is not there as aid to synchronising.
In an emergency the 'in synch' light may be used to indicate when the breaker may
be closed.
When an incoming machine is selected, its no-volt coil and circuit
breaker contactor relay coil are connected in series with contacts on the check
synchroniser. These contacts must be closed, that is the machine in phase with the
bus bars, before the breaker contactor relay may be energised. If starting from a
dead ship the check synchroniser must be switched to off before the first generator is
put on the board.

Protection
a. Overload protection-fitted to circuit breakers
b. Reverse power-When motive power is removed an alternator will try to become a
synchronous motor and draw current from the circuit. A reverse power relay will
operate after about 2 seconds and about 2-3% reverse power for turbines, 10-12%
reverse power for diesels. The time delay prevents tripping during paralleling and
taking the alternator off the board.
c. Preference trip-automatically , and sometimes sequentially, sheds load from board to
maintain supply to essential services during periods of overload.
d. Fuses-Usually of the HRC type
e. Discrimination-The protective device closest to the fault should operate and protect
other services
f. Group starter board-Large demand sections may be separated from the main
switchboard by fuses and circuit breakers.

Automatic voltage regulators

Shall be supplied separately from all other instrument circuits. Protection should be
by fuses mounted as close to the supply connections as possible.

Shore supply connections

a. Where arrangements are made for the supply of electricity from a source on shore or
other location a suitable connection box has to be installed in a position in the ship
suitable for the convenient reception of flexible cables, it should contain a circuit
breaker or isolating switch, fuses, and terminals of adequate size to receive the cable
ends.
b. For three phase shore supplies with earthed neutral terminals are to be provided for
connecting hull to shore earth
c. An indicator for shore side connection energised is to be provided.
d. A means for checking polarity or phase rotation is to be provided
e. At the connection box a notice indicating ships requirements with respect to supply as
well as connection procedure.
f. Alternative arrangements may be submitted for consideration.

AVR's

R1-Sets
volts
value
R2-Trimming
resistor
(Power
factor
correction)
R3-Trimmer
Carbon
pile-Control
resistance
for
AVR
Operating coil-Along with carbon pile form the controlling elements
CCT and PT-Are the detecting elements, the CCT acts as a feed forward device
indicating future voltage changes by detecting variation in current flow
Stabilising element-Is the capacitor across the Exciter (may be replaced by a
resistor)
The A.C. voltage is applied to the operating coil through a full wave
rectifier. This A.C. voltage supply induced in the potential transformer and the
circulating current transformer may vary under varying load conditions such as direct
on line starting of relatively large motors. The capacitor connected across the coil
smoothes the D.C. output from the rectifier.
If the A.C. applied voltage falls, the field of the solenoid weakens, and
the resistance of the carbon pile decreases. With less exciter circuit resistance the
current in the exciter field increases thus increasing the output voltage of the A.C.
generator.

The automatic voltage regulator voltage output may be adjusted with the
hand regulator R1 in the exciter field. Before synchronising the alternator the open
circuit voltage is adjusted with the hand regulator R1.
After synchronising, and after the kW loading has been adjusted on the
prime mover governor, the field excitation under steady load conditions may be
adjusted using the Trimming resistor R2. Using the trimming resistor the power
factor of the incoming machine will be equalised with the machines already in use.
If the load power factor now changes then the terminal voltage will
regulate badly, e.g. a rise from 0.8 to Unity Power factor will cause a rise in terminal
voltage of about 20 %. So a small Voltage Trimmer R3 is provided across each
current transformer to adjust terminal voltage when there is a change in overall
power factor

Modern A.V.R. (Zener Bridge)

Voltage across the Zener diodes remains almost constant independent of

current variations. Smoothed D.C. output is applied to the voltage reference bridge.
This bridge is balanced at the correct generator voltage output with no potential
difference between 'A' and 'B'.
If the generator voltage fails, current through the bridge arms falls and
current flows from 'A' to 'B' through the amplifier.
If the generator voltage falls, current through the bridge arms falls and
current flows from 'B' to 'A' through the amplifier.
If the generator voltage rises, Current through the bridge arms rises with
current flow from 'A' to 'B' through the amplifier.

The signal from the amplifier will automatically vary the field excitation
current, usually through a silicon controlled rectifier ( Thyristor) control element.

The Silicon Controlled Rectifier (Thyristor) is a four layer, three terminal,

solid state device with the ability to block the flow of current, even when forward
biased, until the gate signal is applied. This gate signal could come from a Zener
diode Voltage reference bridge. The gate signal will switch on the forward biased
S.C.R. and current flows through the exciter field. When reverse biased the S.C.R.
will again block current flow. Due to inductance of the field winding the S.C.R. would
continue to pass current for a part of the negative cycle. By fitting a 'free wheeling'
diode the current though the Thyristor falls quickly at the end of the positive cycle.
In some circuits the excitation current is designed to be excess of requirements, so
that the gate signal reduces flow.

Limiting voltage dip and response time

under impact loading
The effect of a large load suddenly switched on to a small power installation such as
a ships plant will be an instantaneous dip in the generator voltage.
This effect, due to the transient reactance on starting, cannot be
obviated either in a self regulated machine, or in a conventional generator with
A.V.R.
The sluggish response of the excitation systems limits the speed of
voltage recovery.
In a self excited generator the dip is less and the recovery time greatly
improved. (say 0.3s against 0.7s)
In order to maintain constant voltage, under varying conditions,
excitation must be varied.
Variation of voltage at constant excitation

Variation of excitation at constant voltage

Air Gap
If the air gap around a rotor is not uniform the motor may not start in certain
positions. Because the rotor is not centred, probably due to worn bearings, there is
an out of balance magnetic pull.
Radial play in between the shaft and the housing should be detected by
hand and bearing wear detected by feeler gauge between the rotor and the stator, or
armature and field poles may be measured at three or four fairly equidistant points
around the machine. If possible one measurement should be made at the bottom of
the machine and another in line with the drive. Compare with previous records to
check wear. At minimum air gap. Clearance of the bearings should be renewed to
avoid the possibility of the rotor rubbing on the stator.
On small machines two feelers on opposite sides of the rotor should be
used to avoid error caused by rotor movement from normal position when only one
feeler gauge is used. In synchronous motors and D.C. motors sparking may occur if
the radial air gaps between the armature and the field poles are unequal. If
necessary renew bearings or add or remove soft iron shims from under the pole
shoes. Unequal field strength has a similar effect of sparking at the brushes. This
might be due to short circuit or earth fault on the field coils, or a short circuit on the
shunt and field coils. An increase of air gap gives an increase in 'reluctance'.
In a salient pole A.C. generator this fact may be used to produce a sinusoidal flux
density curve by gradually increasing the length if the air gap towards the pole tips.

In the induction motor the air

gap should be as small as possible if the motor is to act with a high power factor. An
increase in air gap increases the reactance of the motor and lowers its power factor.
Small motors are accurately machined and centring of the rotor is very important so
ball or roller bearings are fitted.

Air gap
0.25mm
0.75mm
2.0mm

Motor size
1kW
10kW
100kW

Parallel operation of generators

D.C. generators
For compound wound D.C. generators it is usually sufficient to ensure that the
voltages of the incoming generator is the same as the bus bar voltage. The
equalising connection joining the junctions between the armatures and their series
fields is incorporated in the circuit breaker in such a way that the equalising
connection is automatically closed before and opens after, the main contacts. By
adjustment of the shunt field regulator the load sharing may be controlled

A.C. alternators
To parallel alternators the following conditions are required;
1. Same voltage-checked with the voltmeter
2. Same frequency-checked with the frequency meter and synchroscope
3. Same phase angle-checked with synchroscope
4. Same phase rotation-checked with rotation meter. Only important when
connecting shore supply, or after maintenance on switchgear or
alternator.

Load Sharing Of Alternators In Parallel

Alternators in parallel must always run at the same speed. After a machine has been
paralleled and is required to take up its share of the load, this will not be achieved by
adjusting the field excitation current. Although the increase in e.m.f. will cause a
current to flow in the busbars, and this will show on the machines ammeters, this is
a reactive current that lags the e.m.f. by 90o and produces a reactive (kVAr) but not
kW. Its only effect is to alter the operating power factor of the alternator.
More power may be obtained at the bus bars from the incoming
alternator only by supplying more power to its prime mover. This increase of steam
or fuel supply is achieved by altering the governor setting either electrically or
manually.
After adjusting the governor the incoming machine takes up its desired
amount of the kW loading and this is recorded on the machines watt meter. However,
if the kW loading is shared equally between two machines it may be found that the
Load Current of the incoming machine is more or less than the other machine. This is
fue to the incoming machine having a different power factor. This may be corrected
by adjusting the excitation of the incoming alternator.
Thus after paralleling an alternator;
i. Adjust prime mover governor until kW loading is correct
ii. Adjust field excitation current until current sharing is correct.

If the alternators have similar load characteristics, once adjusted, the load will
continue to be shared. If the load characteristics of alternators vary, the kW loading
and load current sharing may require readjusting under different load conditions.

Load sharing of alternators

No1 on load

No1

on

load,

No2

synchronised

and

taking

100kW

No1 and No2 sharing load after adjusting governor settings,

excitation adjusted to prevent excessive volt drop in No2

No1 and No2 sharing load with balanced power factors by

adjusting excitation

The effects of altering Torque and Excitation on single

phase alternator plant-and by extrapolation a 3phase circuit

Before paralleling, by varying Rb, adjust the excitation current in the

rotor field of 'B' until Va=Vb. When in phase and at the same frequency
synchronising may take place.
If there was no external load on the bus bars the torque on the prime
movers of A and B is only that required by its own alternator and Ra and Rb are
adjusted so that Ea and Eb are equal.

Relative to the bus bars Ea and Eb are acting in the same direction with
each other making the top bar positive with respect to the bottom bar.

Varying the driving torque

If the driving torque of 'B' is reduced (less fuel supplied) the rotor falls
back by an angle say p.f.(b) giving a resultant e.m.f. of Ez in the closed circuit.
The e.m.f. Ez circulates a current I which lags behind Ez by angle p.f.(a).
This circulating current Iis more or less in phase with Ea and in opposition to Eb.
This means that A is generating power to motor B and this will compensate for any
loss
of
power
in
the
prime
mover
of
B.
Once the power increase in A equals the power loss of B balance is restored and A
and B continue to run in synchronism.

input.)

Therefore the power is shared by adjusting the torque ( fuel

Slight loss of power in B-is taken up by an increase in power from A.

The terminal voltage will not vary and the speed and frequency will stay the same or
drop only very slightly.
Large loss of power in B-with a large circulating current from A to B
the alternator A will try to drive B as a synchronous motor. The amount of full load
power required to drive an alternator as a motor is only 2 to 3% for a turbine and 10
to
12%
for
diesel
engine.

As the circulating current flows from A to B the reverse power trip on B will operate
after
about
3
to
5
seconds.
All the load now falls on A which will probably cause the overload trip to operate and
'black out' .

Varying excitation

Consider A and B are exerting the torque required by its alternator and
the generated e.m.f. Ea and Eb are equal. There is no circulating current.
By reducing Rb the excitation current in the field of B can be increased and Eb will
increase. Ez is the resultant difference (Eb - Ea) which will give a circulating current I
through the synchronous impedances of the two alternators. As the machines are
similar the impedance drop in each will be 1/2Ez so the terminal voltage
V1 = Eb - Ez = Ea + Ez
Therefore increasing the excitation current will increase the
terminal voltage
As p.f.(a) is almost 90o the Power circulating from B to A is very small
Ez I Cos [ p.f.(a)] approx equals Zero (Cos 90o = Zero)

Effect of reducing Excitation

By increasing Rb the reduction of the field excitation current of B will reduce the
terminal voltage
Ea>Eb terminal Voltage V = Ea - Ez = Eb + Ez
The circulating current I from A to B will have a large 'Wattless'
component. Machine A now has more of the lagging reactive current and its power
factor is reduced. Too large a reduction in excitation current in B with subsequent
increase in load current in A could cause the current overload trip of A to operate.
This could be followed by the low voltage or the overload trip of B operating causing
a black out.

Voltage regulation

The graph demonstrates that excitation must be increased (generally)

with increasing load to maintain terminal voltage

The worse the power factor the worse the terminal voltage change
during load change.
Voltage regulation = DV when load removed/ Full load terminal voltage
At 1.0 p.f. = AC/ OA
At 0.8 p.f = AD/ OA
Therefore lower p.f. = greater voltage regualtion

Synchroscopes

The armature of the synchroscope carries two windings at right angles to

each other and is capable of rotation between field poles F F1
R is a non inductive resistance and XL is a highly inductive resistance
both connected to one phase of the bus bars. This produces a field which rotates
relative to the armature at the bus bar frequency. When the incoming machine is
connected to the coils of the field poles a pulsating field is produced at the same
frequency as the incoming machine.
If the two fields are not at the same frequency then the armature will
rotate at a speed equal to the difference.

In the modern rotary synchroscope there are no slip rings. The rotor has
two soft iron pole pieces and with its shaft carrying the pointer it is magnetised by
coil R from the bus bars. With this coil is fixed adjacent to the shaft, therefore, there
are no moving coils, contacts or control springs.

Single Phase
Single phase synchronising with lamps Lamps Dark

Lamps bright

If using single phase synchronising it is considered better to use the

lamp bright method as it is easier to judge the middle of the bright sequence rather
than the middle of the dark sequence

Three phase synchronising

Synchroscope with two lamps (lamps dark)

The secondary windings of transformer T1 supplies field coil F of the

synchroscope. The secondary windings of T2 supplies the rotating coils R of the
synchroscope.
If the incoming machine is in antiphase with the bus bar the voltage difference
between the output of the secondary of T1 and T2 is double the normal voltage
giving normal volt drop across each lamp. When in phase there is no voltage
difference between the outputs of T1 and T2 and therefore lamps are dark when
synchronised.

Synchroscope with two lamps (Lamps bright)

Three phase synchronising with lamps (Lamps dark)

No1 Vector is stationary, if the incoming machine is running two slow

then the No2 vector moves away from No1 vector in an anti clockwise direction. In
the position shown as the No2 vector moves progressively anti clockwise then 'a' will
brighten, 'b' will brighten shortly reaching maximum luminosity then darken, 'c' will
darken .
When the machines are in phase, then 'R1' and 'R2' will be in align
therefore 'a' will be dark, 'Y1' and 'B2' will be 120 o apart and therefore 'b' will be
approaching maximum luminosity, and the same will be for 'c' with 'Y2' and 'B1' 120 o
apart.

AC single phase induction motors

With a single phase stator the magnetic field is purely alternating so no

rotating magnetic field is set up. Any clockwise torque is opposed by an equal and
opposite anti clockwise torque. Once the rotor moves it will accelerate in the
direction
started,
but
it
will
not
self
start.
With a split phase induction motor an auxiliary winding in series with a resistance
carries a current in which the angle of lag is less than the angle of lag in the main
winding. The two windings thus produce a rotating magnetic field which makes the
motor self starting.

The starting winding use fine wire of high resistance and low reactance.
The current in the start winding leads the current in the main winding when the
machine speed reaches 75% the start winding should be switched off. This may be
done automatically using a centrifugal switch.

An alternative method of starting is to use a capacitor in series with the

start winding. This is more suitable for loads of higher inertia or more frequent
starting than the split phase motor.

AC 3 phase induction motors

The polyphase induction motor is self starting. Its speed falls to a small extent with
load ( as does a D.C. shunt wound motor) It has two main parts, the stator which is
similar to a stationary armature of an alternator, and the rotor, mounted on bearings
within the stator.

Stator
This is provided with three sets of windings energised separately by the individual
phases of a three phase supply, giving a rotating magnetic field, constant in
magnitude and rotating at the same angular frequency as that of the supply voltage.
Squirrel cage rotor

Rotor- There are no electrical or other connections made to the rotor

which is built up of soft iron laminations fixed to the shaft and slotted to receive
conductors.

The squirrel cage rotor has a single stout copper conductor bedded into
slots, these conductors being short circuited by heavy copper rings at both ends. A
similar electrical type has windings on the rotor which are short circuited but are not
in the form of a squirrel cage.
Current flowing in the squirrel cage rotor conductors is an induced
current and cannot be controlled. When it is necessary to vary the rotor current a
three phase wound rotor is used and the connections to the windings are brought out
to slip rings across which variable resistance's are connected and can reduce starting
current, improve starting torque and control speed.

Principal of operation
If a conductor set at right angles to a magnetic fields moves across the flux from left
to right, the direction of the induced voltage will be out of the paper, by lenz's law. If
this conductor is part of a complete circuit, them a current will flow in the direction of
this voltage, and there will be a force on the conductor tending to urge it from right
to left.

The same relative motion of field and conductor is obtained if the

conductor is stationary and the field moved form right to left. If a current is switched
on in the stator setting up a rotating field then electromotive forces are set up in the
rotor. The resulting rotor currents give rise to a force in the conductors tending to
move the rotor in the same direction as the stator field motion. The speed of the
rotor can never equal the speed of the stator rotating field as there must always be
relative motion between the conductors and the rotating field. The greater the
difference between the stator rotating field speed and the rotor speed the greater the

relative speed of conductors and field, and the greater the force on each conductor
with more torque exerted on the whole.
Slip = Field speed - Rotor Speed/ Field speed
The greater the slip the greater the torque exerted. Light load slip is
about 2%, full load slip is about 4 to 5%.

Torque and slip

Consider the frequency of the stator fields relative to each conductor. When the rotor
is at reat this equals the alternation of the supply. If lightly loaded the slip is small,
say only one or two cycles per second.
Resistance of a squirrel cage rotor as a rule will be very small and its
inductance high. Its reactance will thus be large at the frequency of the supply and
much less when it is running (induced reactance depends upon frequency).
XL
XL
L = Inductance [ H ]

=
=

p
Inductive

L
resistance

The power factor of the rotor will be low at starting and its torque small.
P.F.
of
0.2
to
0.4
on
starting.
If the resistance of the conductors was increased, the starting power factor is
increased.

As the frequency difference between the rotating field and the rotating
conductors reduces so the Inductive resistance component reduces and so the power
factor increases improving efficiency and reducing current draw.

Wound rotor
If the resistance of the conductors was increased, the starting power factor is
increased. There are tow possible methods for attaining this. The first is to have a
rotor squirrel cage made of a suitable high resistance material say bronze rather
than copper, a second method is to use a wire wound rotor with the ends of the
windings brought out via slip rings and attached to high resistance's. However at
working speeds more slip is needed for a given torque. So what is gained in starting
is lost in steady running. When a large starting torque is essential a Wound Rotor
may be used, with external variable resistances which can be cut out as the rotor
speed increases. A less expensive solution is a dual squirrel cage rotor

Note:It is the resistance in the closed circuit which determines the

current in the circuit induced by the rotating field

Comparisons of cage and slip ring rotors

Squirrel cage
Advantages
Cheaper and more robust
Slightly higher efficiency and power factor
Explosion proof, since abscence of slip rings and brushes eliminates
risk of sparking
Virtually constant speed machine
Disadvantages
High starting current ( 5 to 8 times F.L.)
Low starting torque

Wound rotor with slip rings

Advantages
High starting torquw
Lower starting current
Speed can be varied if required

Disadvantages

cost
Danger from sparking

For small squirrel cage motors direct on line starting with starter current
of about 5 x full load . With larger squirrel cage where the torque increases as speed
of load increases ( fans, bow thrusters, etc.) reduced voltage starting may be
obtained with star delta or auto transformer starters.
In modern marine practices the wound rotor with slip rings is seldom
found. To obtain high starting torque with starting currents of about 3.5 x full load
the induction motor rotor is provided with two cages.
a. AN outer cage in shallow slots with high resistance ( bronze)
b. An inner cage in deeper slots of low resistance (copper)
On starting the inner cage is very reactive with low torque and little
current (See graph above).The outer cage has high torque with most of the rotor
current when starting. During running most of the current is in the inner cage of low
resistance as at small slip the inductive reactance is low.
These two cage induction motors may be started direct on line and are
widely used in marine practice.

Skewed conductors (windings)

Magnetic hum
Two possible sources of magnetic hum , commonly heard in transformers, are
Attraction and repulsion alternately of laminations
Magnetic striction i.e. when the poles in a bar are aligned the bar has a tendency to
expand.

Synchronous motors

Advantages
The ease with which the power factor can be controlled. An
overexcited synchronous motor with a leading power factor can be
operated in parallel with induction motors having a lagging power
factor to improve the overall power factor of the supply system
The speed is constant and independent of the load. This
characteristic is mainly of use when the motor is required to drive
another alternator to generate a supply at a frequency, as in
frequency changers

Uses-A.C. electric propulsion schemes but generally not for auxiliary purposes.

Disadvantages
Cost per h.p. is greater than induction motors
D.C. supply is necessary for the rotor excitation. This is usually
provided by a small D.C. generator carried on an extension of the
shaft.
Some arrangement must be provided for starting and synchronising
the motor. Two possible methods are by pony motor, or by
incorporating a wound rotor induction windings which may be
opened when up to speed and a D.C. voltage applied

Graph of induction motors showing effect of increasing the ratio

of resistance to inductance.

Full load occurs at around 40 % torque. It can be seen that varying the
resistance will change the degree of slip and hence speed. For R = 2X the motor is
not self starting as it never reaches full starting torque. It will also be expensive to
run due to the high heat losses through the resistance's.

At reduced load the power factor is much reduced. Because of this it is

very inefficient to place an oversized motor on a load, or to have several motors only
partly loaded.

The effects of frequency and voltage change on an

induction motor.
Effects of voltage change
At constant voltage if frequency is increased from 50Hz to 60Hz there is an increased
Inductive resistance XL. As stator flux is reduced this effects the starting torque
increasing starting current demand. Higher speed increases power output. If a
centrifugal pump or fan the power increase is proportional to the speed cubed ( [60 /
50]3 = 1.728) giving a 73% increase in power demand.
At constant voltage if the frequency is decreased from 60Hz to 50Hz the
stator flux is increased but the speed is reduced by a 83%. Unless the load is
reduced the machine will run hotter than normal. Starters and contactors could be
adversely affected. A 440v 60Hz system supplied from a 415v 50Hz shore supply
runs at 83% speed, slightly hotter but should run without damage.

Effects of frequency change

At constant frequency if voltage is reduced this has little effect on speed (less than
5%) but increased current for same power. Torque is proportional to the square of
the voltage therefore there is a corresponding and greater drop in available starting
torque, this leads to longer run up times and the possibility of stalling.
As induction motors very really run at full load, a large voltage reduction would be
required to cause a damaging current.
At constant frequency if voltage is increased gives a stronger stator flux
depending on slot design and original flux density this could increase stator iron
losses sufficiently to cause overheating.

Squirrel cage

wound rotor

Single phasing
Delta wound

Winding 'B' will receive full voltage, winding 'C' and 'A' are in series
If the motor is running when the circuit is opened it will be seen that at
100% load the current in 'B' becomes almost three times full load, the current in
'C.A' becomes about 30% overload and the line current becomes about 2 times full
load.
At these conditions the overload protective device operate

But at 75% load, Current in 'B' is 180%, current in 'C.A.' is at 80%, and
the line current is 145%. If the overload protection devices are set at 50% overload
then they will fail to operate and the motor will continue to run. Under these
conditions tha copper losses also increase causing additional heating.

Protection against single phasing.

The commonest cause of single phasing is the blowing of a fuse in the supply circuit.
For this reason it is recommended that cartridge and not rewireable fuses are used.
Cartridge fuses can be overloaded to near fusing point with out degradation. Also
variations
between
fusing
points
on
each
fuse
is
small.
It is good practice that if one fuse blows then all three should be changed. Any fuse
which is intact should be transferred to a lighting circuit where its performance is not
vital.
No volt releases will not provide protection in these circumstances. Should the open
circuit be on the motor side of the starter due to a broken connection the no volt coil
will continue to be fed from the supply. If the open circuit occurs on the supply side
the coil will be supplied by the voltage induced in the motor.

Star wound

Overheating can also occur with a star connected machine on single

phase, but in this case the line current is the same as the windings and so there is a
better chance that the protection devices will operate. In both star and delta
connected motors, they will not start in the single phase condition, they will remain
stalled and subjected to large currents if the protection devices are set to high or
with an excessive time delay. Running indication may be connected across a healthy
phase giving an incorrect indication. Therefore overload setting of 125% F.L. with
suitable
time
lag
to
allow
starting
is
recommeded.
If this is not practical, then some form of single phase protection is required. One
such device is shown below.

Under overload conditions- all bi-metal strips heated equally by coils

and deflect moving top bar sufficiently to operate a trip mechanism.
Under single phase conditions- two strips deflect. No deflection in the
other strip. The top and bottom bars are hinged and move together. If forced apart
the trip mechanism operates.
Another simple method, where it can be conveniently arranged, is to
connect the overload coils in the delta circuit in series with the windings. This is
possible in the case of star-delta starters. In systems with an earthed neutral, then
single phasing will occur if a fuse blows due to a fault to earth in one line. It may
also result from a defective contact in a switch or starter and proper maintenance is
therefore most important.

Motor connection
A motor designed to be delta connected must not be connected in start otherwise the
heating effect in the windings will be three times design but the line current would be
normal and therefore protection devices would not operate.

Speed control of induction motors

Rotor speed of an induction motor N = (1-s) f / p
s = slip, f = frequency, p = number of pole pairs.

controlled.

By changing one of the three parameters the speed of the motor can be

a. In the wound rotor type induction motor the slip can be changed by adjusting the
resistance's of the rotor windings.
The disadvantage of this type of speed control are the power wasted and also the speed
varies with torque. At full load torque and half speed approximately half of the energy is
lost in the resistance's.
In the cage type motor the rotor resistance cannot be varied
b. The most efficient method of speed control of an induction motor is by varying the
frequency of the supply, the method requires not only some forms of frequency converter
but also a means of adjusting the voltage. As the frequency varies the inductive reactance
of the machine also varies, so if the frequency is increased the supply voltage should also
be increased.
In certain methods of frequency control, using electronic components, the original supply
sine wave is cut to give a part of the sine wave, or reassembled to give a sine wave at a
lower frequency. Using this method only speeds lower than the original are possible.
c. If two or three speeds near to the possible synchronous speeds are required then pole
changing may be used
.
i.
ii.

iii.

Two speed dual wound type-If the stator of a cage type induction motor is wound
with two separate windings, each designed for a different speed, then by means
of a selector switch two pre selected speeds can be obtained
Two speed 2:1 pole change- A single stator winding divided into two parts, which
can be connected to give p or 2p pairs of poles, will give two speeds with one
speed being half that of the other
By combining the two above methods motors may be run at three or four fixed
speeds
Two speed pole amplitude modulation (P.A.M.) pole change-If the stator windings
are divided into conductor groups , say 'a' and 'b', then by connecting in different
ways e.g. (a+b) and (a-b) different speeds can be obtained. Therefore speed
combinations in ratios other than 2:1 can be obtained, Where close ratio two
speed motors are required this type of motor has largely superseded the two
speed dual wound motor. However the two speed dual motor is used where wider
speed spread applications are required.

To use pole changing methods of speed control with slip ring wound rotor
induction motors the number of poles in the rotor and the stator must be changes by
the same ratio. With two sets of slip rings and a specially wound rotor the machine is
expensive and this method is seldom used.

Other methods of control include using three phase commutator motors,

or using towo motors arranged in cascade. However these methods are expensive
and are not normally used for marine applications.

Types of electric motor starter

Direct on Line

Is the most commonly used form of starter. The determining factors in

the use of this starter are the load demand on generators and distribution boards,
and for some equipment such as purifiers, start up time. The starting current is 5 to
8 times full load, heating of the winding being proportional to this current squared.
There is also no windage or radiation on starting so no cooling. Repeated starts
without periods for cooling is undesirable.

Star-Delta

Position 1 (as shown)- Start. Starting voltage reduced to 1 / (3 1/2 of line

voltage (0.58 VL) No overload coils (O/L) connected during starting. When star
connected the line current is only 1/3 of delta connected value. Power reduced in
same ratio so this starting only suitable for large motors requireing low starting
torque.
Position 2 - Run. Delta connected. Low voltage (L/V) coil gives cut out at
reduced voltage. O/L coils in circuit.
The disadvantage of this system is that starting torque is reduced by 1/3
of direct on line torque. With single and double cage rotors of average performance
this is about 80% of full load torque. This assumes that the supply voltage is normal,
if there is an appreciable line drop the torque will proportionally lower. These factors
must be taken into account when deciding if the star delta starting is to be used.
Suitable for centrifugal fans and pumps which do not require a large
starting torque. With centrifugal loads when starting the motor is run up to about 80
to 85% full speed on the star connection at this point the motor must be switched to
the running or delta position. This must be done quickly as with the usual type of
starter the motor is momentarily disconnected during the transition and therefore
develops no torque. When the motor is reconnected to the supply the delta
connection will draw a line current corresponding to its speed, at 80% full speed, this
will be about 3 time full load current. When transferring from star to delta
connections transient effects may occur. When the motor is disconnected the rotor
field does not collapse instantaneously and it induces e.m.f.'s in the stator windings.
When the starter is reconnected in delta the supply may be out of phase with relation
to the induced e.m.f.'s and dependant on the displacement violent current surges
may be set up.

Starting characteristics for Star-Delta starters.

Auto-transformer

The starter contacts are shown un the start position with the centre
tappings of the transformer in use. Voltage tappings can be made on the auto
transformer. Usually only one tapping is made but this may be at 30%, 45%, 60% or
75%.
Start current = Start torque = (Start voltage) 2
F.L. current F.L.Torque (F.L. Voltage)2

E.G. if starting on 0.75VL tapping then start current / F.L current =

(0.75)2 = 0.5625

Low voltage protection

No voltage coils are fitted to motor starters to prevent simultaneous and uncontrolled
start up of machinery after a black out or other loss of power. Except in the case of
sequential start up.
Control gear and controllers are designed so that they will function to
start the motor with 80% normal voltage for D.C. and 85% of normal voltage for
A.C. circuits. Once on load they will operate on voltages down to 2/3 of normal and
in some cases even lower. With an induction motor torque is proportional to voltage
squared so that at 2/3 voltage available torque available has fallen to about 40%.
The motor will therefore stall, causing a considerable increase in starter current. If a
drastic reduction in voltage is experienced, all running plant should be inspected
immediately.

Face plate starter.

Incorrect connection- if the shunt winding is connected here and the

main isolator is opened the sudden collapse of flux will induce a very high e.m.f. in
the field. This would cause a heavy sparking at the isolator and possible break down
of field insulation.
Correct connection- With shunt connection here, if the starting handle
is returned to off the kinetic energy in the machine armature maintains rotation and
acting as a generator the field current reduced slowly with no risk of excessive
e.m.f.'s being induced

Navigation lighting

Operation-When
the
double pole switch is closed the navigation light is illuminated. Current in the relay
circuit causes the relay coil to energise so contact 'a' ,may be attracted to 'b'. A low
voltage lamp only is needed for the indicating lamp, so there is a small voltage drop
across that part of the circuit. If the indicating lamp fails the circuit is completed
through the resistance C, so the navigation light does not fail.
If the navigation light fails, or if a fuse blows the current in the circuit
ceases and the relay de-energises. Contact 'a' springs back to contact 'b' and the
buzzer circuit is completed.
In case of failure of ships mains, the double pole switch may be switched
over to emergency supply.

Requirements

Circuit supplied from distribution board provided for that purpose which is easily
accessible to the officer of the watch.
Must be connected directly or through a transformer to the main or emergency
switchboard. No switches in between.
Provision on the bridge to transfer lights to alternative source of supply.
Each navigation light must be controlled and protected at both poles by a switch and
fuse, or circuit breaker, mounted ON the distribution board.
Each provided with automatic indication of extinction of light by aural and/or visual
indication.

The visual device must be so connected that its failure does not extinguish the
navigation light circuit

Types of fluorescent lights

Discharge lamps
Cold cathode type-only used for decorative lighting
Hot cathode
a, High pressure fluorescent
(i)Mercury vapour types )Used mainly for street lighting
(ii) Sodium type , )but sometimes used for deck lighting
b, Low pressure Hot Cathode Fluorescent type discharge Lamp

Principle- A length of glass tubing contains a small amount of mercury

vapour and argon gas, at a very low pressure ( 10-6 atmospheres ). A heater
element forming an electrode is situated at each end of the tube. These electrodes
may be coated with an oxide to improve thermionic emission. The interior of the tube
is coated with fluorescent powder ( a Phosphor coating)
If a suitable voltage is applied between the two electrodes a DISCHARGE
strikes between them and the mains voltage is then sufficient to maintain the
discharge. This occurs in low pressure so that the lamp will run at a comparatively
low temperature and so will not effect the fluorescent coating. The electrons from the
electrode collide with the mercury atoms. This dislodges an electron from the atom
making the mercury atom a positively charged ION. As the dislodged electron
returns to the influence of the ION ( i.e. the electron changes from one energy level
to another) a certain amount of electro-magnetic radiation (i.e. a photon) is given off
in the form of Ultra-violet light. These rays activate the fluorescent coating and the
luminous surface provides a glare free efficient light.
Operation -With switch start circuits to start a discharge across the tube
a large Voltage Impulse is required.

This may be obtained by the following methods;

a.
b. Glow type switch and choke
c. Thermal type switch and choke

There are also methods using starterless circuits, referred to as rapid

start or instant start,. where a drop in potential between the electrode and an earth
strip is sufficient to ionise the gas adjacent to the electrode and this ionisation then
spreads across the whole tube.
C1C2- Power factor correction

Radio

suppresser

Glow type switch starter circuit

When the control switch is closed the contacts on the bimetal strips which are open
form the electrodes of a small discharge lamp. The mains voltage is sufficient to
cause a glow discharge in the starter which warms the bimetal strips. The strips bend
until contacting and a large current flows through the electrodes of the main tube,
forming an electrode cloud around their cathodes (thermionic emission)
Shortly the bimetal strips cool sufficiently to break contact, This sudden
reduction in current flow causes a large e.m.f to be generated in the choke ( typically
four to five times mains)
The voltage surge across the tube is sufficient to ionise the gas, reducing
the resistance to electron flow and allowing the discharge to occur and be sustained
by the mains voltage.
Operation may still occur if the mains voltage is reduced, however the
tube is unlikely to start hence this type of light is not used for emergency lighting

The choke has a second purpose other than providing the start voltage.
It maintains a constant correct potential difference across the tube when the mains is
an alternating current.. If a d.c is used then a ballast resistor ( which may be an
incandescent light) must be used

Advantages

Greater efficacy, about 5 times the lumens per watt of tungsten filament
Longer light source, tungsten originating from a relatively small area

About 5 times the life of filament ( 5000 Hrs approx.)

Disadvantages

Initial cost
Power loss in d.c plant due to ballast resistor

Stroboscopic effect, two may be place in 90o out of phase

Relays and Solenoids

The wire coil of the electromagnet, without its core of magnetic material is called the
solenoid. If this solenoid is provided with a movable soft iron core and current flows
through the turns of the coil , the magnetic field tends to pull the plunger in to the
centre of the coil. Accordingly the coil with its moving centre is called the solenoid.
The plunger can be used to operate a great many mechanical
applications. A spring is often fitted above the plunger to positively return it to its
start position once the current is turned off. The plunger may also be used via an
non-magnetic extension be used as a pusher, a spring again returning it to the start
position.
Either a direct or alternating current may be used to energise the
solenoid, since either type will produce the magnetic field around the coil. There is
one precaution however. The core of the electromagnet finds itself in the magnetic
field of the coil. If a steady direct current flows through the coil , no current will be
induced in the core since both the core and field are stationary. But if an alternating
current flows through the coil, the changing magnetic field will cause a current to be
induced in the core. This is called the eddy current.
The eddy current is undesirable on two counts. The flow of current
through the core represents a power loss , which must come from the source. Also
the flow of current may cause the core to get quite hot. To reduce the eddy current,
the core is not built solid but is made up of many thick slices, called laminations.
Each lamination is insulated from its neighbour by a coat of varnish or similar
material. This offers considerable resistance, and as a result, the eddy currents are

cut down. In solenoids operating on alternating current, the plunger is built up of

laminations.
An alternating current coil will offer a greater resistance to current flow
than a direct current coil of same ohm resistance due to its inductive reactance.
Hence, if a coil designed to be operated by an alternating current is connected to a
source of direct current at the same voltage, the flow of current may be great
enough to burn out the windings.
On very common application of an electromagnet is in the operation of
an electric switch. In this form it is known as an electromagnetic relay.
The sensitivity and current draw of a relay is determined by the wire
wound on the core. This is determined by size and therefore breaking capacity of the
contacts.
The relay coil may be energised by either direct or alternating current.
Where direct current is employed, there are no special problems. Alternating current
may be employed since the polarity does not effect the attraction of the armature.
However, the rapid alternations of the magnetic field cause the armature to vibrate,
or 'chatter'. Since the contacts are controlled by the armature, the controlled circuit
too, will be affected..
One method of remedying the fault is to rectify the alternating current
before applying it to the relay. Small semi conductor diodes are employed. Another
method is to connect a fairly large capacitor across the coil. Frames are laminated to
prevent eddy current losses.
Overload circuit breaker is a variation on a relay.

Transformers
A big advantage of A.C. transmission is the ability to easily change voltage by means
of a transformer. As there are no moving parts maintenance is very low and
efficiency
very
high
(
typically
98%).
A transformer consists of two insulated coils wound separately over a closed
magnetic field, usually iron, of low reluctance. An alternating supply E1 acts across a
coil called the primary, a voltage is induced in the secondary coil E2.

Details of a small transformer-the core is built up of stamped

laminated sheets of silicon iron about 0.35 mm thick insulated from one another by a
thin layer of paper or varnish. The purpose of laminating the core is to reduce the
loss due to eddy currents induced by the alternating magnetic flux. The vertical
portions of the yoke are called the 'limbs' and the horizontal portions are called the
'yokes'

Shell type

Auto transformer

Auto transformers are used in;

a. Starting motors
b. In power factor corrections with capacitance's.
c. Incorporated in portable appliances such as radios.

Transformer losses
Iron losses- As the magnetic field sweeps across the conducting material a voltage
is induced which sets up a current within it. When this current, the EDDY CURRENT,
flows the resistance within the material causes heat to be produced. The material
does not have to be magnetic for the eddy currents to be set up but must be a
conductor.
If the material is magnetic the magnetic field around the coil magnetizes
that material and rearranges its molecules. Each time the magnetic field reverse the
molecules are rearranged. As the result of molecular friction called HYSTERESIS
LOSS this rearrangement produces heat

1. Eddy currents- losses reduced by laminating material

2. Hysteresis loss-reduced by using soft iron or annealed steel.
Copper losses-These are the I2R losses in the copper wires of the
primary and secondary coils. Increase in temperature of these coils will increase their
resistance.
Iron losses are constant, but copper losses are proportional to the
square of the current.
Vs/Vp approx equals Ns/Np approx equals Ip/Is
Efficiency = Output power/ I nput power
= Output power/ Output power - Iron losses + Copper losses
= Vs Is Cosf/ Vs Is Cosf + Iron losses + Ip2Rp + Is2Rs
Maximum efficiency occurs when iron losses and copper losses are equal.
The losses in a transformer for a given frequency are largely determined by the value
of the working flux density in the windings. With a small transformer it is possible to
work with fairly high densities in both the iron and the copper without exceeding the
maximum temperature so air cooling is satisfactory. However in larger transformers
either the flux density or the current density must be reduced or somemethod of
cooling used. This is normally achieved by immersing the transformer in insulating oil
in a chamber with cooling fins or tubes.

Instrument transformers
It is usual in A.C. installations to fit the ammeter to the secondary circuit of a current
transformer. This avoids heavy current connections to the meter and allows an
ammeter switch to be fitted to read the current in each phase. The same current
transformer can be used for the wattmeter and the reverse power relay. Voltage
transformers are also normally provided for use with voltmeters, wattmeters,
synchroscopes and reverse power relays.
Safety-The secondary circuit of a current transformer must never be
opened or left open under load. The large voltage induced (due to high flux density
produced in the core with no 'back' ampere turns from the secondary coil) will cause
the transformer to overheat. The secondary circuit must be such that short circuit
conditions will not cause damage.
In the event of breakdown of insulation between primary and secondary
windings it is a requirement that one end of the secondary winding of the current
transformer and the voltage transformer and the metal cases of the instruments shall
be earthed.

The principle of the current transformer is that the primary winding

carries the full load current and as such is made of large diameter low resistance
wire. The secondary winding steps up the small volt drop that occurs over the length
of the primary wire.

Discrimation and Fuses

Discrimation
A circuit fed from a distribution board may be fed through three or even four fuses or
circuit breakers e.g. a heating circuit may be connected to a 15amp fuse in a fuse
box fed from a section box in turn from a 500A circuit breaker on the main board.
Discrimination occurs when the fuses nearest to the fault operates
leaving all the other fuses or protective devices intact. Discrimination may be
required between fuse and fuse, or between fuse and overcurrent device such as a
circuit breaker.

Fuses
A fuse is a protective device which is there to prevent overloading. If too heavy a
fuse or if the fuse is overridden then there is a possibility of overheating,
deterioration of insulation and failure.
Materials used are; Tin, Lead, or silver having low melting points. Use
of copper or iron is dangerous, though tinned copper may be used.
Unlike some other forms of circuit protection devices (oil switches for instance),
which are suitable for a.c. only, solid filled cartridge fuses have an approximately
equal breaking capacity for D.C. and A.C. and the action of the fuse does not depend
on breaking circuit at the zero point on the current cyclic wave
Requirements of a fuse;
Have a high cut off speed on short circuit
Operate on a sustained overload
Make a complete break after operation with high insulation resistance
between terminals
Have a maximum temperature rise on continuous full load rating such that it
will not be injurious to rudder cables connected to its terminals

Be mechanically robust and capable of withstanding the large magnetic and

gaseous forces exerted during operation under short circuit conditions

A fuse must not;

Operate on continuous full load
operate on momentary overload
Deteriorate under continuous operation at full load
Burst or emit flame or otherwise damage the fuse carrier and base when it
operates

Regulations
I.E.E. and classification society rules now specify high breaking capacity (high
category) fuses on main switch boards where the total normal generator capacity
exceeds 400kW at 200v, this is for short circuit or low resistance protection of the
very high currents that can be generated in these conditions.
In addition;
Fuses on shipboard must be made to approved standards.
Breaking capacity not less than prospective short circuit current at point of
installation
Fuses over 300A are not used for overload protection but may be used for
short circuit protection
Cartridge fuses only on tankers
To control the extent of heavy fault currents on large installations the
protective device must have a very high speed performance or High Rupture
Capacity (H.R.C.) H.R.C. fuses will operate quickly before the short circuit current
exceeds 3 times the full load current.

Cartridge fuses
Are capable of handling large short circuits. Because of standardisation of
manufacture they have very consistant time/current fusing characteristics making
them accurate, dependable and non-deteriorating in service. Suitable filling powders
such as silicon sand are used in cartridge fuses having the property of quenching the
arc of the fused element.

Enclosed fuses

The element usually made of silver is much smaller than the tinned
copper used in semi-enclosed fuses so that the amount of vaporised metal is less
and this contributes to a better performance. The enclosed casing and use of silver
ensures no degradation due to oxidation. After the silver element has fused the
indicator wire will heat up sufficiently to ignite the indicator powder and the fuse will
be shown to be blown.
Except in the lowest ratings there are two or more elements in parallel
which increase the contact area in contact with the filler, and this increases the
breaking capacity. The ends of the element are reinforced by larger wires to reduce
resistance
and
therefore
heat
losses.
The indicator type should in the construction below consists of an indicator wire
which ignites an explosive powder which chars the indicator paper. On other designs
the indicator wire releases a spring and pop up indicator

Semi-enclosed fuses
Tinned copper fuse wire exposed to the atmosphere tends to deteriorate and will
vary in performance after long periods in service. Also there is a temptation to
increase the gauge of the wire, or the number of wires after a fuse has blown.
However, rewireable fuses are cheap, easily replaceable, blown fuses are easily
detected and within reason if the circuit is uprated slightly no new fuse holders are
required.

Tin-fast
heating
Copper-Slow heating and failure (cheaper)

and

failure

(expensive)

On overload the tin will fail rapidly increasing the current through the
core speeding up its failure.

Rating
Is that current the fuse will carry continuously e.g. for a circuit rated at 30 amp, a 30
amp fuse will be appropriate. Fuses and circuit breakers on switchboards and
distribution boards are intended primarily for the protection of the cables and not the
apparatus. Overload protection of the apparatus usually provided at the motor
starter.
The fusing factor = Minimum fusing current/ Current rating

There are three

standards
Class P
Class Q

Class R

Fuses protect against relatively small but sustained overloads

with fusing factor of 1.25 (25% overload rating)
Fuses where protection against relatively small overcurrents
is not required, with a fuse factor not exceeding 1.5 for
cartridge and 1.8 for semi-enclosed fuses. Motor overload
protection to back up motor starter protection
Fuses require for protection against relatively large
overcurrents (e.g. short circuit protection) 3 x Full load
current

Minimum fusing current

is affected by length of fuse element. A short element with large

terminals, or with special graded construction of wire will have its fusing current
raised because of heat conduction away from the element. Alternately, the cross
section of element can be reduced for a fuse of a given rating. This method is
adopted in some designs of semi-enclosed and filled cartridge fuses.

Reverse power tripping

A.C.

A non magnetic metal disc can rotate in a magnetic field between two
electro magnets. The disc is restrained by a coil spring. The flux produces a torque
on the side which rotates the trip lever away from the trip contacts.
In reverse power conditions the flux from the voltage coil and current
coil interact to rotate the disc in the reverse direction. The amount of torque/current
(and hence power) is set on the current coil tapping.
A permanent magnet is provided on the disc to provide damping. A 3 to
5second delay is incorporated into the trip circuit to allow for transients when
paralleling.

D.C.

1.
2.
3.
4.

Low voltage coil

Overcurrent trip
Reverse current trip
Reverse current trip

2a and 2b are fitted in case of circulating current via the equalising

connection.
Under normal running , fields of '3' and '4' act together to hold the trip
contact down. With reverse current fields are in opposition and a spring pushes the
plunger against a trip bar to open the reverse current trip relay.

Time delay devices associated with safety

circuits
Dash pots-(magnetic time lag)
The usual form of time/delay is an oil dash pot having an inverse time/current
characteristic, relies for its operation upon the retarding action of a plunger
immersed in a reservoir of oil, together with the magnetic force generated by a flow
of current through a solenoid. The plunger is attached to an iron core which is
partially enclose in the solenoid. When the solenoid is sufficiently energised the iron
core will attract it, but the action is retarded due to the oil, in this way a time lag is
introduced

Characteristic of Oil Dash pot with Inverse Time Delay

It is important to note that as the viscosity of the oil varies with

temperature, so will the operating times of oil dash pots vary. Makers will supply
dash pot oil suitable for the circuit breakers and relays. The recommended oils are
selected on the basis of least variation in viscosity over the working range coupled
with viscosity's which will give the time delay marked on the calibration plate. These
special oils should invariably be used, the time delays are usually calibrated at 15oC,
unless otherwise stated and are only correct at this temperature .
Over current devices fitted with oil dash pot time lags do not operate at
the current marked on the calibration scale but at a current 25% greater with the
appropriate time delay. The current marked on the scale is the value at which they
would operate without time delay. Some makers supply an instruction plate
indicating the exact current at which the relay will operate with a given setting.

Thermal device
Depends for its action upon the heating effect of an electric current flowing through,
either a bi-metallic strip, or a heating coil placed near a strip. The thermal
characteristics of the two dissimilar metals is such that when sufficient heat is
generated there is a movement of the strip in one direction until the relay contacts
are opened.

Induction relay
Similar to the action of the watt-hour meter, consisting of a metal disc pivoted so
that it is free to rotate between two poles of two electro-magnets. The disc spindle
carries a contact which is arranged to bridge two contacts when the disc has rotated
through an adjustable angle. A spring returns the disc to the reset position, and as,
during the deflecting period, the torque exerted by the spring increases, this is
compensated for by the provision of graduated slots in the discs periphery. The
necessary damping of the movement is provided for by incorporating a permanent
magnet through which the disc has to rotate. The upper electro-magnet contains two
windings, one, the primary normally is connected to a current transformer to a
winding on the lower electro-magnet. Because of the graduated slots, the inertia of
the moving system prevents the disc form rotating under normal running conditions,
but when overcurrent commence to flow through the external circuit, the torque
generated by the interaction of the upper and lower electro magnets is sufficient to
cause the disc to rotate, until either the current falls to a safe level, or the relay is
operated

Earth fault detection

AC

Earth fault detection

DC

Preferential tripping
It is essential to prevent interruption of services necessary to maintain propulsion
and navigation. These must be safeguarded even if the other services such as
domestic supplies are temporarily sacrificed.
There are two ways to safeguard these services. First there must be at
least two generators, the rating of which must be such that essential services can be
maintained if one set is out of commission. Secondly, a protection must be provided
that if sea load is too much for one generator a system of preferential selection will
operate.
In some cases the non essential load is relatively too small to warrant
additional switchgear. It is generally in larger installations where loads not under
direct control of the engineer that they must be fitted. If the heating, lighting and
galley were all switched on without prior warning, then the generators could become
overloaded. Without preferential trips this may so overload the generators as to
cause a complete shutdown. Therefore non essential services are fed through one or
more circuit breakers fitted with shunt retaining coils or shunt tripping coils. Over
current relays with time lags are provided for each generator. When overloaded,
appropriate relays operate and trip out the non essential services. Some being more
important than others, degrees of preference may be given.

Setting
Usual setting is 150% (50% overload) with a time delay of 15 seconds for generator
overload protection and the following times come into operation when the generator
reaches 110%.

First tripping circuit

Second tripping circuit
Third tripping circuit

5 seconds
10 seconds
15 seconds

Requirements for Electrical machinery

Machinery requirements
It is a standard requirement that all propulsion and auxiliary machinery fitted should
be capable of operating when upright and when inclined at an angle of list up to 15o
either way under static conditions and 22 o under dynamic conditions either way
and when simultaneously inclined dynamically 7 1/20 by bow and stern. The
emergency generating sets shall be capable of functioning when the ship is inclined
22 1/2o from upright and inclined 100 bow to stern. The two main factors of concern
are lubrication and the functioning of contactors, switchgear and relays having
unsymmetrical or unbalanced magnetic systems when the magnetic pull required to
operate increases with tilt. Apparatus, such as transformers or switches, containing
oil could be affected.

Temperature effects
Extremes of temperature will affect the performance and the effective life of the
electrical apparatus. Devices which depend on electromagnetic operation by shunt
coils will find resistance of the coil increases with temperature so with less current
both the ampere turns and the field strength is reduced.
Contactors and relays may fail to operate correctly if overheated.
The total temperature is determined partly by ambient air temperature
and partly by heating effect of the current windings.
This heating effect gives a temperature rise and this is always about the
same for similar load.
The total temperature, which will affect the life of the insulation and the
performance of the equipment, will be maximum at the maximum ambient
temperature. For unrestricted service the cooling air temperature is 45 oC . For
restricted service and vessels intended for northern and southern waters outside of
the tropical belt the temperature is 40oC.
Adequate ventilation and avoidance of hot pockets where electrical
apparatus operates is important.
When considering suitable operating temperature for a device the 'hot
spot temperature' is important. In the field coil the hot spot is somewhere in the
centre of the winding and there is a temperature gradient form there to the surface.
Previous recorded surface temperature values corresponding to specified hot spots
temperature are acceptable for recording the machines performance. Another
method is to record changes in resistance due to temperature in the winding.

When carrying out temperature tests on machines the maximum surface

temperature of the windings is found just after the machine has stopped and it is no
longer cooled by windage. The temperature bulb should be covered by a pad of felt
to prevent heat loss when the surface winding readings are taken.

Installation and maintenance

To reduce end play and avoid hammering during rolling machines should be installed
with their axis of rotation in the fore and aft direction or vertically. If unavoidable
that the machine is placed athwartships suitable thrust bearings should be provided
against the hammering effect. Special attention should be paid to the lubrication of
ring lubricated sleeve bearings.
The main cause of overheating in electrical joints is loose connections
usually due to vibrational problems. All screws and nuts should be locked and
periodically checked and tightened if necessary.

checked.

Heavy current circuits, control and shunt field circuits should all be

Machine rating
The recognised standard is the Continuous maximum rating (C.M.R.), motors and
generators are seldom if ever called upon to operate under sustained overload.
Momentary overloads (15s for test purposes) of 50% in generators is
allowed. Motor overload is determined by function and size.
C.M.R. machines will still carry moderate overloads for reasonable
duration's. An example of this may be an oil pump on start up may experience high
loads as the oil is initially cold.

Circuit protection
For example;
Motor drawing 100A on 220v supply 218v measured at motor terminals
giving a 2 volt drop across cables
Cable resistance therefore is 0.02 Ohm's.
If the motor is bypassed the PROSPECTIVE SHORT CIRCUIT current would be 11,000A
The main circuit breaker may be protected by fuses or a circuit breaker
having at least the necessary breaking capacity and fast enough operative time. This
is 'back up' protection. Generator circuit breakers must not be used for this purpose.
In motor circuits the breaking capacity of motor starters is usually very
limited and does not greatly exceed the starting current of the motors, If a fuse is
fitted for 'back up' protection of the motor starter it should be able to carry the
starter current for the time necessary to start the motor plus a suitable margin. If
correctly chosen it will not blow except under maximum mechanical fault or electrical

fault or overload conditions. It will still give protection should the fault current
exceed what the motor starter can handle.
If A.C. generators and their excitation systems undergo steady short
circuit conditions they should be capable of maintaining a current of at least three
times its rated value for 2 seconds unless requirements are made for a shorter
duration. The safety of the installations must be insured.

Performance
The standard condition for generator performance is based on the starting kVA of the
largest motor, or group of motors which can be started simultaneously and this kVA
should not exceed 60% of the generator capacity.
Voltage should not fall below 85% or rise above 120% of the rated
voltage when such a load have a power factor from zero to 0.4 is thrown on or
thrown off the board.
Voltage must be restored to within 3% of the rated voltage within 1.5s.
For emergency generators 4% in 5s is allowed. The transient effect when a load is
suddenly thrown on is to cause a voltage dip. This dip may be made less if the
generator is designed to have a lower reactance during transient conditions.
However, too low a reactance with a smaller voltage dip may involve high short
circuit currents in excess of capabilities of the available protective devices.
The designer must consider the opposing conditions of low transient
voltage dip and low short circuit currents and balance these conditions against
possible increase in machine size, weight and cost.
Functional systems generally operate faster than error operation
systems. Nevertheless most functional systems use an A.V.R. for trimming purposes
because of practical difficulties of maintaining normal voltage within narrow limits.
Methods normally supplied will maintain voltages within +/- 2 % with many
attaining +/- 1 %

Ship's electrical system

Generator Rating
The generators form the heart of the electrical design
and their correct sizing is the key to a safe, workable
and economical system. When sizing a marine
generator cognisance must be given to the nature of
the load. The generator often works on its own and is
accordingly susceptible to large system load swings,
loads causing distortion, the connection of motors and
the connection of large heater elements for air
conditioning systems. In addition to satisfying the
apparent system load requirements, consideration
must be given to the special requirements of any
large loads, unusual operational requirements, spare
capacity requirements and the required system
operating philosophy.
International maritime regulations (e.g. SOLAS),
require at least two generators for a ship's main
electrical power system. The generators are normally
driven from their own dedicated diesel engine but this
can be expensive, taking up additional space that
could be used for other purposes. For ships engaged
on long sea voyages, it can be economical to drive
the generators from the main propulsion plant.
International maritime regulations also require at least
one electrical generator to be independent of the
speed and rotation of the main propellers and
associated shafting and accordingly at least one
generator must have its own prime mover.
If a minimum of two generators is provided, one of
which is driven from the propeller shaft, failure of one
of the generators could make the ship non-compliant
with the International regulations. For this reason
many owners opt to provide three generators. One is
used for the normal sea load (e.g. the shaft
generator), leaving two available to meet any
unusually high loads or to provide security when
maneuvering. Alternately, the third is retained as a
standby set able to provide power should one set fail
in service or require specific maintenance work.

In some applications such as a generator supplying a

large SCR type load, the generator rating may be
increased well beyond its full load value, in order to
account for harmonic heating and the inductive
requirements of the SCR devices. DCMT has
developed its own software to assist in generator
sizing.

Main Switchboard
The main elements of a marine distribution system
are the main and emergency switchboards, power
panel boards, motor controllers, lighting and small
power panel boards. The system is generally
designed such that under all normal conditions of
operation, power is distributed from the main
switchboard. The distribution system is designed to
keep cable costs to a minimum by distributing to
power panels located close to the user services.
The main switchboard is generally located near the
centre of the distribution system and this is normally
the main engine room or machinery control room.
These locations are normally below the ship's
waterline or below the uppermost continuous deck of
the ship i.e. the bulkhead or main deck. Consequently,
in the event of a fire or flooding it is likely that the
main generators and switchboard would be disabled.
To ensure that electrical supplies are available to
emergency and safety systems, an emergency
generator and associated emergency switchboard will
be located above the main deck in a separate space,
completely isolated from the main machinery spaces.
For shipboard installations specific protective systems
are required to shut down all ventilation systems and
all fuel oil systems in the event of fire. When motor
auxiliaries are grouped together and supplied from a
motor control center or a grouped distribution panel,
this can best be achieved by providing the MCC
supply feeder circuit breaker with an undervoltage
tripping device and connecting this to the ventilation
or fuel systems trip unit. When grouped MCC's or

grouped distribution panels are not used, separate

cables must be installed for each motor controller.
This leads to increased cable costs and increases the
systems proness to failure.

Motor Controls
It is often convenient to group motor driven auxiliaries
according to their function, e.g. fuel and lubrication oil
services, accommodation ventilation systems,
machinery ventilation systems, and domestic service
systems. The auxiliary motors would be supplied from
grouped motor controllers located either in the engine
room, in a machinery control room or in a convenient
location close to the auxiliary motors. This can often
simplify the machinery control functions and required
protection systems.
On small ships, e.g. tugs, etc., such grouping is not
economical and the major ship's auxiliaries are
normally supplied directly from the main switchboard.
In this case the motors would be provided with
individual starters located adjacent to the motor. For
high speed vessels where weight is important,
minimum cable weight may be achieved using a nondistributed distribution scheme.
Auxiliary motor controls should be arranged in
consideration of the general control philosophy
applied to the machinery control systems. For ship's
that do not have automated machinery operation, the
most economic method of control is to provide local
starters for each auxiliary motor supplied from power
panels located in the same or adjacent spaces. These
motors would be manually controlled (start and
stopped), locally at the motor's controller (starter).
This arrangement minimizes cable costs.
When a centralized machinery control system is
required, cables for the motor control functions can be
installed back to the machinery control room and the
starter push buttons located on a centralized
machinery control console. Alternatively, the motors
may be grouped together on motor control centres

located inside the control room. The motor control

functions can then be left on the motor's starter at the
MCC or again wired back to a central control desk.
When hard-wired systems are used, the installation is
prone to mechanical problems which may cause
loose or broken connections and the marine
environment which may cause corroded connections.
These problems can be eliminated somewhat by
using micro-processors and digital control systems.
When fully automatic machinery control is required,
these techniques are now in common use and microprocessor devices control the ship's machinery
through video display units located in the machinery
control room or on the bridge. The ship's auxiliaries
are generally controlled with programmable logic
controllers (plc's) installed inside the motor control
centres and linked through a data bus to the
machinery control location. When this type of system
is used, the motor control centres can be located
either together in the machinery control room or
alternatively, distributed throughout the ship close to
the motors being controlled. There is little difference in
the cabling requirements of either method, however
when motor control centers are located outside a dry,
atmosphere controlled space such as the machinery
control room, a higher degree of mechanical
enclosure is required (IP 44 instead of IP 22) and
consequently adds to the MCC costs.

Emergency Services
Emergency services would be supplied from the
emergency switchboard using distributed panels for
navigation, safety and emergency lighting services.
These distribution panels are also generally arranged
to be above the bulkhead deck. For lighting it is
important to ensure that a fire or flooding in one area
will not cause loss of lighting in other areas or along
escape routes and circuitry must be designed in
consideration of the ships general arrangements.

Ship's Auxiliary Services

DCMT's principle design documents for the ships
auxiliary services include a load list, load analysis and
short-circuit current analysis. In consultation with the
client all electrical services on the vessel are
identified. Approximate horse-power or kilowatt
ratings are obtained for motors. Lighting loads are
estimated from the ship's general arrangements and
electronic aids are obtained from similar vessels, and
a complete load list compiled.
The electrical load analysis uses the
load list in order to estimate the expected
power demand of the electrical system under
specific ship operating conditions. Typical
operating conditions would be with the ship,
in transit," at anchor," maneuvering, etc.
For special vessels, other operating conditions
would be appropriate such as towing for a
tug, drilling for a drill ship.
The load analysis calculates the expected
power demand by multiplying each service
power by a demand factor. The demand
factor is a combined load factor and diversity
factor and is the ratio of the estimated power
consumption of a service to its normal full load
power consumption. The demand factor is
determined by an experienced assessment of
the estimated power during a four to six hour
period when loads may be at their maximum
utilization.
DCMT's load analysis obtains load information
from the load list. For each service, data banks
are searched to determine the service full load
current and power factor dependent upon
motor operating voltage. This information is
used to compute the services' kilowatt and
kilovar demand from which is computed the
kilovoltamps. By applying the demand factor to
each load kW and kvar's and summing all loads
for specific operating conditions, the expected
generator kilowatts, kilovoltamps and power
factor can be computed. By comparing the

expected load for the different ship operating

conditions, the number and rating of the main
generators can be assessed.
Preliminary short-circuit current calculations
can be completed once the load analysis and
number and rating of generators have been
determined. The principle purpose of the shortcircuit current calculation is to ascertain the
short-circuit rating of the systems protective
devices.
DCMT has developed several types of shortcircuit current calculations which are applied
under different circumstances at various stages
of the design process.
The major contributors to short-circuit current
are the generators and motors. Cables and
transformers act to reduce the short-circuit
current load at a specific location. The most
simple short-circuit current analysis is based on
an assumed value of the generator's subtransient reactance and an approximate
estimate of the worst case motor loading can
be obtained from the load analysis.
The second stage short-circuit current
analysis is completed when the electrical
system conceptual one-line diagram is finished.
For this calculation actual subtransient data is
used together with cable transformers and
other system parameters. This calculation
generally results in lower values of short-circuit
current.
When complete system information is available
a third-stage short-circuit analysis is
completed. This is the most accurate
calculation DCMT completes. The calculation
determines the decrements of the short-circuit
current over a 3 and 5 cycle period.

Earth Faults
If an earth fault occurs on the insulated pole of an EARTHED DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM it would be equivalent
to a short circuit fault across the load via the ships hull.
The resulting large earth fault current would immediately blow the fuse in the line conductor. The faulted
electrical equipment would be immediately isolated from the supply and so rendered SAFE, but the loss of equipment could
create a hazardous situation, especially if the equipment was classed ESSENTIAL, e.g. loss of steering gear. The large fault
current could also cause arcing damage at the fault location.

An earth fault A occurring on one line of an INSULATED DISTRIBUTOIN SYSTEM will not cause any
protective gear to operate and the system would continue to function normally. This is the important equipment still operates.
The single earth fault does not provide a complete circuit so no earth fault current will exist.
If an earth fault B developed on another line, the two earth faults together would be equivalent to a short-circuit
fault (via the ships hull) and the resulting large current would operate protection devices and cause disconnection of perhaps
essential services creating a risk to the safety of the ship.
An insulated distribution system requires TWO earth faults on TWO different lines to cause an earth fault current.
An earthed distribution system requires only ONE earth fault on the LINE conductor to create an earth fault
current.
An insulated system is, therefore, more effective than an earthed system in maintaining continuity of supply to
equipment. Hence its adoption for most marine electrical systems.
Note: Double-pole switches with fuses in both lines are necessary in an insulated single-phase circuit.

High voltage systems (3.3 kV and above) on board ship are normally earthed. Such systems are normally
earthed via resistor connecting the generator neutrals to earth as shown below.
The ohmic value of each earthing resistor is usually chosen so as to limit the maximum earth fault current to not
more than the generator full load current. Such a Neutral Earthing Resistor (NER) is often assembled with metallic plates in air
but liquid (brine) resistors have also been used. The use of such an earthed system means that a single earth fault will cause
that circuit to be disconnected by its protection device.
Certain essential loads (e.g. steering gear) can be supplied via a transformer with its secondary unearthed to
maintain security of supply in the event of a single-earth fault. Regulations insist that tankers have only insulated distribution
systems. This is intended to reduce danger from earth fault currents circulating in the hull in hazardous zones which may
cause an explosion of the flammable cargo.

An exception allowed by regulating bodies occurs where a tanker has a 3.3 kV earthed system. Such a system is
permitted providing that the earthed system does not extend forward of the engine room bulkhead and into the hazardous
zone area. Electrical supplied forward of the engine room bulkhead are usually 3-phase 440V insulated and obtained from a 3phse 3.3 kV/440V transformer.