Nuovo Pignone STEAM TURBINESINTRODUCTORY COURSE ON STEAM TURBINEINDEX CONTENTS PAG. ‘SUMMARY 1 3 - CHAPTER 1- fpenerat SIZING CRITERIA 1. SYMBOLS AND FORMULA USED 6 2. IMPULSE & REACTION STAGES 7 3. DETERMINATION OF THE NUMBER OF THE STAGES 9 = CHAPTER 2- EFINITION OF THE TURBINE 1. FRAME SELECTION 4 2. REACTION STAGES (twisted blades) 16 3. THE IMPULSE STAGE 1 4 REACTION STAGES (cylindrical blades) 19 5. CALCULATION AND MECHANICAL CHECKING 19 - CHAPTER 3-|PRINCIPAL ELEMENTS OF A TURBINE, 1 INTRODUCTION 20 2. CASING 20 3. SHAFT 2 4. REACTION BLADES 2 5. RADIAL BEARINGS 26 6. THRUST BEARINGS, 28 CHAPTER 4 hrs ‘CRITERIA INTRODUCTION at 2. STATIC CHECKING OF BLADING. 34 3. VERIFICATION AND ELEVATION OF BLADING DYNAMICS 35 4. CRITICAL VIBRATION FREQUENCY 35, 5. EXCITATION FORCES. 36 - CHAPTER 5- OVERNING 1. INTRODUCTION 4 2. GOVERNOR VALVE 45 3. HYDRAULIC CYLINDER, 48 4. GOVERNOR 52 5. HYDRAULIC CONTROL ASCANIA 59 6. STARTER 1 7. DAMPERS 6s 8, EMERGENCY DEVICE 66 9. SHUT-DOWN TRIP 6 10. SPEED ADJUSTMENT WITH SRII GOVERNORS 70 11. SPEED ADJUSTMENT WITH WOODWARD GOVERNOR n 12, SPEED ADJUSTMENT WITH EXTRACTION TURBINE n CHAPTER 6. herecranios OF THE TURBINE IN THE PLANT INTRODUCTION 2B 2. CONDENSING TURBINE DIAGRAM 1¢ 3. BACK PRESSURE AND EXTRACTION TURBINE DIAGRAM 16APPENDICES INDEX APPENDIX 1. PRINCIPAL OPERATIONS OF STEAM TURBINES 9. APPENDIX 2. SALT AND SILICATE DEPOSITS IN STEAM TURBINES 133 | APPENDIX'S. ANEW LOOK AT BLADE STRESSES IN COMPRESSOR TURBINES 148 APPENDIX 4. ELECTROCHEMICAL CORROSION MACHINING 155 APPENDIX 5. PHASES IN THE BREACKAGE OF BLADES: 170Summary In the following pages is a short resume of the illustrated course on the steam turbine (S.T.) given in the Nuovo Pignone (N.P.) Works, The introduction contains a description of the range of steam turbines produced by N.P, under licence from Siemens and the salient features of this licence. In Chap. I, after notes on the main thermodynamic formulae used in steam turbine calculations (I-1), the general design criteria are illustrated, covering the arrangements of the various types of blades and the methods used to select the modes of operation as used by Siemens for the turbines in their own projects. Paragraph I-3 deals with the problem of determining the number of expansion stages. In particular, it dwells on the practical use of ratios and dimensionless groups used, and evaluates the effect such numbers have on efficiency and on the cost of the machine. Chapter IT illustrates briefly how to proceed with a turbine specification, from the initial phase of selecting the model (11-1) to calculating the various impulse and reaction stages (11-2, 3, 4) and finally to checking the mechanical stress conditions (II-5). Chapter III is devoted to a description of the principal component elements of the turbine, while the following chapter indicates the dimensional criteria and calculation of mechanical stress. Details are given of ways of dealing with stresses, both static (IV-2) and dynamic (IV-3), pausing to consider the nature and origins of the possible exciting forces (IV-5). Chapter V is given over to governors and other features, and to a detailed description of the various component elements (VI-9) which can affect certain standard arrangements having various types of governors for different models of turbine.Finally, in Chapter VI, the turbine is considered as one element in a plant. The various accessories are first illustrated and some of the Plant layouts most frequently adopted are then briefly described.Introduction N.P. manufactures under licence from Siemens steam turbines, of the mechanical drive type, that is, the type from which are selected drives for pumps, centrifugal compressors, various auxiliaries etc. The licence granted to N.P. is for the provision of technical information and know-how. That is it provides the licence not only with the manufacturing data, but also with the criteria and calculation methods used in working them out. It is by means of such procedures that complete machine sizing is provided in the Florence Works for N.P.'s ovn use. Production in N.P. can include condensing the back pressure turbines, with or without extraction. In the following summary the basic characteristics of the various types of turbines being made are listed against their identifying marks. Mark Type G Back pressure. BG Extraction and back pressure. EMG High speed, high pressure, high temperature, extraction, back pressure. NG High speed, high pressure, high temperature, back pressure. K Low and medium pressure, condensii EK Extraction and condensing. WK High speed, condensing. The back pressure turbine (type G) makes use of the pressure drop available from two steam systems at different pressures. It is used for operation at low values of pressure and temperature (up to 88 atmospheres, 520°C). When steam is available at higher values than these, types "HG" and "NG"are used, enabling pressures of up to 140 atm, and vemperatures of 540°C to be employed. While turbine HG has impulse blading and reaction blading, the MG is made only with impulse blading. For in the impulse stages it is possible for the MG turbine to make use of much larger increases in enthalpy while having, other conditions being equal, a smaller number of stages, resulting in compactness and shorter shafts. This is very much more suitable for operating at elevated speeds up to 20,000 rpm, This property lends itself to large size applications in drives for centrifugal compressors used in chemical synthesis plants. The condensing turbine (type K) uses steam at low pressures and temperatures (88 atm., 520°C), achieving an expansion down to atmospheric pressure or with a condenser (0.15 ~ 0. ‘The atm.), It employs impulse and reaction bladin: opposed flow turbine type WK has single reaction stages arranged symmetrically on a shaft. When it is not provided with a governor system, it is installed in series with other turbines (MG, EMG) which fulfil the latter function for the whole group. An application for the "WK" is to be found when there is a use for low pressure steam (20 atm, and 400°C), and where high output and high speeds (up to 56,000 kW at 20,000rpm) are required. ‘The above models, with the exception of type "WK", also exist in the extraction version, In these, the inlet steam expands to extraction pressure where part passes into the extraction system the remaining part is expanded in the condensing section, For futher information on the fields in which the various models can be used, refer to N.P, Siemens catalogue enclosure. List "A" is a reference=1 st of turbines supplied by N.P. Works up to September 1974. In these machines, the efficiencies obtained ranged between: 0.73 = 0,81 (for condensit turbines, type K) 0.68 - 0.77 (for back pressure turbines, type G).For extraction turbines, the efficiency varied proportionally in accordance with the change of enthalpy between the two regions of high and low pressure and with the extraction rate.General Sizing Criteria Ict Symbols and formbe used Before proceeding to an explanation of the main criteria for sizing steam turbines, it is appropriate to recall some thermodynamic formulae frequently used in the calculations, These are: N 0.86 LG=——— Nin 2.C = 91SOVAi (Simplietied Stodola formula in which mul, TAT, Py=P'y01 where G N ota capacity (Th utput (Ke) -Ai= increase in enthalpy Keal/Kg = thennal eficiency = expansion efficiency c sit velocity relative to increase in m/sec T= absolute temperature °K Pi = pressure in section i (Kg/em?) = filling co-efficient N.B. - The letters marked with the index (indicate conditions relative to other instants of time, but attainable inthe same section,I= 2 Impulse and Reaction Stages It will be remembered that the degree of impulse in a stage depends on the pressure drop across the moving blades. The main characteristics of the two possible alternatives are summarised as follows: a) impulse sta ~ large increase in enthalpy is attainable. - case of high efficiency control. = low losses through the clearances. bd) reaction stage: - improved theoretical efficiency. = low friction in the inlets. - low falling off in efficiency when the rotational speed is reduced. How much of point "a" is significant, is substantially a result of the fact that in an impulse stage there is a very Little difference in the upstream and downstream pressures either side of the moving blades, Therefore, lacking the thrust due to suchAp, it is possible with impulse blades te achieve large increases in enthalpy per stage without increasing the speed excessively, Besides, with the same pressure upstream and downstream of the rotary blades, the amount of steam passing across the clearances between the blades and the casing is reduced, permitting governing to be effected by a multi valve system for all load conditions which, results in a higher efficiency than is achieved by throttling, The advantages mentioned under point ""b" follow from having a low average velocity passing through the stage. In the N.P.-Siemens turbine, ‘there is a compromise choice between the two available methods, generally by employing impulse blading in the first stage and reaction blading thereafter. This allows the characteristic advantages of governing by multiple valves to be combined with the high efficienciesin the reaction stages, especially in the area of low pressures, The resultant governing in the impulse blading is mich better relative to the reaction blading because, by decreasing the power requirements, it is possible to omit groups of nozzles (and therefore steam flow) in such a way that the power range is achieved without the penalty of reducing the useful enthalpy range. ‘The figure below represents the expansion condition in three cases of full power, power reduced by multi valve operation and by throttling. Fig. 1-2-1 full load verning by multi valve system =.-. governing by throttling In this way it is possible to see how this useful step in the case of governing by multi valve is larger than that obtained by throttling. ‘The trend of the expansion as described above is more easily understood by considering how it reduces the flow G, and, while maintaining the geometry of the machine constant, the pressure downstream of the impulse stage diminishes. In this way a large expansion in the impulse stage can beseen to occur, reducing availability in the successive reaction sections. This can be derived quantitatively in Stodola's formula (formila 4, paragraph I -1). The total useful drop in this case is lower than in the case of full load due to the large amount of throttling occurring in the inlet valve and the reduction of expansion efficiency. In the case of throttling of the inlet steam, the expansion condition is exactly as shown in figure I-2-1, With such a course, the reduction in power occurs principally by reduction of the useful enthalpy drop, with consequent lowering of the machine efficiency. J Determination of the number of stages Availability of a specific flow of steam G and an enthalpy changeA, determines the number of stages in which expansion of the fluid takes place, as indicated by two categories of factors: a) technology and considerations of strength b) efficiency Referring to point "a", it is possible to observe how a higher value of enthalpy difference occurring across a stage simplifies the turbine, because it requires a smaller number of stages but giving rise to high "stresses" on the component parts. Therefore the max enthalpy drop across each stage is determined by the characteristics of the materials used. As far as this concerns the efficiency it can be noted that it depends also on the ratio Co/u (where u is peripheral velocity and Co is the velocity passing through the stage). Now, if the values of u are limited by technical factors and by the strength of the materials used in the manufacture of the blades, Co is a function of the overall drop achieved in the stage. A can be optimized, When establishing the performance of a oup of ratios exist from which the expansion efficiencystage it is benificial to use this value. In the case of the reaction stages the above mentioned ratios are not used but the values necessary to calculate the Parson's number X, are obtained, This number is expressed by the formila 10lature dh Xp wl readimento I. 2000 dp i a 3 co gL oe. ae eel | _ a vans ne 2 _. =e12(where u, is the peripheral velocity AX; is the drop) . is equivalent approximately to the function u In fact Xp = where A; st = drop in one stage cs t 4 0 velocity across one stage u, in average velocity The efficiency is influenced by "X,", under a law of the type shown in figure I-3-1. In this figure, note how the efficiency curve reaches a maximum when X= 3800, and how it remains nearly constant as it approaches this value. For this reason, it is not possible to exceed an index value of 2600. This is because an increment, while having a small effect on the efficiency, for a given peripheral velocity, serves to increase the number of stages with consequent larger manufacturing costs. Moreover, choosing X_<¢ 3800 gives the advantage of better efficiencies at high powers. In fact, if the working compressor calls for high power and at ‘the same time a high rotational speed, the Parson's number of the turbine increases in this way until it reaches the point of maximum efficiency. 13Frame Selec! The flow,the inlet steam conditions, the power and speed, are the basis for defining the model, Using the formula N x 0.86 qi after an approximate estimation of the efficiency it is c= possible to select the turbine model, using the steam conditions available. After defining the turbine in this way the next step is to define the expansion. At this stage having all the basic parameters it is possible to confirm the original efficiency assumed. As the difference between the preliminary efficiencies and those obtained by computer is not significant for the particular machine, the recommended expansion should be put into effect if possible under good operating conditions; if not, it is necessary to ensure that such differences are such as to allow variations in the geometry of the machine, Expansions of the steam in the turbine, as can be seen in fi a) impulse stage re II-1-1 are in three groups of stages: b) reaction stage c) reaction stage with twisted blades (Limited to condensing turbines) ALL the working blades are of standard profile defined by Siemens. Thus, while in the first two st s, consisting of cylindrical blades, the designer, selecting the type of profile, selects the angle and the height of the blades, in the third stage, the angles are determined by thermodynamic calculations and economic reasons ,the height by mechanical and vibrational calculations, In the calculation of the expansion, the final group of stages is considered first, 14Fig.1I-1-2IIn2 Reaction stages (twisted blades) As already pointed out, all these.blades are designed having different velocity triangles depending on the distance from the rotor axis, this is necessary since the expansion conditions change along the blades length . Since these variations become significant when fixed by the value of ratio mean diameter of stase << 3.5 Blade height It is only in such a case that there has to be recourse to this type of blade. Siemens have studied a series of blades that produce the optimum expansion in the lowest pressure zone in the condensing turbine. In practice, for every model there are available two possible sets of wheels which can be matched to the steam conditions. Having chosen the blading, the designer can obtain the dependent conditions and proceed to the calculation of the other stages. 16II = 3 The Impulse Stage This stage of the calculation is made in order to determine those values of the ratio Co (C, = the velocity corresponding to the change of enthalpy in the stage, u = the average peripheral velocity) which are not outside the region of maximum efficiency, In the case of impulse wheels, these vary around the value of 2. Moreover, the pressure downstream of the regulating stage must be calculated so that, even at maximum output, ad, sufficient to achieve such an output is obtained. The blades of this stage are examined so as to achieve a certain amount of reaction as their root (3 to 5%). Also, the flow of stream from upstream to downstream of the wheel is calculated, ‘so that it may be possible to obtain a negativeA,, after establishing the root of the blade. The nozzles can be convergent and convergent-divergent, according to which type of expansion is suitable. When the pressure downstream of the nozzles is less than the critical pressure, the theory should lead one to adopt the convergent-divergent type in every case. In practice, in the Siemens turbine, with expansions near the critical (ratios between the outlet section and the critical section £1.20 - 1,25) it is preferable to use convergent nozzles with outlet sections to suit their critical section. This is because, besides the lower manufacturing cost of this type of nozzle, it is preferable, for the sake of efficiency, when the operating point is different from the design point, to have the convergent nozzle operating in a higher critical condition rather than otherwise. And this is supported by the fact that this last condition, in the case of steam turbines, happens when the load demand is increased (consequently the flow increases and therefore the pressure downstream of the wheel)and when it is particularly important to maintain a geod efficiency. 171.00 Zone of outer turbine ensing 20. Zone of guise blade section It 30. Zone of guice blede tection IIL 00 0 20 49. Bearing en ring 00 Threaged hole for overspeed monitor {00 ~Toothed rim for mechanieal barring goat 4 8 18II = 4 Reaction Stage (cylindrical blades) In sizing the reaction stages, taking into account the enthalyy change an estimate is made of the Parson's number (X) so as to check the efficiency of the rotor. After this has been taken care of, sizing of the various stages is performed manually,or the computer can be used. At this point the aim is to obtain a progressive expansion without discontinuity. Thus, for example, it is assumed that the blade angles tend to increase, so as to obtain axial components of the velocity which are also increasing during expansion; Parson's numbers are assumed which decrease Little by little as one proceeds from the first to the last stage, thus avoiding increasing excessively the height of the blades. These developments, like those of the previous st Sy help to establish the geometry of the turbine, which in turn provides the feedback for understanding the various possible conditions in which the machine will operate, the thrusts, the stresses, temperatures etc. IL= 5 Calculations and mechanical checking The design of a turbine requires a series of calculations which serve to indicate the behaviour of the machine under different operating conditions. If all the operational possibilities are postulated. the corresponding values of pressure and temperature are found, at every point of the turbine. Enumerating each of these values on the basis relative to the critical operatir conditions to check that the turbine will operate below these parameters, This covers, as is done with greater precision later, not only the stress analyses but also an accurete study of the frequencies of vibration of the system, so that possible resonant conditions can be identified and the necessary measures taken to avoid or reduce their effects. 19IIL = Principal Elements of a Turbine III = 1 _ Introduction 7 In each turbine it is possible to distinguish the following principal components: a) casing b) regulating valves c) shaft d) blading (fixed and moving) e) supports f) bearings. The requirement that. individual machines are called upon to operate in conditions which vary from plant to plant is achieved by their being specially made for the client who places the order, Notwithstanding this, the aim is to use as many standard assemblies as possible in order ‘to reduce the time for design and manufacture, which in ‘urn affects the. cost of production, and the spare production capacity in the workshops together with the appropriate manufacturing staff. III ~ 2 Casing Generally, the casings are obtained from stock casting The class of finish having been predetermined and the manufacturing methods designed casings to produce standard casings. ‘The most conmon materials are alloy steels having special mechanical characteristics, such as: GS-C25, GS-22 M04, GS-17 Cr M055 and others Quality control for the casings is carried out in three steps: 1. Inspection of the casting: this has the object of detecting possible casting defects (cracks, blow holes, etc) Besides the normal destructive tésting carried olit on test specimens by technicians when it is required, non-destructive inspection can be made. ‘The following methods are used for these inspections: Ultrasonic examination (suitable for checking for internal discontinuities) difficult to apply to nen-parallel surfaces. Radiographic _exaninatio good for internal discontinuities, - restricted field of action. Applicable for irregular surfaces. Magnaf lus Applicable to irregular surfaces, insufficient for internal cracks etc. 20IL Inspection after rough machining: this has the aim of clearly identifying possible defects in the casing before finish machining. Tt consists of a hydraulic test, in which the casing is filled with water under internal pressure, the joints are kept tight using gaskets, When necessary, it is possible to arrange to test the high pressure and low pressure zones at different pressures. TIT Final _Inspectios received its final operations, It provides a second carried out after the casing has hydraulic test and dimensional inspection, Nuovo Pignone produce turbines with single and double casings; the former are used for low pressures and the latter for high pressures. The production program of N.P. includes particularly for the manufacture of turbines having an inner casing and being built up from standard modular ‘units. This solves many technical and economic problems permitting the production of turbines suitable for very high inlet and extraction pressures and vide speed ranges. IIL Shaft The steam turbine shaft is turned on a lathe from a forging. The materials from which it is made are: 24 Cr NAV 55, 30 C.MIN, Vall, 34 C.N,4 and its quality is guaranteed by the supplier of the forging. Beside this the acceptance standards provide for a series of examinations carried out in N.P.'s works. These are: - dimensional examination - ultrasonic inspection — inspection by magnetic particle - tensile test 21IIT = 4 Blad: Siemens provide a wide range of standard blading for their turbines. These are available with constant section or variable section twisted. The latter type of blade is introduced only when the height of the blades are such that a variable incidence angle is required to maintain radial equality, The materials used are steels containing C3 C,, Hq, and these can be obtained extruded or forged. a) Fixed blades: machined from semi-finished sections. The roots are "L" shaped and the convex edge of the top of the blade is thinned down to reduce the clearance losses or provided with integral rivets for the shroud (see fig. T1I-d-1), The blades are mounted by inserting them in special slots and are held apart with spacers. A shrouding can be riveted to the head of the blade. Fig. IlI-d-1 Moving and fixed blading Fig. III-4-2 Moving blades with chanfers Fig. III-4-3 Moving blades with shrouds When the turbine is assembled, the shrouding which is in close proximity to the sealing strips caulked on the rotor helps the steam sealing between rotor and casing. 22bd) Moving blades: these can be provided separately or made integral with the shaft. The separate blades are machined on a milling machine and have root, distance piece and shrouding (when required) in one piece (see Fig. III-4-3). The closing pieces(together with all the shrouds) are suitably positioned in the assembled machine so that they are opposite the sealing strips inserted into the casing which form a labyrinth, In the absence of a shroud, the blades have thin tips, (see Fig III-4-2) allowing small radial clearances which avoid breakage or damage to the blades in the event of them rubbing against the casing. The root can be either T-shaped or pegged (see Fig. IIT-4). The roots of the former type, for an equivalent height, are less robust than the latter. They are however more economical to fabricate and are used whenever the overall stresses allow. ‘The method of manufacturing the blades integrally with the rotor is generally used when the stresses to which they are subjected are high. In this case, roots should be of appropriate dimensions or at any rate as large as the amount of room available will allow. Integral bladed rotors are usually made by a process using electrochemical errosion (ECM). These types of blades have a high quality of surface finish but the difficulty of damping the vibrations produced during operation creates some notable design problems. Further, the impossibility of making partial replacements of the blades in the event of breakage narrowly limits the employment of this type of rotor. 23 :BLADING WN = N LN WJ UES wat SH SS SS Li WG \: \Ill - § Radial bearin These have the task of supporting the shaft. Being positioned in the front and rear supports, they are of two types: a) 4 lobes b) Lemon (elliptical) a) 4 lobe bearings These consist of a lower and an upper half-shell, placed in a split mounting ring. The shells are lined with white metal and located by means of pins as shown in Fig. III -s When the turbine rotor rotates the oil fed to the bearings generates sufficient pressure due to the hydrodynamic conditions existing between bearing and shaft to support the weight of the rotor. By means of throttling the inlet, the flow of oil can be regulated, the oil film shaft/bearing, changed and the extent of cooling modified. ‘This type of bearing is less rigid than the other types Consequently they are used when flexible supports are required to avoid critical speeds in the operating range. 26 qMOVEING BLADES WITH SHROUD Pilg 1-4-3al lemon _beari es ‘These consist basically of two seatings having an arc less than half the circumference of the split mounti s ring. The shells surfaces in contact with the rotor are lined with white metal, The bottom shell has a hole positioned at the bottom for the oil feed, the upper is equiped with @ groove which runs approximately 1/3 of the length of the bearing. The oil passes through the hole and into the bearing where the hydrodynomic effects of bearing and shaft generate sufficient pressure to support the shaft, the cil is then discharged along the radial groove which completely encircles the shaft, facilitating axial discharge. As with the 4 lobed bearing, so in this case the bearing Joad and the amount of heat removal can be varied by suitably controlling the flow of lubricant with an appropriate control valve mounted on the bearing. III ~ 6 Thrust Bearing The function of this bearing is to take the axial thrust not balanced by the drum. It consists basically of an assembly divided into two half-rings on to which tilting pads are mounted to form two annular surfaces. These are backed by flanges mde integral with the shaft. The pads are faced with white metal and are free to tilt individually on a fixed or moving axis so as to adjust to possible displacements of the rotating shaft. The N.P, turbine uses bearings of the Michell or Kingsbury type. The first is simpler in operation while the second has a larger capacity for adjusting to misalignments between shaft and bearings. Note at this point that in the bearings illustrated above, the oil has two basic functions: a) true hydrodynamic lubrication where the oil not only supports the load but also removes the heat generated. 28b) removal of the heat conducted and radiated from the machines internals to the ends of the shaft. While the turbine is running, the oil is subjected to a) and b) similtaneously. In a stationary turbine which is still hot, the oil will continue to be exposed to b). Total or partial lack of lubricating oil, even if temporary, in a hot machine, including a mchine at rest, results in over-heating and eventual damage to the bearing white metal. The temperature at which the white metal begins to run is 125-150°C and its melting temperature is 320-360°C. 29Radal Bearing 4 lobe - 1. Mounting ring Upper shell 3. Adjustable spacer 4. Lower shell 3. Oil well Adjustable spacer Distance piece 8. Adjustable spacer 9. Mounting ring, lower half Annular groove Locating pin Stop pin Thermometer well Fig, ILI-S1 30Radial Bearing 4 lobe _ FP u e 2 a 4 i . : 14 2. Upper half shell 4. Lower half shell ld. Shaft Fig. IIE5-2 31Thrust Bearing fo a : \S G A LLL a . ° ; hell = Centralising pin Cylindrical pin Thrust pads Thrust pads Upper shell. Lower she: Se: Ck tt tg AdseucKkadd 32Thrust Bearing 3. Pads 9. Locating pin Fig. III-6-2 33IV = Sizing Criteria IV _- 1 Introduction = When the turbine is defined in thermodynamic terms, the Stresses levels to which the different parts are subjected follow. It is now necessary to complete the selection and verify the suitability. ‘The casing is usually selected froma standard range, vhich have been developed by Siemens and defined in the literature. Only in exceptional cases, where the turbines operate under special conditions, are detailed calculations undertaken. This is not so for the blades and valves. For these, the operating conditions are always different, so that complete standardization is not possible. Verification of the Stresses and of the operating conditions is therefore required in every case. IV = 2 Static checking of the bla A= 2_ Static checking of the blading After defining the geometry, strictly in accordance with the particular expansion it is required to achieve, the Strength of each blade is analysed individually so as to find the stress in the highest stressed portion. These are found at the base of the blade section and in the root (section A, B and C in the figure). The forces considered at this stage are the centrifugal force (F,), the axial thrust (F,) and peripheral force (F,), resulting in the general formulae: 1) FL = wR m= mass . W = rotational speed 2) F, =Apie R= radius of the centre of gravity of the mass m 3) F 1 = blade length t = blade pitch G = steam throughput Aw = variation of blade speed Z = number of blades A p = differential pressure 34Force (1) is obviously zere on the fixed blades. The axial thrust F, and peripheral force F, are obtained by assuming constant the pressure and temperature conditions along the length of the blades and by considering them applied at the mean diameter. F, varies according to the section being considered because the mass in question is different. Thus, for example, for section A the mass "m" is that relative to the blade section and integral shroud portion; section B, includes part 3 of the root. The forces considered depending on their points of application generate moments which are also calculated and duly considered, IN = 4 Verification and Evaluation of Blading Dynami Besides the static forces acting and assumed to act, there exist other periodic forces which act and which can possibly in the give rise to dangerous phenomena of over-stressi event of resonance. For this reason, determination of the precise frequency of vibration and the principal harmonics of the blade, «hich may possibly be subjected to eccentric forces, assumes major importance at this point in the design. It is the duty of the des gner to ensure that the vibration frequency of the blades is not within the range giving rise to dangerous resonance effects. IV ~ 4 Natural Frequency of Vibration This is expressed by the formula: 0256 Ey win Ps £, = fundamental frequency E = Young's Modulus J = Minimum moment of inertia S = area h = heighe f= density 35The vibration of the moving blades besides being influenced by the geometry is also influenced by other factors such as centrifugal force (F,) and the method of attachment to the shaft. In general, the rectifying effect of F, is to increase the frequency relative to the stationary blade. This variation can be expressed by the formila Aa 16m (=) The type of attachment and more precisely its rigidity, results in differences between the actual and theoretical frequencies (see fig. IV - 4-1) i f, “effective frequency f, = theoretical frequency ST hartanea @.angs h = blade height eee ae \ Otto oi awamento sopea to stantutfo deta valvots St chime capita {M1 Olio di entupure rapida det ispositivo di chins rapids 1Y Otto pressione V. Cte secondavio V1 Sie primario dats centrifuge diregotatione 55PG GOVERNOR BASIC ELEMENTS FLYWEIGHT FLYWELGHT “ ASSEMBLY ou, LeveL, ‘GAUGE AIR VENT PLue NeEoLe MAE power: cktinoen ASseMeLY SPLINED. rive SHAFT r = | = O6 is 56 Fig/V-4-4primary oil foliows when the load increases and necessitates the closing of the governor valves, A reduction of pressure of the primary oil follows when the load increases and necessitates the opening of the governor valves. By means of the speed regulator (39) moved either manually or by a motor and by using the spindle (1) one can vary the precompression of the spring (4). This modifies the relation between the pressure of the primary oil and that of the secondary oil, i.e. between the speed and the power. hile synchronizing the turbine in parallel it is thus possible to adjust the speed of the turbine to the frequency of the network, The control of the power supplied to the network is made by moving the lever (12) by way of the speed regulator(D) The bellows (GL) can also be compressed from the bottom ) in the by means of the bolt (15) and the spindle same way as it would be under the influence of the pressure of primary oil. The bolt presses on the spindle (35) which is moved by the lever (38), pivoted in its tum on the bolt (37). When the turbine starts up the lever can be actuated, s0 that the bellows (31) is compressed and therefore the governor takes up the position: "governor valves closed.” On the return of the lever to its neutral position (3S), the bellows left free, expand, and in the same way as when a decrease of the pressure of the primary oil occurs, the governor valves open. By regulating the pesiticn of the lever (35) correctly on the starting device, it is possible to Limit the aperture by controlling the height of the : culating rod thus preventing overload during the operation. b) Woodward Governor Contrary to the SR III regulator, this one is externally supplied. It is composed of two essential parts: a) the govemor itself 6) speed regulator The first regulates the speed imposed manually or automatically by the second. In the case of the Woodward governor the rotational speed is obtained from the shaft through a train of sears. this 57valve being compared with the set speed. Should there be a difference, a system of weights causes the movement of a piston, counterbalanced by springs. The piston is connected to a rod which varies the degree of superimposition the exit ports of the small piston controlling the pressure of secondary oil described in the previous paragraph. The set speed can be altered manually by moving a small wheel, or automatically by a pneumatic signal(3 to 15 psig) transmitted from the machine. Therefore, contrary to the SR III regulator, carrying out an automatic change of set point does not require an Askania type regulator to change the pneumatic signal transmitted from the machine into a mechanical movement.Y= 5 Hydraulic Control (Askania) - Referring to fig. V-5-1 the oil under pressure is supplied through the connection "a to the jet tube (10) and conveyed to the nozsles. The control nozzles are connected by means of a pipe to a servocylinder not shown in the drawing (for further élarification see fig. V1). The position of the jet pipe (10) is controlled by the variable control impulse arising from the pressure of steam which acts in the bellows (9) of the measuring tem and by the spring (11) of the retroactive systen. When the control signal matches the appropriate reference level the forces of the metering system in the bellows (9) and of the control spring (11) are in equilibrium. The jet pipe (10) is then in the central position and the pressure of the oil at both ends of the servopiston is equal, hence the servopiston remains stationary. The tension of the spring (11) can be varied by means of the screws (1) such that the reference level changes. If the control point moves away from the reference point the jet pipe will be displaced from its position at the centre of the measuring system, As a result of the jet pipe deviating, the pressure at one end of the servocylinder will increase and that at the other end will decrease. There will thus be an unbalanced force which will keep the piston moving all the time the oil is flowing. The move~ ment of the piston will be transmitted by the action of a transmitter to a lever (4) which varies the tension of the spring (11) (in a non uniform way). This is a case of proportional action, which will cause the jet pipe (10) to return to its correct central position before the control point takes up its new reference position, thus avoiding any hunting of the controls. The set screws (5 48), fitted with a bayonet attachment, are designed in such a way that the jet pipe can be adjusted ty hand to one or other of its limiting positions. 59°9997 rs W531 1 tion ies Sse 3corpo, del silema ci meure Bereta tetion Sim 4 eintubteve 2: preasone 2 totter Dubs 8 getto 60 Pig-V-5-1V+ 6 Starting mechanisn The starting mechanism is used to open the emergency valve and to start the turbine. The casing (9) contains a sleeve (12) through which runs a regulating pilot valve (13). This has an aperture and is held back by the compression spring (15). The stop-ring does not prevent an upward movement, The spindle (5) is positioned in the openin: of the regulating pilot valve (13) fixed at one end to the disc (10) ty a pin (11). On the one hand this disc Limits the upwards movement of the spindle (5) whilst on the other hand it moves the pilot valve (13) into its extrene lower position. The lower end of the spindle (5) moves a lever of the hydraulic control and thereby actuates the regulating valves, The upper end of the spindle, acted on by the spring (8), rests on the rod (18) which together with the hand-wheel (1) is used to control the starter, To start the turbine, the threaded rod (18) is moved down- wards by the wheel (1). Consequently the retaining disc (10) and the spindle (5) are pushed downward first without the pilot valve (13) while the hydraulic control is placed in the position "regulating gear closed." With rods (18) fully lowered, the disc comes to rest on the pilot valve (13) and pushed it downwards against the action of the spring (15). The port "u" connected to the space at the top of the quick- acting piston is at first separated from the oil discharge "ct and later connected with the oil pipe under pressure'a", In this way the starting oil can reach the top of the quick~ acting valve piston and, by pushing it downwards, seals it against the spring disc. The emergency oil circuit (port lve is x") is connected with port x)", and the control closed. When the pilot valve (13) has reached its final lower position shown in fig, 1 the emergency device becomes locked, putting the port "x" under pressure, The hand-wheel (1) must now be tumed slowly in reverse, The pilot valve, in rising, connects 61 #Fig. V-O-L 1, Hand wheel 2. Conical pin 3. Spindle guide 4. Regulator colum 5. Spindle 6. Colum sleeve 7. Washer 8. Compression spring og H | 10. Retaining disc rn LL. Pin 12. Pilot valve sleeve 13. Pilot valve RS 14, Stop ring 15. Compression spring STRSTR Ht 1b. Cover B 17. Threaded pin ft Ht 1S. Rod - SS a Oil under pressure © Oil discharge u Operating oil to the upper piston, for moving the quick- acting valve x Oil for rapidly closing emergency trip x, Emergency operation oil to the underside of the piston in the quick-acting valve 62the emergency oil system (port "x") with the port "%" (below the spring disc belonging to the emergency valve). After this, port "u" is separated from the oil port under Pressure "a" and eventually connected with the discharge oil "ec", The emergency oil forces the spring disc to- gether with the piston, now as one unit into the position ready for opening the emergency. valve. After the stop ring (14) of the pilot valve (13) has again reached the sleeve (12) another turn of the wheel (1) now causes the spindle alone to lift. From now on it is necessary to follow the instructions for starting the turbine since the raising of the spindle causes the control valves to open by means of the control gear. To stop the machine in accordance with the relevant operating instructions, the spindle (5) is made to descend by turning the wheel (1) which in this way shuts down the control gear. By further turning the wheel (1) the disc (10) is again brought to rest on the control pilot valve (13) pushing it downwards. Firstly the port "ut (at the top of the emer gency valve plunger) is separated from the discharze (c) and from there by way of the port "a the oil is sent to the top of the plunger. Then the port "x," (under the spring disc in the emergency valve) is separated from the emer~ gency oil circuit (port "x!" and from there it is joined to discharge "c". The oil under pressure at the top of the plunger can now force the plunger downwards together with the spring disc closing the emergency valve. After freeing the emergency device the pilot valve (13) is returned to the position shown in the diagram, while by re-establishing the link between ports "u" and "c", the pressure at the top of the plunger is released allowing the talve spring to separate the discs from the plunger and then to hold the valve in its closed position, 63L==+6 + Connection - Seal plug . Threaded pin with narrow passage Cover 3. Gasket 6. Body 7. Connection 8. Ball ° + Seal plugIf the emergency valve is operated, the position of the pilot valve (13) remains unchanged. The emergency valve is shut following a fall in pressure in the emergency oil system. ¥=7 Damping Device ‘The damping device in the control oil circuit (secondary oil) aims at damping out any impulse that might occur in the flow to the main valve, thus ensuring a linear characteristic in the regulating system. When the pressure of the oil inside the damping device increases, the ball presses into the opening such that the increasing pressure can only escape to the supply Line slowly through the narrow passage in the threaded pin (3). When, on the otherhand, the pressure in the feed line falls suddenly, as when an impulse has to be given to the valve to close it swiftly, the pressure, remaining higher in the discharge line, lifts the ball (§) from the aperture, closing the narrow passage and opening the larger lower passage so that the pressure can fall rapidly. 653 Emergency Dev: ¢ The funetion of the emergency closing device is to open the itydraulic shut-down in case of emergency and to separate the turbine from the live steam system, by closing the control valve and the emergency valve. On the cap of the front support (10) is mounted a sleeve (5) within which slides the piston (7). After the knob (1) of the emergency device is raised, thereby closing the shut- down oil circuit, the oil under pressure coming fron the port "a" forces the piston upwards against its own weight and against the force of the spring (6) so that the upper collar of the piston (7) seals on the bush (3). ‘The hydraulic shut-down piping is linked to port "x", con- necting the starting device and the quick closure valve. If the piston (7) is lowered, the ingress of oil under pressure "a" is closed off by the lower collar of the piston which forms a seal causing the pressure of the shut-down oil "x" to drop. The shut-down oil discharges into the support through the space between the collar of the piston of the bush (3). The downward movement of the piston can be caused in the following vays: a) by manually, pushing the knob down b) by decreasing the pressure of oil following the openin: of the hydraulic shut down or by interrupting the feed of oil under pressure, In this case the piston (7) is pressed downwards by the force of the spring (6) c) by means of the lever (8) under the action of the over~ speed control, and of the cam, which prevents excessive axial movement of the turbine shaft (11). 66Fig. ¥-8-1 Part list Knob Cap Bush Cylindrical nut Sleeve Spring Piston Cylindrical nut Lever }. Support cover . Turbine shaft - Pin . Support bracket cylindrical pin Oil under pressure Hydraulic stopV = © Shutdown Trip The function of this device is te”stop the turbine by means of the emergency trip when the speed exceeds 10-12% of the nominal. The emergency contro] is mounted in the turbine roter and consists of the following parts: guide ring 3 eccentric pin 6 adjusting screw spring s other screws and threaded parts The eccentric pin (6), which slides inside the guide bush (0), is normally held against the guide ring (5) by means of the spring (§). By suitably setting the adjusting screw (7), the centre of gravity of the bolt will take up a position so as to align with the axis of the turbine shaft iin such a way that when the turbine runs at normal speed, the pin will remain in the same position. The threaded cap plugs the radial opening drilled in the shaft. ‘The adjusting screw is inserted in the hole made in the centre of this cap. The hole is clesed off by means of a screwed plug (3). After the adjusting screw is inserted and locked in position, the threaded cap and the screwed plug are fitted in position by screws (1) and (2). khenever the speed of the turbine exceeds the normal rate the eccentric pin is flung outwards by centrifugal force. If the speed continues to increase until it reaches the trip speed, the mass of the pin compresses the spring which will then protude from the surface of the turbine rotor by a few ke the lever of millimetres, and in this way, it will str: the emergency trip which in its tum will shut down the turbine. 68Set screw 1 Set screw Screwed plug Threaded cap Guide ring Eccentric pin Adjusting screw ae Compression spring Guide bush 9 69Speed Control (with SR III governor fof compressor or punp) ‘The system of control of a condensing turbine by means of the SR III governor is shown in the drawing figure ¥ - 1. Here we can see the control impeller (ay) which, oy producing a pressure of oil proportional to the square of the turbine speed, acts as a speed transducer. The pressure of the primary oil produced by this centrifugal action acts on the control system of the SR III governor (¢) consisting of the governor bellows (c,), the lever (c4), the spring (c,) and the speed changing mechanism (c.). Each change of speed moves the lever Linked to the amplifying Pilot piston (cj) by means of the regulating sleeve (c4) whose plunger (c;) is held back by the tension spring (c4) against the pressure of oil in the piston. The oil is fed through an orifice into the shut down oil circuit and flows down through a slot dependent on the degree of overlapping of the ports in the regulating sleeve and the plunger of the pilot piston. When stationary the inlet quantity is equal te chat of the outlet, If the position of the sleeve (c,) varies, thus varying the area of the outlet, equilibrium is disturbed, with consequent variation.of oil pressure. Under the action of the spring (cq) the piston (¢;) mist follow the movement of the sleeve as long as the section of the outlet does not readjust to the quantity of oil corresponding to the change in pressure ratio in the orifice. The change of pressure is determined by the movement of piston (e5) and by the characteristic of the tension spring (c,). The result is an approximately proportional correlation between the travel of the covermor and the pressure of the pilot piston convertor, This pressure of secondary oil, in which “impulses are attenuated by a damping device, acts as a sixnal fer the pilot valve (eq) of the relay cylinder (ey). The 70piston (©) of the relay cylinder because of the displace ment of the pilot valve (e,) takes up a position which depends on the pressure of the secondary oil and moves the regulating valves by means of a system of levers. The regulating process is stabilised by a compensating system in the relay cylinder. With the increase of pressure of secondary oil which follows the lowering of the lever (c,), the pilot valve (ey) moves upwards as long as the force exerted by the oil pressure and the opposing force of the spring are not in equilibrium. As a result of raising the pilot valve, the oil under pressure, supplied directly from the regulating oil line, is supplied to the space above the piston (e,) which is forced to move downwards thus causing control valve to open. At the same time the oil in the space under the piston (e4) flows tovards the outlet through the relevant port exposed by the pilot valve (e,)- By means of a compensating device, moreover, the pilot valve (e,) returns to its original position, stabilising the position of the piston (e4)+ If the pressure of the secondary oil decreases, the process is reversed. The change of speed is effected in the Askania regulator br means of jet pipe (K ,) which, in converting the incoming pneumatic signal into a hydraulic signal, acts on the servopiston (c,,) altering the tension in the speed adjust ment spring (c,). Usually the minimam speed corresponds to a pressure equal to 3 psig. and the maximum speed to 15 psig. ds moreover, provides a proportional relationship between the A compensating device acting on the servopiston (c, air pressure and speed. The speed can also be varied manually by the hand wheel, Before this is done, the jet pipe (k,) of the Askania governor (Ky) must be moved to one side, corres- ponding to the position "minimum speed" and locked in that position, 1¥=11 Speed Control with woodward Governor When the Woodward Governor is used the diagram changes to that shown in fig ‘The governor is driven from the turbine's shaft through a gear train (cy 4). ‘The governor compares the actual speed with a predetermined value. In the case of a difference a lever is operated which alters the amount of overlapping of the outlet ports (C,) of the amplifying piston, which then operates the slide valve. Variation of the pressure of the secondary oil circuit then follows. The remaining part of the circuit is the same as that previously described for the SR III governor except for the automatic device for controlling the set point. Whereas in the Askania regulator the pneumatic signal, coming from the running machine was transformed into a mechanical signal which, when acting on the calibration spring of the regulator changed its set point speed, here we find a speed changer (C,) which receives the signal directly from the machine. Control of speed by extraction turbine with the Woodward Governor Using the same components as those for the condensing turbine is more complex, owing to the need to resi only the inlet rate but also the extraction rate. Provides an example of this. Compare the following with the drawing in fig. V-2: 2 - control valves V, and V, with related actuating cylinders . 1 - emergency stop valve "a" the Woodward Governor © 2 - pilot cylinders ¢,; and C, , the Askania Governor KS. 72The functioning of such a system can be described as follows: ~ The governor C by means of the rod (C,) and the pistons (C,,) and (C,,) alter the pressure in the control circuits 1 and 2 of the actuator c: vlinders of valves V, and V, as described in previous paragraphs. The Askania governor (Kg) receives the input signal from the extraction circuit whose pressure it is required to control. If in that circuit the pressure decreases, the governor raises the power cylinder (C,4) which controls by means of a rod the counteracting springs (G;) in the two cylinders (©, ;) and (©) Because of the particular position of the red, while the pressure in circuit increases (increasing the load of the spring (C5) in fact decreases the cross-section of inlet (C4), that of circuit 2 decreases ( a reversal of the previous action). As a result of this, while the turbine inlet steam valve V, opens wide, the other V, (in proportion to the final stages) tends to close, causing an increase in flow and therefore an increase of the extraction pressure up to the value of the set point. VI The Inteeration of the turbine in the Plant. YE-1 Introduction When installed in the Plant, the turbine is fitted with a nunber of auxiliaries arranged in ways to suit the particular machine's characteristics and operating requirements. There are many kinds of arrangements, but all can be well illustrated using the basic layout shown in the drawings which refer to the condensing turbine and to the 73back pressure extraction turbine. vE Condensing turbine group Figure VL ~1 is a drawing of a condensing turbine operating with steam of medium pressure and temperature conditions. Note the turbine A, compressor B, condenser C, condensate extraction pumps D and E, ejector unit F. The steam undergoes expansion in the turbine, condenses in © and eventually re~emerges into the system as condensate after being reheated in F, The condenser is generally used to lower the discharge pressure of the turbine, thus increasing the available heat drop. In this the amount of vacuum is mainly determined ty the available temperature difference between the cooling water and the steam, and is maintained with the help of an ejector unit which serves to remove the non-condensables. Note in the drawing the live steam shut-off valves. For this purpose two norm gate valves can be used, with an isolating section or a single parallel disc gate valve. The turbine is installed down stream with its emergency stop valve L and control valve, the instruments for controlling the condition of the incoming steam, the steam piping to the "U" bend and the steam seals. ‘The latter, thro the valve "e", are connected with the condenser and have the dual duty of transferring to it the steam which escapes through the seals and preventing the air from entering the turbine. When at the start the turbine casing happens to be at a lower pressure relative to the exterior owing to the degree of vacuum generated by the quick start ejector closing the valve to", the pressure in the system can be increased as long as the steam supply is not too mich for the seal which prevents 74the air entering the turbine. The turbine is connected to the condenser by a flang: pipe. On top are installed two pressure gauges, servin: respectively as an alarm and as a trip to control the discharge pressure. When the pressure exceeds a permitted value, an alarm signal is first given, then if the pressure still increases, the second device trips the set. The condenser shown in the figure is of the separate chamber type. Connected to it is the expansion vessel "R" and the level gauge P. The vessel serves to manifold the drains from the turbine and the various steam pipes in the plant, whilst the gauge P measures the level of condensate in the hot well of the condenser and controls an alarm and the pneumatic regulating valve. This in turn controls the condensate extraction pump delivery and maintains the level in the well at its predetermined value. ‘This level has to be maintained between defined limits, because if it is too high, it reduces the exchange surface between the cooling water and the steam, causing an increase in condensate pressure. When on the other hand it is too low; it lowers the suction pressure of the condensate extraction pump, possibly causing it to cavitate. The condenser is protected from overpressure either by the devices PSH 5~: and 5-1, already indicated, or by the safety valve (PSV 5-1). This is set for lower or higher values of the high pressure trip depending as tovhether the turbine is designed to operate with partial or total atmospheric discharge . The vacuum in the condenser is maintained by steam ejectors as can be seen in the attached drawing (4 ejectors of normal rating and 1 for quick startin The steam discharged from the ejectors condenses in the 75heat exchanger F, heating the feed water to the condensate extraction punp before it re-enters the system, These pumps are usually arranged in parallel and are operated by drivers of different types so as to have the best guarantee of availability in case of breakdown. In the attached drawing one is driven by an electric motor, the other by a standard model small turbine of low power. Since the condensate pressure is cqual to the steam pressure at the same temperature, the pumps require a positive suction head which is obtained by mounting them below the hot well. To eliminate the air which can enter the condenser a return pipe "rt is provided. YL- 3 Back pressure turbine system with extraction In this type of plant the turbine operates between two pressure systems and is subjected at an intermediate stage to steam extraction, The attached drawing V1-2 represents a plant of this type. As can be seen the min condenser and its related group of ejectors are absent and the turbine @ischarge flow (EMG 40/32-3) passes into the system, represented in this case by a turbine of the type WK. The inlet is the same as that of a condensing turbine (the emergency stop valves in this case are 2 in number because the drawing refers to a plant which operates at high capacity). In this case the steam to the seals is not connected to a feed system as the operating condition does not require a steam bleed. In fact no gland steam is required, because generally there are no internal zones with pressures lower than atmospheric,besides the fact that when starting, pre- heating of the machine can be carried out with steam from the extraction system and with the main suppl; 76The amount of steam extracted is regulated by the control valves which, as has already been pointed out, operate closely with the high pressure inlet valve. In the intermediate system there is usually a non-return valve with emergency stop to prevent any possible flow of steam when the turbine is shut down and more generally to prevent a feed-back of steam in the turbine in the case of reduced pressures in the extraction systems. The condenser (F) shown in the drawing is not strictly necessary and in this case is brought in to utilise the energy still present in the steam that escapes through the seals. 1778719 APP,Contents (Attachment No. 1) Contents General rules to be obserbed before starting up the turbine set. The function of a turbine operator Drainage. Washing a condensing turbine using wet steam Caustic washing of a back pressure turbine & condensing turbine. Washing a back pressure turbine using wet steam. Steam temperature. Materials used for servici Displacement of the casing. Checking the relative'displacemnt of the rotor. Checking the restrictions in the cross-sections of the blades of the turbine, 80Contents - (Attachment No. 1) Maintenance of the bearings and thrust bearings. Points for lubrication, Testing the free running of the valve stems. Testing of emergency governor, 81General rules to be observed before starting up the turbine set Before starting up the turbine set it is advisable to make sure that all the parts are working properly. This check-up is necessary particularly for the emergency valves and control valves as well as the other safety devices, since it is on their perfect operation that the safety of a turbine plant depends. 1. Follow the instructions set out in the instruction manual for the compressor for the preparation and adjustment of the lubrication system. Before statting up, the emergency valve should be opened and closed several times. During this stage it is also possible to check that the control valves move easily. When carrying out these tests, however, it is also necessary to check carefully to ensure that the steam supply is shut off. When the auxiliary oil pump has been started up, check the si t glasses provided in the oil lines from the bearings to make sure that the oil circulation is satisfactory. 4. For operational safety when the control valves are closed the hydraulic cylinder must still have a closing reserve. Otherwise there is the danger that at the end of-travel position of the hydraulic cylinder the control valves will not be completely closed and the turbine my therefore over speed. If when the turbine is stationary and when the auxiliary pump is started up the hydraulic cylinder of the control valves still moves appreciably ty a few millimetres in the direction of closure, this will satisfy the condition referred to above. The correct adjustment of the system B20of transmission rods mst be carried out first and foremost for the running conditions, that is to say While the turbine is hot. It is therefore particu- larly advisable to carry out the check-up described above immediately after the turbine has been stopped, so that one can suppose that the expansion corresponds to that existing during running. When the turbine is completely cold, that is to say when it may be supposed that the rotor and casing are at the same temperature, the devices fer measuring the axial displacement of the casing and of the shaft must indicate approximately the value zero. If any appreciable discrepancies are found, a proper correction of the measuring device must be carried out. Nevertheless, before carrying out any correction it would be as well to make sure that complete cooling of the casing and of the shaft of the turbine has taken place. The thermometers, especially those of the thrust bearing, must be frequently calibrated because an incorrect indication on these could possibly give rise to the wrong decision beirig taken. 83The functions of a turbine operator During operation of the turbine, the operator must read all the main instruments at least every hour and also check the others. These includ a- All the steam, oil and water pressures b, ALL the steam, oil and air temperatures c. All the rates of flow of steam and water a. Where necessary, the temperatures of the casing Any indications of vibrations which ought to be recorded f. The position of the valves + The load of the machine which is coupled to it h, Measurement of the relative displacement of the shaft i. Measurement of the thermal expansion of the casing J. Checking the measuring device of the thrust bearing. Naturally it is not sufficient just to enter these figures in the operating log, but it forms a part of the duty of an operator to recognise in time, on the basis of these fisures, where and to what extent a variation in these valves has occurred different from those expected. In such cases the operator mist take the necessary steps, or, if he does not think he can find the causes, or solve the problem he must immediately inform his superior. Nevertheless, it is essential in such cases that before he takes further steps he should make quite sure that there is nothing wrong with the instruments concerned. ‘The operator on shift operation must enter in the operatin log any irregularities which have occurred or steps which he has taken during the operation, It is also necessary to enter in the service log the times of starting up and slowing down as well as all. the jobs and repairs carried out on the turbine during stoppages.Drainage During starting up from cold, the superheated inlet steam condenses on the inner walls of the lines and the casing which can cause mechanical damage to the blades if appreciable quantities of water is formed and carried into the turbine. Furthermore, differences in temperature may occur in the walls of the casing leading to damage due to deformation, if the condensed water which accumlates at the lowest point is unable to drain away. For this reason the steam fed into the turbine must be exhausted completely before and during the starting up of the turbine set. The casing of the turbine, and possibly the connecting lines, mist be exhausted as long as the steam in the turbine is wet or as long as it may be expected that vater is condensing on the inner walls of the casing. After the normal speed has been reached, the drains my normally be throttled and after 30 minutes completely closed. The extent to which the drain valves must be throttled, even before the conditions set out above, depends mainly on the increase in the pressure of the steam as measured at the drains, and the requirement to avoid excessive steam loss. The points and lines in which the steam tends to remain must be subjected to drainage until such time as a sufficient degree of flow of the steam has been reached. After stopping the turbine it is as well to open all the drains. 85Washing a condensing turbine using wet steam sashing a condensing turbine using wet steam General instructions The casings of condensing turbines, as far as possible, should be cooled to a temperature of 110°C during a prolonged shutdown or by using steam from outside. Washing with wet steam is only effective if the steam is injected into the turbine without throttling. For this reason the cross-section of the cooling line to the turbine must be adequately sized. However, such throttlines cannot be completely avoided because of the different cross— Sections of the lines. Special attention mist be paid to ensure that the wet steam produced in the cooler contains sufficient wetness. Since in this case the percentage of humidity in the wet steam cannot be checked, it is necessary to measure frequently the temperatur: and the pressure at the inside of the turbine (see the washing scheme as shown in Fiz 1). Care must be taken to ensure that a little condensate always exists at the discharge from the cooler. Experience has shown that in the wet steam the condensate fed in is not completely absorbed by the steam. It is presupposed that with a humidity of 15% one measures in the cooler a pressure of § Kg/cm™ (gauge) and a temperature of 175°C, At the inlet to the turbine the pressure of the steam will only be 1.5 kg/cm” (gauze), whilst the corresponding temperature should be 127°C. Under these steam conditions the humidity is 11.3% (see Fig. 5). During washing the salts which are dissolved in the cs from condensate are purged throush the normal discha the casing of the turbine, the extraction lines and throuch ether specially arranged discharges. 86Washing with wet steam under constant steam conditions is not very productive. After a certain time the blades of the turbine reach the temperature of the washing steam and the condensation caused by the washing action ceases to take place. In order to obtain the best possible washing in the shortest possible time it is necessary to increase the temperature of the wet steam in proportion to the increase in the pressure of the steam during the washing operation, The speed of the turbine will increase in relation to the increase in pressure of the washing steam at the inlet. Consequently it is a good plan to start the washing with wet steam at a rotational speed of 10 to 15% of the nominal speed. There is no need to limit the rotation speed during the washing, unless it is the nominal speed. However, it is important to make sure that the turbine is not made to rotate at critical speeds for a long period. It may, however, happen that the nominal speed is reached by a small increase in the pressure of the washing steam, In this case the casing is cooled by the washing plant and the vashing is repeated several times. If this is repeated several times it is possible to obtain the same effect as with a continuous increase in the temperature of the steam, With the help of the general washing graph (see Fil should prepare a specific graph for the turbine in particular, on the basis of the results of the first washing operation. With reference to the length of the ashing operation, a difference in temperature of 30 to 50°C will be sufficient. These figures correspond to a difference in pressure of 2.5 to 7.5 Kg/em® gauge. A washing graph is attached which relates to a 4000 KW turbine (see Fig. 4). 87The washing is complete when the condensate which comes out of the discharge is clear and when an analysis of the samples taken shows negligible traces of salt. In order to determine the salt content of the condensate samples must be taken at intervals of 15 to 30 minutes, If, after a certain period of washing, the salt content in the samples of condensate obtained during a period greater than 30 minutes remains constant, the temperature of the washing steam must be increased by a few degrees. A few minutes afterwards another sample is taken, If its analysis shows that the figures remain unchanged, the washing may de stopped. The time envisaged for the washins is from 3 to 5 hours. Preparation work 1. A cooler correspondins to the dimension of the turbine is constructed (see Appendix Fig. 2). The flanged comection at the outlet from the cooler for the supply of the washing steam must be NW 40 for turbines of a power up to 4000 KK, Nk 50 up to 10,000 KW, NW 05 up to 25,000 KW and NW SO for turbines with a power of more than 25,000 Kk. The flanged connection for the supply of the outside steam must be decided upon bearing in mind the sudden change in pressure of the steam which is used. For washing with wet steam the second NW 15 flanged connection is not necessary, and for this reason it is closed off. The other NW 15 flanged connection is connected with the condensate line. The pressure of the condensate must be at least 3 Ke/em™ gauge above the maximum pressure envisaged for the washing steam in the cooler. It will be particularly useful to make a connection from the feed pump. A self-reculating valve is provided on this line. BBThe discharge line from the cooler is provided with a valve. The outlet of this discharge line must be clearly visible. The steam cooler is provided with a valved connection for outside steam. The steam cooler is attached to a connection fer Washing steam from the live steam system. 7. Suitable instruments are provided on the cooler for measuring the temperature and the pressure. 5 The pressure of the wash: ng steam is measured before it is admitted into the turbine. Since the measuring instrument, which is generally connected before the emergency valve, has too wide a range of measurement, it is replaced by a more suitable pressure indicator. The thermometer installed on the live steam system or in the steam chest is replaced by a rod type thermometer with a suitable measuring range. 10. The discharges from the turbine and the discharses from the back pressure lines are separated by the valve if these are connected up to a manifold. tith welded discharge valves it is Sometimes easy to have to cut off the discharge manifold before the condenser. It will be advantageous to provide 2 flanged connection or an intermediate section at this point. Instructions for w: see Fig. 1) After cooling the turbine sufficiently it is possible te Start washing with wet steam, The auxiliary oil pump is started up, unless it is already running. The air signal is kept out of action. The cooling water supply to the condenser is started up. This protects the tubes ef the condenser from everheating, The live steam valve Ma" and the extraction valves "1" are closed. The emergency valvethe control valve "cl and the safety valve "K" on the condenser are open. The discharge valves "a" are cracked open, They are regulated during the washing so that the condensate available in the turbine may be freely discharged, but an excessive discharge of steam should be avoided. Under these conditions it will be advantageous temporarily to open the safety valve on s filled with the condenser. The condenser, which circulating water, produces a certain vacuum when steam is let into it. This may be used to vary the temperature of extraction and therefore the temperature drop in the turbine during the washing. The steam conditions required at low rotational speed may be obtained by regulating the external steam valve "e and the condensate injection valve "f". It is necessary for the washing steam condition to be well inside the wet steam range because as a result of the inevitable throttling it is possible for it to be converted into superheated steam, For this reason it is necessary to ensure that a quantity of condensate is drained from the steam cooler. In accordance with this, the steam cénditions before entering the turbine mist be checked to ensure that wet steam is also present at this point. The pressure of the washing steam is gradually increased in accordance with the washing graph, The condensate available in the condenser must be pumped out or else discharged from the hot well (valve "i"), At the end of the washing operation the turbine must be started up in accordance with the operating instructions applicable for cold starting, making sure that the turbine is unloaded, In this case residues of dissolved salt deposits may reach the condenser, It will therefore be as well not to recycle the condensate produced during the first 30 90minutes after start up into the feed water circuit, but to dischary: it, After the turbine has been placed on load it is necessary to measure the pressures at the various stages so as to be able to determine whether the washing operation has been successful. These must be the same as those measured with clean blades. After the washing operation is completed the turbine must be started up and placed under load, if possible, because one may expect a certain amount of salt residue on the blading of the turbine to come away and be carried outside dissolved in the steam which passes through at a higher speed. A high pressure milticase turbine is washed by the same system, In this case it is possible to wash the high-pressure, medium-pressure and low-pressure casings 6). separately (see washing steam, Fig, 91ott Condensing ‘wroine by the Use of wet Steam Yiashing 0 Con Washing scheme x} a Blonked eff in normal operation Fig. 1 Nw ¢ 40 obt . Steam cooler 92 Fig. 2 eet 303 22 00Weoshing o Condensing Turbine by the.Use of wat Steum General washing diagram . % ° 10¢ $ = 2 + : | $ 6 t 3 i E 40 +——+ : 20 2 § 0 1 ef 50% —— 100% 33 Washing Hime BF az Fig. 3 Washing diagram of a4 MW turbine tk The turbine reached 0 turning speed Gm | equol to 60 % the rated speed at otmospheric backpressure S& 151 143 133 Wosh--steam temperature ° 8 Wosh-steam pressure n> Weshing time, in b Fig. 4 3-03 22190f&eBresentanon of Ine wasning operations in the i-s diagram Preitling ty falve * fey 0.90 Fig. 5 3403 22 00 94WoshIng o Condensing Turbine by the Use of Wet Sieom ee Washing scheme tr { i Fig. 6 Steam cooler 3403 22 00 Condensate comestin 95Caustic Washing of a Backpressure Turbine and a Condensing Turbine General Instructions Caustic washing of a turbine makes it possible to clean the blades without any need to dismantle the casing. Often it has been thor using a mixture of steam and saturated caustic. t that one can obtain the washing effect The most effective washing is obtained with steam containing sodiun hydroxide at at least 200°C. It has been found that 220 to 2408 are the most favourable temperatures of the washing steam. Sodium hydroxide combines with the deposits of silica to form sodium silicate (waterglass) which is soluble in water. Si 0, + dNa OH Nad Si 0, + 2H,0 Experience has shown, it is not absolutely necessary to cool the steam containing soda to the temperature of saturated steam, in many cases however, it is not possible to satisfy this requirement, Consequently the condensing turbine and the greater part of backpressure turbines could never be washed. At a washing steam temperature of, for example, 205°C, the pressure of the associated saturated steam is 16.5 Kgf/om? eff. a sufficiently efficient conversion process (the reaction between NaOH and Si 0,) is assured by superheated steam, . The layer of silica converted into a waterglass conpound which is soluble in water should then be removed by subsequent washing with saturated steam. Washing has also been found to be satisfactory at a washing steam temperature of approximately 180°C. For this reason and in regard to the temperature of the discharged steam, the temperature of the washing steam 96at the inlet to the turbine should vary between 150 and 240°C for backpressure turbines afid between 180 and 200°C for condensing turbines. The range of temperature within the zone where there are deposits of silica my therefore vary. When in a multi-casing condensing turbine it has been definitely established that only the high-pressure part has been contaminated with deposits of silica, the discharge temperature may be maintained at considerably lover figures by injecting condensate inte the overflow pipe on the side of the low-pressure casing. The temperature in the discharge line should not, if possible, exceed 140°C, presupposing a satisfactory mechanical operation. The caustic washing is carried out in two phases. Between the solution of caustic soda and the layer of silica a chemical reaction takes place. For this reason the condensate from the drains only comes out at a slow rate and therefore will have a low content of NaQH as compared with injection at the beginning of the washing operation. If it is possible to establish that there has been a definite reduction in the NaQH content in the effluent, this indicates with certainty that the chemical reaction has taken place. During the washing process, this content increases to the initial value and may to some extent even exceed this f The deposits of silica have been changed to waterslass, a gure for local concentrations of caustic soda solution. substance which resembles gelatin. Since the process of softening by superheated steam takes place in the absence of sufficient water, this hard substance adheres to the blading. Only by washing with wet steam, for example in the second stage, is it possible to remove the deposits completely 97As soon as the action of the wet steam on the blades covered with silica has started, the deposit, which has @ brownish-black colour, dissolves suddenly Up to this moment a highly concentrated mixture of NaOH may come out of the drains; special attention is required on this point. It is absolutely essential that all persons who come into contact with caustic soda solution take the necessary precautionary measures. A bucket full of clean water mist always be available for washing any spiashes of caustic soda from the hands. The eyes must be given special protection. It is practical to use a mixture of caustic soda and steam with 2 to 3% NaOH. Using a considerably lower percentage solution of caustic, as can be obtained by using a 10% caustic soda solution, the softening time will be longer. A stronger concentration of washing steam is not advisable: generally one requires a solution with the percentages given abov For the caustic washing it is possible to, use cither a solution of caustic soda which can be obtained on the market in a concentration of 43%,or sodium in so many parts by weight. Composition and quantity required of washing steai During the washing the turbine is brought to a speed of 15 to 30% of its nominal speed. The quantity of steam required per hour is about 2% of the maximum demand. The washing steam injected into the turbine should have a NaOH concent ration of 2 to 3&, Generally a solution of caustic soda is ejlable containing 43% NaOH by weight. When making the calculation it is necessary to note the condition of the 98live steam available. ‘The remaining data can be assumed on the basis of experience, This “will cause the calculated value to be slightly different from the true value. The quantity of washing steam necessary is not taken into account for this calculation. Tabulated below is some information regarding commercially available caustic soda solution: Caustic soda solution with 32% by weight NaOH has aY = 1.35 ” noon "gos "MOH H HY = 1.43 " ” " mgs 8 8 NOH Y= Las When caustic soda is used, for example, four parts by weight ef the caustic soda are mixed with six parts by weight of water. To obtain suitable conditions for the injection of the caustic soda solution it is necessary to prepare a mixture of caustic condensate containing 15 to 20% by weight NaOH in the caustic soda solution tank. For a lower percentage of NaOH during the preparation of a steam/caustic mixture of approximately 200°C and 2 to 3% NaOH one requires a higher temperature of the external steam of 500°C. By means ofan example it is possible to find the conditions for the caustic washing of a 25 MW condensing turbine: Quantity of washing steam required, 2% of the 100 t/k + 30%. The caustic soda solution available contains 45% by we saci. The conditions of the outside steam are 1§ Kg/cm™ absolute NaOH concentration in the washing steam, 2 and 400°C, The pressure of the steam cooler is approximately 6 £ § Ke/ cn” absolute, depending upon the cross-section of the washing steam feed pipe. The pressure of the steam at the inlet to the turbine is approximately 3 g/cm” absolute. The condensate/caustic 99mixture has a temperature of 30°C and a NaOH content of 20%. S Heat content at 18 kg/cm” abs. and 400°C = 776 Keal/k Kg/em” "8 200°G = 680. 96 Keal/kg. The evaporation of the condensate required 650 - 30 = 650 Keal/Ke. The evaporation of 1 kg of caustic condensate mixture (S08 water) requires a quantity of heat of 650 x 0.5 = 530 Keal/i 100 Kg of washing steam require a quantity of condensate of 1000 x 96 184 Kg/hour 520 For washing steam of 2 tons per hour, the ratio of quantities for a 45% caustic soda solution are X x 45 = 365 x 20 368 x 20 = 164 Kg of 452 NaOH 45 For a total quantity of mixture of 363 Kg/hour it is necessary to mix 368 - 164 = 204 Kg of condensate with 164 Ke of 45% caustic soda solution - a washing time of 3 hours therefore calls for 3x 368 = 1104 Kg of mixture. However, it is not absolutely necessary to have available a caustic solution tank for such a large quantity. In most cases a tank of 0,5 mo will be sufficient, this being refilled with caustic mixture as required. The concentration of NaOH in the washing steam is 368 x 20 = (2000 + 365) 2% 7360 3.18 NaOH 2205 100If the results from this checking of the NaOH concentration differs notably from the 2 + 3%, dne has to change either the conditions of the external steam or the caustic condensate mixture ratio, If in this case steam is available at 350°C the concentration of NaOH changes to 2.4% or if a content of NaOH of 15% is given to the caustic condensate mixture, the concentration of NAOH is 2.25%. This calculation is based in part on estimated figures. In the steam cooler it has been assumed, for example, that there is a steam pressure of 7 Kg/em” abs. and a subsequent expansion to 3 Kg/om” abs. after the steam cooler has not been taken into consideration. Furthermore a washing steam temperature is assumed of 200°C, although this may vary between 180 and 210°C, Also no account has been taken of the quantity of heat necessary to heat the caustic soda solution, All these influences are not very important, so that the calculated figures are sufficiently exact for the purpose in mind - a varying quantity of washing steam does not influence the percentage concentration of NaOH in it. Preparation 1, A steam cooler is constructed in accordance with the dimensions of the turbine (see Fig.2). The flanged connection for the supply of washing steam must be Ni 40 for turbines up to 4 Mis NW 50 for turbines up to 10 MK, NW 65 for turbines up to 25 MW and NW SO to 100 for turbines with a power greater than 25 Mik. The flanged connection for the external supply of steam must be suitable for the steam conditions used. A pipe of dia. NW 15, which connects the caustic solution pump with the steam cooler, is provided with an accurate dosing valve just in front of the steam cooler. 101lo. le A condensate Line is connected to the other Ni 15 flanged connection. The préssure of the condensate must be at least 3 Kgf/em” eff, above the maximum pressure intended for the washing steam in the steam cooler, It will be particularly useful to have a connection fron the feed water pump - an accurate dosing is provided in this Line. The discharge pipe from the steam cooler is provided with a valve. The outlet from the discharge pipe must be visible. The steam cooler is connected to the external steam, by way of a valve positioned in the line, The steam cooler is connected to the washing steam intake on the live steam system. On the steam cooler there are provided adequate instruments for measuring the pressure and the temperature. The pressure of the washing steam is measured immediately before entering the turbine. Since the operating instrument, generally installed immediately in front of the emergency valve has too wide a range of measurement, oe provides a pressure gauge on the control flange of this pressure indicator. This may be used to replace the ordinary operational instrument. The service thermometer on the live steam line or in the casing is replaced by a rod type thermometer with a suitable range of measurement. The discharges from the turbine and those from the backpressure line before the extraction valve are separated behind the valve when these are connected to a manifold. For the caustic solution it is necessary to have a 102container of approximately 0.5 m°, This is connected to the caustic pump by an NW 25 line. When a larger quantity of caustic mixture is necessary, this mst be added during washing. 12, For this purpose it is necessary to obtain a gear pump Which is resistant to the caustic solution, with a delivery head of 8 - 10 kg/cm’ and a capacity of 0.5 m> per hour, 13. The washing of a condensing turbine calls for a number of additional appliances: a. Unless the condenser has a safety discharge Line above the tubes of the condenser itself, it is necessary to provide a line of NW 100 - 250 to the outside. b. On the steam side an NW 20-40 overflow line is provided, at least 50 mm above the condenser tubes but below the discharge line, Check the water outlet. In the lower part of the steam condenser an NK 15-20 feed line is provided for the cooling liquid which may be either hard water or condensate. Part of the heat of the steam and the caustic mixture is carried away by the continual flow of cooling water. About 3 > § m° of cooling water is required. Instructions for washing (see Fig. 1) Instructions for washing (see Fig. 1) After the turbine has been sufficiently post-cooled or has a casing temperature of approximately 200°C after running, it is possible to start the washing with wet steam. The auxiliary oil pump is started up, unless it is already running. The live steam valve "a" and any extraction valves are closed. The emergency stop valve "b", the control valve "C" and the valve "im in the case of a backpressure turbine are The drain valves "d" are cracked open. They are 103regulated during the washing so that the condensate available in the turbine can be freely discharged, but an excessive discharge of steam is to be avoided. Before filling the steam space of the condenser with water, all the spring pack supports will be checked. A continuous flow of cooling water through the condenser tubes is ensured by the regulation of the valve "n", This may be checked by observing the outflow “o" when the valve ni" is closed. Before starting the washing operation, the casing is very probably not at the desired temperature of 200°C. the turbine is then driven with washing steam without the injection of caustic solution before starting the washing, until the desired casing temperature is reached. When the turbine has been shut down just prior to washing, proceed as follows: After the live steam valve "a" has been closed, the turbine is brought to a speed of 500 + 800 r.p.m, via the steam cooler with the emergency stop valve and the control valves in the open position. The temperature of the steam has fallen by an amount of 2°c per minute, which can be obtained by injecting condensate through the valve "f" to the steam cooler. After a steam temperature of 240°C has been reached, it is advisable to continue at this speed for approximately 15 nutes. Only after this would it be possible to shut down the condenser. ‘The quantity of steam necessary for rotating at 300 + 500 fe". The r.p.m. may be regulated by adjusting the valve steam pressure in the steam cooler will be approximately 6 +4 Kg/em™, The discharge valve "g" is opened just enough to enable any condensate to be eliminated, but any excessive outlet of steam avoided. The caustic solution pump is started up and in the case of 104a backpressure turbine a steam temperature of 240°C is adjusted by regulating the valfe "f", It will be advisable to lover the temperature of the washing steam to about 180°C and then raise it again to 240°C In the case of a condensing turbine proceed in the same manner, but with a washing steam temperature of 180 + 200°C, Experience has shown that the washit is completed after 3 to 4 hours, This operation may be called the softening Process. One does not have to have a considerable quantity of condensate emerge from the drain outlets. In any case, care should be taken to see that the condensate eliminated from the drains is checked for its concentration of NaQH shortly after starting the work. If there were a strong reaction between NaOH and Sid, the percentage’ of NaQH will be very lew. As the washing time increases, the percentage of MOH in the condensate which leaves the drain outlets may almost reach or even exceed the value calculated for the steam mixture. The percentage of Sid, vill be low or zero, During the softening process the solution of caustic soda combines with the deposits of silica to form a vaterglass compound which is soluble in water, In order to get rid of this soluble compound from the turbine it is necessary afterwards to wash it with wet steam, The steam temperature is lowered to the temperature of the saturated stean associated with the steam pressure of the steam cooler at a rate of 5° per minute vhilst the turbine is driven at the same speed. It may be found that the wet steam expands after the steam cooler and in this way comes back again inte the superheated range. For this reason, make sure that during the injection of the condensate a certain extra quantity of the condensate comes out of the discharge valve "s", The wet steam which is 105 .will not reach properly contained in the wet steam ran: the superheated range even if it fs slightly expanded, It is also necessary to check the condition of the steam before the turbine. As soon as the steam in the turbine has reached the saturation value a large quantity of greyish-black coloured condensate will suddenly appear at the drain cutlets. Together with this sudden discharge of condensate there may also be discharged a strong mixture of NaOH, so that very careful attention has to be paid at this moment. The washing with wet steam is continued until the condensate which comes out of the outlets of the discharge is free from contamination. This may require from 2 to 3 hours, At the end of the washing operation the turbine plant is brought back to normal operating conditions and then immediately stopped, The condensate available in the condenser must not be injected into the stean/water cycle, but accumulated in the condenser, Before the maximum level is reached on the level indicator, the turbine set is stopped and the condensate is removed from the condenser, Only after this is the turbine set started up for normal operation. Make sure that there is a sufficient discharge, After putting the turbine on load, the pressures in the sti are recorded so as to find out whether the washing has proved successful. In this case, the pressures recorded in the stages are the same as those recorded with the blading cleaned, 106Washing scheme Bionxed off if pormal operdtion Caustic: solution tonk Injection pump Steam cooler 107 Fi 92Coustiz Wathiny of 6 Condensing Turbine Washing scheme et Blenked off in sormal operation Caustic solution tank Fig. 1 Steam cooler 108 002 Fig. 2General_instructions The pressure and temperature of the saturated steam used for washing the turbine depend upon the type of turbine. For industrial turbines the casing must be cooled, if possible to 110°C, whereas for other types from 110 + 150°%c. Washing with wet steam is only effective if the steam is injected into the turbine without undergoing throttling. For this reason the cross-section of the pipe from the steam cooler to the turbine must be sufficiently large. However, it is not possible to avoid throttlings completely because of the different cross-sections of the lines. Special attention must be paid to ensure that the wet steam produced in the cooler possesses a sufficiently high humidity coefficient. Since in this case the percentage of moisture in the wet steam cannot be checked, it is necessary to measure the temperature and pressure inside the turbine frequently (see the washing diagram shown in Fig. 1), Care must be taken to see that a little condensate is always to be found at the discharge from the cooler. Experience has shown that the condensate admitted is not completely absorbed in the wet steam. It is supposed that with a humidity of 15% there is measured in the cooler a pressure of & Kg/cm” (gauge) and a temperature of 175°C, At the inlet to the turbine the pressure of the steam will be only 1.5 Kg/om (gauge), whilst the corresponding temperature should be 127°C. With these steam conditions the humidity is 11.36 (see Fig.5). During the washing, the salts dissolved in the condensate are purged through the back-pressure flange. Washing with wet steam at constant steam conditions is not very productive. After a certain time the blades of the turbine reach the temperature of the washing steam and the 109condensation caused by the action of washing ceases, In order to obtain the best washing if the shortest possible time it is necessary to increase the temperature of the wet steam in proportion to the increase in the pressure of the steam during the washing operation. The speed of the turbine will increase in relation to the increase in the pressure of the washing steam at the intake. It is therefore as vell to start the washing with wet steam at a rotational speed of 10 = 15% of the nominal speed. There is no need to limit the speed of rotation during the washil unless it is the nominal speed. However, care must be taken to see that the turbine is not made to rotate at critical speeds for a long period, It may nevertheless happen that the nominal speed is reached with a small increase in the pressure of the washing steam. In this case the back-pressure must be increased by means of the safety valve so that the speed of rotation is always the same, and also the difference in pressure between the intake and the discharge of the turbine is the same. With the help of the general washing graph (see Fig.3) a specific graph should be prepared for the turbine in particular, on the basis of the results of the first washing operation. With reference to the length of the washit operation, a difference in temperature of 30 to 50°C will be sufficient. This value corresponds to a difference in pressure of 2.5 + 7.5 Ke/em™ to a 2,500 KW turbine (see Fig.4). gauge, A washing graph is appended which relates The washing is complete when the condensate which comes out of the discharge is clear and an analysis of the samples taken shows ne ble traces of salt, In order to determine the salt content of the condensate 30 it is necessary to take samples at intervals of 15 + minutes. If after a certain period of washing the salt content of the condensate samples obtained during a period 110of more than 30 minutes remains constant, the temperature of the washing steam must be increased by a few degrees. A few minutes afterwards another sample is taken, If its analysis shows that the figures remain unchanged, the washing may be stopped. The time envisaged for the washing is from 3 to 5 hours. Preparation a A cooler corresponding to the dimension of the turbine is constructed (see Fig.2). The flanged connection of the outlet from the cooler for the supply of washing steam must be NW 40 in the case of turbines of up to 4000 KW, NW 50 up to 10,000 KW, NW 65 up to 25,000 KW and NW 80 for turbines of a power of more than 25,000 KW, The flanged connection for the supply of outside steam must be determined bearing in mind the sudden change in pressure of the steam which is used. When washing with wet steam, the second flanged connection NW 15 is not necessary and for this reason is blanked off. The other NW 15 flanged connection is connected to the condensate line, The pressure of the condensate must be at least 3 Kg/cem? gauge above the maximum pressure envisaged for the washing steam in the cooler, It will be particularly useful to make a connection from the feed pump, A self-regulating valve is provided in this line. The discharge line from the cooler is provided with a valve. The outlet from this discharge line must be easily visible. The stean cooler is provided with a connection for external steam: by way of a valve inserted in the line. 1116. The steam cooler is connected to an intake for washing steam from the live Steam system. On the cooler there are provided suitable instruments for measuring the temperature and the pressure. 8. The pressure of the washing steam is measured before the intake into the turbine. Since the measuring instrument which is generally installed before the emergency stop valve has too wide a range of measurement, this is replaced by a more suitable pressure indicator, The thermostat installed on the live steam system or in the steam chest is replaced by a rod thermometer with a suitable range of measurement. 10. The discharges of the turbine and the discharges of the back-pressure line are separated behind the valve if these are connected to a manifold. Washi structions (see F: After cooling the turbine sufficiently it is possible to start washing with steam. The live steam valve "a" and the backpressure valve "e" are closed. The emergency stop valve "b', the regulating valve "ec" and the safety valve ‘mm of the back-pressure line are open. The drain valves lated "id" are cracked open. During the washing these are re in such a way that the condensate which is in the turbine can flow out freely, avoiding however an excessive discharge of steam, To obtain a low rotational speed the valve “e" and the condensate injection valve "f" is adjusted, It is necessary for the conditions of the washing steam to be well within the range of wet stean, since because of inevitable throttling it is possible for it to be converted into superheated steam. For this reason it is necessary te ensure that a little 112condensate is discharged through the drainage hole of the steam cooler. - In line with this, the conditions of the steam prior to its intake into the turbine must be checked so as to make sure that steam is also present at this point. The pressure of the washing steam is gradually increased in accordance with the washing graph. At the end of the washing operation the turbine must be started up in accordance with the operating instructions which hold good for cold starting, making sure that the turbine is unloaded. After the turbine has been placed on load, it is necessary to measure the pressures at the various stages so as to determine whether the washing operation has been successful. These readings must be equal to those measured with the clean blades. As soon as the washing of the turbine has been completed, it must be started up again and placed on load, since any solid residue remaining on the blades must be dissolved and carried away by the steam passing through at a higher speed. 113Washing scheme wb" Blonked off i pormal sperition Caustic solution tank Injection pump + gle tre it | pe nas LL! a Steam cooler 3-03 2200 114 Fi geGeneral washing diagram Pressure jh exhaust ranch oe Washing 1399% Fig.3 Washing diagram of a 2.5 MW turbine cd s/em, The Turbine reached @ turning speed equc! to 60% the rated speed leit 5, 155] 4,5 ‘s/ensouse : 3 3 v7}. 3,51, ——___1 a 3 i Ial.2, 316 e 3| fe nl 17h ,5 0 115 3 Washing time, in h Fig. 4oF RATIONS Steam temperatures It is necessary as far as possible to maintain the temperatures of the live steam constant during operation. The graph shows the characteristic curves from which it is possible to obtain the following data: a) the maximum values of the temperature of the live steam, plotted against the quantity of steam supplied to the turbine, or the load. b) the sudden changes in temperature which may be tolerated in relation to the permitted value. If these instructions are not complied with the clearance between the blading and the seal may increase, and this may lead to serious damage. Furthermore it may happen that the roots of the fixed blades and the casing of the turbine can be subjected to an additional stress outside the permitted stress and this can lead to a deformation or a deterioration of the material. For this reason one cannot emphasize enough the im- portance of keeping to the recommended values for the temperature of the live: steam. If despite all the safety measures taken there occurs a so-called "temperature drop" which exceeds the figures previously shown, it is necessary to try to reduce the load on the turbine as quickly as possible. During the starting operation, the temperature of the live steam mist be subjected to special attention so ‘that any stresses on the material due to additional strain or "thermal shock" are limited to a minimum and the radial and axial expansions relative to the rotor are kept within 116the permitted limits, Consequently a turbine should be started up and pressurized only when the temperature of the live steam makes it evident that the temperature in the turbine will correspond as closely as possible with that of the walls of the casing and the rotor. In certain cases, therefore, this may be so if one starts up afresh whilst hot after a short period of standstill, or in fact it may be absolutely necessary for it to be carried out quickly if in this way oe ensures that the difference between the various temperatures of the steam and the material are kept to a minimum, Frequently, after difficulties in operation, it will not be possible to carry out the start up again in accor- dance with these requirements if it is not possible to bring the temperature of the live steam to the degree required or to bring the boiler as quickly as possible to its original load condition, which would ensure parity between the temperatures of the steam and those of the material. In this case the temperature of the casing must be checked because under certain conditions of operation it is necessary for the turbine to be stopped until the permissible values of temperature have been reached on the boiler and on the turbines so as to ensure safe and easy starting. 117Permissable variations in the temperature of the the live steam a) Permissable rates of variation of the temperature of, min of the live steam 40 , 8} 4 | 6 T 4 | 2 : + o 0 20 40 60 80 100 load % _ b) Permissable variations in the temperature of the live steam, The permissable variations of the temperature of the live steam must be contained within the limits °, shown by graph a) Cc 25 20 15 i 10 5 i [aoe J 0 20 40 60 80 100 load % 118Trichlorethylene Trichlorethylene is sold on the market also under these nanes: trieline, ethylene trichloride, Tricol, Triclin, Vestrol, Benzoncl, Petrazional, Westrosal etc. Note: Perchlorethylene (also tetrachlorethylene or Perwin) is a solvent similar to trichlorethylene but less dangerous. Nevertheless, it is necessary to use the same precautions, ‘Trichlorethylene is used mainly for cleaning and removing grease from machine parts. Important: Parts treated with trichlorethylene tend to be corroded and therefore should be greased inmediately after being cleaned. Trichlerethylene is not inflammable but its vapours may be dangerous if inhaled. Care must be taken never to leave trichlorethylene heated in open containers without first making sure that the vapour condenses or is eliminated. Small quantities of cold trichlorethylene in containers without condensation equipment or extraction equipment may be used where building is going on (either indoors or out of doors). Important: It is absolutel: y necessary for the vapours to be eliminated efficiently from wells and shafts because as they are 4} times heavier than air they will collect at the bottom, If necessary, respiration equipment should be available, (respirators, gas masks etc.). Make sure that trichlorethylene vapours de not enter other rooms where work is going on, De not close the extraction plant or cut off the respiration apparatus whilst there is still a strong odour of solvent. Use’ suitable protective 1 of geles if there is any dan splashing with trichlorethylene. parts Only brushes and cloths may be used for’ cleanii with trichlorethylene. Never bring trichlorethylene in the vicinity of hich 419temperatures (above 110°C, perchlorethylene above 115°C), in contact with humidity, radiation from bright light and in contact with incandescent parts, otherwise there is a danger of decomposition into hydrochloric acid and the formation of highly poisonous phosgene, Decomposition accompanied by explosion is possible in the presence of Light, pieces of metal, dust or explosive. Trichlorethylene should never be kept in transparent containers. Avoid alcohol and nicotine. Alcohol and nicotine worsen the harmful effects of trichlorethylene. Look after the skin regularly and before working with trichlorethylene spread a suitable non-greasy ointment to give protection to the hands, followed by a fatty skin cream. Important: When your hands are dirty, do not wash them with trichlorethylene, Anyone who has suffered poisoning with trichlorethylene must be taken straight away into a well-ventilated room, his clothes must be removed from the upper part of his body; he must be wrapped in blankets and a doctor must be called. Do not try to force him to take liquids in the event of his having lost consciousness, Carefully rub the palms of his hands and the soles of his feet, In the case of persons who have stopped breathing, carry out manual artificial respiration, or using oxygen cylinders or better still the kiss of life or the mouth-to-nose method, Wash the trichlorethylene which may have spilt into the eyes with a quantity of a 2% soluticn of sodium bicarbonate or with a large quantity of running water. 120Molykete Paste Molykote Paste G is used to reduce the friction between metal surfaces which are subject to high pressures and temperatures. When metal parts are joined together when installing a machine friction occurs between one part and the other, for examples when holes are drilled, sealing bolts are cut, wedges are inserted etc. By using Molykote Paste G one has the formation of a permanent layer on the surface which protects the parts from wear even when they are subjected to heavy stresses, and furthermore it prevents friction, seizure and metal to metal contact. Molykote Paste G is used for re-finishing friction surfaces, for example it should be rubbed into the surface until it forms a slight layer of lubrication. Note: Do not mix Molykote Paste G with oil or grease. Molykote Paste G is very stable chemically, prevents corrosion, is highly resistant to ageing and does not resinify. The temperature ranges from - 25 to + 450°C with free exposure to the air. It is a highly concentrated product of pure molybdenum disulphide, naturally combined with high-grade paraffinic mineral oil. Do not use an excessive quantity of Molykote Paste G as with grease or oil lubricants, but apply it in a thin and uniform layer. Clean the metal surfaces. Eliminate any residue of lubricants with trichlorethylene or a similar solvent, then vigorously rub a thin layer of the product on the metal surfaces in all directions, using a leather glove. a brush if necessary or a Moltopren (synthetic) sponge. Molykote PasteG may if necessary be applied to the parts 121immediately they are put together. Molykote KG, KRAUS, Kuhn-Weiss & Co,, 8000 Munich 19, Arnulfstrasse 71, Western Germany. 122Tectvl_ 5 Tectyl 506 is an anti-corrosive product which is used to protect the parts of machines exposed to corrosion, for example shafts, couplings, tools and other parts, as well as castings and forgings. Protection from corrosion is particularly important for parts which have to be sent into countries overseas or inte tropical zones and for those which have to be stored out of doors. It is placed on the market as a liquid solvent of a Light- brown colour. The thinner is artifical turpentine. Cover: from 12 to 17 m* per litre, depending upon the nature of the surface (shape, roughness and porosity of the surface). Specific gravity: 0.9 Kg/an* Period necessary for drying: from 1 to 2 hours at anbient temperature. The product then becomes dry to the touch and similar to wax. Range of stability to temperature: - 40 to + 100°C. Length of protection provided: up to 2 years, depending upon the thickness of the layer and the wear and exposure of the part. Transparency: words written on the metal parts remain legible, Tectyl does not irritate the hands even after prolonged contact, but one should be careful to wash them with a normal product-and with hot water. Clean and dry the surfaces to be protected, carefully eliminating any imprints and grease. Tectyl must not be heated, but must be applied at normal ambient temperature. Method of application: brushing, spraying, immersion. Apply Tectyl uniformly with a clean soft brush. It is not absolutely necessary to apply a nunber of coats. 123If the surface is rough, carefully apply the Tectyl in the grooves and cavities. Apply carefully to all the open parts. For using small quantities it is a good plan te use the Lichtenberg type LM 54n spray gun and for larger quantities the Valvoline spray, which can be inserted direct in the cylinder. Small parts can be protected by directly immersing them in Tectyl. Note: The thickness of the layer should be as uniform as possible in the case of parts which have te be kept stored out of doors or despatched by sea route. The dry layer of Tectyl is not resistant to blows and scratches. One must bear this fact in mind when handling or transporting the parts. Soften with paraffin for 3 minutes and clean with a cloth. Volatile solvents (benzine, trichlorethylene) are not so suitable for this purpose since they evaporate too quickly. Necessary attention must be paid to the inflammability of thinners and solvents. Note: Do not smoke or hold an unprotected flame near inflammable solvents and thinners, Follow the fire prevention instructions. Producers: Valvoline Ol Gesellschaft m.b.H., 2000 Hamburg 36, Neuer Wall 75, Western Germany. 134The Displacement of the Casing The casings of the turbine and the supports are constructed in such a way as to permit thermal expansion in an axial direction in relation to the fixing point. Furthermore it is ensured that the casings of the turbine can expand radially in all directions, Consequently the connecting bolts on the moving support as well as those on the feet of the casings which rest on the support must not be so tight as to prevent or render difficult the necessary displacement, Therefore the washers of these bolts must be capable of being moved easily by hand or with the help of a hammer. The same requirement also exists with regard to the’ expansion of the turbine casing in a vertical plane. Here again there must be no restriction to free upward or downward movement. The central guides are suitably designed, but care must be taken to ensure that there are no impediments or obstacles which could be created by suspending or resting lines in an incorrect manner. ‘The axial expansion of the casing on the bedplate can easily be measured by a simple measuring device. Even if it is necessary to ensure the possibility of free movements of the casing of the turbine and the support by constructional measures, it is still necessary for the staff operating the turbine to make sure that these requirements continue to be met. In this way it is advisable to keep the slide plates clean at all times and during periods of standstill to check to see whether the central guides are still in a perfect state of preservation and that they have not become jammed. When cold, the adjusting wedges of these guides must be capable of being moved easily using a small hanmer.Checking the relative displacements of the rotor and the measuring device for the thrust bearing suppor: On starting and during the operation of a steam turbine as a result of the non-uniform absorption of the heat and the different coefficients of expansion an axial displacement takes place between the fixed parts and the rotating parts which can be measured using a mechanical device. Certain limits are placed on these axial displacements and these limits depend on the clearances in the blading and the sealing labyrinths. These Limits cannot be exceeded in any case. Abnormal relative displacements may be found mainly: a, During the process of starting and stopping b. During prolonged idling c. Following sudden variations in the load 4. Following sudden reduction of temperature When the turbine set is started up after a short period of standstill, if the temperature of the steam is very different from that of the roter and the stator. The axial clearance of the thrust bearing is fixed in the table of values for clearances, and the rotor, according to the direction of the residual thrust, pushes the bearing forwards or backwards. A displacement which is more than the axial clearance signifies wear in the pads of the thrust bearing which, in certain cases, as already stated elsewhere, can be indicated by the differential temperatures between the disc under load and the one which is not, which in such a case will be greater or higher than those normally measured. If one finds values which exceed those normally observed, the turbine must be stopped checked. + immediately and the thrust bearing 126 ~Checking the restrictions in the cras: of the blades of a turbine ections Under given conditions of steam inlet and extraction the pressures in the casing and the measuring points between the stages must have the same value for an equal capacity of steam, If notable variations are found, this may be the result of a restriction in the cross-section of the blades following deposits of salts, silicates or dirt, or a mechanical restriction has taken place. This reduction in the steam passages results in an increase in the pressure for an equal rate of flow of steam, and this may give rise to an increase’ in the residual thrust on the blades of the turbine and therefore a risk to the thrust bearing in question, Furthermore, in certain cases the blades are subjected to a stress which is greater than that permitted and this may lead to break: of the blades themselves and serious consequences. The various pressures must therefore be checked continually and they must be compared with the values found during the first period of operation. If it is possible, one should try to compare the values of the pressures in the stages when there are identical conditions of operation. The rate of flow of the steam must also be determined accurately and if necessary calculated on the basis of the dimensions shown in the steam consumption graph. As soon as one becomes aware of the fact that the blading has been fouled by considerable deposits of salt and silica, the turbine must be washed, following the special instructions for washing, The constructor will generally be informed as a result of an agreement or would be called time abnormal conditions of the steam are clearly event of th: blading being fouled by an increase deposits, the createst attention must be paid thrust bearing if the turbine still hes to work r these conditions. 127Maintenance of the bearings and thrust bearing The bearings serve to support the rotor in the exact radial and axial position in relation to the casing. A distinction is drawn between the ordinary supporting bearings for the radial support of the rotor, and the thrust bearing for the axial support. In the supporting bearings the oil usually enters at the side through the connection, filling suitable sections provided in the lower shell of the bearing, and is then carried along by the shaft to which it adheres, As from a given peripheral speed, under the journals a film of oil forms which removes the metallic contact between the bearing and the shaft,without this phenomena it would be impossible to have continuous operation. The temperature of the oil discharged from the bearing is higher than that entering, This rise in temperature is due to the heat developed by the friction between the journal and the bearing and to the heat which is transmitted by the turbine along the shaft. On the basis of experience it may be stated that the heating of the anti-friction metal and the conditions of the bearing is normal when the temperature of the oil at the discharge is from 10 to 20°C higher than that at the inlet. When brin; ing the turbine up to speed, it is necessary to continually check the temperatures of the bearings, and these checks must be repeated periodically even during normal eperation, When the normal speed is reached and an oil temperature of 40 to 45°C up stream of the bearing is attained, it is best to start cooling the oil; this means setting the contiols on the cooling water system. In the event of the oil undergoing a sudden increase in temperature at the outlet, while the conditions at the inlet are the same, it is as well to stop the turbine as quickly as possible. 128one must then observe very carefully the temperatures in the thrust bearing and the difference in temperature between the disc under load and that without load (differences which vary according to the load) this will enable an assessment of the residual thrust to be made which is not compensated for on the steam side. If, all other conditions of operation remaining the same, (load, temperature of steam at inlet etc.) these differential temperatures are exceeded by more than 2 or 3°C, one must suspect an irregularity in the axial thrusts caused for example by incrustations on the blading and it is necessary to take steps to put this right straight away. In the event of similar irregularities in thrust or other irregularities giving rise to wear of the pads of the thrust bearing which is greater than that permitted, that is to say 1.1 mm, the safety device for excessive axial displacement causes the emergency trip to operate but if regular inspections are instituted it should never be necessary to reach this point, 129Lubrication Plan (Instructions for lubricating the regulator parts) In order to ensure that the valve stems operate properly during running, all the points marked "QM must be lubricated at least once a month, For this purpose it is necessary to take out the screws which close the lubrication points. The following lubricants are used. — ~ Molykote M30 or = Rocd Mu ~ F10 130The treatment of the valve stem to maintain free movement during operation If the turbine runs for a long time with a more or less constant rate of flow of steam, the stems will not move, There is therefore the possibility that on the stem of the emergency stop valves and control valves are deposited impurities which carbonize, forming an irregularity which impedes the free movement of the valve. In order to avoid such incrustations and their consequences, it is necessary as far as possible at given intervals of time to vary the load; unless this measure transpires merely by reasons of operation. In this case the incrustations on the stems of the control valves are scraped off. In order to maintain the control as regards the kinematic operation is concerned and to ensure the safety of the turbine, it is necessary for these rules to be complied with. 132APP. 133Testing the emergence The emergency governor serves to initiate the emergency trip device, when the increase in speed becomes greater than 10 212% of the maximum continuous speed and consequently closing the emergency and control valves. Bearing in mind the importance of this device, it mst be inspected about every four weeks. The test must be carried out without load. The turbine must first of all be brought to normal speed, and for this purpose it will be as well, provided it is possible, to open the control valves a little beyond the idling position, The speed is then increased, If at an overspeed of 10 + 12% greater ‘than the maximum.continuous speed the emergency governor does not intervene, it is necessary to stop the test and, whilst the machine is stationary, do what is necessary to make the trip function, If these variations should not bring any result, one must immediately inform the manufacturer so that the emergency governor can be put right. For each turbine is stated at what speed the emergency governor should intervene and if the trip operates perfectly the turbine should then always reach the same speed. It is of paramount importance that the testing of the emergency governor be carried out only when the oil is at normal running temperatures. 134Salt ané ciliocte cernite ins heir prev vurciner, ion ine removal en in the thirties the changeover was finally nade fron high-pressure stean to extrenely high-pressure steac, reaching figures considerably in excess of 50 sted in the field atmospheres gouge, the gaps which of water treztuent were clearly shown up by the ever rrustations. Subsequert increasing formation of salt it uae found possible to naxe considerable irprovenents in the progerties of the feed water by passing it throu, everoration and treatment plant (total desalination), an increase in the complaints caused by deposits of salts or even of dlity of using hich restricted tae no Deposits in stear turbines are feared because the:” can ereviy. They cause 2 unset the operetion consis ion of the ducts vetween the fixed and moving blac ction in th with @ consequent anpreciable Besiges the reduction in power, it is cleo > encounter Canage of a nechazical nature, suc! the energency valve: ere accoupanied iy cLenic:the evaporation section towards the superheater. In the superheater, the water is brought to a temperature which is considerably higher than that of boiling water. Here ‘the bulk of the water evaporates, as a result of which a salt solution of high concentration is formed, There is still much discussion about the way in which salt deposits are formed in turbines. At the present time there are four theories on this subject: 1. Straub!s theory of agglomeration Michel's theory of molten salt 3. Werner's theory of the layer of ice 4, Wickert!s theory of main forces To investigate each of these theories would take up too much space, It is sufficient to point out that the four thedries are not applicable to all types of salt and silicate deposits, but only hold good in certain cases. If the experience of the last few years is born in mind and the results of researches carried out on turbines suffering from salt and silicate deposits analysed a theory concerning these deposits may be formulated as set out below. After the hot steam has left the superheater and is fed to the turbine it contains crystalline salts in the form of a powdered salt, molten salt in the form of droplets and, furthermore, in small quantities even salt dissolved in the steam, This salt/steam mixture enters the turbine and, according to the pressure and the structure of the turbine, is fed into the nozzles at a speed of several hundred metres per second, after which it passes through the individual stages of the turbine. In these the molten salt floating in the steam flow sepatates out in the form of Liquid droplets, which then remain attached to the blades of the turbine (Fig. 1) by virtue of their force of adhesion. Here the droplets of molten salt may remain Liguid if there is a predominant content of NaOH in them, or else they may solidify if they are mixtures consisting of salts which are 136 :in the supercooled state. The precipitation of the last-mentioned is favoured by the fact that the temperature of the molten particles floating in the flow of steam is always higher than that of the respective stages in the turbine, During this process the particles are withheld by the adhesive layer in a similar manner to a fly-catcher and then remain incorporated in the layer of deposits which gradually grows. 137Salt powders (crystals) Molten salt Salt dissolved in the steam + A A. turbine inlet B outlet from the nozzles © inlet to the high-pressure stage of the turbine D inlet to the low-pressure stage of the turbine E inlet to the condenser 1 small initial formation of molten salt and salt powders 2 salt powders which have become deposited 3. molten salt which has been deposited 4 salt powder which has become deposited (for the most part insoluble in water) 5 slight precipitation of salts dissolved in the steam 6 heavy precipitation of salts dissolved in the steam Fis.1 Flow of salt through the turbine, Fron Fig 2 it is possible to see the result of researches carried out on the qualitative composition of the deposits in 36 turbine installations. These deposits were taken in parts of the turbine subject to temperatures which ran: from 50 to 500°C, From the results of these researches it can be seen that the silicates are mainly present; they are met with in $02 of all the tests. Deposits of NaCl were found in 22% of the tests. Other compounds appear rarely and in extremely small quantities. 138the salt of 100 With reference to the numerous types of deposits on blades, a typical scheme has been developed (Fig.3) which holds good for most of the deposits in turbines, This shows the course followed and the composition of the salt deposits, The two compounds concerned are NaCl and Si0,, the proportion of the later increases in proportion to a reduction in the former. If it is imagined that in the line of separation between the two types of salt there is inserted a narrow channel consisting of NaH, a zone of reaction between NaOH and $i0, is obtained which leads to the formation of water- soluble Na,Si,0,. During the passage through the stages of the turbine there is at the beginning a slight separation of $i0,, for which reason there is a predominant quantity of Nadd, which in the first stages of the turbine can be detected. As the separation of silica increases, more and more NaH is bound until the process takes the opposite direction, Finally the NaQH which has separated cut is only enough to neutralise a small quantity of Sid. The water-soluble silica content goes down to practically zero and the zone is reached when total deposition of silica commences; this happens increasingly, the more y the NaCl content of the deposits fells. Sto2 MaoH ace Na,SI0, 139Chemical composition (@) | Temperature of the steam in the turbine (°C) Sodium sulphate IIT Na,S0, 7-4 | ago +240 Sodium metasilicate Na,Si0, | 1.6 | 380+ 275 Sodium sulphate VNa,S04 5.4 | 335 + 280 Burkeite NaC0," 28 2.3 | 380+ 190 ‘Acmite Na,0"Fe,0,°4510,| 5-2 | 390 4 210 Sodium chloride NaCl 22.6 | 365 + 85 quartz a sio, 29.8 | 2802 85 Amorphous silica sio, 21.6 | 260 4 50 cristobalite sio, 3-6 | 195 2 80 Unidentifiable 12.6 Fie Deposits in turbines The substances which are deposited in turbines and treated below are: Si0, Silica or quartz NaCl Na,S0, Sodium sulphate NaoH NaP0, Sodium phosphate 140 Sodium chloride (common salt) Sodium hydroxide (caustic soda)Specific concentration of salt in the turbine On the basis of a research carried out on turbines it has been found that salt deposits appear with greater frequency in cases where the steam comes from a drum type boiler than in’ the case of boilers with forced circulation, The reason for this is to be found in the fact that in boilers with forced circulation the total quantity of salt in the feedwater is very small. It was later found that turbines remain practically free from salt deposits provided a certain concentration of salt is not exceeded. This specific salt concentration may also be considered in the figurativesense, the capacity of the turbine to eliminate salt. In the first place the turbine operator will comply with the instructions of the firm which built the boiler, as these firms prescribe the degree of purity which the feed~ water and the steam must have. However, so as to offer a certain reference value for practical operation, a nunber of mean values have been collected together in a table (Fig.4). In this table, on the basis of the practical experience of turbine operators, the specific concentration of salt has been sub-divided into permanent and temporary, The permanent specific concentration (a) is understood to mean the quantity of salt with which the turbine still shows no appreciable deposit of salts after continuous running for 8,000 hours; the temporary specific concentration (b) means the content of salt resulting from the conditions of operation (frequent starting and stopping), Finally, for the sake of completeness, a limit value has been given for the salt (c), at which the formation of deposits in the turbine occurs in an extremely short time. The figures given are natygally not intended te beunderstood as absolute magnitudes, but they vary within certain limits, whilst the pressure and the temperature of the steam as well as the design of the turbine also have their effects on the individual values of the specific salt concentration. However, if the influence is no longer as great as between the individual groups a, b, and c, the table of Fig. 4 should supply values which can definitely be used when running the turbine, Salt content of the steam (mg/l). a permanent specific concentration of salt b temporary specific concentration of salt c limit value of salt Fig. 4 Specific salt concentration in a turbine. 142-As can be seen from Fig.4, the permanent specific sacl concentration (a) reaches as much as 0.4 mg/l, At this re the operation of the turbine is guaranteed for 8,000 hours, The temperature range and the quantities of deposits of NaCl depend essentially on the condition of the live steam. In very high pressure turbines (120 atmospheres gauge and over) there occurs a more intense deposition of salts, which already starts off in a high temperature range (about 450°C) and gets quantita~ tively less as the temperature falls. In mediumpressure turbines (40 to 60 atmospheres gauge) the deposition of salts starts off in a lower temperature range. In these installations the quantities of salt deposits are smaller, This depends on the limiting value of the salt content in the saturated steam in relation to the pressure, which means to say that steam under high pressure has an increased capacity of carrying salt. Silica, as has already been stated, has a special tendency Si, to form salts. There is no limiting salt content, but only a limit to its solubility in steam, which depends on the pressure and temperature of the steam. During its passage through the boiler the silica is already dissolved in the saturated steam, whilst the solubility in the hot steam is further increased. When the steam enters the turbine, as the pressure and the temperature fall, more and more silica separates out from the gaseous phase. This means that for every increment of silica a formation of silicates occurs, this takes place more towards the end of the turbine and towards the lower temperature zones, the lower the SiQ, content of the steam, provided the turbine remains in continuous operation for a sufficiently Long pericd of time, In the event of there being ne other salt present to accompany it, the end of the turbine would be completely covered by silica, However, if there arc salts Present such as NaOH or NaCL there is always a greater or 143lesser solubility of the silica deposits, In the presence of NaH the silica is converted into Na,Si,0, which is soluble and therefore can be carried away by washing after the turbine has been stopped. If only NaCL is present, a conglomerate of crystals of Sid, and NaCl is obtained which also guarantee a certain solubility of the Sid layer, since during the stopping and starting phases the NaCL is dissolved by the crystalline formation and the remaining crystalline structure of Si is decomposed. If, however, the proportion of NaCL or NaOH is low, it will be difficult for insoluble deposits of silica to occur. In boiler installations whoseboiling temperature is much above 250°C (50 atmospheres gauge) the Na,SO, dissolved in the water transported from the boiler separates out practically entirely in the superheater, because during the subsequent evaporation the droplets of water reach the temperature at which Na,SO, out before the increase in salt concentration starts, that separates is to say before the zone in which different solubility conditions obtain, This is particularly so in cases where the percentage of NaCl is high. Only when a boiler pressure exists lower than 40 atmospheres gauge, which involve high steam temperatures which are usually lower, does the increase in the salt concentration take place before the temperature ofthe salt solution rises. Only little Na,S0, separates out in the superheater since the 4 bulk of it is carried into the turbine, Since NaQH is almost always present in the boiler water, this also accumulates a little at a time in the droplets of water. As a result of the continuous absorption of heat in the superheater, together with the concentration 144 aolof the salt solution, its boiling point also continues to rise until the steam leaves the.superheater to enter the turbine. If there were no NaOH in the boiler water, any salt whose solubility limits were exceeded would separate out from the solution and become deposited in the superheater or would be entrained in the form of a salt powder by the flow-of steam right into the interior of the turbine. In the presence of NaOH, however, the position changes entirely. The NaOH does not separate out, but at the temperatures which obtains in the superheater it forms droplets of molten salt, the boiling point of which increases as the concentration rises and as the pressure of the steam increases. In very high pressure turbines ‘the proportion of deposits of NaH will be very low, a fact which is in Line with the low alkalinity of the feedwater. In medium pressure plants the deposits of NaOH, on the other hand, will be much higher. This salt, because of its chemical and physical properties, Na,PO, is located between NaCl and NaOH as regards its tendency to form salt deposits. It is added to all drum type boilers in order to give protection against forms of temporary hardness. Summary ‘The composition of the deposits which are formed on the blades of low-pressure turbines varies widely. Generally it consists of water-soluble salts which give rise to hardness (compounds of Ca and Mg), the products of erosion and corrosion. In cases, however, where the pressures are extremely high, the soluble salts contained in the deposits which are formed on the blades consist first of all of 1450NaCl, and in small quantities also NaOH and silicates. The Na,S0, is already separated out in the superheater of the boiler. The insoluble compounds found are essentially Si0, The deposits of the various salts on the blades of the turbine depend on the temperature of the individual stages themselves. As a result of research it is found that the series runs as follows: sodium disilicate, sodium chloride, and amorphous silica, However, the specific temperatures of the individual compounds overlap appreciably. The pressure has a very small influence on the formation ted on the blades. of the salts which are to be found depos Generally speaking, however, it may be said that the water— soluble silicates appear in larger quantities only at low pressures, whilst quartz and amorphous silica predominate at high and very high pressures. The reason for this fact is to be found in the NaOH content of the boiler water, since at low pressures it is present in appreciable quantities, whereas the quantities are much less or it is absent altogether if the pressures are high and very high, because in most cases it is replaced by other alkelising agents such as ammonia or hydrazine. It is possible to a large extent to avoid deposits of salts in turbines if the salt content of the steam is low enough not to exceed the specific concentration. The percentage will be higher or lower according to the composition of the salts contained in the boiler. Even considerably smaller quantities of salt than those shown by the specific concentration may give rise to damage to the blades as a result of the lowering of the resistance to repeated bending of the material of which the blades are made. 146 ~~.The salt content of the steam of boilers with natural circulation depends net only on the concentration of the boiler water but also on the kinetic energy introduced into the drum of the boiler and the efficiency of its internal parts, An essential condition of operation is the maintenance of the correct water level and hardness of the water. In the case of boilers with forced circulation, the salt content of the steam depends on the care with which the evaporator and the total demineralisation plant are operated. In this case the behaviour of the condenser also plays an important part. Generally speaking, with these types of boiler the salt content of the feedwater is lower than the salt concentration of the turbine connected downstream, and for this reason, leaving aside the question of the formation of silica, there are only rarely deposits in the turbine itself. In the case of the presence of even small traces of salt in the steam, there will practically always be a foulil of the turbine if it remains in operation for a long period of time, However, this may be reduced to a minimum if the operation of the boiler and the treatment of the water are carried out with the necessary care. In this way the times of enforced standstill can be shortened. As was already stated at the outset, it is always necessary from time to time to remove the deposits of silica and salts which have formed in the turbine. Bibliography: De. Th. Geissler, Stuttgart: Salzablagerungen in Dampfturbinen und Kesselanlagen, Parts 1 to 3, "Energie", Years 7 and 8. 147ATTACHMENT 3 148“Blue aamezge in industrial barbies driving generators it ny ars, Whereas the saseptility of the turbines to this free of daseage when they are diving compressor) has “een reported iz vorioas pblicatins and alo daring dit- vstoas with conaltasti and operators, Some of She dam 4 hich eccared could sat be attrluted te resonance of ‘he blade frequency with the exciting frequency in the flow Af steamy, to a reduction of the maierial strength threvgh arrosion nor to any other cause hagwr to the desiguers at lhe time. Daring the instigation of damage toe com pressor terbine, a new cons for biade damage which had ‘ot previously ben taken inte ascormt was discoored. ‘When calculating the stresses io turbine blades, care dost be taken to diferente clearly berweenaatic wad yoamic seresses, The term static stress sed to denote the stresses occurring at steady speed and ourput, namely the tensile stress in the blade root #3 result of centri- fogal force and the bending streas produced by the force ‘of the ream. Dynamic eens are noomally shezastiog ‘in character and caused by vibration of the blades. The fii! cask of design’ vo determine the aatral frequency ingauired and to reproduce this inthe fished prodset. 18 Scab that the nesses may be estimated, cis necrasery to Know the exciting frequencics and forces and the lies oatside the centroidal axis ofthe blade. By the same sokea, ie t ponsble to redace the static bending stresics by inclining the blades or br varying the positon of the shroudiag appropriately. ‘The vectorial addition of rrets due to centrifuge! force and bending sess gives the tol static sess om. It, ‘vali is usually referted to the basic blade profile which means that the thickening of the profile due to the fillet sadingr is not takea into account (Fig. 4). ‘Seress concentrations oocor atthe change in section be- ‘pween the blade proper and the blade root and itis wry Imporant to desermine thee stress. The theoretically necessary form fuera « forthe change of sccioa can be swcermined by photochatic methods, but this must be ‘corrected when the actual stress ocoatting a this section is ealeubted. The eocrection factor Kis principally dependent on the zrength ofthe material, the theoretical form factor and the absolute dimensions of the fillet radius, In practice the value of Ky ranges between 1.1 ‘and 1.5."The maximum serest is then given by: on ms—Ke (+00) ©

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