Microbiology

To Investigate the Impact of Prevailing Microbiological
Contamination in the Ground and Surface Water
Word Count: 1000

[Name of the Writer]
[Name of the Institution]
To Investigate the Impact of Prevailing Microbiological Contamination of Ground and Surface Water
ABSTRACT
The current study has aimed to analyze the current water conditions in Karachi so that the
drinking water quality available in the form of ground and surface water should be investigated.
The data for observation was collected from the 18 towns of Karachi from the sources of ground
and surface water. The MTF procedure, pH, TDS and turbidity test were accumulated in order to
analyze if the drinking water is safe and in accordance with the drinking water standards. The
results of the study indicated the occurrence of E-coli in the surface and ground water, the pH
level of surface water was satisfactory whereas the pH level of ground water was inappropriate.
The Turbidity results of the ground and surface water was high indicating the relation between
the MPN of E-coli and turbidity. There exists no indication of excessive TDS in water. The study
has also provided the measures to address the current water condition of Karachi and future
directions for research have been discussed.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
Contents
Chapter 1: Introduction to the Problem.....................................................................................8
1.1
Introduction................................................................................................................8
1.2
Problem Statement.....................................................................................................9
1.3
Purpose Statement...................................................................................................10
1.4
Research Question(s)................................................................................................12
1.5
Theoretical Framework............................................................................................12
1.6
Significance of the Study.........................................................................................14
1.7
Definition of Terms..................................................................................................15
1.7.1
Microbiological contamination............................................................................15
1.7.2
Turbidity...............................................................................................................15
1.7.3
TDS.......................................................................................................................15
Chapter 2: Literature Review...................................................................................................16

2.1
Introduction..............................................................................................................16
2.2
Microbiological Contamination of Surface and Ground Water...............................16
2.3
Turbidity and TDS of Surface and Ground Water...................................................22
2.4
Water Contamination and its Hazards.....................................................................26
2.5
Summary.................................................................................................................30
Chapter 3: Research Methodology..........................................................................................32

3.1
Introduction..............................................................................................................32
3.2
Research Strategy and Procedure.............................................................................32
3.3
Hypothesis of the Study...........................................................................................32
3.4
Research Methods....................................................................................................33
3.4.1
Multiple-Tube-Fermentation (MTF)....................................................................33
3.4.2
pH.........................................................................................................................34
3.4.3
Turbidity...............................................................................................................34
3.4.4
TDS.......................................................................................................................35
3.5
Data Collection Procedure.......................................................................................35
3.5.1
Primary Research.................................................................................................35
3.5.2
Secondary Research.............................................................................................36
4
3.6
Summary................................................................................................................36
Chapter 4: Results....................................................................................................................37
4.1
Introduction...........................................................................................................37
4.2
Results and Interpretation.....................................................................................37
4.2.1
Microbiological Water Contamination.................................................................37
4.2.2
Water Turbidity....................................................................................................39
4.2.3
Water pH..............................................................................................................40
4.2.4
Water TDS............................................................................................................41
4.2.4
MPN and Turbidity..............................................................................................43
4.3
Summary.................................................................................................................44
Chapter 5: Conclusion and Discussion....................................................................................45

5.1
Introduction..............................................................................................................45
5.2
Discussion................................................................................................................45
5.3
Conclusion...............................................................................................................47
5.4
Practical Implications...............................................................................................48
5.5
Limitation and Future Research...............................................................................49
REFERENCES........................................................................................................................51
APPENDIX..............................................................................................................................57
Appendix - 1.........................................................................................................................57
Microbiology of Ground Water Via [MPN].....................................................................57
Appendix - 2.........................................................................................................................61
Microbiology of Surface Water Via [MPN].....................................................................61
Appendix - 3.........................................................................................................................65
Physical Parameters of Ground Water..............................................................................65
List of Figures
Figure 1 The Hyrdological Cycle.................................................................................. 2
Figure 2 Theoretical Framework...................................................................................2
Figure 3 - Compliance With Pakistan and WHO Standards.....................................................2
Figure 4 Occurrence of E-Coli in McConkey Agar............................................................2
Figure 5 Bacteriological Standards of Drinking Water........................................................2
Figure 6 Occurrence of E-Coli..................................................................................... 2
Figure 7 WHO Water TDS Standards.............................................................................2
Figure 8 Total Dissolved Solids.................................................................................... 2
Figure 9 PH Scale..................................................................................................... 2
Figure 10 Water PH.................................................................................................. 2
Figure 11 Sources of Water contamination......................................................................2
Figure 12 MPN of Surface Water..................................................................................2
Figure 13 MPN of Ground Water..................................................................................2
Figure 14 Mean Turbidity of Ground Water.....................................................................2
Figure 15 Mean Turbidity of Surface Water.....................................................................2
Figure 16 Mean PH- Ground Water............................................................................... 2
Figure 17 - Mean PH of Surface Water.............................................................................2
Figure 18 - Mean TDS of Ground Water...........................................................................2
Figure 19 - Mean Turbidity of Surface Water......................................................................2
Figure 20 Relation Between MPN and Turbidity of Ground Water.........................................2
Figure 21 Relation Between MpN and Turbidity of Surface Water.........................................2
Chapter 1: Introduction to the Problem

1.1
Introduction
The intake of purified and filtered water is necessary for individuals in order to endure
healthy life. The adequate quantity of water intake helps in the metabolism of human-body and
maintains the body temperature. Moreover, the transfusion of body fluids takes place properly
only when the adequate amount of water is available in the body. The total amount of water that
exists on earth consists of 3% of fresh-water, out of which, only 0.01% fresh-water is found to be
accessible for humans (Hinrichsen and Tacio, 2002). This has resulted in the shortage of water
globally and has emphasized on the proper management and filtration of water.
Water is considered to be the adequate solvent due to which other impurities are
dissolved in it which makes it polluted and inappropriate for drinking purpose. The concentration
of cations and anions of minerals in terms of sodium and potassium is found dangerously high
which make the water undrinkable and causes adverse effect on health (Siddiqui et al, 2005;
Clarke 2013). In developing countries, the industrial and agricultural discharge of waste has
caused water pollution up to the hazardous extent. The agricultural discharge consists of harmful
pesticides that get mixed with surface and ground water by the process of underground water
flow and causes harmful effects on human health. Moreover, study conducted by Ali et al. (2011)
proved that E coli and fecal coliforms indicates the exposure of water with human waste
whereas, the inorganic acids present in water indicate the industrial wastage. This water pollution
has increased the impurities in water comprising of microorganisms which cause dysentery,
typhoid and gastrointestinal diseases (Hashmi et al. 2009).
7
In Pakistan, drinkable water is available to 25.5% population whereas the rest population
is encountered with the contaminated water. The water consisting of human waste, agricultural
waste and industrial waste is discharged in river or nearby canal without any purification
procedure which results in the contamination of surface water. Furthermore, subsurface flow of
water or internal flow causes the surface contaminated water to be mixed with ground water
which in turn, also becomes unpurified and that is how the contaminated surface water leads
towards the contamination of ground water (Azizullah et al, 2011). The surface water is also
contaminated when it is exposed to chemical discharge and the hydrological-cycle causes its
flow towards the ground water which also becomes contaminated and there exists large amount
of iron, chromium and arsenic exist in the ground and surface water which may leads towards the
hazardous diseases like respiratory diseases, heart diseases and cancer (Lagari et al, 2004).
The current study is profoundly comprised on the analysis of surface and ground water
that is accessible in Karachi. The surface and ground water is examined on the basis of its
contamination with respect to harmful microorganisms present in it. Furthermore, the
investigation for the current level of turbidity and TDS is also measured in order to assess the
quality of the water.
1.2
Problem Statement
Water being the building block of human life is considered to be the basic element of
human body which consists of 55-78 percentage of water. The quality of water needed to be
supplied to population with respect to adequate amount in ways that it makes certain that the
supplied water is able to meet the standard hygienic conditions is actually the most debated topic
for researchers (Howard and Bartam, 2003). According to the World Health Organization (2014),
the population of about 4 billion has access to the healthier source of water and this availability
8
has almost doubled in last 20 years granting standardized water supply in 116 countries, whereas
the water for drinking purpose is still unavailable to 700 million population in the world which
comprises of 71 countries. Moreover, wastage from agricultural and industrial process is
discharged in world water sources which is estimated to weight 2 million-tons on everyday basis
and out of which 80 percent of wastage from the total of 2 million-tons is discharged from the
developing countries which contaminates the water and causes hazardous microbial growth
which threatens health of the population.
Pakistan as a developing country is ranked 80 out of the total of 122 countries with
respect to the available standardized quality of water. In Pakistan, the rate of availability of
hygienic drinking water is 25.6% out of the total population which indicates the major threat for
the healthcare of population that is not provided with safe and standardized water and the study
conducted by Azizullah et al. (2011) indicates the ground water pollution of 65% with bacteria
and microbes whereas, surface water was found 100% contaminated by both i.e. bacteria and
microbes. The presence of microbes in drinking water contributes in diseases which mainly
comprises of diarrhea, typhoid, dysentery etc. which may prove to be fatal (Rahman et al. 1997).
Therefore, the unavailability of hygienic drinking water has become a major issue that has to be
addressed and eradicated in order eliminate the hazardous health threats for the population.
1.3
Purpose Statement
This research is conducted to analyze the hazardous microorganisms presence and attract
the attention of related authorities towards the water pollution in the ground and the surface
water which is not only the source of drinking water for people but also the source of other
domestic and industrial usages. In Karachi, there are many different areas that need proper
concern of the health and care authorities to search and eliminate one of the major issues of
9
water contamination (Asadullah et al. 2013). It is important to provide people with hygienic
drinking water and in order to do that it is important to analyze that what bacteria and pollutants
are found in water and which in certain areas they are available (Ali et al, 2011). If these
pollutants are known geographically, then how much area is polluted then it will become easier
to solve the water issue. Specific measures will be taken to depollute the water and if it is known
that the water is polluted then people will be given specific measures to utilize that water
properly and if the water is dangerously polluted then people will be refrained to use that water.
The current study analyzes the microbes present in the water and their hazards and effects
on people of that specific area who suffer from many lethal diseases due to polluted water. Lack
of required attention is what causing this issue to spread every day and as it grows it is getting
more difficult to cope with this matter (Sheikh et al. 2008). The current study is conducted to
highlight the possible dangerous of water pollution by identifying the microbes in the water and,
the consequences afterwards if it is not treated properly. The study is conducted to analyze the
current water properties and provide all the concerns in the public with the spark to know how
serious this matter is and how important is it to cease it otherwise. Khan et al. (2013) condemns
in his study that human body which consists of about 70-80 percent of water, when not provided
with some pure drinking water it reacts in less effective and efficient way and something needs
to be done to stop it immediately.
The polluted water carries viruses which spread quickly to other people around the
infected ones in many different ways and due to lack of awareness people get infected and yet
they continue to do so (Ilyas et al. 2008). The current study is also persuasive in a way to spread
out the concerned awareness to the people and to provide them with the entire possible outcome
that they might have in future if nothing is done about it. The current study is a wakeup call for
10
all the responsible and a voice of people of all those areas which are infested with such water
diseases. This study not only draws the higher attention but also signifies the importance of this
matter to be addressed which needs to take adequate and proper measures against this problem.
1.4
Research Question(s)
The current study is aimed to address the following questions:

What is the current microbiological contamination of ground and surface water?
What is the current level of turbidity and TDS in ground and surface water?
What is the impact of microbiological contamination of ground and surface water?
What is the impact of current level of turbidity and TDS in ground and surface water?
1.5
Theoretical Framework
Water is an important source of human life and it is available for utilization in various
sources so that the basic activities can be carried out by the consumption of water. The water is
available in the form of rain water, lake water, river water and ground water and people consume
water from sources that are mostly found within their range. The hydrological-cycle as described
by Clarke (1991) indicates that pure water is melted down from the glaciers and become part of
rivers in the form of surface water, which streams towards the lakes and canals and spread
around towards the populated areas where it is consumed for domestic purpose. The internal flow
of water that streams under the ground is caused due to the absorption of rain water in soil which
ultimately flows underground and comes across with the surrounded rivers, lakes and sea.
Moreover, the precipitation process of river, sea and lake water causes it to evaporate and form
clouds which later rains-down, absorbed in soil and becomes part of the ground water. Hammer
(1986) describes water-cycle as a continuous process in which flow of water occurs throughout
11
the year and makes the water available in all the sources. However, the contamination of water
occurs when hazardous chemicals are discharged in sea without any prior treatment and the
Figure 1 The Hyrdological Cycle
internal flow of
water
interchanges the hazardous chemicals underground and the precipitation of sea water causes
acid-rain on ground and rivers which ultimately gets absorbed in soil and causes the
contamination of ground and surface water. Moreover, the discharge of human water in sea or
surface water occurs which contaminates the surface water and ground water through the internal
water interchange (Yassi et al. 2001; Sarwar et al. 2011). The distribution of surface water to the
local population takes place with the filtration and chlorination process but due to the broken
pipes of both; sewerage pipes and water distribution pipes, causes the encounter of contaminated
water with fresh water and makes it contaminated.
Moreover, this leakage of black water causes
Source: Clarke 1991
the interchange of contaminated bacteria in soil and makes the ground water contaminated. In
this way, the water cycle that is essential for the availability of water becomes the basis of the
interchange of contamination in water. Therefore, the availability of fresh water for domestic
purpose has become a crucial issue which needs to be addressed in order to revive the harmful
12
Figure 2 Theoretical Framework
Adapted from: Azizullah 2011
1.6
Significance of the Study

Water is the basic component of life whether it contributes in the agricultural production,
domestic usage or drinking purpose. According to the estimate by UNESCO (2003), there exists
2.3 billion people in the world who have access to purified water and the rest of the population is
13
encountered with the contagious water which has proved to be fatal. The contamination of water
not only creates the hazardous effects on human life but it also indicates that necessary measures
for water purification are sufficient enough to providing required outcomes (Wright et al, 2004).
The microbiological contamination in Pakistan has led to the 60% mortal rate of infants due to
the diseases caused by drinking of contaminated water (Bhutta et al. 2005). Therefore, the
availability of drinkable water has become the major issue which has to be addressed in
systematic manner in order to eradicate the usage of infectious water and take necessary steps to
discontinue the processes that leads to the contamination of water. This study plays a crucial role
in the analysis of ground and surface water to indicate which harmful bacteria, microorganisms,
toxic compounds and minerals exist and what impact these impurities cause on the health of
people. This study attempts to analyze the quality of water available in Karachi so that
preventive measure can be taken to eradicate this issue.
1.7
Definition of Terms
1.7.1
Microbiological contamination
Microbiological contamination refers to the impurity or intoxication caused by the

presence of certain microorganisms and bacteria that are considered to be hazardous for
health. Examples include E-coli, Fecal coliforms etc.
1.7.2
Turbidity
Turbidity in water comprises of the extent to which the water is comprised of suspended
materials consisting of particles that cause haziness in water and settle down when they
are contained in a container. The particles include clay, algae, microbes and sand.
1.7.3
TDS
14
The inorganic substances present in water which could be found in the form of minerals,
cations and anions that can be soluble in water. These substances also contain calcium,
sodium, sulfates and some other minerals and they are collectively known as Total
Dissolved Solids or TDS.
15
Chapter 2: Literature Review

2.1
Introduction
This chapter will cover the literature that will be in accordance with the previous studies
with respect to the current study. Furthermore, microbiological contamination of water, TDS and
turbidity of water and the hazards caused by the utilization of contaminated water will be
focused discussed respectively.
2.2
Microbiological Contamination of Surface and Ground Water

The usage of impure water can cause malicious diseases and can be fatal if not treated
properly, therefore the access to fresh and pure water in not only necessary for drinking purpose,
but it also adheres its importance in order to refrain and eradicate healthcare issues. The people
in urban areas have become aware about the hazardous effects of contaminated water and have
substituted the tap-water for drinking purpose with the mineral water that is provided in market.
The study conducted by Khatoon and Pirzada (2010) attempted to find the occurrence of harmful
microbes and substances in the mineral-water that is being available in Karachi from various
mineral-water companies. The study was constructed on the samples of water that were collected
from the 187 water brands available in the city. The experiment for the TVPC took place in
which Merck media was used to be mixed with samples. Afterwards, the samples were filtered in
order to find the occurrence of E-coli and nitrate-filter was used to find the presence of fecalcoliforms. The results of the study specified that 36 percent of the total sample was not in
accordance with the standards given by WHO, in which the TVPC was at relatively high rate,
16
indicating the presence of bacteria. Moreover, 11 percent of these bacteria were identified as
Figure 3 - Compliance With Pakistan and
WHO Standards
Source: Khatoon & Pirzada 2010
coliforms and the presence of E-coli indicate the fecal-contamination. The alarming result from
this study was found when these bacteria proved to be resistant towards the incision of anti-biotic
which ultimately proved the fatality from the usage of this water. Therefore, the results of this
study have questioned the quality that is being provided from the water provision companies.
However, it is also
water is stored at
Figure 4 Occurrence of E-Coli in

McConkey Agar
bacteria tend to grow
Source: Sulehria et al. 2011
inferred that when mineral

unfavorable places, then the
at higher pace which can
cause fatal healthcare issues.
17
The water is contaminated when it is encountered with human-waste and the existence of
fecal bacteria is found to be common in the drinking water indicating that the large amount of
water is contaminated and is not as per the healthcare standards. The leakage and crossover of
fresh water lines and sewerage lines has caused the increased contamination of drinking water
and this trend has been found enormously in areas with dense population (Ilyas & Sarwar, 2003;
Zahoorullah, 2013). The increased level of contaminated water reported in Pakistan has indicated
the incompetency of concerned authorities and therefore, it has been essentially required to
assess the water quality in order to take preventive measures. The experimental study conducted
in Lahore by Sulehria et al. (2011) with the 30 samples that were collected from the main
reservoir of water, distributive line and taps, it made 90 samples from the three sources of water.
The samples were mixed with MacConkey agar and EMB agar respectively, and then the
samples were incubated for 1 day. The results indicated that 60 percent coliform were present in
the water-lines whereas the 80 percent sample from consumer-taps was found to be contagious
with coliforms. The TVC of the E-coli indicated that the number of E-coli was increased at the
consumer-taps and thus, the study proved that the contamination level of water with increasing
during its flow from the reservoir to the taps. The healthcare issues are caused with the usage of
this water and the human life that is adhered to this water is proved to be at risk and preventive
measures should be taken by the municipal and water committees in order to eradicate the health
issues.
The prevention of water reserves has become a great challenge for the water management
authorities due to the increasing rate of its contamination. The discharge of industrial and
sewerage waste has resulted in the contamination of ground and surface water. The
microorganism present in drinking water has become the source of harmful pathogens that are
18
considered to be the main cause of waterborne diseases (Mahmood and Maqbool 2006). The
Figure 5 Bacteriological Standards of Drinking
Water
quality
of
Source: Ali el al, 2011
water
has
been
compromised in Pakistan due to which waterborne diseases are prone to be fatal specially for
children and senior people who tend to lack immunity towards them, resulting 25 percent
mortality rate due to diarrhea i.e. waterborne disease. The study conducted by Ali et al. (2011)
emphasized on the water quality of Khyber agency, Pakistan from where 15 samples were
gathered from various sources. The samples were kept in air tight bottles in controlledenvironment. The pour-plate procedure was used for TPC and hence, the MPN was assessed for
the presence of coliform. The fermentation process was used to analyze the coliforms and the gas
formation in samples was examined. Furthermore, E.C-Broth was used to indicate whether the
fecal coliforms were present whereas, EMB agar was used to find the existence of E-coli. The
results of the study indicated increased TPC in all of the collected samples and the presence of Ecoli in 66 percent of the total sample and coliform bacteria in 80% of the total sample was also
found. The results were relatively shocking because the presence of E-coli proved the cross of
sewerage water with drinking water and their quantity was excessively higher than the given
standards. Therefore, the study proposed that the water provision should be maintained properly
and the concerned authorities should be made liable for the hazards caused by the utilization of
contagious water in order to provide people with better health measures.
19
According to Khan & Bangash (2001), the resources through which water is being
distributed in areas for domestic consumption should be checked and maintained properly in
order to reduce the existence of harmful bacteria which adheres number of diseases to the
population. The extent to which the number of microbes present in water vary significantly
throughout the distribution channel which indicates the lower effect of chlorine and water
treatment by the mixing of black water in it. The diseases are found to be caused by the presence
of microbes that transfer in water from the human or animal wastage and results in the wide
spread of bacterial diseases (Shar et al, 2012). The study conducted by Ahmed et al. (2004) took
Figure 6 Occurrence of E-Coli
place in Islamabad and consisted of three samples that were collected from water reservoirs. The
MPN-technique was used to assess the availability level of microbes, the samples were sterilized
and were diluted and put in required medium and gram straining of the samples took place. The
results of the study indicated that the water from the water reservoirs was highly contaminated
with pathogens. The results also proved that the filtration and chlorination of water reservoirs
caused the observable decrease in pathogens. But, there was not decrease found in the growth of
Source:
Ecolitestkits
E-coli which indicated that the tanks
where
water was stored was unpurified. The samples
proved the presence of Cereus bacteria and Aureus which were removed by the treatment of
chlorine. Therefore, it was suggested to the concerned authorities that water should be examined
periodically in order to eradicate the harmful effects caused by the pathogenic bacteria.
20
The availability of purified water to population has become a global concern and
impurities in drinking water causes fatal healthcare issues. In Pakistan, these exists no proper
management accountable for the examination and assessment of water quality that is being
provided to the population (Kahlown and Majeed 2003). The concerned authorities consider that
only the provision of water periodically is essential to meet the water requirements whereas, the
assessment of quality also comes under their accountability. Most of the studies in this literature
refer to the presence of E-coli in drinking water which is specifying the presence of fecalcontamination in drinking water, and according to Tallon et al. (2005), fecal-contamination is not
only the cause of impurity but has also proven fatal to human beings. The chlorination of water is
found to be insufficient considered the level of contamination in water. The study conducted by
Farooq et al. (2008) is aimed to assess the water quality and its distributive procedure in
Rawalpindi. The sample consisted from the eight sources of water and the analysis for the
presence of coliforms took place by the tube-dilution procedure. The incubation and gas
formation led to the indication of coliforms to be present in drinking water samples. The pH and
TDS level obtained from the samples proved to be according to the health standards. The
statistical analysis suggested that with the decrease in chlorine in water, the existence of
coliforms was increased, whereas, the turbidity and temperature of water caused the microbes to
grow and contaminate the water. Therefore, preventive measures for the water supply procedure
are considered to be necessary for the provision of safe water. Moreover, the study conducted in
21
this regard by Shar et al. (2009) was conducted with the total sample of 96 from ground and
surface water and HPC was done in order to assess the present microbes. The results indicated
that all the samples were contaminated with E-coli coliforms and the results were alarming due
to its extensive presence and raised questionable concerns for the municipal departments for the
health concerns. The fecal contamination was definitely the part of the contamination whereas
the total count of present microbes indicated the inadequate chlorination of water. Therefore, the
immediate concern of authorities was required to eradicate the health hazards that could be cause
by the use of contagious water.
2.3
Turbidity and TDS of Surface and Ground Water

The water is considered to be contaminated when it is combined with such substances
and microbes that are found to impose adverse effects on human health. However, there exists
some possibility to analyze water by acquiring its taste and observing its color and odor. But the
comprehensive analysis of water requires the detailed examination in laboratory to assess
whether the water is drinkable and if it contains harmful microbes. Siddiqui et al. (2010)
condemned that the 36 percent of water that is available in Karachi for drinking purpose is
contaminated with bacteria and excessive metallic substances and with respect to the findings,
Asadullah et al. (2013) reiterated this study by examining the water-samples of 780 from
Karachis 490 water sources. The area covered for the collection of water consisted of lower,
middle, upper-middle and upper class areas educational institutes. The experimental procedure
started by analyzing the pH from electronic-PH meter, whereas the turbidity was examined by
using the turbidimeter from the collected samples. The results of the study indicated that 6
percent of water is not in accordance with the pH standards as described by WHO. Furthermore,
the taste obtained from the 2.1 percent of the water-samples was observed to b obnoxious. The
22
water obtained from the samples was not turbid at all and was found to be at the drinkable stage.
The study inferred that the utilization of such water that is not considered to be safe not only
Figure 7 WHO Water TDS Standards
proves to be harmful
for
drinking
and
Source: World Health Organization
cooking purpose but, the activities like washing etc. from this water also encompasses skin
irritation, eye infections and causes adverse effects on hair. Furthermore, the study concluded
that 75 samples from the total water-sample of 780 was not in accordance with the given WHO
standards and it was insisted that the quality of water in educational institutions should be
maintained properly by the authorities who are responsible for the provision of safe water in
Karachi.
The availability of ground water contributes in domestic, agricultural and industrial use
but, its quality for drinking purpose has become a great issue. In order to meet the domestic
demand of water, it has become quite essential to strategically manage and improve the quality of
water (Lamka et al, 1980; Haydar et al, 2009). In Pakistan, 60 percent of ground water is being
utilized for drinking purpose apart from the fact that the water is not in accordance as per the
health standards. The large number of population in Karachi lives adjacent to industries and thus,
adheres to the ground water which is contaminated by industrial wastage. The lack of sewerage
maintenance often causes overflow of black-water that eventually crosses over the ground water
and contaminates it. The study proposed by Khattak and Khattak (2013) was conducted in order
to analyze the ground water in Karachi and assess its negative effects on human life. The sample
of the study consisted of three sources of ground water, which was selected on the basis of the
23
extent to which population was dense, the number of adjacent industries in the area and the
degree to which the pollution occurred. These samples were kept in containers and were soaked
with hydrogen-nitrate for twenty-four hours and then they were distilled. The pH of water
recorded and number of experiments indicated that the water contained hardiness and the TDS of
the samples was either more than standard requirements or less than standard requirements. The
results indicated the excessive amount of sodium, magnesium, sulphur, potassium, calcium and
chloride which proved that the sewerage system of industrial waste was broken. The ground
water also showed its interaction with salts indicating its interaction with coastal water. The
overall results indicated that neither of the samples from the ground water were according to the
WHO standards and proved to be contagious and harmful for drinking purpose. Therefore,
preventive measures and re-management of industrial waste is necessarily required to provide
people with safe drinking water.
The emphasis on research related to water properties has been increased due to the
excessive importance of water in human life and the adverse effects related to the drinking of
polluted and unhealthy water. The study conducted in Khairpur, Pakistan by Pirzada et al. (2011)
consisted of 8 samples from ground and surface water sources in order to analyze the water
quality as per Who standards. The results proved that the pH 2 out of 8 samples was in
acceptable range and the overall pH from ground water was unacceptable for the domestic
utilization. The water samples were found hard whereas the TDS of the samples was below the
standard limits. Calcium, potassium and magnesium were also found under the standardized
limits in 3 out of 8 samples. The overall results indicated that only 3 out of 8 samples were in
accordance with the WHO guidelines and proved to be healthier for drinking and domestic use.
Therefore, the study made an attempt for the concerned authorities to take preventive measures
24
to utilize the water properly and look out the water reservoirs that were proved to be safe for
drinking purpose.
Figure 8 Total Dissolved Solids
Source: Life Ionizers
25
The study conducted by Ullah et al. (2011) infers that the scarcity of surface water has
caused the shift in the consumer utilization for water from ground resources whereas, the
increased level of vaporization has caused the gradual but continuous decrease in the quantity of
surface water. The underground water reservoirs are found to be contaminated with and are not
Figure 9 PH Scale
considered
healthy as per the
Source: Luminor Environment
water standards. The waterborne diseases have caused 30% deaths from the total mortality rate
indicating the extreme effects of contagious water. The 25 samples were collected in Sialkot in
order to assess the drinking quality of ground water. These samples were analyzed using the pHmeter and their turbidity was also assessed by the electronic meter. The results of the study
indicated that the pH level of groundwater was not found as per the WHO standards whereas, the
ground water from 57 samples was found to be highly turbid and was not applicable for drinking
purpose. There was excessive presence of lead and iron found in the ground water and hence, the
overall study results suggested that water did not meet the quality and health standards.
Therefore, the study insisted on the preventive measures to be taken by the authority to eradicate
the quality issues of water in order to provide healthier water to the population and reduce the
scarcity of water.
2.4
Water Contamination and its Hazards
26
The hazards caused by the drinking of polluted water have become the global concern
due to the increasing rate of health care issues generated by waterborne diseases. According to
According to Aziz (2005), The growing percentage of healthcare issues is not only occurred due
to the lack of the purification treatment of water but, these hazardous concerns are caused due to
the outflow and leakage of human waste water which streams towards the fresh water and
contaminates it. It has been estimated by the report proposed by UNICEF (2010)
Figure 10 Water PH
Source: Environment Canada
that ten million children die in Pakistan due to diarrhea, which is one of the waterborne diseases
and caused due to the usage of contaminated water. The water pipes that supply fresh water pass
through the sewerage pipes and even slight leakage among them causes the fresh water to be
contaminated. The water provision to Faisalabad was examined by Ilyas et al. (2008), who aimed
at the cause of diarrheal diseases reported by 250 people in the city and most of them were
children. Children are more prone to be infected with diseases because their immune system is
found to be weaker than grown-ups. Their study analyzed the water samples from 40 different
27
sources and the samples were mostly collected from the schools water sources, with the total
sample size of 80 to perform physical and bacteriological examination respectively. These
samples were sterilized and physical analysis of 40 samples was conducted by measuring the pH
by following the Milwaukee procedure and afterwards turbidity was measured using the
Nephelometer. The presence of bacteria was examined on the rest 40 samples by filtering the
water by using 0.45-microne membrane and the filter was then passed through the Endo-Agar
and Macconkey-Agar. The results indicated that the pH of water samples was found among 7.49.3, which is not as per the WHO-standards. Moreover, the water was not turbid and hence met
the drinking standards. However, the samples collected from schools tanks and ground water
indicated the presence of E-coli in 17 samples from out of 40 samples, whereas water from
WASA-supply and filtered water was found drinkable. It was recommended that water should
not be kept for long in storage tanks and should be mixed with adequate amount of chlorine to
increase access to hygienic water.
The water is considered to be healthy and drinkable when it effectively meets the water
quality standards, but unfortunately, black water exposure to the fresh water in Pakistan has led
to the excessive water contamination which has made it unavailable for the 40-60 percent
population (Mumtaz et al, 2010; Nasreen and Awan, 1995). The diseases caused by the microbes
found in drinking water have taken a relatively higher percentage and it tends to increase
throughout the years (Farid et al, 2012). The treatment of water is not adequate enough to reduce
the hazardous effects of water and the leakage and transfer of black water in the fresh water in
underground pipes has made it impossible to be fixed immediately for a developing country like
Pakistan (Anwar et al, 2004; Langah et al, 2008). The study formulated by Amin (2014) was
intended to find the microbes in drinking water and analyze their resistance towards the
28
antibiotics in order to provide the preventive measures. The bacteria and microbes tend to mutate
and form resistance towards the antibiotics and treatments, which causes the diseases caused by
these bacteria to be more fatal and hazardous. Therefore, these mutated bacteria when transmit in
children and senior adults, who tend to be weaker, then these bacteria are found to be more
hazardous due to their immunity for antibiotic treatments. The study conducted in this respect
consisted on 100 samples of water in which ground, filtered tap-water and boiled water was used
as a source. The results of the study proved the presence of bacteria in all the water samples. The
API method was used to find the presence of bacteria which were proven to be resistant to 15
antibiotic-treatments. The boiled water had the least count of Klabsiella-bacterium with no other
microbial traces whereas; rest of all the samples were contaminated from E-coli which was found
the highest in sample with 82 percent, and presence of S-Aureus and Aerugenosa bacteria was
also found. Therefore, the study proved that the ground water was mostly contaminated with all
types of discussed microbes and the boiled water had the least count of microbes. In order to
eradicate the negative effects of water, it was highly suggested to utilize boiling water for
drinking purpose.
The contaminated water has become a great threat for the population of
Pakistan due to its share in the spreading of harmful diseases. Water shortages in some areas
have caused the people to rely on ground water more than surface water. However, the presence
of chlorine in surface water becomes useless when the water is crossed over with sewerage water
during the water distribution process. The increasing demand of water in densely populated cities
indicates the mismanagement of water and the people are deprived from the basic necessity of
water from the life. The study conducted by Azizzullah et al. (2011) emphasized on the negative
effects of contagious water with respect to the health hazards. The surface water becomes
contaminated due to the untreated discharge of industrial and human waste which ultimately
29
effects the ground water due to the internal flow of water. The existence of coliforms in ground
and surface water indicates the crossover of freshwater with human waste which has proven to
be highly contagious for human life and further leads towards the hazardous diseases. The water
becomes more contagious than it is found in water reservoirs when it reaches consumer-taps for
consumption that proves the underground leakage and interaction of sewerage and freshwater
lines. The diseases caused by the drinking of water which is found to be contaminated by the
microbes, which mainly consists of cholera, diarrhea and gastrointestinal sickness etc. and these
diseases are proven fatal specially in children and old age people due to their lack of immunity.
The heavy metals in water also makes in contagious for domestic and drinking use which mainly
consists of zinc, lead, iron, cadmium and manganese and, their quantity found in water is proven
extensively higher than the standardized limits and causes heart and neurological diseases. The
presence of chromium, nickel, arsenic and mercury has found to be hazardous and causes fatal
diseases like cancer. Moreover, the presence of calcium, potassium and sodium cat ions and
anions have worsened the situation has made water unpurified and undrinkable. The occurrence
of Hepatitis-E is also followed by the contamination of water caused by the human wastages.
Furthermore, the application of pesticides has also resulted in the occurrence of pesticides in
ground and surface water due to the underwater molecules interaction and flow of water. The
study has further provided the measures to eradicate the harmful effects of water by suggesting
that people should be provided with health measures and permanent source of water is needed to
be managed properly by the concerned authorities. The concerned authorities should increase the
awareness programs with respect to the drinking of contaminated water so that the usage of
contaminated water can be reduced.
2.5
Summary
30
The underwater interaction of ground and surface water is useful to make the
underground reservoirs available for water during the scarcity of surface water but, the
Figure 11 Sources of Water contamination
transmission of microorganism that tend to be harmful for human life, have considerably
impacted
on
Source: Precision Nutrition
the adverse effects
on the utilization of ground water and has raised questions for the preventive measures against
the contamination of water. The presence of fecal bacteria has indicated the cross-over or breakthrough of sewerage water in the fresh water with the occurrence of coliforms in it. The
coliforms are usually the part of human and animal wastage and are particularly found in the
intestinal-tract of animals. These coliforms are secreted as human-wastage and when it is mixed
with drinkable water, it not only causes impurity the drinking water, but also causes harmful
effects on the human life. The accessibility of clean water for drinking and domestic seem to be
entirely impossible to the large amount of population. The pure water has become inaccessible
not because of its scarcity but, due to its contamination. Every year, more than 40% die in
Pakistan due to various waterborne diseases like diarrhea, cholera, typhoid etc. and the
concerning authorities are not taking sufficient preventive measure to eradicate or even reduce its
extreme effects.
31
Chapter 3: Research Methodology

3.1
Introduction
This chapter consists of the strategies that are used in this study in order to conduct the
study for the assessment of water quality that is available in the towns of Karachi. The
hypotheses are formed with respect to the aim of the study and methods are discussed which will
be used to assess the water quality with respect to the Microbial Contamination, PH, Water
Turbidity and Total-Dissolved-Solids.
3.2
Research Strategy and Procedure

In this study, water samples for ground and surface water were collected from the
different locations of Karachi comprising from Baldia Town to Site Town, covering 18 towns and
the sample consisted surface water and 3 samples consisted ground water. The total of 54
samples was collected in total. The collection of sample took place from the month of November
2014 to January 2015. Moreover, 6 towns were covered every month in order to collect sample.
For the identification of water resources, coordinates from GPS were observed and labeled the
samples respectively. These samples were kept at under the controlled temperature of 3 o C in
order to keep the microbes from growth.
3.3
Hypothesis of the Study

HO1: Ground and Surface water is not contaminated with hazardous microorganisms.
H1: Ground and Surface water is contaminated with hazardous organisms.
HO2: Ground and Surface water does not contain excessive Turbidity.
32
H2: Ground and Surface water contains excessive Turbidity

HO3: Ground and Surface water does not contain inappropriate pH.
H3: Ground and Surface water contains inappropriate pH.
H04: Ground and Surface water does not contain excessive TDS.
H4: Ground and Surface water contains excessive TDS.
3.4
Research Methods
3.4.1 Multiple-Tube-Fermentation (MTF)
The presence of the microbial population is indicated by the MTF-Technique process.
This procedure consists of the following steps.
Presumptive Test
The distilled water was mixed with the Lactose-Broth, which was weighed 13 grams and
when it was mixed with distilled water, 100 ml of the mixed solution was prepared with
gentle shake. This MacConkey-Solution was inserted in test-tubes, which were known as
Durham-tubes. It was made sure that while the pouring of solution there was not
appearance of air bubbles. These test tubes were further sterilized at 120 0 Centigrade and
the pressurized controlled environment of 15 lb was provided by using the autoclave.
After 15 minutes of controlled environment provision, the solution provided with room
temperature to be cooled down. Afterwards, 1 ml of water from each sample was inserted
in each test tube. These samples were further incubated for 1 day. The production of acid
was observed due to the observable transformation of colors. The observance for gas
production was also considered to be formed as bubbles. The production of gas and acids
occurred in tests tubes proved the positive results of the tests.
33
Confirmed Test
In this step, the EMB-Agar is used and the quantity utilized is 3.75 grams and afterwards,
dissolved in distilled water. The mixture of EMB-Agar and distilled water is mixed and
the total volume of the solution is obtained as 200 ml. The solution is further sterilized at
the temperature of 121 0 Centigrade under the controlled environment pressure of 15 lb.,
the procedure of sterilization took place in autoclave for the time period of 15 minutes.
After the process of sterilization, the solution was poured on petriplates which were also
sterilized. The solution was left to solidify at the room temperature. The solution results
with positive results were obtained from the presumptive test was spread over the
petriplates and was further incubated for the time period of 24 hours. The occurrence of
green and pink colored metallic-sheen was found. These findings were isolated by
pouring the AMB-Agar which showed the formation of pink and green colored colonies.
3.4.2 pH
The pH for the water samples was observed with the use of pH-meter (Milwaukee).
Buffer solution was added in the pH-meter in order for the calibration. The water sample
to be analyzed was added in the beaker and afterwards, electrode was immersed in the
beaker. The procedure persisted till the reading of the pH became stable. The repetitive
process took place in order to assess the pH of all the collected samples.
3.4.3 Turbidity
The turbidity of the water samples were measured by the Nephelometer which was
calibrated with the standardized water solution having the turbidity level of 0.1. The
34
water sample to be analyzed was poured in the equipment and the readings were recorded
respectively and the process was repeated for each sample of water.
3.4.4 TDS
The assessment of the total-dissolved-solids in water was accompanied by the
conductivity meter. The equipment was conducted with the calibrated-solution of distilled
water. The sample water was inserted in the beaker and the electrode was mounted till the
reading was observed to be stable. The process was repeated to get the TDS values for
each sample.
3.5
Data Collection Procedure

The current study has been emphasized with the data collected from the primary sources
and data that are obtained from secondary sources in order to get the better insights and results
about the study.
3.5.1 Primary Research

The primary data for the study was obtained in the form of water samples from Baldia
Town to Site Town, comprising of 18 towns in total. The sample from each town
consisted of 3 samples of ground and 3 samples of surface water that were collected
during the months of November 2014 to January 2015. The collected samples were
observed by using the Multiple-Tube-Fermentation process, gram staining and electric
equipment were used to get the respective readings.
35
3.5.2 Secondary Research

In this study, the literature for the review was obtained from the secondary sources
consisting of articles and journals which were specifically acquired from the reliable
sources like JSTOR, SAGEPUB, EMERALD, UNESCO & WHO-PAKISTAN.
3.6
Summary
The water samples have been collected from the ground and surface sources from the 18
towns of Karachi in order to assess the overall water quality that has been available locally. The
water samples were analyzed by using the Multiple-Tube-Fermentation Procedure in order to
identify the presence of hazardous microbes. Moreover, the pH of the water samples were
observed by using the pH meter, turbidity was assessed by using the Nephelometer whereas, the
TDS of water was analyzed by using the Conductivity-Meter. The secondary data that has been
used in this study was collected from the reliable sources i.e. JSTOR & Emerald etc.
36
Chapter 4: Results
4.1
Introduction
In the current study, the proposed hypotheses were analyzed with respect to the data
obtained from the analysis of water samples that were collected from the towns of Karachi. The
results were obtained in order to analyze if the water that is available in Karachi in the form of
ground and surface water is in accordance with the WHO standards of drinking purposes. In this
chapter, the results obtained from the study are presented in order to found their recognition with
the proposed hypotheses. The results of the hypothesis are discussed with respect to the finding
observed from the analysis of ground and surface water samples from the towns of Karachi.
Moreover, the results are also presented graphically in order to describe the extent of the results.
4.2
Results and Interpretation

4.2.1 Microbiological Water Contamination
The results obtained from ground water samples by using the Multiple-Tube-
Fermentation Technique indicated the presence of Coliforms. By using the MPN technique, it
was observed that all the water samples obtained from the towns of Karachi contained the
presence of E-Coli and the highest value of E-coli was observed in Malir Town with the mean
MPN result of 32.3 whereas, the lowest value of E-coli was observed in Gulberg Town with the
mean MPN result of 4.3. According to the WHO standards, the MPN of E-coli should not exceed
more than 3 in the drinking water, which ultimately makes the ground water of Karachi
37
contaminated with E-coli. The mean MPN results for the occurrence of E-coli in the ground
water from the towns of Karachi are shown in figure 12 and Appendix 1.
Figure 12 MPN of Ground Water
The results that were obtained by the Multiple Tube Fermentation Technique from
the analysis of surface water in Karachi indicated the presence of E-coli in the water. The values
obtained from the MPN for the occurrence of E-coli indicated that the Kemari Town has the
highest value with 60.3 MPN. However, the lowest value of MPN results was observed in Gadap
Town with the MPN value of 5.6. Therefore, the surface water of Karachi is found to be
Figure 13 MPN of Surface Water
contaminated with the acceptable range of E-coli as standardized by the WHO. The MPN results
obtained from the surface water of Karachi for the occurrence of E-coli are illustrated in figure
13 and Appendix -2. Therefore the results of the study accepted the H1 i.e. ground and surface
water was contaminated with hazardous microorganism i.e. E-coli.
38
4.2.2 Water Turbidity
39
40
The samples obtained from the ground water showed that highest turbidity was found in
Malir Town with the turbidity of 17.36 NTU whereas, the lowest turbidity of 2.86 NTU was
Figure 14 Mean Turbidity of Ground Water
found in Gulberg Town. The ground water is not found to be appropriate for drinking purpose as
it contains the highest turbidity in some areas of ground water which is not found to be as per the
standards described by the WHO for drinking water. The results accepted the H 2 which indicated
that the ground water contains excessive turbidity. The detailed illustration of turbidity of ground
water is presented in figure 14.The results that were obtained from the observation of the turdbity
of the surface water in the town of Karachi indicated that the highest turbidity is found the water
of Kemari Town i.e. 28.3 NTU wheras the the lowest turbidity in the surface water was found in
the sample obtained from the Gadap Town with the 3.32 NTU. The results of the study indicated
Figure 15 Mean Turbidity of Surface Water
that some areas of the karachi contain the turbid water which is not appropriate for the drinking
purpose and hence, the H2 proposed in this study is found to be acceptable indicating the
excessive turbidity in water. The detailed illustration of the turbidity of surface water is presented
in figure 15.The detailed turbidity results are illustrated in Appendix - 3.
4.2.3 Water pH
41
Figure 16 Mean PH- Ground Water
The results observed in the study indicated that the water sample obtained from the
Jamshed Town possess the highest pH value of 6.63 whereas, the lowest pH of 5.83 was
possessed by the ground water of Lyari Town. The results inferred that the ground water
available in Karachi was not drinkable because it failed to meet the pH range of 6.5 to 8.5
according to standards described by the WHO and therefore, the results of the study accepted the
H3 indicating that the ground water in not drinkable. The mean pH for the ground water of
Karachi has been shown in figure 16 and Appendix 3.
42
The results for pH observed from the surface water in Karachi indicated that the surface
Figure 17 - Mean PH of Surface Water
water in Lyari Town contains the highest level of pH i.e. 8.06 whereas, the lowest pH value was
found in Kemari Town i.e. 6.36. The results of the study indicated that the pH results for the
surface water were moderate and the surface water was drinkable as described by the WHO
standards. The results of the study partially accepted the H 3 indicating that samples of ground
and surface water contained inappropriate pH. The detailed presentation of pH results obtained
from the ground water and surface water are shown in Figure 17 and Appendix - 3.
4.2.4 Water TDS

The total-dissolved solids in the ground water of Karachi towns were observed and the
mean results indicated that the highest TDS was found the in the Site Town with the total TDS of
Figure 18 - Mean TDS of Ground Water
1044.3 whereas, the highest TDS was found in the Lyari Town with the total TDS of 561.6. The
results for the TDS were found to be moderate for the study and indicated that the hypothesis 4,
proposed in this study has been rejected and the water is found to be drinkable as standardized by
the WHO. The TDS results observed for the ground water of Karachi are shown in Figure 18.
43
The total-dissolved-solids found in the surface water of Karachi were found to be highest
in the water samples obtained from the Shah Faisal Town i.e. 758 whereas, the lowest TDS
results were found from the water samples obtained from the Baldia Town i.e. 564.3. The overall
results of the study indicated that the water is found to be appropriate for the drinking purpose
Figure 19 - Mean Turbidity of Surface Water
and is found to be
in accordance with the
standards
described by the WHO.
Therefore,
the
hypothesis
4,
which was proposed in
study
and
proved that the water is
found
to
be
drinkable and does not
contain
excessive
this
study
amount
rejected
of
the
total
dissolved solids. The detailed results of the total-dissolved-solids found in the surface water are
illustrated in Figure 19. The detailed results of TDS are illustrated in Appendix 3.
4.2.4 MPN and Turbidity
44
Relation between MPN and Turbidity of Ground Water

5
4
M 3
P 2
N
1
0
16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34
Turbidity
The results of the study indicated that

with the increase in the turbidity of water, the MPN contamination of microorganisms increased
in the surface and ground water. However, the turbidity of water indicates that the water is not
drinkable and contains hazardous microorganisms like E-coli. The excessive turbidity is found in
45
the ground water of Malir Town i.e. 17.36 with the MPN count of 32.3 which indicate that the
higher the turbidity is found, the greater the MPN of E-coli exists. The lowest turbidity of ground
water was observed in Gulberg Town with 2.86 MNU with the MPN of 4.3, which has proved
Figure 20 Relation Between MPN and
Turbidity of Ground Water
that with turbidity the presence of E-coli in water has decreased. The turbidity and MPN trend of
ground water is illustrated in Figure 20.
Moreover, the trend of surface water has also remained the same with the increased level
of turbidity i.e. 28.3 MNU in Kemari Town with the mean MPN of 60.3, whereas the lowest
turbidity of 3.32 in Gadap Town has shown the MPN of 5.6. The trend of MPN and turbidity of
surface water is shown in figure 21.
Figure 21 Relation Between MpN and

Turbidity of Surface Water
Relation between MPN and Turbidity of Surface Water

80
60
M 40
P
N 20
0
0
10
15
20
25
30
Turbidity
46
4.3
Summary
The overall results of the study indicate that the water available in Karachi in the form of ground
and surface water is highly contaminated with E-coli and the occurrence of E-coli has made the
water turbid. The pH of ground water is not in accordance with the drinking standards whereas
the surface water has the acceptable ph. There exists no excessive TDS in the ground and surface
water. The results of the study provided the evidence about the water quality and proved that the
water quality is not up to the standard water quality. The detailed results for the MPN of ground
water and surface water are illustrated in Appendix 1 and Appendix 2 respectively, whereas
the turbidity, TDS and PH results are illustrated in Appendix 3.
47
Chapter 5: Conclusion and Discussion

5.1
Introduction
This chapter is intended to provide the brief discussion about the results generated from
this study and to provide conclusion to the findings of this study. This chapter is also aimed to
provide the practical implications to take the necessary steps to eradicate the problem that has
been addressed in the city. Furthermore, future direction for research and limitations are also
discussed so that the gaps that came across in this study can be addressed in future.
5.2
Discussion
The wide-spread availability of contaminated water has imposed harmful threats to the
healthcare of population. The treatment of surface water in terms of filtration and chlorination
has failed to provide the standardized water for the drinking purpose (Hashmi et al, 2009).
Microbial contamination of water has imposed hazardous effects on the living whereas; the
quality water does not seem to be provided to the people, and that has resulted in the rise and
increase of waterborne diseases. The waterborne diseases effect at the fatal level to the old age
people and infants, therefore, it is required that the water should be treated properly in order to
eradicate its harmful effects on people. According to Hussain el a, (2007), the healthcare
facilities available in the city are not adequate enough to address the increasingly and widespread diseases with respect to the alarmingly high availability of contaminated water.
The current study strived to observe the water available in the towns of Karachi as the
ground and surface water resource and the results of the study indicated the alarming results that
48
are ultimately considered to be the threat for those who utilize this water. The water that has been
available locally in the towns of Karachi is highly contaminated with hazardous microbes like Ecoli which possess harmful effects on the population by which this water has been utilized for
drinking purposes. The consumption of contaminated water in which microbes like E-coli are
present then its consumption in domestic purposes paves way for the wide spread of bacterial
diseases like diarrhea, gastro-intestinal diseases, typhoid and dysentery, which also proves to be
fatal for the senior-adults and infants due to their lack of immune system(Chan et al, 2007). The
diseases caused by the microorganisms have effected the healthcare issues in the city and have
widely spread due to its continuous consumption. The diseases prove to be fatal when these
microorganisms generate resistance towards the antibiotic treatments due to their continuous
mutation in the favorable environment i.e. stagnant and contagious water, and thus these diseases
become hard to be eradicated from the society due to the scarcity of healthcare resources (Amin,
2014). The discharge of human waste and chemical water in the surface water without any
treatment has made the surface water more contaminated and the underground flow and
interchange of water has polluted the ground water as well. The surface water provided to the
populated areas through the distribution pipes is chlorinated and filtered but the ground water
available domestically is used without any treatment which has questioned the drinking water
quality of the ground water.
The present study indicates the presence of E-coli at alarming rate in the ground and
surface water of Karachi, whereas the increased level of turbidity in relation with the MPN of Ecoli has postulated the positive relation between the turbidity and microorganisms
contamination. Therefore, the areas where available water in the form of ground and surface is
found to be turbid, then it is more likely that the water possesses the harmful bacteria through
49
which the hazardous diseases can spread among those who utilize this water. The towns in which
turbidity and microbial contamination is found to be at the higher rate comprises of Malir Town,
Orangi Town, Sadar Town, Korangi Town and Lyari Town. Moreover, the pH results of the
ground water have been found at the alarming rate in almost all the areas which imposes
distressing problems for those who utilize this water. The utilization of water that is not in
accordance with the acceptable range of pH causes various skin irritation and eye irritation
problems which may leads towards the hazardous diseases like cancer etc. However, the pH of
surface water of Karachi is found to be in the acceptable range of the water standards and does
not impose the harmful effects on the people. The domestic use of water that possess excessive
level of total-dissolved-solids leads also leads towards the malnutrition of minerals and
misbalance the level of minerals in the body and the excessive utilization of these minerals
results into the harmful diseases. The results of the study did not find any observable proof with
respect to the increased total-dissolved-solids in the available drinking water in the form on
ground and surface water sources and hence, there exists no hazard or warning related to the
exposure of excessive TDS in water. The unsatisfactory quality of water observed in this study
demonstrates the alarming condition of available water and health hazards generated by it. The
procedures and policies that are being applied by the concerned authorities do not seem adequate
enough to address the current drinking water quality in Karachi. Moreover, the role of concerned
authorities who are responsible for the availability of safe water in the city has become
questionable and their incompetency in providing the safe water has become diminished.
5.3
Conclusion
The available water to the population of various towns in Karachi was observed and
samples were collected from the available sources of ground and surface water from the 18
50
towns of Karachi. The MTF procedure was conducted to analyze if water is contaminated with
harmful microbes and the results indicated the presence of E-coli bacteria and the MPN results
further indicated that the ground and surface water available in Karachi for domestic purposes is
highly contaminated with E-coli. Furthermore, the pH results for the ground water was also
alarming and inferred that the ground water in Karachi is not according to the standards of
drinking purpose, however, the pH level of surface water was found to be satisfying. Moreover,
the turbidity results of the ground and surface water was alarming and the turbidity of water
proved its relation with the occurrence of E-coli in ground and surface water. The TDS results
obtained from the water samples of ground and surface water sources did not provide any
alarming results. Therefore, the overall results of the study indicated the alarmingly high
contamination of ground and surface water with E-coli and proved excessive turbidity under the
occurrence of E-coli and indicated that the water available in Karachi in the form of ground and
surface water is not drinkable and the measures taken by the concerned authorities for the
provision of water to the city are inappropriate and questionable.
5.4
Practical Implications
The consideration by the findings of the current study provides the following practical
implications to eradicate the water contamination from the water sources i.e. ground and surface:
1. The continuous monitoring of surface water is required by the concerned authorities
i.e. Government and water distribution organizations to make sure that the water that
is being filtered and chlorinated is provided to the end-consumers in the same pure
form.
51
2. The government and concerned authorities should analyze the ground water that is
available locally in order to provide people with the proper knowledge about the
water that they are consuming so that these people can stop using this water for
drinking purpose.
3. The concerned authorities should re-install and fix the broken sewerage and water
distribution pipes so that the interchange of water contamination can be reduced.
4. The government and concerned authorities should make sure that there exists
appropriate distance between the pipelines of sewerage and water distribution system
so that the water contamination occurred due to the breakage and leakage of these
pipes can be reduced and controlled.
5. The waste water or black water should be treated properly before its discharge in the
sea and river to reduce the microbial contamination of water.
6. The concerned authorities should provide people with the appropriate knowledge of
contaminated drinking water and its harmful effects to eradicate its utilization.
7. The campaigns should be organized in order to provide people with safety measure in
order to treat the water before domestic use so that the harmful effects of water
contamination should be reduced.
8. The provision of safe drinking water should take place to the local communities and
colonies at a reasonable cost so that its availability should be increased to the people.
5.5
Limitation and Future Research
52
The current study strived to observe the water from the towns of Karachi in order to
analyze the overall water quality that is available to the people locally. However, the current
study targeted only one city i.e. Karachi and did not attempt to analyze the water quality from
any other city. The current study has emphasized on the current water quality and the threats it
may impose on the public health however, the future study can enlighten the rate of waterborne
diseases with respected to the utilization of contaminated water in specific areas.
53
REFERENCES
Ahmed, T. Kanwal, R. Tahir, S. S. & Rauf, N. (2004). Bacteriological analysis of water collected
from different dams of rawalpindi / islamabad region of Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of
Biological Sciences, 7(5), pp. 662-666.
Ali, J. Hussain, A. Abid, H. & Rahman, Z., (2011). Biological quality assessment of drinking
water from Khyber agency and its impacts on public health. Pakistan Journal of
Biochemistry, Mol, Biology, 44(2), pp. 73-73.
Amin, S., (2014). Prevalance of bacteria in drinking water in karachi and their antimicrobial
susceptibility. J Dow Uni Health Science, 8(2), pp. 49-53.
Anwar, M. S. Chaudhry, N.A. Tayyab, M. (1999) Bacteriological quality of drinking water in
Punjab: evaluation of H2S strip test. J Pak Med Assoc, 49(10), pp. 237 - 241.
Anwar, M.S. Chaudhry, N.A. Tayyib, M. (2004). Qualitative assessment of bacteriological
quality and chlorination status of drinking water in Lahore. J Coll Physicians Surg Pak,
14(3), pp. 157 - 160.
Assadullah, K. Nisa, K. & Khan, S. I., (2013). Physico-chemical properties of drinking water
available in educational institutes of Karachi city. Food and Marine Resources Research
Centre, 32(1), pp. 28-33.
Azizullah, A. Khattak, M. N. K. Richter, P. & Hder, D. P., (2011). Water pollution in Pakistan
and its impact on public healtha review. Environment International, 37(2), pp. 479497.
54
Aziz, J. A. (2005). Management of source and drinking-water quality in Pakistan. East Mediterr
Health J, 11, pp. 1087 - 1098.
Bhutta, M. N. Chaudhry, M. R. & Chaudhry, A. H. (2005). Groundwater quality and availability
in Pakistan. In Proceedings of the seminar on strategies to address the present and future
water quality issues.
Chan, C.L. M.K. Zalifah & A.S. Norrakiah. (2007). Microbiological and physicochemical quality
of drinking water. Malaysian Journal of Analytical Sciences, 11(2), pp 414-420.
Clark, W. C. (1991). Managing Planet Earth. Netherlands. Springer.
Clarke, R. (2013). Water: The International Crisis. Routledge.
Farid, S. Baloch, M. K. & Ahmad, S. A. (2012). Water pollution: Major issue in urban areas. Int.
J. Water Res. Environ. Eng, 4(3), pp. 55-65.
Farooq, S. Hashmi, I. Qazi, I. A. Qaiser, S. & Rasheed., (2008). Monitoring of coliforms and
chlorine residual in water distribution network of rawalpindi, Pakistan. Environ Monit
Assess, 140(1-3), pp. 339-347.
Haydar, S. Arshad, M., & Aziz, J. A. (2009). Evaluation of drinking water quality in urban areas
of Pakistan: a case study of southern Lahore. Pak. J. Engg. & Appl. Sci,(5), pp. 16-23.
Hammer, M. J. (1986). Water and wastewater technology. New York, USA: John Wiley Inc.
Hashmi, I. Farooq, S. & Qaiser, S. (2009). Chlorination and water quality monitoring within a
public drinking water supply in Rawalpindi Cantt (Westridge and Tench) area, Pakistan.
Environmental monitoring and assessment, 158(1-4), pp. 393-403.
Hinrichsen, D. & Tacio, H., (2002). The Coming Freshwater Crisis is Already Here. Finding the
Source: The Linkages Between Population and Water. Washington. DC: ESCP
Publication, Spring.
55
Howard, G. & Bartram, J., (2003). Domestic water quantity, service level, and health. Geneva:
World Health Organization.
Hussain, M. Rasool, S. A. Khan, M. T. & Wajid, A. (2007). Enterococci vs coliforms as a
possible fecal contamination indicator: baseline data for Karachi. Pakistan journal of
pharmaceutical sciences, 20(2), pp. 107-111.
Ilyas, M Gilani, A. H. & Bhatty, N., (2008). Physical, aesthetic and microbiological analysis of
drinking water for school children. Pakistan Journal of Science, 60(1-2), pp. 1-2), pp.
31-36.
Ilyas, A. & Sarwar, T. (2003). Study of trace elements water in the vicinity of palosi drain,
Peshawar. Pakistan Journal of Biological Sciences, 6(1).pp. 86-91.
Kahlown, M. A. & Majeed, A. (2003). Water-resources situation in Pakistan: challenges and
future strategies. Water Resources in the South: Present Scenario and Future Prospects,
20, pp. 21-39
Khan, S. Shahnaz, M. Jehan, N. Rehman, S. Shah, M. T. & Din, I. (2013). Drinking water quality
and human health risk in Charsadda district, Pakistan. Journal of Cleaner Production, 60,
pp. 93-101.
Khattak, M. I. & Khattak, M. I., (2013). Ground water analysis of Karachi with reference to
adverse effect on human health and its comparison with other cities of Pakistan. Journal
of Environemental Science and Water Resources, 2(11), pp. 410-418.
Khatoon, A. & Pirzada, Z. A., (2010). Bacteriological quality of bottled water brands in karachi,
Pakistan. Biologia Pakistan, 56(1&2), pp. 137-143.
56
Laghari, A. Chandio, S. N. Khuhawar, M. Y. Jahangir, T. M. & Laghari, S. M. (2004). Effect of

wastewater on the quality of ground water from southern parts of Hyderabad city. J Biol
Sci, 4, pp. 314-316.
Lamka, K. G. LeChevallier, M. W. & Seidler, R. J. (1980). Bacterial contamination of drinking
water supplies in a modern rural neighborhood. Applied and environmental
microbiology, 39(4), pp. 734-738.
Langah, A. A. Khan, K. M. Haque, Q. Perveen, S. & Zia-Ullah. (2008). Physical and
bacteriological analyses of drinking water of Korangi, Landhi and Malir towns of
Karachi, Pakistan. Journal of the Chemical Society of Pakistan, 30(2), pp. 315-322.
Mahmood, S. & Maqbool, A. (2006). Impacts of wastewater irrigation on water quality and on
the health of local community in Faisalabad [Pakistan]. Pakistan Journal of Water
Resources.10, pp. 19-22.
Mumtaz, M. W. Adnan, A. Mukhtar, H. Nawaz, K. Raza, A. & Ahmad, Z. (2011). Estimation of
bacteriological levels in surface water samples to evaluate their contamination profile.
Environmental monitoring and assessment, 172(1-4), pp. 581-587.
Nasreen, S. & Awan, I. A. (1995). Pollution due to effluents from tanneries/leather industries in
NWFP. Pakistan Journal Of Scientific And Industrial Research, 38, pp. 215-219.
Pirzada, T. Talpur, M. M. A. Rajper, A. D. Shah, M. R. & Naseem, S., (2011). Quality assessment
of potable water of khairpur city. J Chem Soc Pak, 33(4), pp. 604-611.
Rahman, A. Lee, H. K. & Khan, M. A. (1997). Domestic water contamination in rapidly growing
megacities of Asia: Case of Karachi, Pakistan. Environmental Monitoring and
Assessment, 44(1-3), pp. 339-360.
57
Khan, S. U. & Bangash, F. K. (2001). Drinking water quality forecast of Peshawar valley on the
basis of sample data. Journal-Chemical Society of Pakistan, 23(4), pp. 243-251.
Sarwar, G. Khan, J. Iqbal, R. Afridi, A. K. Khan, A. & Sarwar, R. (2011). Bacteriological
analysis of drinking water from urban and peri-urban areas of Peshawar. Journal of
Postgraduate Medical Institute (Peshawar-Pakistan), 18(1), pp. 64-69.
Shaikh, S. A. Gul, N. & Sultana, L. (2008). Surveillance of drinking water of Karachi City:
microbiological quality, (51), pp. 272275.
Shar, H. A, Kazi, Y. F. Kanhar, N. A. Soomro, I. A. Zia, S. M. & Ghumro, P. B., (2010). Drinking
water quality in rohri city, sindh, pakistan. African Journal of Biotechnology, 9(42), pp.
7102-7107.
Shar, A.H. Kazi, Y.F. Kanhar, N.A. Soomro, I. H. (2012). Bacterial community patterns of
municipal water of Sukkur city in different seasons. Afr J Biotechnol, 11, pp. 2287-2295.
Siddiqui, A. Naseem, S. & Jalil, T., (2005). Groundwater quality assessment in and around Kalu
Khuhar, super highway, Sindh, Pakistan. Journal of Applied Sciences, 5, pp. 1260-1265.
Siddiqui, A. Sahir, K. H. & Khan, S. I., (2010). Microbiological quality of drinking water and
beverages in karachi, Pakistan. Pakistan Journal of Scientific and Industrial Research,
53(1), pp. 46-49.
Sulehria, A. Q. K. Butt, Y. M. Hussain, A. Faheem, M. Ashraf, H. Munir, T., (2011). Enumeration
of coliform bacteria in drinking water of mughalpura, Lahore. Biologia Pakistan,
57(1&2), pp. 75-80.
Tallon, P. Magajna, B. Lofranco, C. Leung, K.T. (2005). Microbial indicators of fecal
contamination in water: A current perspective. Water Air Soil Poll, 166, pp. 139-166.
58
Ullah, R. Malik, R. N. & Qadir, A., (2009). Assessment of groundwater contamination in an

industrial city, Sialkot, Pakistan. African Journal of Environmental Science and
Technology, 3(12).
UNESCO. (2003). Water for people water for life. The United Nations World Water
Development Report.
UNICEF.
(2010).
Children
in
Pakistan.
Available
at:
http://www.unicef.org/pakistan/FiNAL_DRAFT_20_Sept_Children_in_Pakistan_Super
_SitRep.pdf. [Accessed 10 February 2015].
World Health Organization. (2008). Guidelines For Drinking-Water Quality.
World Health Organization. (2012). Progress on Drinking-Water and Sanitation 2012.
Wright, J. Gundry, S. & Conroy, R. (2004). Household drinking water in developing countries: a
systematic review of microbiological contamination between source and point of use.
Tropical Medicine & International Health, 9(1), pp. 106-117.
Yassi, A. Kjellstrom, T. D. Kok, T. & Guidotti, T. (2001). Basic environmental health. Oxford
University Press. New York.
Zahoorullah, A. T. & Zai, S. (2003). Quality of drinking water in rural Peshawar. Pak J Med Res,
42, pp. 85-89.
59
APPENDIX
Appendix - 1
Microbiology of Ground Water Via [MPN]
No. of tubes giving positive reaction
0.1ml MPN index
per 100 ml
3 of 10ml
3 0f 1ml each
each
3 of
each
Ground water sample 1
11
11
11
15
11
11
75
11
14
15
TOWN
BALDIA TOWN
BIN QASIM TOWN
MALIR TOWN
NEW KARACHI TOWN
60
11
11
11
20
11
28
15
43
11
21
28
11
20
NORTH
TOWN
NAZIMABAD
ORANGI TOWN
SADDAR TOWN
LANDHI TOWN
LYARI TOWN
61
LIAQUATABAD TOWN
11
15
14
11
11
11
GULBERG TOWN
GADAP TOWN
JAMSHED TOWN
GULSHAN TOWN
KORANGI TOWN
62
KAEMARI TOWN
20
11
11
14
SHAH FAISAL TOWN
SITE TOWN
63
Appendix - 2
Microbiology of Surface Water Via [MPN]
No.of tubes giving positive reaction
3 of 10ml
3 0f 1ml each
each
3 of
each
Surface water sample 1
11
11
20
11
20
20
11
15
TOWN
0.1ml
MPN
index
per
100 ml
BALDIA TOWN
BIN QASIM TOWN
MALIR TOWN
NEW KARACHI TOWN
NORTH
TOWN
NAZIMABAD
64
14
20
11
20
11
11
20
20
11
11
11
20
GULBERG TOWN
11
ORANGI TOWN
SADDAR TOWN
LANDHI TOWN
LYARI TOWN
LIAQUATABAD TOWN
65
GADAP TOWN
11
75
11
20
11
150
20
11
11
11
JAMSHED TOWN
GULSHAN TOWN
KORANGI TOWN
KAEMARI TOWN
SHAH FAISAL TOWN
SITE TOWN
66
39
20
11
67
Appendix - 3
Physical Parameters of Ground Water
dissolved TURBIDITY
(TDS)
(ntu)
pH
Total
solids
5.9
665
6.5
683
6.7
6.1
567
3.1
789
6.6
6.3
800
8.9
6.5
678
6.5
6.6
765
6.7
5.9
900
38.6
6.2
899
6.8
6.7
400
7.7
6.3
698
8.6
6.4
989
6.4
TOWN
BALDIA TOWN
BIN QASIM TOWN
MALIR TOWN
NEW KARACHI TOWN
NORTH NAZIMABAD TOWN
68
6.8
775
6.9
5.5
680
6.4
5.7
621
3.2
5.9
590
11.6
6.3
482
6.8
6.1
620
16.4
567
8.6
6.5
498
22.3
650
3.7
5.8
787
2.4
6.5
832
6.9
6.1
659
12.7
5.5
789
17.5
5.9
567
6.3
6.1
329
11.2
6.6
450
5.9
5.8
567
4.1
6.5
790
8.6
ORANGI TOWN
SADDAR TOWN
LANDHI TOWN
LYARI TOWN
LIAQUATABAD TOWN
GULBERG TOWN
69
469
2.1
693
3.6
5.9
797
2.9
5.7
567
7.7
687
2.8
6.1
645
3.6
6.5
412
3.7
6.4
690
6.1
6.1
843
3.9
6.3
670
3.2
6.5
599
6.1
6.4
696
3.6
6.5
780
6.5
723
3.5
6.7
855
2.2
6.3
990
11.2
781
5.8
6.1
834
GADAP TOWN
JAMSHED TOWN
GULSHAN TOWN
KORANGI TOWN
KAEMARI TOWN
70
SHAH FAISAL TOWN

6.5
671
3.1
6.4
660
6.3
6.3
724
7.9
6.4
1100
2.2
6.7
1090
3.1
6.8
943
3.6
SITE TOWN
71

Microbiology

Transféré par

Informations du document

Titre original

Copyright

Formats disponibles

Partager ce document

Partager ou intégrer le document

Options de partage

Avez-vous trouvé ce document utile ?

Ce contenu est-il inapproprié ?

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

Microbiology

Transféré par

Droits d'auteur :

Formats disponibles

To Investigate the Impact of Prevailing Microbiological

Contamination in the Ground and Surface Water

Word Count: 1000

Significance of the Study.........................................................................................14

Chapter 2: Literature Review...................................................................................................16

Microbiological Contamination of Surface and Ground Water...............................16

Turbidity and TDS of Surface and Ground Water...................................................22

Water Contamination and its Hazards.....................................................................26

Chapter 3: Research Methodology..........................................................................................32

Research Strategy and Procedure.............................................................................32

Hypothesis of the Study...........................................................................................32

Data Collection Procedure.......................................................................................35

Results and Interpretation.....................................................................................37

Microbiological Water Contamination.................................................................37

MPN and Turbidity..............................................................................................43

Chapter 5: Conclusion and Discussion....................................................................................45

Limitation and Future Research...............................................................................49

Chapter 1: Introduction to the Problem

The current study is aimed to address the following questions:

Figure 2 Theoretical Framework

Adapted from: Azizullah 2011

Significance of the Study

Microbiological contamination refers to the impurity or intoxication caused by the

Chapter 2: Literature Review

Microbiological Contamination of Surface and Ground Water

Source: Khatoon & Pirzada 2010

Figure 4 Occurrence of E-Coli in

bacteria tend to grow

Source: Sulehria et al. 2011

inferred that when mineral

at higher pace which can

cause fatal healthcare issues.

Source: Ali el al, 2011

Turbidity and TDS of Surface and Ground Water

Source: World Health Organization

Source: Life Ionizers

Source: Luminor Environment

Water Contamination and its Hazards

Source: Environment Canada

Source: Precision Nutrition

the adverse effects

Chapter 3: Research Methodology

Research Strategy and Procedure

Hypothesis of the Study

H2: Ground and Surface water contains excessive Turbidity

Data Collection Procedure

3.5.1 Primary Research

3.5.2 Secondary Research

Results and Interpretation

4.2.2 Water Turbidity

Figure 16 Mean PH- Ground Water

4.2.4 Water TDS

in accordance with the

described by the WHO.

which was proposed in

proved that the water is

drinkable and does not

4.2.4 MPN and Turbidity

Relation between MPN and Turbidity of Ground Water

The results of the study indicated that

Figure 21 Relation Between MpN and

Relation between MPN and Turbidity of Surface Water

Chapter 5: Conclusion and Discussion