Annotated Source List

(1) "Air Crash Investigation." National Geographic Channel. National Geographic, n.d. Web.
Summary
It is mandatory that all commercial airliners and private jets be equipped with a cockpit voice recorder
and flight data recorder. These two vital components for the investigation process of aircraft incidents are
known as the Black Box. The name of the two components belies the actual color of the two data
recorders. Both boxes are orange in order to help in locating them easily. The flight data recorder and the
cockpit voice recorder are equipped with Underwater Locator Beacons which help locate the position of
these essential components in case of an accident. Cockpit voice recorders record conversation amongst
the crew, and any other sounds in the cockpit. While there is normal conversation between the cockpit
crew, investigators utilize the cockpit voice recorder to work out essential sounds such as emergency
indicators and other conversations related to the incident within the cockpit. A timeline of events can be
created using this as it also records conversation between the cockpit crew and ground crew. This
component is located in the tail of an aircraft. The other part of the Black Box is the flight data recorder
which records all data of the aircraft such as altitude, angle of climb and descent, airspeed, etc. Not only
does the flight data recorder store the primary data of a flight, but it also indicates things such as
movement of flaps, fuel gauge, etc. These actions and data of an aircraft are essential in understanding
what the plane went through until the time of the incident. Both of these components are useful when it
comes to the investigation of air crashes.
Applications to Research
The flight data recorder and cockpit voice recorder (Black Box) are essential in every air incident. All the
data collected by the Black Box will serve to be useful in my research as all analytical data will be found
in the released data of these entities. Im hoping to use my knowledge of the Black box to aid in the
research of Malaysian Airlines Flight 370 (MH370) which disappeared in March of 2014 and is still an air
disaster in which the actual aircraft is still yet to be found. The NTSB and FAA are two US government
organizations that hold data on air crashes and the data that has been collected through the Black Boxes
will be vital in knowing the path of an aircraft and events that lead up to the crash. I want to know more
on how the flight data recorder and cockpit voice recorder work and work internally, and these articles are
merely explanations for the basics of the Black Box.

(2) "Air Florida, Inc., Boeing 737-222, N62AF, Collision with 14th Street Bridge." NTSB
Investigations. N.p., n.d. Web.
(3) "01/13/82 Air Florida, Inc." FAA Library (2005): 1-141. Official Accident Report. Federal Aviation
Administration. Web.
Summary
A Boeing 737-222 that had taken off from Washington National Airport, Washington D.C. crashed after
takeoff into the northbound span of 14th Street bridge which connected D.C. with Arlington County,
Virginia. On January 13th, 1982, Air Florida Flight 90 had a scheduled arrival at Fort Lauderdale Airport
in Florida and was cleared for takeoff from Runway 36 at DCA. At 1601 e.s.t, the aircraft had plunged
into the Potomac River and the crash site was determined to have been 0.75 nmi from the departure end of
Runway 36. As mentioned, the first officer was flying the plane and was said to be well rested, and very
aware of his flight status and environment. 74 passenger were aboard Air Florida Flight 90 and the crew
consisted of 5 members. 1 crew member and 4 passengers survived the crash, and 4 motorists were killed
on the bridge.
The National Weather Service in D.C. indicated wind at 130 at 10 knots, visibility reduced by - 1
mile, moderate snow, and a chance of light freezing rain and ice pellets. There was a 1 hr. 45 min. delay
due to moderate snow which was anticipated by the NWS and DCA authorities.
There were no issues reported with navigational aids, and communication between the cockpit crew and
ATC. After reviewing and examining the plane, the voice data recorder, the flight data recorder, ground
staff procedures, and crew procedures, the NTSB determined that the cause of the accident was Flight
90s crews failure to the engines ice protection systems during ground staff maintenance of the aircraft
and takeoff, taking off with snow and ice of the airfoil surfaces, and the cockpit crews mistake of not
aborting takeoff despite the aircraft irregular instrument readings. The 737-222 was destroyed due to
impact with the bridge, water, and ice, and multiple vehicles on the bridge were destroyed due to the
heavy impact of the aircraft.

Applications to Research
The following accident report of Air Florida Flight 90 from 1982 is an incident caused by human error.
Both human error and mechanical failure are the two main ways of air crashes. Now Ill be investigating
human error in air crashes, and this is a crucial accident caused by human error; In the case of AF90, the
ground staff and crew staff were ignorant about the ice accumulated on the wings of the aircraft. Winter
season is one of the most dangerous times for travel, and airport ground crew and cockpit crews must be
aware of the weather, flight conditions, and path conditions. These will all be a major part of my study on

air crashes, and I will also refer to safety precautions that flight crew must take before taxiing, takeoff,
and landing.

(4) "Airplane Parts and Function." Parts of Airplane. NASA, n.d. Web.
Summary
Commercial, military, and private jets and aircraft all consist of 13 major body parts. The fuselage is the
main component and carries the payload. All other parts are attached of fit into the fuselage such as the
wings and tail. For flight, the wings are the reason aircraft are able to create lift, though wings also create
aerodynamic drag which allows both thrust and drag to equalize, and therefore, keeping the flight stable.
Winglets, small wing tip devices help the aircraft create drag to maintain and change speed. Underneath
the wings are the power plants, known as engines to common man. The power plants create thrust which
allows the aircraft to propel forward. Tails of aircraft contain three vital components for the movements
of an aircraft; Vertical stabilizer, Horizontal stabilizer, and Elevator. The vertical stabilizer controls the
yaw - the movement of the plane from side to side. A horizontal stabilizer controls the pitch - the updown movement of an aircraft. The elevator controls the elevation of an aircraft (Note: this has different
use than the horizontal stabilizer). On the wings, there are ailerons which allow for a roll movement of the
aircraft; roll motion can also be produced by spoilers. The spoilers of a plane also help to reduce the speed
while landing, and counteract to the flaps while on ground. And of course, there is the cockpit which
houses the flight controls and the cockpit crew - Captain, First Officer, Flight Engineer.

Applications to Research
Like the roles of the cockpit crew, it is also vital to know and understand all the exterior components of
an aircraft. These exterior components not only make up the body of the aircraft, but are also the reasons
for flight. Inputs from the cockpit crew and flight data systems control these outer components. This is
again a revision for me as I am familiar with the major components of the body of an aircraft. In each air
disaster, one of the major parts plays a crucial role in the crash and requires extensive investigation.
Knowing the exterior components will help me understand the role of the parts in terms of technical
aerodynamics and what they consist of. I want to know the interior layout of a commercial airliner so I
can map out the electrical circuitry system on board. This will not only aid me with my research, but will
also help me with my designated job at my internship which is to work with circuitry.

(5) Davies, Alex. "Black Boxes Are Incredible - Here's How They Work And How They Survive."
Business Insider. Business Insider, Inc, 20 Mar. 2014. Web.
Summary

According to Boeing, Black Boxes were initiated in the 1950s, and served the same role they play today.
Black boxes consist of two units - Cockpit Voice Recorder (CVR) and Flight Data Recorder (FDR). Their
use is to record cockpit voices and noises and ATC (Air Traffic Control), and flight data from taxiing to
landing and arrival at the gate. These devices are made durable enough to survive any air disaster so that
air crash investigations can use them to determine causes to aircraft incidents. The Cockpit Voice
Recorder and the Flight Data Recorder can handle the following conditions:

1. aircraft

accelerations of up to 3400 G (3400x the intensity of the Earths gravity)

2. approximately an hour in temperatures above 1,100
3. up to a month in water
The crash of Air France Flight 447 in 2009 proves the durability of the Black Boxes. After two years of
searching, the Black Boxes were found intact and in working conditions in the Atlantic Ocean. These
devices have been specifically designed to be intact and in use for after an air disaster. Both the CVR and
FDR are fitted with underwater locator beacons which emit signals that can be detected by sonar
equipment. Added security to keep them safe is that they cant be disabled by aircraft crew. The FDR has
the capacity to record and hold 25 hours of flight information, though the CVR is only capable of holding
2 hours of data.
Applications to Research
The Cockpit Voice Recorder (CVR) and the Flight Data Recorder (FDR) are very crucial for air crash
investigation teams as they hold the information vital to determine reasons for an air disaster. They allow
investigation teams to create a timeline of events that led up to the final moments. Recreating a flights
journey from start to the crash of an aircraft will not only allow for a deeper analysis of the crash, but it
will also build more knowledge on the flight crew and flight path.
Though what I actually want to know is how the Black Boxes are programmed and what theyre fitted
with in terms of circuitry. How are they so durable? How can they withstand months and years under
water without going dead? Why doesnt the Cockpit Voice Recorder have the capability of holding more
than two hours of data? The following questions need to be answered before I analyze and create
improvisations to the current Black Box designs and workings.

(6) "Challenger Disaster." History.com. A&E Television Networks, n.d. Web.

(7) "Germanwings Flight 9525 Co-pilot Andreas Lubitz Contacted Dozens of Doctors before Crash."
CBSNews. CBS Interactive, n.d. Web.

(8) Farahmand, Nahram. "Greener Aerospace with Nanotechnology." ASME Articles. The American
Society of Mechanical Engineers, n.d. Web.
Summary
Aircraft bodies are always under stress as they carry various loads such as passengers, cargo, luggage, etc.
Airliners could have their fleets inspected and repaired, but rising costs of fuel and increasing
environmental security has led to higher costs. The best way to reduce pollution by aircraft, increase
performance and still keep them safe is by utilizing nanotechnology.
Composites such as fiber-reinforced polymers have played a huge role in the aerospace industry for
aircraft bodies, wire coverings, etc. Aluminum alloys are major materials used in aircraft fuselages,
though it has recently been discovered that the arrangement of atoms is imperfect. The fuselage of an
aircraft must be strong, ergonomic, lightweight, inexpensive, and efficient. If aluminum alloy is made
defect free, itll be 100 times greater in strength in comparison to original aluminum alloy. This will allow
for less materials used to build the fuselage, therefore creating less weight. Composites are exceptionally
light and strong, though their behavior is not yet well analyzed under damage by lightning, any exposure
to ultraviolet rays, or delamination caused by out-of-plane load, impact, or moisture.

Applications to Research
Composite materials have a great role in the aerospace industry as mentioned in the summary, though
need to be researched more extensively. Air crashes are caused due to mechanical failure or pilot error,
and in the case of materials that aircraft are built out of, mechanical and infrastructural behavior/failure
comes into play. I want to know how composites factor into the structural behavior of an aircraft, and how
it impacts mathematical aspects such as takeoff weight and angle, and landing weight and angle. At the
time of impact, or sometimes on the runway, airplanes break apart easily and this is something that needs
to be prevented by researching materials that can cushion the impact. Composites mainly make up the
fuselage on an aircraft, and if the fuselage isnt well protected, then the aircraft isnt well protected
overall.

(9) "Here's Everything We Know about the Crash of Germanwings Flight 9525." Business Insider.
Business Insider, Inc, 30 Mar. 2015. Web.

(10) Harris, Tom. "How Airline Crews Work." HowStuffWorks. HowStuffWorks.com, n.d. Web.
Summary

The cockpit crew in each flight is essential for the proper functioning of an aircraft and a smooth flight.
All commercial flights have two crews - Cockpit crew and Cabin crew. The cockpit crew consists of the
captain, first officer, and flight engineer; There may be an additional backup pilot in case of an
emergency, though the entire cockpit crew is well qualified to pilot an aircraft. The cabin crew is made up
of flight attendants who cater to passengers and ensure safety.
In the cockpit crew, the hierarchy is based on seniority and experience. The captain is the pilot in
command and is responsible for all flight decisions and maintaining the flight path. Though the captain
flies the aircraft was a majority of a flight, he/she trades position with the first officer at a point. Second to
the captain is the first officer who is the second in command of the flight. Both the captain and first
officer have the same controls on each side such as rudder control. The first captain also flies the aircraft,
but is also there to provide extra input to reduce pilot error. He/she also serves as the backup pilot. Aside
from the pilot and co-pilot is the the flight engineer who monitors the flight instrument panels and
calculate figures such as takeoff and landing speed. The flight engineer is also qualified to fly the aircraft,
though usually doesnt.

Applications to Research
No matter what field of the aerospace industry one goes into, they have to understand the vital roles of a
flight crew. Its obvious that without the cockpit crew, aircraft and cant be operated. Though this
information is elementary to me, I went through it again to revise what I already knew. Throughout my
research, I want to create contact between me and former and current flight captains, first officers, and
flight engineers to understand the cockpit, how the cockpit is configured, and what all the controls are.
This will improve my knowledge on what safety equipment, standards, and precautions have been set in
the cockpit such as emergency light for in-flight fires.

(11) Smith, Patrick. "How A Tiny Island Runway Became The Site Of The Deadliest Plane Crash
Ever." Business Insider Transportation. Business Insider, 27 Mar. 2014. Web.
(12) Ltticke, Marcus. "How Does a Black Box Work?" DW.COM. N.p., 23 Mar. 2015. Web.
(13) Kira. "India's National Aerospace Laboratories 3D Prints Prototypes of Aerospace Parts."
3ders.org. National Aerospace Laboratories, n.d. Web.

Summary
3D printing has become a major technological advancement in the past few years, and recently, the
aerospace industry has started using 3D printing technology to create aircraft prototypes. The National
Aerospace Laboratories, Indias second largest aerospace firm has started developing defense aircraft and
component prototypes in 3D printers. As a result of the great scope of 3D printing applications in the
aerospace industry, 3D printing businesses such as J Group Robotics were given the opportunity to
collaborate with the National Aerospace Laboratories. The National Aerospace Laboratories was
established in 1959 by the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research. NAL is the second largest firm
in the aerospace industry in India. Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL) is the premier aerospace firm
in India. Companies such as Airbus and Autodesk have teamed up to create 3D printed aircraft parts.
Autodesks Computer-Aided Design (CAD) software will allow its clients such as Airbus to build
graphical versions of aircraft parts and aircraft on an X-Y-Z coordinate system and print them out in
moulds of different materials. 3D printing in the aerospace industry is set to lower costs of production,
lower costs of airfares, and make aircraft manufacturing easier.

Applications to Research
The technological innovation of 3D printing has made it easier for students to learn, and companies to
create prototypes and actual products and product components. This is a new endeavour in the aerospace
industry as aircraft are usually built using massive machinery and hours of human labour. Companies
such as the National Aerospace Laboratories and Hindustan Aeronautics have started creating 3D parts of
aircraft such as the landing gear and pitot tubes to see if they are able to upscale these to lifesize models.
For my research, 3D printers would be very beneficials as I will be able to print prototypes of air disaster
prevention systems. The main one Im focusing on, which is researching how Black Boxes can be
powered using underwater bacteria is a good example. A model Black Box can be printed and can be
configured with wiring to model and actual Black Box. Underwater bacteria can be tested inside the
machine to see what can be changed in the structure of the bacteria and the Black Box so that
Bioengineering can combine with Aerospace Engineering to create a potential clash in the engineering
field, and revolutionize the engineering field.
(14)Houston, Sarina. "Inside the Aircraft Accident Investigation Process." About.com Money.
About.com, n.d. Web. 14 Jan. 2016.
(15) "The Investigative Process." NTSB Investigations. National Transportation Security Board, n.d.
Web.
Summary

In 1967, the US Federal government initiated the National Transportation Security Board to investigate
civil aviation accidents and accidents involving all other modes of transportation. They are a separate
entity, independent of the Federal Aviation Administration, Department of Transportation, and all other
transportation organizations. NTSBs investigation process includes a Go Team which quickly
assembles at a crash site and initiates investigation. The Go Team also establishes a team of technical
expertise to aide in the investigation process. Other parties such as members of the FAA or ICAO are
summoned upon by the NTSB for further insights. After the investigation and report are completed, the
NTSB creates a list of safety recommendations. This is followed by a public hearing which leads to more
investigations, tests, and analysis. The final draft is created, approved, released, and stored in the NTSB
database.

Applications to Research
The NTSB is the premier organization in the US which deals with air crashes, both civil and military.
They are involved in domestic and international air disasters and provide vital information about motor
vehicle disasters. Since Ill be researching the causes of air disasters, the NTSB will provide me with final
reports of previous air disasters such as that of US Air Flight 1549 which landed in the Hudson River in
2009. All analysis on every major air disaster will be in their released online database, and Ill be able to
determine the reasons of a disaster and rebuild the events to create an outline and understand the disasters
better.

(16) "Inflight Cargo Fire, United Parcel Service Company Flight 1307, McDonnell Douglas DC-8-71F,
N748UP, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, February 7, 2006." NTSB News and Events. National
Transportation Security Board, n.d. Web.
Summary
A McDonnell Douglas DC-8-71F executed an emergency landing at its destination airport, Philadelphia
International Airport, after the cargo smoke indication went off in the cockpit. The flight had departed
from Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta International Airport and the crew were flying their second day of a 5day trip. Flight 1307s First Officer was flying at the time of the incident. The captain, first officer, and
flight engineer evacuated the plane while crewmembers sustained minor injuries. The meteorological

aerodrome report (METAR) indicated a wind 300 at 8 knots, visibility of 10sm, a clear sky, and a
temperature of -1 C. There were no issues reported with navigational aids, communication between
pilots and air traffic controllers who navigated the plane. The captain, first officer, and flight engineer
evacuated the plane while crewmembers sustained minor injuries. The flight and a majority of the cargo
was destroyed by the fire. Flight 1307s crew reported that the flight was uneventful until the descent
when the first officer asked the captain and the flight engineer if they noticed an odor that smelled like
wood burning. The flight engineer acknowledged the smell which then became stronger. Flight 1307s
engineer opened the door and mentioned that the smell was like wood burning and didnt smell like an
electrical issue. Since the odor didnt seem to be a huge threat, the captain aborted his idea of diverting to
another airport and continued on to PHL.
The captain and flight engineer went through emergency checklist steps and then they conducted the
conducted the Approach checklist when instructed to descend to 6000 ft. by the PHL Terminal Radar
Approach Control. During a descent to 3600 ft., the flight engineer conveyed the message that there was
cargo smoke. The captain went through the landing checklist and contacted the PHL approach control.
Flight 1307 was cleared a visual approach to runway 27R. They then contacted ATC who cleared them to
land on runway 27R. This is when the captain relayed the issue of the cargo smoke indicator blinking to
ATC. The controller guiding Flight 1307 contacted approach control on this issue. its showing that we
have a lower aft cargo fire section C. At this point, the captain, flight engineer, and first officer covered
their faces with oxygen masks. The flight engineer went through the Lower and/or Main Cargo
Compartment Smoke or Fire checklist.
Approach control and PHL ATC then decided to change Flight 1307 to land on Runway 27L, which was
the runway used for emergencies, but the captain had lined up the flight to land on Runway 27R and
landed on 27R. After landing, the crew was evacuated and emergency fire truck were on the runway.

Applications to Research
Cockpit crew are trained to react to any emergency indicators and inconsistencies. I would like to know
how the cockpit crews are trained to react to each emergency situation. In this case, a battery in the cargo
caused a fire, though the crew landed and escaped unscathed. Cargo aircraft are one type of aircraft
carriers, and Id like to use this report, knowledge, research on cargo aircraft to determine the restrictions
on cargo carriers. Aircrafts in general need to know what it is carrying both in the cabin and the cargo
hold. This I guess creates further research into the baggage system and how that adds to the security of
aircraft.

(17) "Inside a 'Black Box' Flight Recorder Investigation Centre - BBC News." BBC News. British

Broadcasting Corporation, n.d. Web.

(18)"KLM Flight 4805 Collision with Pan Am Flight 1736 at Tenerife." FAA Lessons Learned. Federal
Aviation Administration, n.d. Web.
Summary
On March 27, 1977, two Boeing 747s, Dutch carrier KLM Flight 4805 and Pan Am Flight 1736 collided
at Tenerife North Airport (Los Rodeos Airport) on the island of Tenerife. KLM 4805 departed from
Amsterdam Schiphol Airport on March 27, 1977, and Pan Am 1736 left Los Angeles International
Airport on March 26, 1977. Both planes were en route to Las Palmas Airport, but were rerouted to
Tenerife North Airport due to a terrorist bombing at Las Palmas. The one runway airport of Los Rodeos
had a runway length of 9843 ft which was long enough to land a massive Boeing 747. Due to the terrorist
attack at Las Palmas, all aircraft were diverted to Los Rodeos. This created massive traffic at Los Rodeos,
and taxiways and parking bays were used to park aircraft.
After hours on the tarmac at Los Rodeos, Air Traffic Control (ATC) from Las Palmas gave the signal to
Tenerife North ATC that the airport had reopened after the threat of a second bomb was mitigated.
Smaller aircraft departed from Los Rodeos first before the two Boeing 747s could be on their way to their
intended destination of Las Palmas International Airport. Due to the congested taxiways, planes had to
backtrack runway 12/30 - Aircraft had to enter runway 12/30 from the end of the track, taxi to the start of
the runway, and rotate a complete 180 to be in correct position to take off.
KLM 4805 had taken on 55,500 litres of jet fuel as they had asked ATC for a refuel which took 30
minutes. The Dutch airliner was given clearance by ATC after refuelling to taxi down the runway and
position for take-off. Pan Am 4805 was told to follow KLM and turn into Charlie 3 (taxiway #3) so they
wouldnt obstruct the runway. Due to the airports high altitude and proximity to a mountain range, thick
fog had begun to form, and the cockpit crew visibility went below suitable conditions as defined by
organizations such as the FAA, NTSB, and airliners. Pan Am was unable to see KLM 4805, and to add to
the low visibility, the runways central lighting was out of order.
Communications between KLM 4805, Pan Am 1736, and ATC was normal, but the Pan Am cockpit crew
was unsure about one command given by ATC. They were asked to turn into a taxiway, but they werent
sure if it was Charlie 3 or Charlie 4. It was almost impossible for a Boeing 747 to turn into Charlie 3 due
to the angle it would have to turn at, so the Pan Am crew decided to go further down and turn into Charlie
4 as it was a 45 angle to turn in. At that time, the KLM flight had reached the end of the runway and had
begun to turn to face takeoff position. The KLM flight was given clearance to set their frequency to Las
Palmeras Air Traffic Control, Las Palmas navigation systems, and KLMs intended flight path. The
captain who was becoming impatient started pushing down on the throttle, but was stopped by the first-

officer. This is when KLM was given navigational clearance, but wasnt given take-off clearance. Despite
not being given takeoff clearance, the KLM pilot pushed down the throttle a second time, but wasnt
stopped by the first-officer or the flight engineer. The Pan Am plane was still on the runway, turning into
Charlie 4. KLM was rolling down the runway, taking off when they realized that Pan Am was still on the
runway a few feet away. The thick fog made is so hard to see that the KLM crew and the Pan Am crew
couldnt see the other plane until they were a few hundred feet away. KLMs pilot tried to lift the plane
for takeoff, and the tail-wings scraped the tarmac. They were unable to lift the plane into the air due to the
short amount of runway distance they had covered. Thats when the belly of KLM 4805 hit the top of the
Pan Am plane. The 55,500 litres of fuel along with the impact on the Pan Am plane caused the entire
KLM flight to go up in flames, and cause the death of all 248 passengers and crew on-board. The ATC
couldnt see the runway due to the thick fog, and called emergency vehicles about 10 minutes later. It
wasnt until 20 minutes after dousing the KLM aircraft with water did the emergency crews realize that
there was another aircraft that had been hit - Pan Am Flight 1736. Pan Am had 335 deaths and 61
survivors. The causes of the massive disaster were determined to be:
-

Low visibility due to thick fog

Miscommunication between Los Rodeos Air Traffic Control and Pan Am

Air traffic congestion at Los Rodeos

Terrorist Bombing at Las Palmas

KLM pilot taking off without ATC clearance

Runway incursion

Applications to Research
The Tenerife Airport disaster of 1977 was the worst disaster in the history of the aviation industry. 583
passengers and crew from both the KLM and Pan Am perished in the accident, while there were only 61
survivors. It is necessary to understand the causes that were determined through thorough investigation by
Spains, Netherlands, and US investigation teams.
1. When there is low visibility, especially in the Tenerife Disaster where the visibility was below
suitable conditions and determined unsafe, flights should be grounded until the fog lifts. ATC at
Los Rodeos shouldve asked the KLM and Pan Am crew to disembark their passengers and
accommodate them at nearby hotels around the island.
2. ATC and flight crews should maintain proper contact and should try to prevent or eliminate
miscommunications. The Pan Am crew wasnt sure whether they were to turn into Charlie 3 or
Charlie 4. In analyzing the cockpit voice recorder and tapes from ATC, it was clear that the air
traffic controller had the Pan Am crew confused between Charlie 3 and Charlie 4. It wasnt clear

whether the air traffic controller had said and meant 3rd taxiway, or 3rd taxiway from the position
where Pan Am was when they received the command - Pan Am was passing Charlie 1 at the time
they were given the confusing command.
3. Due to the rerouting of aircraft from Las Palmas to Los Rodeos (Larger airport to smaller), the
substitute airport (Los Rodeos in this case) had its parking bays AND taxiways filled with planes
which is an unsafe practice. At the time (1977), air safety laws werent as sophisticated as they
are today. The congestion of taxiways and parking bays added to space limitations for the Pan
Am while it was taxiing on the runway.
4. The Spanish terrorist group of MPAIAC was involved in a bombing at Las Palmas Airport (Gran
Canaria). This explosion caused Gran Canaria to close down for several hours, and was closed to
commercial air traffic. Another bomb threat was released by the MPAIAC which put the airport
on high alert. This added to the time that Gran Canaria would be closed to commercial air traffic.
5. KLM 4805 took off without Los Rodeos ATC clearance which is an illegal practice. An aircraft
has to have permissions to connect to the airports navigation systems, and then get separate
clearance to take off. KLM only had permission to connect to Los Rodeos navigational system,
and took off without clearance from ATC. Aircraft crews should be patient, and should follow
outlined practices for air safety.
For every air disaster, the reasons as to why the incident occurred should be clearly understood as they are
set as precedents for future incidents. Analyzing studied disasters should help me devise safety
procedures and new air safety devices for the aerospace industry.

(19) "Malaysian Airlines Plane Crashes." Malaysia Airlines. Airsafe.com, n.d. Web.
(20) Rodriguez, Maya. "Metro State Program Teaches 3-D Printing for Space Jobs." 9News. KUSA,
n.d. Web.
(21) Chan, Wilfred. "Q&A: How Does an Air Crash Investigation Work?" CNN. Cable News Network,
9 July 2013. Web.
Summary
Air disasters are investigated by the country that the incident occurs in, and organizations from other
nations might fly in to help with the investigation. There is no set time which can be set for the

investigation process of each disasters - They can takes a few weeks, months, or even years. The National
Transportation Security Board sends out a go-team immediately after disasters occur in the US. The goteam secures the crash site and starts taking pictures and looking in and around the site for hints and the
main components for the investigation - The Cockpit Voice Recorder, and the Flight Data Recorder.
These two devices are designed and manufactured to withstand disasters. The aircrafts manufacturer is
also included in the investigative process. The NTSB speculates the cause of the disaster before initiating
the major investigation, but are usually wrong because air disasters are very intricate in investigation.
If there are any survivors on board, they will be taken to a hospital for injuries, and then will be
interviewed that can help the investigators to map out the timeline of events that led up to disaster.
Investigation teams look for pieces of the aircraft, the Black Boxes, and issues with the build of the
aircraft to add to the investigation profile.

Applications to Research
It is crucial to understand the air disaster investigative process as the timeline of the aircraft until disaster
describes everything. There are tens and hundreds of components in the investigative process and final
write-up of the investigation. For me personally, I want to become a professional air crash investigator
once I become a senior in the aerospace industry, so its better that I learn about the process, and disasters
that have occurred before stepping into the investigative field. Incidents that have left marks and are used
as precedents allow for the investigation of future disasters that went through similar events and issues.

(22) Moskvitch, Katia. "Six Ways to Avoid Losing a Plane." BBC Future. BBC, 7 Apr. 2014. Web.
Summary
After the vanishing of Malaysian Airlines Flight 370 on March 8th, 2014, aviation experts chimed in on
what could be improved or added to increase the safety of the air travel:
1. New Black Boxes: In 1939, the Black Box was invented to allow flight data to be recorded for
investigations or future reference. They have been a vital piece of equipment for decades, though
the 2014 MH370 crash and the 2009 incident of Air France Flight 447 prove that they can be hard
to find. Black Boxes and airliners could be fitted with state-of-the-art detachable beacons which
will have a higher battery life and be able to be located easily.
2. Real-Time Cockpit Broadcasting: A television channel or Youtube channel(s) could be set to
broadcast the CVR and FDR in real time to allow passengers, aviation experts, and people around
the world to follow the flight data.

3. Prevent cockpit crews from switching off: Cockpit crews of modern day aircraft have the
ability of making their aircraft invisible on the radar by switching off any on-board system. This
practice and system should be eliminated. Instead, black boxes should be fitted with devices that
transmit the aircrafts position to ground stations at all times.
4. Optical Satellite Imagery: Live views of Earths oceans could be transmitted via satellite which
would allow aircraft to be tracked in real time.
5. Aircraft-GPS Communications: The GPS coordinates of aircraft could be transmitted via
inexpensive satellite services at regular intervals.

Applications to Research
I realize that some of the ideas I have to improve air safety have already been introduced, but havent
been developed and implemented yet. At this point, I want to work with university researchers and
professionals in the field to further develop and built prototypes for my ideas such as increasing the
battery life of Black Boxes. Even if I start working with small organizations and growing airliners such as
RyanAir, Ill be able to get my research across, and make it come to life. The processes to increase safety
as defined by many including me consists of intricate research and design that requires months and years
of analysis. Ill start creating sketches of these concepts, and see where I can go with them.

(23) "Space Propulsion Systems." Space Propulsion. Airbus, n.d. Web.

Summary
Space propulsions systems are methods used to propel spacecraft, space research robots/vehicles, and
satellites in space. The following are the current space propulsion systems developed by Airbus Defense
and Space:
-

Unified Propulsion Systems: The unified space propulsion system utilizes a single common
propellant tank which is the source to both the apogee motor and the multiple thrust clusters.

Interplanetary Propulsion Systems: The IPS was first utilized in NASAs Galileo Spacecraft which
was launched in 1989 by Space Shuttle Atlantis. This works by directing space vehicles/machines
to follow the orbits of certain planets along with flybys of specific landmarks to reach its
destination.

Automated Transfer Vehicle (ATV) Propulsion Systems: The International Space Station is the
one stop for the Airbus ATV. Airbus ATV is a resupply vehicle that supplies logistics and removes
waste from the ISS.

Upper Stage Attitude and Orbital Control Systems (AOCS): The AOCS allows for both roll and
pitch of a spacecraft launcher once the solid rocket boosters are released. In general, it is used
for precise maneuvers and proper orientation of a launchers upper stage.

Re-Entry Vehicle Propulsion: As the name suggests, re-entry vehicle vehicles are utilized in
operating and guiding the entry of space systems back into the Earths atmosphere.

Electric Propulsion Systems: The electric propulsion systems operate on ion propulsion which
have increased specific impulse of propulsion rocket engines ten to twenty times more than
current liquid propellant rocket engines.

Application Research
Airbus is one of the lead producers of space and defense systems, and they provide to clients such as
Northrop Grumman and Lockheed Martin. Due to the expensive costs of research, production, and
purchase of space propulsion systems, companies such as Airbus need to invest extensive time into
developing these systems. When NASAs Space Shuttle Challenger struck disaster just a few seconds
(73 seconds) after lift-off in 1986 at Cape Canaveral, it was obvious that it was thought that the incident
was due to mechanical failure. It was then determined that the massive disaster was caused due to an oring seal. The o-ring seal on the right solid rocket booster of the Challenger had failed after lift-off. An oring is a basic seal which holds components in place. If something as small as an o-ring can cause a
massive 400,000 pound spacecraft to disintegrate, then anything can cause the crash of aircraft and
spacecraft. After the Challenger disaster, research on further development and safety of spacecraft and
space travel was conducted. While the safety of the aerospace industry has increased, its obvious that
anything could go wrong. Space propulsion systems are very delicate and any small event that goes
wrong can cause disaster. Therefore, space propulsion systems such as ion propulsion needs to be
extensively developed so that the atomic energy created doesnt create too much energy or too less
energy.
Also, space propulsion, in my view seems like a future component of aircraft that fly inside the Earths
atmosphere. Space propulsion systems could be developed to allow aircraft to fly at great speeds. This
will require more safety precautions and is a massive safety hazard, but its possible.

(24) "Telecommunications Satellites & Integrated Applications." European Space Agency, n.d. Web.

(25) "Top 10 Busiest Airports in the US." Airport Technology Features. Airport Technology,
30 Sept. 2013. Web.
Summary
The US is one of the largest countries in terms of air traffic and airports. There are around 15000
recognized airports in the US. The following are the top 10 airports in the US in terms of infrastructure,
air traffic, quality, revenue, and customer satisfaction:

1. Hartsfield-Jackson Atlanta Intl. Airport: In 2013, Atlanta Intl. had approximately 7.9 million
passengers pass through. It was named the Most Efficient Airport in the World in 2013 by Air
Transport Research Society.
2. Los Angeles Intl. Airport: LAX is one the most busiest airports in the US as it is situation in the
Hollywood area. 2013 saw 38.7 million passengers and over 350,000 aircraft movements
throughout the airport.
3. Chicago OHare Intl. Airport: OHare Intl. is the fifth busiest airport in the world with 38.23
passengers in 2013. It is the hub for many major airliners such as United Airlines and American
Airlines.
4. Dallas/Fort Worth Intl. Airport: DFW Intl. is the ninth busiest airport in the world with 35.5
million passengers in 2013. The 17, 207 acre plot consists of seven runways, and 155 aircraft
gates.
5. Denver Intl. Airport: The first half of 2013 saw over 340,000 aircraft movements at Denver Intl.
and over 35 million passengers.
6. John F. Kennedy Intl. Airport: JFK Intl., located in New York is one of the most congested and
busiest airports in the US. It is the main airport for New York with 6 terminals and 155 aircraft
parking bays.
7. San Francisco Intl. Airport: San Francisco Intl. is the seventh busiest airport in the US with two
sets of two parallel runways.
8. Charlotte Douglas Intl. Airport: Charlotte Douglas Intl. stands close to SFO with 25.3 million
passengers in 2013.
9. McCarran Intl. Airport: The first seven months of 2013 at McCarran Intl. saw 24.5 million
passengers walk through the airport.
10. Miami Intl. Airport: With 3230 acres of land, Miami Intl. saw 24.10 million passengers in 2013.
Due to it being the premier airport to Disney Florida, it sees many passengers due to tourism.

Applications to Research
Its obvious that the top ten airports are doing something different than other airports to increase and
maintain their great quality. Less accidents occur at these airports as compared to other airports in the US
such as Dallas Love Field and BWI Intl. Airport. Their hospitality, safety standards, and overall ratings
clearly show that business is meant to increase. It is vital to understand the workings of these airports and
see what they are doing right to prevent air disasters. Understand of modern airport technology will help
with determining how successful airports in the US and worldwide maintain their growing passenger and
aircraft traffic.
(26) "What Is 3D Printing? How Does 3D Printing Work?" 3D Printing. 3DPrinting.com, n.d. Web.
(27) Castella, Tom De. "Who, What, Why: How Are Cockpit Doors Locked? - BBC News." BBC News
Blogs: Magazine Monitor. BBC News, 26 Mar. 2015. Web.
Summary
The attacks of 9/11 on the Twin Towers in New York called for an increase in airport and aircraft
security, especially cockpit safety. According to the FAA, cockpit doors should be able to withstand an

explosive as big as a lethal grenade. Cockpit doors have three modes that can be switched between by the
cockpit crew - Unlock, normal, and lock. Cabin crew and cockpit crew have a unique code to enter the
cockpit. Many modern aircraft have cameras that allow the cockpit crew to see who is outside the cockpit.
To add to the safety of the cockpit, it is suggested that only the captain, first-officer, and sometimes an
aircraft engineer be inside the cockpit crew at any given time. A relief officer takes position in the
passenger cabin in case they are needed. Pilots have the ability to deny entry to anyone in the case that the
keypad to enter the cockpit goes through with the correct code. Safety has become a key player since 9/11
and will continue to improve.
Applications to Research
The cockpit is the most crucial aspect of the inside of an an aircraft (commercial, military, and private). It
is the control room of an aircraft and it is recommended that only trained and experienced crew members
take control of the aircraft. 9/11 has been a very crucial moment in changing security measures inside
aircraft and inside the airports with the Transport Security Agency being the premier security of airports
within the United States. Since hijackings are a reason for air disasters, it is necessary to comprehend the
safety measures taken by TSA and the cockpit and cabin crew to ensure the safety of
those who work in airports, and the passengers in both the airports and the aircraft.

(28) "What We Do." FAA Mission. Federal Aviation Administration, n.d. Web.
Summary
The entire aviation industry in the US is regulated by the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) - It was
founded in 1958 under The Federal Aviation Act of 1958, and is part of the Department of
Transportation. They regulate civil aviation, innovate in the aerospace field, research and operate atc (air
navigation), research and develop air systems, and carry out aviation programs. All aircraft safety and
regulations for ground crew, flight crew, and passengers are set and enforced by the FAA. US airspace is
maintained by the FAA with Air Traffic Control and navigational aids such as NDBs (non-directional
beacon) and VOR/DME. Along with aviation inside the Earths atmosphere, the FAA also regulates the
space industry. So everything related to aviation is handled by the FAA, except air crashes which are a
main priority for the NTSB.

Applications to Research
While the NTSB is the premier organization for air crashes and vehicle accidents, the FAA is the premier
organization for everything aerospace related. Without the FAA, the aviation industry in the US would be

a dormant initiative, and also without the FAA, I wouldnt be doing this research paper. The FAA holds
all statistics about the aviation industry such as number of accidents per year, flight routes, flights flown
in a year, etc. All this data can be combined to form a hypothesis and elaborate research on the
components and reasons for air disasters and investigations.