Research Design - Experimental

1. Experimental Design
An experimental design is used to test whether one variable, or factor, influences or causes a change in another variable.
Experimental designs can be conducted under strictly controlled conditions in a laboratory setting or outside the laboratory in a field setting.
In a field setting, conditions may be less strictly controlled, but a field setting has the advantage of enabling observations of a participants
behaviour in a real world environment where their behaviour occurs more naturally.
A psychology experiment is the most scientifically rigorous and controlled research method.
An experiment is the only investigation method that can be used to identify causal links between variables (i.e. A causes B)

Characteristics of an Experimental Design

In research, a variable is something that can vary (change) in amount or kind over time.
Variables
Independent Variable (I.V.) - is the variable manipulated by the researchers. (The IV is said to be the cause of any changes that
may result in the other variable of research interest.)
Dependent Variable (D.V.) - The DV is often the response(s) given by a participant(s) in an experiment and it usually has a
numerical value. It is called the dependent variable because whether or not it changes and the way in which it changes depend on the
influence of the independent variable.
Extraneous Variables

Any variable other than the I.V. that can cause a change in the D.V.

Extraneous variables need to be controlled and eliminated as much as possible if we are to have confidence that changes in the
D.V. were due to changes in the I.V. and not due to the extraneous variables.
Controlled Environment

For best control of extraneous variables, an experiment is usually conducted in a controlled environment e.g. in a laboratory.
Experimental/Treatment and Control Groups

In a simple experiment, the participants are often divided into two groups. One group of participants, called the experimental
group, is exposed to the experimental condition, where the IV is present. A second group of participants, called the control group,
is exposed to the control condition, where the IV is absent. Individual participants do not know which group they belong to, or
whether they have been exposed to the I.V. or not. In the case of experiments with medicines, the experimental group will be
given the medicine, while the control will be given a placebo.
(Placebo effect seen in medicine when a patient recovers from an illness or pain when they have been given a substance or treatment
with no therapeutic value i.e. a placebo)
Some experiments do not have both an experimental and a control group. Instead, they have one group who are exposed to both the
control condition and the experimental condition.
Disguise the purpose of the investigation: There is some deception in many psychological studies to stop participants guessing the
aims and changing their behaviour.
Single-blind design: Participants do not know which condition (experimental or control) they are in.
Double-blind design: Neither the participants nor the experimenter know which condition people are being treated to. For example, a
research assistant giving out drugs and measuring their effects does not know who has the placebo and who has the drug.
Random Assignment

Every person has the same chance of being selected to be in the experimental group or the control group.

This can be achieved by using methods such as toss of a coin, drawing names out of a hat, a lottery method or a random number
generator.

The purpose of random assignment of participants is to obtain groups that are as alike as possible in terms of participant
characteristics before introducing the IV so that the effects of the IV can be estimated. With random assignment of participants to
the experimental and control groups, researchers can conclude that if two groups think, feel or behave differently at the end of the
experiment, it very probably has something to do with the effect of the independent variable.
Hypothesis Testing

To see whether a treatment had an effect.

All research is intended to test a hypothesis (e.g. 16 to 25 year olds will get less sleep than 40 to 60 year olds) or to answer a
question (e.g. do 16 to 25 year olds sleep less hours on average than 40 to 60 year olds).
Pre-testing & Post-testing
Pre-testing is undertaken before a treatment and post-testing following the treatment in experimental tests.
*N.B.

Sometimes it is not possible to meet all the requirements/characteristics of an experiment in research. Random assignment
may not be possible if we wish to conduct research on specific groups of people within a population (e.g. on one gender, ethnic
group etc.)
Some types of investigations may not be able to be ethically conducted due to no harm policy in research (e.g. investigations
into abuse, or use of harmful substances).

Factors that influence the outcome of an experiment

An extraneous variable is a variable other than the IV that can cause a change in the DV in an experiment.
When extraneous variables are present in an experiment, they can make it difficult to conclude with confidence that changes which have
occurred in the DV have resulted because of the IV and not some other variable.
Extraneous variables may include: participant variables (individual differences in personal characteristics among research participants such
as intelligence, motivation, mood and so on); situational variables (such as the impact of the experimental situation on the participants
responses); and experimenter effects (ways in which the presence or expectations of the experimenter may influence the behaviour of the
participants).
Participant (or Subject) Variables
The different characteristics of each subject affect the dependent variable in different ways. The affects of participant variables are
minimised by:
Evenly distributing participants with similar characteristics to the different experimental groups. For example, if it is possible that
males and females will respond differently to the independent variable, the experimenter can arrange for equal numbers of males
and females in each experimental group.
Ensuring a reasonable sample size with random allocation of participants. The larger the sample size the more likely each
experimental group is to contain a reasonable share of participants that can influence the independent variable in an unusual way.
Situational Variables influence the dependent variable if the participants of the various experimental groups undergo the experiment
under different conditions e.g. different - times of the day, lighting conditions, sound levels, physical surroundings, etc.
Experimenter Effects (causing bias and social desirability) relationship between researchers and participants - the personal
characteristics of the experimenters may unintentionally cause the participants to respond differently. Factors such as an experimenter being
tired, in a bad mood or unwell are examples of experimenter effects.
- Participants may try to guess what the investigation is about then
behave in the way they think the investigator wants them to. On the other hand, they may deliberately try to behave in an unexpected
way. Participants might just try to 'look good' (social desirability) and behave out of character or not tell the truth. This can be a problem for
questionnaires on sensitive issues.

Placebo Effect this occurs when a participants responses are influenced by what he/she believes should occur e.g. an improvement in
the health of a participant resulting from their belief that the treatment they are receiving will have a positive effect.
Advantages and Disadvantages
Level of control can control all other variables that could affect the dependent variable. The experiment can be replicated and so the
findings can be verified.
An experimental investigation design enables the researcher to restrict the influence of extraneous variables (i.e. variables other than the
dependent and independent variables).
Such variables include:
Causality since experimental investigation designs remove the influence of extraneous variables the researcher can be confident of the
cause and effect relationship. That is, they can confidently state that the independent variable has the described effect on the dependent
variable e.g. the more alcohol that is consumed (independent variable) the longer the reaction time (dependent variable).
Findings might not apply to the real world. Ecological validity Ecological validity has typically been taken to refer to whether or not
one can generalize from observed behaviour in the laboratory to natural behaviour in the world. The main aspects of Psychological
experimentation which result in concerns about ecological validity include:

the nature of the experimental setting,

the stimuli under investigation, and

the observer's response employed as the measure.

Learning Activity 2.2

Learning Activity 2.4 Q 2, 4, 6.
Learning Activity 2.5
Learning Activity 2.6
Learning Activity 2.8 Q 2,5,7
Strengths and weaknesses of experimental methods

Laboratory experiments
Strengths:

Weaknesses:

Tighter control of variables. Easier to comment on

cause and effect.

Demand characteristics - participants aware of experiment, may

change behaviour.

Relatively easy to replicate.

Artificial environment - low realism.

Enable use of complex equipment.

May have low ecological validity - difficult to generalise to other

situations.

Often cheaper and less time-consuming than other

Experimenter effects - bias when experimenter's expectations
methods.
affect behaviour.
Field experiments
A field experiment takes place anywhere in a natural setting; it could take place in a school, hospital, the street or an office.
Note: A field experiment is an experiment; the independent variable is manipulated. Not all field studies are experiments.
Strengths:
Weaknesses:
People may behave more naturally than in laboratory - higher Often only weak control of extraneous variables - difficult to
realism.
replicate.
Easier to generalise from results.
Natural experiments
Strengths:
Situations in which it would be ethically unacceptable to
manipulate the independent variable.

Can be time-consuming and costly.

Weaknesses:
The independent variable is not controlled by the
experimenter.

Less chance of demand characteristics or experimenter bias No control over the allocation of participants to groups
interfering.
(random in a 'true experiment').
Three experimental designs are commonly used:

Independent groups: Testing separate groups of people, each group is tested in a different condition.
Repeated measures: Testing the same group of people in different conditions, the same people are used repeatedly.
Matched pairs: Testing separate groups of people - each member of one group is same age, sex, or social background as a
member of the other group.
In each case, there are one or more experimental groups, where the independent variable has changed and a control group
where the independent variable has not changed.
Advantages and disadvantages for each experimental design

Independent groups:
Avoids order effects. If a person is involved in several tests they man become bored, tired and fed up by the time they come
to the second test, or becoming wise to the requirements of the experiment!
More people are needed than with the repeated measures design.
Differences between participants in the groups may affect results, for example; variations in age, sex or social background.
These differences are known as participant variables.
Repeated measures:
Avoids the problem of participant variables.
Fewer people are needed.
Order effects are more likely to occur.
Matched pairs:
Reduces participant variables.
Avoids order effects.
Very time-consuming trying to find closely matched pairs.
Impossible to match people exactly, unless identical twins!

Note: Counterbalancing: Alternating the order in which participants perform in different conditions of an experiment. For
example, group 1 does 'A' then 'B', group 2 does 'B' then 'A' this is to eliminate order effects.
Randomisation: Material for each condition in an experiment is presented in a random order; this is also to prevent order
effects.

All subjects were asked the same questions except for

one small difference, half were asked, "About how
fast were the cars going when they hit each
other?"
while the other half were asked, "About how fast
were the cars going when they smashed into
each other."
This slight difference in questions constitutes the
independent variable, or antecedent conditions she
manipulated.
After a second week all subjects were again asked the
same questions, one of which was, "Did you see any
broken glass?"
This is the dependent variable.
Almost twice as many subjects who had heard the word
"smashed," as opposed to "hit," reported having seen
broken glass. There was no broken glass in the original
video!!!