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MENT: Cupola. Crucible Furnaces. Pot Furnaces. Reverberatory Furnaces. Electric Arc
Furnaces. Induction Furnaces. FOUNDRY
MECHANIZATION.
95
THE WELDING PROCESS
BONDS: Nature of Bonding. Fusion Bonding.
Pressure Bonding. Flow Bonding. CoId Bonding. WELDING METALLURGY: Composition Efects. Effects on Grain Size and Structure. Effects of Welding on Properties. DISTORTIONS AND STRESSES.
10
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PLASTIC FLOW
EFFECTS OF DEFORMATION: Work Hardening and Recrystallization. Effects of Flow
Rate. Direction Effects. Temperature and Loading Systems Effects. Grain Size. RELATIVE
EFFECTS OF HOT AND COLD WORKING:
Mechanical Properties. Finish and Accuracy.
FERROUSMETALS
45
Process Requirements.
I2
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79
OF
METALS: Solidification. Shrinkage. POURING AND FEEDING CASTINGS: Casting
Design. Pouring. The Gating System. Risers.
Chills. FOUNDRY TECHNOLOGY. SAND
MOLDING: Green Sand. Patterns. Flasks.
Sand Compaction. Cores. Green Sand Advantages and Limitations. Dry Sand Molds. Floor
and Pit Molds. Shell Molds. METAL MOLD
AND SPECIAL PROCESSES: Permanent
Mold Casting. Die Casting. Investment Casting. Plaster Mold Casting. Centrifugal Castings. Continuous Casting. MELTING EQUIP-
METALLURGY
13
14
MACHININGFUNDAMENTALS
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The Machining Process. Chip Formation. Cutting Tool Materials. Abrasives. MACHINE
TOOLS: Machinabilitv. Finish. NUMERICAL
CONTROL.
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applications, service conditions, and suitable life expectancy. Clearly this much knowledge is seldom located in a single individual, and group decisions or consultations may be necessary.
be-
tween test supervisors, designers, metallurgists, manufacturing personnel, customer personnel, and test
personnel.
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Materials and Processes for NDT Technology
1. As far as failure is concerned. static loads sometimes include dynamic loads that are slowly applied.
The principal reasons for failure under static loads include large discontinuities (both internal and external),
poor dimensional control during manufacturing, massive overloading during use, and unsatisfactory original design or combination of these factors.
2. Dynamic loads are varying loads that can be
single-directional or multi-directional with multidirectional loading being more serious as a cause for failure.
When the cycles of loading become high (usually millions but dependent on the material), failure can occur at
stress levels far below those determined by static load
tests. Although millions of cycles seems high, there are
many applications, such as a rotating shaft under bending load, where millions of loading cycles can be reached
in a relatively short time.
As pointed out, slow or low frequency dynamic loading is similar to static loading except that even low frequency loads applied suddenly create a condition of
shock which can cause failure at a level lower than normally expected.
3. Service at high temperature reduces most of the
desirable material properties of metals including the
ability to support load. The tendency for creep also increases with increased temperature. The temperatures
at which property values become critical depend upon
the particular material and the previous treatment it
has received.
Most metallic materials also exhibit a brittle characteristic (much like cold glass) through a transition temperature range usually at lower temperatures.
4. Pressure creating stress above a material's elastic
limit may cause material flow (plastic flow), distortion,
and cross-sectional weakening, effects that would be intensified at elevated temperatures. Fluctuating pressures of high frequency create dynamic loading that
may decrease safe operatinglevels. Itwas reported that
several early day pressurized cabin aircraft failed by
fuselage skin failure due to this cause.
5. Corrosive environments or a combination of materials that cause corrosion can produce failure in two
ways. The corrosion may actually reduce the amount of
material available to carry load, but even more important in many cases is that the corrosion may create
small discontinuities which serve as stress risers that
become the nucleus for fatigue failure.
6. Many structures and systems are subjected to vibration during service. Included are transportation
equipment, machines, and devices that have moving
parts. In addition, some structures may vibrate because they are excited by some outside influence.
Stresses from vibration may be superimposed on
stresses from other loading sources. The principal problem created by vibration is the introduction of cyclic
loading leading toward fatigue.failure.
7. Excess loading from abuse may be accidental but
nearly always has the human element as a source. Control is attempted by use of design factors of safety,
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the need for the nondestructive test. Other valid reasons for nondestructive testing may include the following.
Specific Purposes for NDT.
1. Identification or sorting of material.
2. Identification of material properties and the reliability associated with their existence.
3. Indication of proper material and suitable quality
control during processing in order to prevent further
costly processing.
4. Tests to assure completeness, proper dimensions
and geometry, and proper relationships among assembled components.
5. Tests during service to discover initiation of possible failure before it actually occurs.
6. Diagnostic tests after failure to determine the failure reason. This knowledge might be useful for product
design change, test method change, quality control records, and for records to combat possible product liability suits.
and machines have survived admirably under such design concepts. However, others have failed from seemingly inexplicable causes, some with costly and disas-
trous consequences.
Most design procedures still are based upon over two
and a half centuries of using Hooke's law which relates
stress and strain in elastic bodies. The safety factor is
applied to a value of strength that the material used in a
design is presumed to possess. The value of .strength is
that which is hoped to be representative of the material
used under the assumption that the material is continuous and has uniform properties throughout. In this design process, discontinuities can be accounted for , if it is
h,nown they exist, by their effect on reduction of crosssectional area available to sustain the applied loads, or
their effect on the local volumetric strength of the material.
Conventional design practices incorporating safety
factors ordinarily will succeed if:
1. the material used will not be accidentally or otherwise overloaded,
2. the variations in ordinary loads will be as intended,
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bility of detection,
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