4H it Finite Element Pedi Engineering Face ele ad ii ical Engine og das EGR nant aie a a Pepa aa tha ssTHE FINITE ELEMENT METHOD IN ENGINEERING By S. S. RAO Professor af Mechanical Engineering San Diego State University, San Diego, USA and Indien testa of Technotogy, Kanpur, India @) PERGAMON PRESS OXFORD : NEW YORK : TORONTO - SYDNEY - PARIS - FRANKFURTUk. USA. CANADA AUSTRALIA FRANCE FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY Pergamon Preis Ltd, He ‘Oxford OX3 OBW, En Pergamon Press Inc., Maxwell Hoase, Fairview Perk, Elmsford, New York 10/23, U.S.A. Pergamon Press Canada Ltd., Suie 104, 150 Consumers Rd., Willowdale, Orvario M2J IP9, Canada Pergamon Press (Aust,) Ply. Lid., P.O. Box S44, Potts Point, N.S.W. 2011, Australia Pergamon Preis SARL, 24 rue des Ecoles, 78240 Parts, Cedex 03, Trance Pergamon Press GmbH, 6242 Krorberg-Taunus, Hammerweg 6, Fedzral Republic of Germany Copyright © 1982 §, S. Rao All Rights Reserved, No part of this publication may be reproduced, siored in a retrieval ostem ar transmitted in any form ar by any means: electronic, electrastatic, magnetic tape, mecianical, photocopying, recording ar otherwise, without permission in writing from the publchor First edition 1982 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Rao, $8. The finite element method in engineering - (Pergamon international library) 1. Finite clement methac 2. Engineering mathematics 1 Title 620°,001'S15353 TA347.FS ISBN 0-03-025467-5 (Hurdouver) 028466 7 (Flexicover) Library of Congress Catalog Card no: 80-40817 In order to make ths votume avauabie as economicatiy and as rapidly as possible the typescript has been reproduced in its original form. 1his method unfar- tunately has ils typographical limitations bul ir is hoped that they in no way distract the revder. Printed it Great Britain by A, Wheator & Co. Lud,, ExeterLis Lie CONTENTS PRINCIPAL NOTATION INTROEUCTIIN T) FINITE ELEMENT METHOD Basic concept Wietorieal background Gener applicability of the method 1,3.1 One-dimensional heat transfer 1.3.2 One-dimensional fluid flow 1.3.3 Solid bar under axial load Engineering applications of the finite element aethod Generel description of the Finite element method Comparison of finite elemert method with other methods of analysis 1.6.1. Derivation of the equation cf motion for the wibraticn of a beam 1.6.2 Exact analytical solu technique) on (separation of variables 1.6.3 Approximate analytical solution (Rayleigh'a mathed) 1.6.4 Approximate analytical solution (Galerkia method) 1.6.5 Finite difference method of aumerical solutfon Libs Fimite element method of munerical solution (displacement method) Finite element program packages References Problems ix 21 23 2h 26 28 32 34 364H it Finite Element Pedi Engineering Face ele ad ii ical Engine og das EGR nant aie a a Pepa aa tha ssTHE FINITE ELEMENT METHOD IN ENGINEERING By S. S. RAO Professor af Mechanical Engineering San Diego State University, San Diego, USA and Indien testa of Technotogy, Kanpur, India @) PERGAMON PRESS OXFORD : NEW YORK : TORONTO - SYDNEY - PARIS - FRANKFURTUk. USA. CANADA AUSTRALIA FRANCE FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY Pergamon Preis Ltd, He ‘Oxford OX3 OBW, En Pergamon Press Inc., Maxwell Hoase, Fairview Perk, Elmsford, New York 10/23, U.S.A. Pergamon Press Canada Ltd., Suie 104, 150 Consumers Rd., Willowdale, Orvario M2J IP9, Canada Pergamon Press (Aust,) Ply. Lid., P.O. Box S44, Potts Point, N.S.W. 2011, Australia Pergamon Preis SARL, 24 rue des Ecoles, 78240 Parts, Cedex 03, Trance Pergamon Press GmbH, 6242 Krorberg-Taunus, Hammerweg 6, Fedzral Republic of Germany Copyright © 1982 §, S. Rao All Rights Reserved, No part of this publication may be reproduced, siored in a retrieval ostem ar transmitted in any form ar by any means: electronic, electrastatic, magnetic tape, mecianical, photocopying, recording ar otherwise, without permission in writing from the publchor First edition 1982 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data Rao, $8. The finite element method in engineering - (Pergamon international library) 1. Finite clement methac 2. Engineering mathematics 1 Title 620°,001'S15353 TA347.FS ISBN 0-03-025467-5 (Hurdouver) 028466 7 (Flexicover) Library of Congress Catalog Card no: 80-40817 In order to make ths votume avauabie as economicatiy and as rapidly as possible the typescript has been reproduced in its original form. 1his method unfar- tunately has ils typographical limitations bul ir is hoped that they in no way distract the revder. Printed it Great Britain by A, Wheator & Co. Lud,, ExeterLis Lie CONTENTS PRINCIPAL NOTATION INTROEUCTIIN T) FINITE ELEMENT METHOD Basic concept Wietorieal background Gener applicability of the method 1,3.1 One-dimensional heat transfer 1.3.2 One-dimensional fluid flow 1.3.3 Solid bar under axial load Engineering applications of the finite element aethod Generel description of the Finite element method Comparison of finite elemert method with other methods of analysis 1.6.1. Derivation of the equation cf motion for the wibraticn of a beam 1.6.2 Exact analytical solu technique) on (separation of variables 1.6.3 Approximate analytical solution (Rayleigh'a mathed) 1.6.4 Approximate analytical solution (Galerkia method) 1.6.5 Finite difference method of aumerical solutfon Libs Fimite element method of munerical solution (displacement method) Finite element program packages References Problems ix 21 23 2h 26 28 32 34 36Qn 2.2 aS Conzents SOLUTION OF FINITE ELEMENT EQUATIONS Introduction Solution of equiliteium problems 2.2.1 Coussian climinarion method ( i) Generalization of the method (ii) Computer impLementacion of Gaussian elimination method (GAUSS) 2.2.2 Choteski method ( i) Decompesition o: [A]into lover and wpper triangular matrices (it) Solution of equacions i Choleski decomposition of symmetric matrices (iw) Tuveowe uf so symmelie uateie ( v) Computer imlemantazion of tha Choleski method (TEC? ant SPLVE) 2.2.3 Other methods Solution of eigenvalue problems 2.3.1 Jacobi nethad ( i) Method (iz) Computer implementation of the Jacebi method (uenpay 2.3.2 Power method ( i) Computing tie Largest eigenvalue by the pover method t } Computing the smallest eigervalue by the power method (4ii) Computing intermediace eigervalues 2.4.3 Rayleigh-Ritz subspace iteration method (i) Algoriths (ii) Computer implementation of subspace iteration method (SUSPIT) @.3.4 Other methods Solution of prepagation problems 2.4.1 Numerfeal aalurion of Bq. (2.56) (i) Solution of a set of firse erder differeatial equacions: (ii) Computer implementation of Runge-Kutta method CRINGE) 2.4.2 Numriesl colution of Bq. (2.58) (i) Direct integration netheds (ii} Mode superposition uethods 38 38 40 41 42 43 46 47 47 48 49 52 52 54 55 55 58 38 60 60 63 63 64 73 % 18 76 Sees3.2 3.2 Contents (iii) Solution of « general second order differential equation (iv) Computer implementation of mede superpenition method (MODAL) References Problems GENERAL PROCEDUKE OF FENETE ELEMENT METHOD Biscretization cf the domain 3.1.1 Basie element shapes 3.1.2 Discretization process i) Type of elemenes (ii) Size of elemuts (iii) Location of nodes iv) Numter of elemencs (w) Simplifications afforded by the physical configuration of the body (vi) Finite representation of infinite bodies (rid) Node nusbering scheme Interpolaticn pelynomials 3.2.1 Polynomisl form of in: xpolation functions { 4) Simplex, comiex and multiplex elements i) Interpolation polynoni freedom Lin terms of nodal degrees of 3.2.2 Selection of the order of the interpolaticn polynomial 3.2.3 Convergence requirements 3.2.4 linear interpolacion polysomials in terms of global coordinates: (4) One-dimensional simpiex element (4d) Two-dimeneional cimpicx element (iii) Three-dimensional sinplex element (iv) Interpolation polynonials for vector quanti 3.2,5 lineer irterpolation polynomials in terms of local coordinates { i) One-dimensional element (ii) Two-dimensional (triangular) elenent Gil) Theee-dimensiowel (ceeraiedren) elem Pormulation of element characteristic matrices ard vectors 3.21 Direct approach (4) Bar element under axial load (ii) Line element for heat flow 83 85 39 By vs 33 93 97 97 100 102 102 103 103 105 107 108 no nL uz 14 7 ur 119. 21 123 126 128 130 133 136 137 17 138,aii Contents (iii) Line elemen: for Fluid flow (iv) Lise elemens for current flow (-¥) Triangular cloment under plane atraia 3.3.2 Variaticnal approach ( i) Specification of costinuum problems (a1) Approximate methods ef colving centiauum problems Calowlig of wariariane (iv) Advantages of variationel formulation (-v) Solution of equilibrium prablems usiag variational (Rayleigh-Ritz) method (vi) Solution of eigenvalue problems using vatiational (RuyLeigh-Rite) mecivd (vii) Solution of propagation problems usiag variational (Rayleigh-Ritz) matkod Equivalence of finite clement method and variational (RayLefgh-Rit2) method (ix) Derivation of finite element equatioxs using variational (Rayleigh-Ritz) approach 3.3.3. Weighted residual approach (i) Solution of equitinrium prapiems usiag weighted residual mechod (ii) Solution of eigenvalue problems using weighted renidual mehad (iii) Solution of propagation problems usiag weighted residual method Civ) Derivation of finite element equatiors using weighted residual (Galerkin) approaca 3.364 Coordinate tran ration Ask Aosembly of clement ma system equetions cea and vectera ond derivation ef 3.4.1 Assemblage of element equatiens 3.4.2 Computer implamostation of tke acuambly procadurs 3.4.3. Incerporation af the boundary conditions 3.4.4 Incerporation of boumdary corditions in tie computer program 3.5 Soluticn of £: te element (system) equations 2.6 Conputetion of element resultants References Problens 4 —- HIGHER ORDER AND TS2PARAMETEIC ELEMENT FORMULATIONS 140 4A na. 1s 145, 143. as. to 150 135, 155 136 162 163 187 168 169 v2 Wa Wa us 184 186 187 18a 188 189 19343 44 45 4.6 4a? 4.8 foneenes, Tatroduztion Higher order one-dimensional elenent 4.2.1 Quadracie element 4.2.2 cubic element Higher order elements in teras of natural coordinates 4.3.1 Snedimenstanal clamenr 4,3,2 Twordimessional element (eriagular element) 4.3.3 derivation of nodal intersolation functions 4.3.4 Three-dinensional elenenc (cecranzéron element) 4.3.5 Two-dimensional element (quadrilacera? element) 4.3,6 Three-dinensional elesent (hexahedron elenent) Higher order elements in terns of classical interpoletion polynomials 4.4.1 Dlassica! interpelation functions ( i) Lagrange interpolation fanctions for w staticns (id) General two-station interpolation functions G44) Zeroth order Hernite interpolation function (iv) First order Bernice interpolation function ( v) Second order Hermite interpolation function 4.4.2 Ine-dimensional elements C4) Linear elemene ¢ (iii) Cubic element } Quadratic element 414.3 Twordimensioual elements: Rectangsler elenents (i) Using Lagrarge interpolation polynomials (id) Using Hermite interpolation 3olynomials Continuity conditions Comparative study of elements Isoparazetric elements Gist Uetinitions 4.7.2 Shape Funetians in caerdinate travafammatan 4.7.3 Curved-sided elenents 4.7.4 Derivation of element equations Numerical integration 4.9.1) Im enc-dimension 4.8.2 In two-dimensions ¢ 4) In rectangular regions (ii) [a ceianguler regionsContents 4.4.3 In three-dimensions ( i) In rectangular prism type regions (ii) In tetrahedral regions References Probleas SOLID AND STRUCTURAL MECHANICS Tniceduction Basic eyuativus of sulid wechamice 5.2.1 Introduction 5.2.2 External equilibrium equations 5.2.3 Equetiors of internal equilibriun 5.2.4 Stresa strain rclations {Comoritutive relations) ( i} Three-dimensional case (ii) Twe-dimensional case (plane stress) (iii] Two-dimensional case (plane strain) (iv) One-dimensinnal case { v) axisymmetric case 5.25 Steeia-displacement relations 5.d.6 Boundary conditions 5.2.7 Comatitility equations 5.2.8 Stress-strain relations for anisctropic materials 5.2.9 Formulations of solid and styvetvral mechanics STATIC ANALYSIS 5.3 Formulation of equilibrium equations 5.4 Analysis of trusses and franee Sit Space cross alemsnr 5.4.2 Space frame element ( i} Axial displacepencs (fi) Torsiow:1 displacements (4ii) Berding displecemencs in the plene oy } Berding disslacements in the plane 2x 5.4.3 Planar rane elesent Sebek Bean clement, 5.4.5 Computer program for frame analycis (FRAME) 5.5 Analysis of pletes 240 240 240 241 Bae 245 245 246 246 247 247 mo 249 250 251 783 253 254 256 258 259 260 266 ah a 279 279 282 284 285 292 a4 295 3035.6 5.7 5.501 5.5.2 5.5.3 5.5.6 5.5.5 5.5.6 S567 5.5.8 Contents Intreduc:ion Triangular membrene element Wumerical results with menbrane element ( i) A plate under cension (ii) Circular hole in a tension plate (iii) Cancileverec box bean Computer program for plates under inplane loses (CST) Bending behaviour of plates Triangular plate bending element Numecicel aeaulds with beodiug lew Analysis of three-dimensional stractutes using plate elements Computer program for the analyoia of :hree-dimcagional structures using plate elements (#LATE) Analysis of three-dimensional problens a.61 56.2 5.6.3 5.6.4 Introduction Tatrahod-an «loment Hexahedron elemert Numerica! results Analysis of solide of revolution 3.7.4 5.72 5.7.3 ST Increduccion Formation of elemental equations fe: an axisymmetric ring elenent Rumerical results Computer pregram (STRESS) DYNAMEC ANALYSIS 5,8 Dynamic equations of motion 5.9 Consiatent and lumped mess matrices, 5.1 Consistent mass matrices in global coordinate system 5.10.1 Consistent mass natrix of a pin-jainted (space triss) element 5.10.2 Consistent mass matrix of a irame elenent 5.10.4 Consistent mass matrix of a triangular menbrane element 5.10.4 Consistent mass nateix of a triangula: bending element 5.10.5 Consistent mass matrix of a tetraiedron element 5.11 Free vibration analysis 5.12 Computer progran for eigenvalue analysis of chree-dinensional structures (PLATE) a 303 303 un ud v3 316 37 323 328 293 36 340 440 340 wo 343 348 348 348 49 359 354 362 365 366 367 368 370 a7 372 373 3815.15 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 6.6 Contents Coadensation of the eigenvalue problem (eigenvalue economizer) (i) Natural frequencies of a square cantilever plate (it) Neturel Frequencies of a cantilevered box beam Dynamic response calculations using finite element methot 5.14.1 Unccupling the equations of motion of an undamped ayotem 5.14.2 Uncoupling the equations of motien of a damped system 5.14.3 Solution of a general second order differential ecuation Nonconservetive stabilicy asd flutter problems References Problens HEAT TEANSTER Inzroduction Basie equations of heat transfer 6.2.1 Baorgy balange equation 6.2.2 Rate equations { i) For conduction (ii) For convection 4448) Por radtacian (iv) Energy generated ina sclid (v) Energy stored in a solic 6.2.3 Governing differential equation fer heat conduerion in three-dimensional bodies 6.2.4 Statement of the problem in cifferential equa-ion forn Derivation of finite element equations 6.3.1 Wardarienal approach 6.3.2 Galerkin approach ‘One-dinencional heat transfer 6.4.1 Straight uniform fin analysie Computer program (HEAT1) 6.4.2 Tapered fin analysis 6.4.3 Streight uniform fin analysis using quadratic elements Two-dinensional heat transfer Computer program (HEAT?) Axisymmetrie heat transfer Computer program (HEATAX) Unree-aimensional neat transfer 395 398 399 400 401 soz 4036.8 Td fontents Unsteady state heat transfer problems 6.8.1 Derivation of element capacitance matrices (4) For one-dimensional problems G4) For tun-dimensieal prabtems (iii) For axisymmetric problem (iv) For three-dimensional problens 6.8.2 Winize difference solution in the tim: domain Heat trouser problems with cadiatios Computer program (RADIAT) References Problems FLUID MECHANICS Introduction Basic equations of fluid mechanics 7.241 Definietons Flow field Continuizy equation Equations of motion or momentum equations (i) Stele of stress iu ao fluid (ii) Relation between stress and rate of strain for Newzonian fluids Ga Energy equation ) Equatiess of motion State and viscosity equations Soluzion procedure Inviscid flu:d flow 7.2.9 Lprozational flow 7.2.10 Velocity potential Ted UL Steam Luuetion 7.2.12 Bernoulli equation Inviscid incompressible flows Jit. Potential function formulation (i) Differential equation form (ii) Variational fore 7.ie2 Stream funetion formulation ( i) Differential equation form (Gi) Variational form 3.3 Computer program (PHIFLO) reve 2 wwii 487 487 487 ana 489 “93 995 sol 50% 504 507 507 508 508 508 509 510 5102S 7.6 8.1 8.2 a3 a8 as Contents Flow in porous media 7.4.1 Governing equations Toho Flulte vleweut solution Jeu. Steady state unconfized Flow through a dam Jibeh Steady state flow tovarda a vell Wave motion of a stallow basin 7.5.1 Equation of motion 7.5.2 Boundary anc initial conditions 7.5.1 Finite element solution of Eq. (7.133) using Galerkin approach 7.5.4 Eigenvalue eolucion 7.5.5 Solution of Eq. (7.151) 3y mde superposition method Incompressible viscous flow 7.6.1 Statement of the proslem 7sGs2 Stream function formilation (using veriationel approach) 7.6.3 Velocity-pressure formulation (using Galerkin approach) 7.6.4 Stream funetion-vorticity formulation (ij Governing equations (43) Finite clement solution (ueing variational approach) Plow nowMevtonian fluii J.T! Governing equations (ij Flow curve characteristic (ii) Kquaticn of motion 7.7.2 Finite element equations u¢ing Galerkin nethod 7.7.4 Solution precedure References Problens ADOITIONAL APPLICATIONS AND GENERALIZATION CF THE FINITE ELEMENT METHOD Introduction Steady stace field problems Transient field preblens Space-cime finice elements Solution of Poissar equation 8.5.1 Derivation ef the governing equation for the torsion probiem Finite element solution Computer pregram (TORSON) 538 339 540 532 543 544 544 546 Dae 550 551 552 552 552 558 563 563 563 365 565 565 ser 567 568 svt 572 573 573 sth 87 579 580 sao 582 588Contents 8.6 Solurion of Helmholtz equation 8.7 Solution of Reynolds equation 8.7.1 Hydrodynamic lubrication problem 8.7.2 Pinte element equations 0,0 Least squaces finite element approach 8.8.1 Solution of a gereral linear partial differential equation 8.8.2 Solution of unsteady gas dynasic equazions 8.9 Equilibrium, mixed and hybrid elements 8. 1C Miscellaneous applications. References Problems APPENDIX A: GREEN-CAUSS THECREM (Integration by parts in two and three dimensions) INDEX ix 390 596 596 397 #01 601 605 610 all 81s 417 618 oanThis page intentionally left blankap a) @) PRINCIPAL NOTATION leagth of a rectangular element components of acceleration along x, y, # directions of a fluid arza of cross-section of a one~dimensional element; area of a taiangulay (plete) eleueut cross-sectional area of one-dimensional elenent ¢ fosersectional ares of a tapered one-dimensionsl elonent at nods i width of @ rectangular element body force vector in a fluid = 35,8" npecinicawen apbdtele Wats eaieliet votes coastants couplimee matrix; damping matrix flexural rigidicy of a place elasticity matrix (uatrix relating stresses and strains) Young's modulus; cotal aumber of elements Young's modulus of element ¢ Young's modulus in a plane defined by axis : fuactions of x acceleration due to gravity shaar andudes shear woduius in plane if convecrion heat transfer coefficient Lagrange polynomial associated with node 7 ith order Hermite polynomialxxii z E i, rte} tae a Fa ta) k foe Rye Ke Kee Kos Ry kd Tre) TkO = LAE TEL = keg tx) - [ie ‘ ate tar bys by fogs Mag? Mase Sige age fh bys By Lis bos D3 Lys Los bys be £ Principa: Notatien G1? functional to be extrenized; potential enerzy: aves noment of inertia af a besm wait weccor pasallel coc) ants contribution of element g ta the functional F area voment of inertia of a erces-section about -axis polar woment of inartia of a cross-section wait vector parallel te y (¥) axio Jacobian matrix thermal conduerivicy thermal conductivities along x, y, 2 axes rherms] conductiviries along », 8, 8 axes unit sector parallel to = (2) axis stiffness matrix of element ¢ in local coordinate system sUifiress wairix of elewent ¢ in global coordinste system stiffress (characteristic) matrix of comlete body after incorporation of boundary conditions atifgress (characteristic) matrix of complete bedy before incorporation of boundary conditions Length of one~dimensiosal element length of the one-dimensional element ¢ direction cosines of a line direction cosines of a-axis direction cosines of a bar element with nodes ¢ and j retal length of a bar or Fin: Lagrangian netural coordinates ef a Line element natural coordinates of a triangular elenent naturel coordinates of a tetrahedron element distance between two nodes twas ef beam per unie “ength bending moment in a beam; roral number of degrees of freedom in a body banding momants in a plate torque acting abou: a-axis on « prismatic staft mass uatrix of element ¢ ix local coordinate system mass uubeda uo elem she iu global cuurdinale system mss matrix of complete body after incorporation of boundary candi tions mass watrix ef complete bedy before incorporation af boundary conditions:Bie) ae? Be? BE) se) Ber BPP) se) ate 2) Be) BCS) = ple); Principal Notatior XL normal direction interpolation function associated with the ith nodal degree of freedom matrix of shape (nodal interpolation) functions distributed load on a beam or plate} Fluid pressure perimeter cf a fin veetor of concentrated aedal forces perimeter cf s capered fin ac nade 167) externsl concentrated Loads parallel to, y, 2 axes load vector of element 2 in local coordinate system load vector due to body forces of elemert ¢ in loeal (global) coordirate system load vector due to initial strains of element ¢ in local (global) cosrdinate system load vector due to surface ores of element ¢ in local (global) coordirate system veetor of nodal forzes (characteristic vector) of element ¢ in global coordinare system vector of nodal forzes of bidy after incorporation of boundary conditions vector of nodal forces of body before ircorporation of boundsry conditions rate of heat flow vate of heat generation per unit volume ef heat Flew is edirsetion mass flew rate af Fluid acress section + vertical shear forets ia a plate external concentrated mmencs parallel to 2, y, & axes vector of rodal disslacements (field variables) of element ¢ in local (global) coordinate systen tien of vector of rodal displacemenza of body before incorpo: bomdary conditions mole shape corresponding to the frequency u, natural coordinates of & quadrilateral ¢leneat natural cocrdinatea of a hexahedron elenent radial, tangential and axial directions values of (r, 2, t) at rode t curvature of a deflected beam: residual ; region of integratian; dissipation function surface of a bodyxxiv Fy, 52 ge) af, af? Ms Be LES EG sts = & (es Ye? (ep vp ap) he re 2.) Frincipal Notation pert of surface of a body surface of elenent ¢ pert of surface of elemut © time; thickness of a plate elemert temperarurs; temperature change; Kinetic energy ef an elastic body temperature at node ¢ temperature at the root of fin surrounding tenperature temperatura at node i of element 2 vector of neda! tenperstures of element ¢ vector of nodal tenperatures of the body before incorporation of boundary condivions flow velocity along acirection; axial displacenent cemponents of displacenent parallel to ¢, y. 5 exea; components of velocity along z, y, © directions in a fluid (Chapter 7) vector of displacenents = fu, vy, wu)” velume of a body velocity weetér S Gig), WI” Cchapeae 7) transverse deflection of a bear amplitude of vibration of a beam value of W at ade ¢ werk done by exteraal forces vector of nodal displacements of element ¢ arcoordinace; axial direction ccordinates of the centroid of a triangular elenent (a, ¥» 8) coordinates of node t Blobal coordinates (X, ¥, 2) of nodz f ceefficken: of thermal expansion ath generalized coordi rate variation operator normal strain para‘lel to ith axis shear strain in ¢j plane Strain in element ¢ aes t fiends wearer = C6 oo: fe teat Saye Spe? fia) fOr 2 three dimensional body; fee tage Sant Sa8 a ah i oF ey, 1 hye Principal Notation xv initial strain vector torsional displacement or twist coordinate transformation matrix ef elemeat & ith generalized coorcinate dynamic viscosity Poisson's ratio Polsson's rasto in plane of potential energy of a beam; strain energy of a solid body complementary energy of on clastic body pot Reiesner energy of ar, elastic body strain energy of elenent ¢ tial enargy of an elastic body den ity af asnlid ar Fluid noreal stress parallel to ith axis shear stress in ij plane stress in element & stress vector = jo, . 8 10 9, G+ Sag® Soy ® "yy" Ses* Soy Pas éimensional bod: for a three- Spy)” FOE an axisymmetric body shear stress in 4 CMlauid field variable; axial displacement; potential fusction ir, fluid flow body farce per unit volume parallel tom, y, 2 axes vector Valued field Variable With components x, » and wv Vertor of presrrihed hady faresa dissipation function for a fluid surfece (dis:ibuted) forces parsllel te 2, 4, 2 axes teh field variable prescribed value of ¢, value of the field wariable ¢ at node Z of element ¢ vector of nodal values of the field variable of elemert ¢ vestex of ivdal values of the field variables wf complece body after incorporation of boundary conditions vector of nodal values of the field variables of complete body before incorporation of boundary conditions stream function in fluid flow frequency of vibraticn th natural frequency of a bedy rate of rotation of fluit abcut z-axisxxv Bi superseripe 2 arrow over a symbsi (T) dot over a symbol (2) Prinzipal Notat approximate value of ith natural frequency body force patencial in fluic Elew elenent 2 eff colum vector (¥ = fi)) matrix transpose of f (1) Fe derivative with displacement Eis) for the unknowns #:, 2 and #5, we will not be able Lf ve try to solve Eqs. to ™ 107 om. (vi) Element strains and stresses Once the displacemen:s are computed, the strains in the elements can be found as aye ay = 6) = 2 for element 1 ~ ell eC) = ee 25x 10°8 2 2 and e0@)i BE ese: aummane 2s 2 OP = 0.50 10-8, ae 1 1h The stresses in che elements are given by of) = eC) oC) = (2K108)(0.2581078) = 0.5 kgfem® and oh) = el) oC) = Cant0F) (o.508107%) = 1,0 ke/omé.14 The Finite Element Metha! in Engineering Example 1.2 Tenperature bution in a Ei Fini che distritucton of temperature in the one-dimensional fin shown in Fig. 1 .6(a)~ Surrounding termperotue Tee element 1 slemen! 2 tet Fig. 1.6 A one-dimensional Cin ‘The differential equation governing the steady state temperature distribution I(x) along a uniform fin is given by [1.47] 2 ka SE -howt-te) = 0 or SF - @-t) <0 (Bal With che Boundary condition Tle =M) © Ts where A= convection heat transfer coefficient. P ™ perimeter, A = thermal sonduccivicy, 4 = cross sectional area, surrounding temperature, and temperature at the reot of the fin. Te The derivation of Eq. (E,) is similar to thar ef Eq. {1.4} except that convection term is alsa included in the derivation af Eq. (Ei) along witl the assumption of §@ = efit = 0. The problem stated dn Eq. (E.) 4s equivalent to [1.47]. £ tps sess i a? aE op Minimize = sf { a) fe iT? -2" 7.) 2 ean Ney” Rea ai with the boundary condition (r=0) © 75. Assume the following data: k= 10 vartsfem?-°C, k= 70 watts/em -"C, To = 40°C, Te = 140%, G5 ca. and eroge ection of Cin 19 edrevlor with @ rediup of 1 on.Introduction to Finite Element Method 15 Solution Note: Since the present problem is a heat transfer probles, tre terms used in the case of sulid uvchauics problems like sulid bedy, displacesent, strain, atiffheas matrix, load vector snd equilibrium equations have to be replazed by terms like body, temperature, grodient of tenperature, characteristic matrix, chatacteristic vector and governing equations, respectively. (i) Idealization Let the jin be idealized into two finite elements as shown in figure 1.6(b). If the temperatures of the nodes are taken as the unknowns, thore will be three nedal temperature unknowns, namely [, T2 and 7',, in the problem. (11) Incerpolation (temperature distribatyon) model In each plement 2 (@ = 1, 2), the tamporatuve (M) 18 asaumed to vary Linearly as fe) athe (Es) where @ and § are constants. If the nodal tenperatures 7,'°? (7 at #=0) and 7,{¢) Pat c=1(€:) of element e are taken aa unknewns, the constants ¢ and b can be exproesed aod = 1,4) and b = (7,(¢)-9,14)) 202} where 20°) is the length of element ¢. Thus « Te = 7486) + (0) -2, C0) ie (ead (iii) Element characteristic matrices and vectors The clement characteristic matrices and vectora con be identified by expressing the functional f in matrix form. When the integrsl in F is evaluaced aver the length of element @, ue obtain ee +e (y+ $f (n? amy 0) | ae (es) Substitution of Eq. (B.) into (Es) leads to fey a LPM fPm bed ar tO ap Hi. - 3 zf, [( Tey Hy {rte abe? 1109) qt he {r,t saute) 7, (25 iol] ae ee) Equation (Eg) can be expressed, after evaluating the integral, in matrix notation ee peed] Fey. Fe)? BE) ) sree HD = [PAE | a vector of medal temperatures of clement ¢ = {i} for ¢ = 1 and {i} for © - 2,16 The Finite Element Neched in Engineering [x(@)| «© characteristic matrix of element ¢ ryt 1] «AL? 2 ‘| Tey lt i] ea he ai te) and leh \z (o)| = characteristic vector of element & (Ey) (iv) Assembly of element matrices and vectors and derivation of governing equations As stated in Eq. (E:), the modal temperacures can be determined by minimizing the functional ‘, Une conditions tor th? minimun ot 7 are given by 3 a) eo ag cs aie! ae =O ee teas (B10) ars atp where I has been replaced by the sum of elemental contributions, 18), Equation (Bio) cau alow be slated as ane)” Ze = (eK) i -249 aa} 2 wnere [xl = > [8()] = assemlea characrerisete marrix, A 2 B= DFE) - sewemted charmecerdette yeceery . Py and F = assenbled or overall sodal renperature vector =| 7; Ts Equation (E..) gives the governing matriz equations as ik] 2-8 Bia) From the given date we caw uy tainIntteduction to Finite Rlemenr Harhod iF 997 2 LP Hr), toe ome as 24 MOY - zs [| | pot [; 2 0.6302 9.2809] °, * [-0:2808 rel % a) te (2) 2 J 96382 fa Gd [Stace % Ex) Foy - Watusaa 25 (1) ayn eo Te08® ipo 29 tip a (Eis) ast Hey = ante [IPD (se) where the nodal unknowns associated with cach row and celumm of the elesent matrices and vectors were ales indicated in Eqe. (212) to (E10). ‘The overall characterictic matrix of the fin can be obtained by adding the elements cf [Kf '}] and [x(1] eorrasponding to the unkrowma T,, 72 and "3+ ™ n. w 0.6382 9.2809 o 7% a0,78C4 (0,633940.6382) 0.2800] 7, te) a ~), 2808 0.6282] 75 Similarly, the overall characteristic vector of the Fin can be obtained as 14.29 1 B= {ita.29+14.299) (Bie is.20S Thus the governing finite element equation of the fin, Eq. (E12), becomes 0.6383 -¢.2809 ob amy 14.28 o.2zauy1.2ieh uy. 2euy | yitap = C28 .5e {Eis} o -¢.2809 16382] (75) Uia.2s (wv) Solution fer medal temperatures: Equation (Fis) has to be solved after applying the boundary condition, namely, T tac node 1) <%= % = 140°C, Tor this the First equation of (tiv) is tepliced by 3 = Ty + 140 and che remaining two ecuations are writcen :n scalar form as 0.2009 7, 4 12784 7% = 0.9809 7%, = OR SR = 0.2809 7) + 0.6382 7 = 4.29 (Bae) 1.2764 P; - €.2809 Fy = 28.58 + 0.2809 » 140 ~ 67.906 \ = 0.2809 P+ 0.6982 Py = 14.2918 The Finite Element Mathod in Engineering The solution of Eq. (Ze) gives the nodal temperacures as 7 = 64.39%C and 7, = 50.76%. Example |.3 Tnviscid tIuid flow in a tube Find the velocity distributicn of an inviscid fluid flowing throug the tube shown in Tig. 1.7 (a). The differertial equation governing the velocity distribution u(z) is given by Eq. (1.2) with the boundary condition utc=0) = ue. This problem is equivalent ta i 2 wininize r= [" pa @) ode 2 sem with the boundary condition w(x= 2) © iy a) oreo A, areasey ee ree al ee J i] ona Ay area Fig. 1.7 4 one-dimensicnal tube of varying cross section Assume the area of cress ection of the tube as Atz) = Agree @/E), Solution Noce: In this case the :erminolcgy of solid nechanics Like solid body, displacemene, stifmnass macriz, load vector and equilibrium equariots hes to be replaced by the cerns centinuum, potential fimetion, characteristic matrix, characteristic vector and gowerning equations, (i) Idea Divide the contiquum inte twe finite elements as shown in Fig. 1.7(b). LE the values cf the potential Zunction at the various nodes are taken as the unknowns, thece will be three quantities, namely %, & and 4s, to be detervined in the problem ation (42) Interpolation (potential funetion) model The potential function, 4(x), is assumed to vary linearly within a1 element ¢ (ri, 2) as $(@) = at be (Ez) where the constants ¢ and b can be: evaluated ising the nocal conditions dae= 0) = m2) and g(e= 281) = g ©) to obtain 4a) = + (9200) 4,00) 2 (es) where 71) ia the Leagth of clement e.Introduction to Finite Tlement Method 19 (iii) Elemert characteristic matrices The functionél T corresponding to element @ can be expressed as er. 1 (ea (a0) te = LPs (2 @ a «I ag? We, 2 det wer} ™ 1 gee)” ppler7 ate: = 4 5cer? peter] BOO) @o where [ee] = characteristie matrix of elemene 2 &) = 2A 1 -t - £855 [1 | ' fs) 40) cross sectional orea ef element © (which can be token as (41 4d2)/2 for @= 1 and (Ay Ay) /2 for o=2 for simplicity), and F(2) = vectar of nocal unknowns of element ¢ - {PO} hwo) a BP wee (iv) Coverning equations The overall equations can be vritten ss o) aay * @L * PALte Batt) # Bes t, a (Be) a Pe Ba ~ Page where Q; = pl) uy indizates the mass flow rate across section ¢ (i=1, 2,3). dere Gg vill be nonzero waenever the fluid is either added to or subtracted from the tube, Since 2, =e is given, the mass flow rate @, is know. Further, @y will be zero and WY; will be an unknowr, (v} Solutior of governing equations in the thitd equation of (4), both % and » are unknowns and hence the given system of equations cannot be solved. Werce wo set $5=0 as a reference value and sty to Find the values of #, and %, with respect to this value. Tie first cwo equations of (E,) can be expreasec in scalar form aa a 1 ony A 2 GL PAue (Ea)20 The Finice Clement Nethed in Engineering pa) any ie = nate) : and fay aa ebay) ts f2-0 a) By substituting 47) = (4, #4,)/2 © 0.8032 45, 40?) = (a. +As)/2 = 0.4872 Ay, and TO) = 264) = £72, Eqs. (Ey) and (4) can be written as 0.0032 $, = 2.8032 0; = mo LIZ {Es! and 4.802 M+ Lua Oo, = Eve! The splucion of Eqa. (Es) and (Eio) is given by eT ESO eo and by L027 wo. (wij Computation of velocities ef the fluid The velocities of the fluid in elemerts | and 2? can be found as win elenent |» uC!) = $8 (element 1) 266 uo and wan etenent 2968 = 4 Cerement 21 fae = 2.054 up These velocities will be constant aleng the elenerte 6th = 0, 7a we aoproximate this equation around points | and z in Figure 1.9 by finite differ— ences. for this, we need to imagine two hypothetical node points -l and 4 ag shovn P—$— $$ $$ 4 4 Figs 1.9 Tutewduction of hypothetical nudes in finite differences methad of solution We obtoin, by approximating Eq. (1-72) at pointe | and 2, Wo, - Shy + 6i, - AW, © Py) - BY =~ 0 We = hb) + 6H = 4, © HL) ~ BY, 0 (1.73) o 4 (EY ge where a=5 8) e CTA The boundary conditions are #=¥, = 0 w (1.753 Gq 70 at sodes O and 3, -.e. Wir=hy and Wa = By aubatituting Eqo. (1.78), Eqa. (1.73) reduce te ce Ae ae wt, + Ta = BL Va hes [i | fi: a li ‘I {eh (1.76) By solving this standard eigeavalue problem, Eq. (1.76), we can obcain the approxi~ wate Cirst tev matural favyueacies aid ude shapes of Lie given Wea ay aed am {ih} ay30 The Finite Element Method in Engineering eat ww = 238 EE wich {i} - {a} 2.77) The accuracy of the solution can be imprcved by taking more nede roints in the bean. 1.6.6 Vinite element method of aumerical solution (displacement nethod) In the finite element method, wa divide the given stractuse (beam) into several elements and assume a suitable solution within each of the elements. Fron this we formlate the necessary equations roo which the approximate solution can be obtained easily, Figure 1.19 shows che beam divided into two elements of equal % cs , - hk hs he we ” ls : “see a p———b ——+ — ok Fig. 1.10 Finite element idealization of the beam Jength. Within eack element, 1 us assume a solution of the eype* wn) = Ae? “tre? ~Sde' + Thy + WEEP «Laie? = 223) qa + We) fe? =tMat4 122) + we). pe - tz? (1.78) ude HA? gE? Genoes thie aapLacenches et eBe Gnd Of che Stgane & tes! be found) and 7 indicates the length of the elemenr. By writing the expressions for strain and kinetic energies of the elements aa aa if? : 1 etait feds weed Bf er (ERY ae = FROM lOO HO a) *equation (1.78) implies tha; the terpolation mudel in 4 cubic equation.Introduction te Finite Element Method au 2 and me) = z 80) where p ig the mass density, 4 is the cross g#cpional area of the element and a dot over W(") represents time derivative ot We), Une cau obtain, atter subse: t~ uting Eq. (1.78) inte Eqs. (1.79) and (1.80), the stiffness matrix [K@)] and nass matrix [if(€)] as 6 3 oat gle) g 2EL [32 20-32? ‘ wen) 6 3h 5 BE 8) 300 TR =3t 28? [86 ME 86-13 uter) = | 22 2? nae ar qian 470) $6 132 156-222 -202 ar? Figure 1.10 shows that VG) = vector of unknown displacements for element 1 wh cA wll dws wg) Ws we Wy and J42) = wector of unknown displacenents for element 2 we Ws 2 wh - iis #2) ie wi! We By assembling the ariffness natrires sf the rao elements (deteila are gives in Chapter 3), ane obtains the esseabled stiffness matrix as Ht HD vO wena Kai Kea 6 at “6 ai o o 3B 262 -3t ut o 0 i) 2 | + it 646 ~3431 “6 at EE | at Hd =3E43T 2274217 ab av 9 0 ~6 32 6 =i 0 a at 3 20? ring the xewe and colums corresponding to the degrees of Freedom H., Ws, (since Wi = Ws "Ws =We =O ate the boundary conditions), we obtain the matrix [K] of the team as Ber 2 0 1sET [12 0 w+ Fl ae) BE [G Fa Biola2 ‘The Finite Element Methed in Engineering Similar:y, the assembled mass matrix is given by wei Wye) win ate eG) WawG Ww =We) 156 zi 54 =13d a Q wing? aa at? 13 =307 0 9 wyeng'? Im pa 54 nat 1964156 <2204221 Bh IBLE | Wigmhtt atl?) 20 |-132 “SL? -22E+220 ab’eal? —13t =30? | yaw a) o 0 34 132 1560-227 | Waite oO o -13t 30? -22h at? Wenhe? By reducing this matrix (by deleting the rows and columns corresponding to Fixed degrees of freedom), we abtain the metrix (M] of the beam as pal [312 0.) _ pa [32 0 ‘ on [ a we] roy [4 | hea Once the stiffness and iss uatrices of the complete beam are available, we Fornilate the eigenuatie problem as. (Fea my) F 1.85) where B= 5} 45 che eigenvector ant A is the eigenvalue. The solution of Eq. (1.85) gives us two oatural frequencies and the corresponding mode shapes of the given beam as Be ft ten te} - (} }-C) 86 1.7 FINITE ELEMENT PROGRAM PACKACES and ‘The general applicability of the finite element method makes it = powerful and versatile tool for a wide range cf problems, ence a number of computer program packages have been developed for the solucion of a variety of structural and solid mechanics probleas. Some of Uke programs have been develuped fa such « genera! manter that the same program can be used for the solution of problema belonging to differert branches of engineering with little or 10 modification. A summary of more widely used paciages anc their capabilities is given in Table 1.2 [1.51]. Some of theac packag: complex problems. For example, the SASTRAN (Vational Aeronautics and Space Admin- iotration Structural Analyais) program package coatains about 150,000 Fortcan statements and ean be used to analyze physical problens ef practically any size, such ae a complate aiverift of ag automobile etructure. represent large programs which can be uscd for s0lwing realTAILE 1.2) bint nf cajor finite leet packsges dod theie capabilities [1.511 i. «, SEikal ee aisaiiis 0g vem a =tie sa aw z “EES Ee el i EC4 2 1g 110 The Finite Element Nethed in Engineering REFERENCES R. Courant: Variational methods for the solution of problems of equilibrium and vibrations, Delledin of Amricat Mathematical Scotety, 49, 123 (1943). J. Turner, R.W, Clough, E.C. Martin and t.J. Topp: Stifness and deflection analysis of conplec structures, douwmai of deranautical Sciences, 23, 803-82. (1956). J.T. Oden: Sone aspects of recent contributions to the mathematical theory of finite elamence; in: Advarees in Computational Methods in Structuma! Mechanics and Design, Wniversity of Alabama Press, Huntsville, 1972. UuSs Preemeniecei: yvheory of Matrie ssructura! anciysta, MeGrav-i#i lL, New York, 196! O.C. Zienkiewis London, 1966. O.C. Zienkiewiez and Y.K. Cheung: The Finite Element Method in Structure? ard Contdrmn Mechuciec, MeGraw-Will, Londo, 1967. and G, Hollister (Eds.): Strese Anatyois, John Wiley, D. Noreie and 3. de Vries: Pinte Element a¢bticgrephy, Plenum Publishing Corp., New York, 1976. (Contains 7115 citations covering the peziod |956- 1975 in all languages). O.C. Zienkiewicz: The Finite Elament Method in Engineering Seierce, Mc-Graw HILL, Londen, 1971, C. Desai and J, Abels Introduction to the Pint Reinheld, New Yerk, 1971, J.T. Oden: Pintte Elonante of Nonlinaan Continua, NeCravHill, Hew Tork 1e7e. WAC, Martin and G.F. Carey: Introcketton to Pintte wlement Analysts, McGraw Hill, New York, 1973. DH. Norrie and G, de \ries: he Finit: lemenr Method: Fiotdamentals and appliastiona, Academic Press, New York, 1973. J. Robinson: Tntegrated Theory of Finite Etement Methods, John Niler, Tauduu, 1972. CA. Beebbia aad J.J. Connor: Fundunentale of Pintte Element Teelmtaues for Siuctural Engineers, John Wiley, New York, 1974. Element Method, Van Nostrand B,D. Cooks Consapta and Applications of Finite Blancnt analyaia, Jakn Wiley, Kew York, 1974. K.ll. Wiener: The Finite Element Method for Engineers, John Wiley, few Tark, 1875. G.N. Smith: An Intod.etion to Matric and Fintre Element Methods in Civil Erginaaring, Applied Science Publishers, London, 1971. G. Strang and G.J. Fix: An Analyeta of the Finite Plement Method, Prencice- Hell, Englewood Gl:tts, 1973, DH. Norrie ani G. de tries: An Introduction to Finite Element Analuveta, Academic Press, Nev York, 1978. BH. Gallagher: Findée Blemont Analyots Fundamontalo, Prenticc—Hall, Erglewod Cliffs, 1975. K.J, Bathe and E.L, Wilson: Mumerisal Hethods im Fimtte Stenent Analyste, Prentice-Hall, Eng‘ewocd Cliffs, 1976.1.38 1.36 1.41 1.42 Introduction to Finite Elamant Method 38 P. Tong and J.N. Rossettos: Finite Slewent Method: Basis Techniques and Implementation, MI1 Press, Cambridge (Mass.), 1977. LJ. Segerlind: dgptied Finvite Flonent anaiyets, Wiley, New York, 1676 G.F. Pinder and W.¢. Gray: Finite Slement Simulation in Surface and Suneurvace aydrology, Acadenic Press, New Yorks 19d. ToT. Ching: Piiite Rlewent dnatyada in Pluid Dynamion, Meteaw Hi1L, New York, 1978. J.J, Connor and C8, Brebbia: Finite Slemert Techniques for Fluid Flow, Nemnes-Bucterwerths, Londan, 1976. 4. Praemieciecki and others (Eds.): Procesdings of the First Conference on Matrix Methods in Structural Mechanics, Wright Patterson Air Force Bese, Ohio, Gctoter 1965. L. Berke acd others (Eds.): Proceedings of the Second Conference on Matrix Methods in Structural Mechantes. Weight Patterscn Air Force Base, Ohio, October 1968, Proceedings of the Third Conference on Natriz Methods in Structural Hechanies, Wright Pacterscn Air Force 3ase, Ohio, October 1971. B.K. Braoije ds Vouboke (Rd.): Pigh Spood Computing of Plastie Stmictunan, Proceedings of the LUTAM Symposium on High-Speed Computing of Elastic Seruc~ tures, University of Liege, Belgium, August 1978. W, Rowan ard R. Hackett (Eds.}: Proeedinge of the Sympzetun an Application of Finita Element Methods tn Ctetl Engineering, vanderbilt University, Nashville, Tencessee, November 969. I. Holland and K, Bell (Eds.): Finite Element Methods in Stress Analyete, Tapit Press, Trondheim, Norvay, 1969. 4.0, MeCutcheor and others (Eds.): Procaedinge of the Sceataltty Corferenoe un Piriie Flerand dethed tn Civil Eugineerirg, veGill university, morctreal, Canada, Jure 1572. Rei. Gallagher and others (Eds.}: fecent Advances in Matric Methods of Stretaral Analyaia and Destgn, University cf Alabama Press, Huntsville, 1971, 4.1, Odan and ethers (Re.): Advaneos in Computational Wsthode in Struatuval Mechanics and Cestgn, University of Alabama Press, watsville, 1972, R.H. Gallagher and others (Eds Mintie siements in rbd: votume 1, Viscous Play ard Hydrodynamics, John Wiley, London, 1975. R.H. Gallagher and others (ids.}: Finite Elemente tn Platda; Volume 2, Mathematiea! Foundations, devadynamten end Ivhrieation, John Wiley, london, 1975, 3.2. Weirewan (Ed.): The authenattes oy Firtte Slemency and appticattons, Academic Press, London, 1973. ALK, Ati (Ed the Mathenatieal Foundaticna of the Fistte Blenent Method with Applications to Partial Differential Bquations, Acaiemic Press, New York, 1972, G.A. Brobbia acd H. Tottenham {Eda.is lardational Mothode tx Exginooring, Volume T, Southampton University Press, Southamgton, 1973. G.A, Brebbia ard H. Tottenham (Eds.): lartuttenad methods ta Ungineering, Volume IZ, Southampton University Fress, Southanpton, 1973. W. Pilkey and cthers (Eis.): Structural Mechanice Computer Progmams, University Press of Virginia, Charlorresville, 1974.36 ‘The Finite Element fethod in Engineering 1.43 ALR, Mitchell and R. Wait: The Finite Element Method in Partial Differential Equaeione, Wiley, New York, 1977. 1.44 J.T. Oden and J.N, Rediy: An Introduction to the tathenattcal Theory of Pindée Elemente, Wiley, New York, 976 1.45 6. Gudehus (e.): Péntte Gdemerto in Goemechantce, Wiley, Mew York, 1977. 1.46 D.G. ashwell and HH. Gallagher (Eds.): Fintte Elenonta for Thin Siptls and Carved Menbere, Wiley, New York, 1976. 1.47 GR. Myoro: Analytioal Mothade th Conduation Heat Tranefor, MeCeaw-Hill, Waw York, 1971. 1.48 TH. Shames: Mechmtos of Fiuéde, MeCrau-#ill, New York, 1962, 149 8. Tienshenke, D.H. Young and M. Weaver, Je: Uibyatioe Prabiems tn Eugineering, 4th edition, John Wiley, New York, 1974. 1.90 L, Mierovitch: Analytical Metuods in iibnationg, Mactli-lan Co., New York, 1967, 1.51 H.G. Schaeffer: A review of the Interrational Sympzsiun on Structural Mechanics Software. Computers and Structures. 8. 5. 589-598 (1978). PROBLEMS I.1 Find the stress distrioution in the tapered bar shown in Fig. 1.11 using two finite elements under an axial load of P = 1 kg. re 10.em——4 raat = 2 em? Cross sectiqnal area Crass setional area of end = temé Young's modulus «2 #10" dgven? g. 1.0 1.2 Find the cemperacure distribucion in the stepped fin shown in Fig. 1.12 using two finite elements. Circular anction Tpeieaecha Introduction to Finite Element Methed a7 Using 2 one beam element idealization, find the stress distribution under a load of P for the uniform canti-ever beam stown in Fig. 1.13, (lint: Use the displacement model of Eq. 1,78) won| +——1 —— Tig. | Find tke stress distribution in the beam shown in Fig. [,14 under a concentrated load of P using twc beam elements. F EI constant eh + 5 4 Fig. 1.16 For the cantilever beam shown in Fig, 1.15, find: (i) fundamenzal satural frequency using Rayleigh's method (ii) two ooturel frequencies using £1 Ference ox tho: (iii) two natural frequencies using finite 2lemant nethod with one elemeat idealisacion ———_ .——_4 Fig. 1.18 The differential equation governing the free longitucinal vibrations af a uniform bar is river by py Ou au BA ge Maye = 0 where £- Yeung!s modulus, A = ava uf ccosn section, m= mass per une length, u = axiel displacement (in the direction of ), amd t= time. Lf the bar ie fixed at 2-0, find the First wo uatial frequenctes of the ber using the fcllowing methods: Gi) finite differonce methods Gi) finite element method vith a linear displecement model.CHAPTER 2 SOLUTION OF FINITE ELEMENT EQUATIONS 2.1L INTRODUCTION Most preblems in engineering mechanics can be stated either as continuous or discrete problems. Continuovs problems invelve infinite tumber of degzees of freedom uhile discrete problems involve finite mumber of cegrees of freedon. Joth discrete and continuous systems can be subdivided inte equilibrium (static), eigenvalue and propagation (transient) problems. The finite elemeat mathod is applicable for the solution cf all three categories of problems. 4s stated in Chapter 1, the tinit: element method is nothing but a procedure whien teplaces 3 continueus preblem by an equivalent diserete one. It will be quite cenvemient to use matrix notation in fersiulating and solving problens using finice elemenc procedure. When matrix notation is used in finite element analysis, the organiz~ ational properties of matrices allow for systematic compilation of the required data and the finite element enalysis itself can then be defined as a sequence of matrix cperetions vhich can ke programed dirsctly for a cigital computer. The governing finite clenent equations for various types cf Eicld problems can be expressed in matrix form as follows: (i) Equiliorium problens fa) 7-5 (hla) subject to che haundary condi etana (2) 3 -¢ (2.18) Eigenvalue problems (4) F= 4 (81 t (2.28) subject to tha buuidacy cud’ cious tl t-@ (2,28) Propagation problens 2 x * 2 fa] a +(e) 2+ (ce) B- Fao, £0 (23a) subject to the boundary conditions () F2F, ez0 2.3) 38Solution of Finite Element Equations a9 and the inital conti cians Reka, beo (2.3e} at oy Befeoteo (23d) where [4!, [2], [2] and {9) ave square matttees whose elements are known to us; F is the vectar of unknowns (or field variables) in the problem, B, g, eo and Ty are vecters cf known constants, A ie the eigenvalue, ¢ is the time paremeter, and Fis.a vector whose elements are known funetiens of T and ¢. In this chapter, an intrajuction to mstrix techniques* that are useful for the solution ef Eqs. (2.1) - (2.3) ie giver, along with a deecription and Licting of several general purpose FYRTRAN computer programs. The uses of the various sub- routines piven in this chapte> are stated below: Mane of og 3+ NOe Subrouriae Seccion use 1 Gauss 2.2.1€4) For solwing equilibrium probleme in the form of a systen of linear equations (using Gavssian elimination me:hod) 2 DECgMP and 2.2.2) For solving equilibrium problems in the SOLVE form of a systen of linear zlgetraic equa— ticns in bandform (using Cheleski decompos~ ition method) 3 JACGEE 231GH) For finding the eigenvalues and eigenvectors ef a real symmetric matrix (using Jacobi method) 4 SUSFLT and 2.4.40n1) ‘Yo tind the solutioa of general eigenvalue EIGEN peeblen [4] f=") [3] ® where [a] and [5] are syometcoic and banded (using Rayleigh~ Ritz subspace iteration method) 3 RUNCE To solve propagation preblems ir the form of a system of first order cifferential equations (using fourth order Runge-Kutta method) 6 MPDAL 2.4.2¢iv) To solve propagatioa preblens in the form of @ oyatem of sceoad order differcntial equations (using mode superposition method) #The basic definitions and theary of watrices can be found in any kook on mtrices [2.1] howean The Finite Plament Nethed in Engineering 2.2 SOLUTION OF EQUILIBRIUM PROBLEMS When the finite elenent method is used for the solution of equilitrium or stealy state of stelic protlems, we get a set of simultaneous Linear equations whieh can be stated in the form of Eq. (2..). We shall consider the soluticn of Eq. (2.la) in this section by assuming chat the bourdary condicians of Eq. (2.[b) have been inearporatec already". The method of satisfying the boundary conditicns stated in tq. (2.18) will te considered in section 1.4.3. Eyustivn (2.1) cau be expresved im sealer Curm as Siu Th tf gia ea tees tata oy oe Qari, 4 Gaga ta tees + tam ty tb : (24) Gy Fi + Gya Fa tee + ty tq = Bp where the ccefficients agj and the canstants by are either given or can be gener- ated, The problem is to find the values of xy (i = 1, 2, 1+, A), it they exist, which satisfy Ec. (2.4). A compariaon of Eqs. (2,1) and (2.4} shows that @in Gin vss @iy = by Gat aie @ay| fra bs téle]. Tete. Beg, men |” mal 2 ee * fn Sys Spy =n | In Hinite clemert analysis, the arder of the matrix [4] will be very large. The solutios of some of the practical preblens involves mitrices ef order 1000 or wore, The methods available for solving systems of Linear awations can be divided into two types: direct or iterative. Direct methods are tose which, in the absence of round-off and other errers, vill yield the exact solution in « finite number of elementary arithmetic operations, In practice, because a computer works with a finite vord Length, sometimes the direct methods do not give good solutions, Indeed the errors arising from round-off and truncation may Lead ta extremely poor oF even useless results, Hence many reseatchers aorking in the Field of finite element method are concerned with why and how the errors arise and with th> searen for methods which minimize the tetality of such errors. The iundamental method used for direct soluciona is Gaussian eliminarion, bur even within this clags chere are a variety of choices of netheds vhich vary in comutationsl efficiency and Iterative methods are those which stert with an initial approximation, and which by applying a suitably cioses algorithm, lead to successively better approximacions. When the process converges, ve cen expect to get a good approximate solurion, The aecuracy and the rate of convergence of iterative methods vary with the algorithm chosen. The main advantages of iterctive methods are the simplicity and usifermity of che operations to be performer, which make then well suited for use on digical sampiters and their rolative ingensitivity to the growth af ound—o erross, Matrices associated with linear systems are also classified as dense or sparse. Dense matrices have very few zere elements while sparse matrices have very ‘After incorporating the boundary conditions, Eq. (2.la} represents a positive definite syster of equations.Solution of Finite Elenent Equetions 4L few nonzero elements. Ferturately, in most finite element applications, the matrices invalved are sparse (thinly populated) and symmetric. Mence solu:ion techniques, which take advantage ef the special character of such systems of equotivie, lave alse Lees dewluped. Befure Uiscuosiag the Lecluiquen which cake advantage of the special characteristics of tie finite element equations, :he geacral methsd of Gaussian elimination is dia-usaed. 2.2.1 Gaussian elim:nation aethod The basic objective of this method is to tranaforn the given system into an equiv- gant -tctbnpilatssyscos ehoes polucih can éhe more “auaily obeninad. je shail consider the fel-owing systes of three equatians :o i-lustrate the prazess: i> tye es = 10 (Bi) ey + Bt, t fa 8 15 (bad fa > te = cae 6 iEa) To eliminate the x, terms frcm Eqs. (Ez) and (Ey), we multiply Eq. (2) by =2 and -4 snd add respectively to Ecs. (Es) and (Zs) leaving the first equation unchaaged We will then have eis 2) Wey = 10 iB) St, - kes = = 5 Es) 60.- le. - -34 (Be) To eliminate the #, corm fron Eq. (Es), sultiply Bq. (H,) by 6/5 and add <0 Bq. (Es). We will now have the triangular system 2. - 2, + t= 10 (Ey) Sar = Mia = = 5 (Eo) Tay A9R (Fed This triangular system can new be solved by back substitution. From Ey. (Ee) ve find cy = 4. Subscfcuting this value for x5 inte Eq. (By) and solving for 22, we obtain x)= 3. Finally, knowing rs aad za, ws can solve Tq. (E,) for £1, obta:ning #11. This so.utton can also be obtained by adepting the fcllowing equivalent procedure. Equation (E.) can be solved for #, to obtain ce. = 10> es Ses (Bio) Substitution of this expression for x, into Eqs. (Es) and (Es) gives Ba - Sts 5 (Eas! Sea - W3ey = -38 (Br ‘The solution of tq. {8,,) for zy leads co fa" -1 = ay (Eas! By substituting Eq. (Eis) imto Eq. (Bia) we obtain whey = -28 (Eva?az The Finite Elemant Nethed iy Engineering Tt can ve geen that Eqs. (Ess), ‘Rar! and (Es.) are the same ag Eqs. (Ez), (En) and (Be), Fespeccively. Hence w2 can obtain #2 =4 trom Eq. (£14), €2=3 trom Eq, (B13) and x, =1 From Eq. (Eyo). (i) Generalization of the method Let the given system of equations be written as aff, + alas t.. + abiay = bi” Hla, tadiata to adil = 6s” . (2.5) adDnc ad alBles ee itl, = hf? where the superseripe (9! nas been used to denote the origina: values, By solving the first equation cf (2.5) for 21, ve obtatr 0) gta » eh _s - au. Pg, aw al? Substitutior of this x, into the remaining equations of (1.5) leads to adda, eal}, +... +ai)an = bel! z (2.6) af bana 4 afPaa tse + aban = of? where tarp fol to, toy af} agg? [agtatg / ait) ra i. iy ao) to), toy Me fm ag = [ation / als’) Wext we elimininate sts from iq. (2-6), and sc om. In genaral, when xy fg elinin~ atel we obtein ae er deker “ke where dt, gree. After applying the sbove procedure m-l times, the or reduces to the following single equation nal system of equations (el) aan = BE from which we can obtainSolution nf Finite Element Rqwations ag nis [Pe (rl) The values of the remaining unknowns can be found in the reverse order (Gynt. tyes. eeee Zu) by usdng Eq. (2.7). Note: In the elimination process, if at any stage one of the pivor (diagoral) elements af! ai) aff, ..., vanishes, we attempt tc rearrange the remaining rows so as to cbtain.a nonvanishiag pivot. If this te imposible, thes the matrix [4] ts singular end the system has no solution. (di) Computer implenentation of taussian elinination method A FORTRAN subroutine called GAUSS is given in this section for the solution of ali-t (21a) based on the Gaussian elimination method. This subroutine can be used either te tind the solution ot Eq. (Z.la) tor several right han side vectors and/or to find the inverse of the natrix [A]. The arguments of the subroutine are as follows. A = array of order i> ic which tie given coe!ficient matrix [A] is stored at tte Ppa The array A returned from the Subroutine UAVSS gives the inverse @ — array of dimension Wa, If the solucion of Eq. (2.1) i erues 7or several right hand side veeters £2 (491,2,...,M), the vectors 2, . are stored columivisa tn The atta BE order Wau: Upon. recarm. trou che Pubropetne GALS, the ¢th column of B representa the solution i; of the problem (A |ty=by (i#1, Brera). qe avsay well wot Us wand af cnvetoe GF Ll wity Le teqeised, N= order of the squere natrix [4]; same ag che number of equations to be solved M=aumber of the right hand side veccoreby for which solutions are required. If only the inverae of [1] is required, H is set to be equal to 1. TFLAG = 2 if only the inverse of |A] is required ~ L Gf the solution of Eq. (2.14) is required (for any value of #1) LP =a dummy vector array of dimonsion I 1Q = a dummy erray of dimension x2 R =p dumy weetor of dimeneion To illuscrate the use of the subroutine GAUSS, we consider the following system of equations: 11) fal % 2 0 1 \ = 40 (Es) 3 3 2] de, rs dere the number of equacions co be solved fe fi=3 wien M-1 and CFLAGS. The main progsam for colving &q.(f,) alongvith the subrourine GAUSS is zives below, The result given by the program is also included ex the end. MAIN PROGRAM WHICH CALLS Tre SUBROUTINE GAUSS pennn UANENSLUN AC 3s 379 Ae L LOCI L031 209 ROD DATA (CAC ToS be dmLeZde Deby 3) Fede L Os Ir Le Os 2s Or Ge 2p LaOr 3s Or 2a 0020sINDEX Acoustic vibrations 591 Adiabatic boundary condition ADJUST 186 Aerotlasticity 612 Qircrait struccures 7 Analytical methods 22 anisotropic materials 224 Area coordinates 110) Assembled stiffness watrix 9 Agsenbly of element equations 9 Awueubly procedure 173 Automotive vehicles 613 Axisymmetric element 96, Axismmetric heat transfer 408 249 4a8 Bandvideh 52, 105 Bar under axial load Rasi> ronrepr ft Basi: equations 137 flaid nechanics 508 solid nechanics 246 Beam élenent 294 Bending elements 333 Bending of plates 123 Bernaull: equation 522 Bingham plastic fluid 565 Biomedical engineering 8, 612 Bouniary conditions; incorporation 184 Box Seam 316, 399 Galcalus of variations 145 Gantilvered box beam 316, Capacitance matrix 487 Caveay boundary coudicion 375 Central differences 60 Choleski method 46 333 Circular hole ina plate 312 Civil enginering structures 7 Classical interpslarion function 213 Collocation method 163 Comparative study of elements 22s Comparison of finite element method wich ether methods 21 Coupatibility 173, 232, 258 Compatible elements 115 Complete elements 115 Susplux element 110 Composite materiale 612 Concensation of eigenvalue piobles 295 Soncuction 419 Configuration of the body 1C3 Confined flow 526 Conforming slements 125, 333, 334 Consistent load vector 169, 274, 309, 342 Consisrenr masa narrix V5 Gongtitutive velations 249 Continuation metnod Continuity condirions Continuity equation 509 Cantinuum problen 145 Gonvection 420 Convective boundary :onditior 468 Somergence requirements 114, 157 Goordinate transformtion 172 CP continuity 115, 225 Gritically damped case ST 245, 317 CST element Cubic element Subic medel 110 Current flow 14 Curved sided element: 231 Cylindrical coardinave systen 404 sun 15 any622 Damed system 402 Darping matrix 363 Darzy law 538 DECOMP 34, 50 Decomposition of a matrix 44 verivation cf system equations 173 Description of finite element method 5, 93 Difierential equation 433 Direct approach 136, 137 Direct integration mthels $0 Dixichlee condition 424, 540 Dissontinuities 102 Discretication of the denain &, 97 Displacoment-force mthed 261 Displacement method 30, 261 Displacement model 8 Discribution of elaceric patantiil Dynamic analysis 362 Dynamic equations of mation Dynamic response 400 275, a2 EIGEN 39, 67 Eigenvalue economizer 95 Eigenvalue problem 6, 34, 52, 184, 167, 550 Electrical network 141 Electromagnetic waves 531 Electrostatic field 575 Elenent characteristic matrix Element characteristic vector Elewent damping matrix 363 Element load vector 9, 269 Element mass matrix 353 Element resultants 188 kenent shapes 94 Element stiffness matrix 9, 269 Elesent serains 9 Element stresses 9 Blesents wich curved boundary 97, Energy balance equation 419 Huecgy equation 213 Energy generated in a salid 420 Enctgy stored in a wotid 421 Engineering applications 6 Hquations of motion $10, 515 Equilibrium element 610 Bqv: Libylum cquations 247 136 136 153 Equilibrium problem 6, 38, 150, 163, 266 Fesential boundary eondicion LAE Euler equation 148, 515, 517 Eulerian method 509 Euler-Lagrange equation 148 155 150 eld equation Pie'd variable Tndew Fin straight uniferm 431 tapered S41 Fimite #itference method 80, 493 Finite difference sclution 493 Finite seme 93 Finite element equations 155, 169, 234, 425 Finite element program packages 32 Flenural rigidity 226 Flov around a cylinder 526 Plow curve chavsctesiatie 595 Flow field 508 Plow in porous nedis 538 Flov through a dam 542 Plow towards a vell 543 Fluid 508 Fluid film Lubeiestion Fluid flow 149 Plaid flow ia a tube 12 Fluid mechanics 50? Platter prohlem 410 Forced poundary condition Force mthod 261 Formulations vf solid mechanics Fourier equation 3, 422 Fracture mechanics 612 PRAME 245, 295 Prane element 279, 292 Pree boundary 542 874 148 260 Free boundary condition 148 Free vibration analysis 373 Frontal method 52 Functional 145. Galerkin method 2b, 1b4, 425, 229, 998 Gas dynamic equations GAUSS 39, 43 Gawssiar elimination method 4] Gaussiar incegration 237 General differential equation 403 Gewsalieation of Cluite elemut a 573 Geomechanics 7 605, thed, Geometric boundary conditien 148 Given's method 73 Global coordinates 117 Srecn—Caus5 theorem 618 Hamiltoa's principle 265 HEAT 1 419, 439 HEAD 2 419, 464 HEATAR 419, 477 Heat conduction 7 Heat conduction equation 422 Heat flow 138 +Tertew Heat transfer 418, 612 Helmholts equation 590 Hermite interpolation formula 213, 216 sermitaas matrix J3 Hexahedron element 96, 209, 343 Aigner order element 143, 213 Historical background 1 Aomogenous solution 403 Householder's method 73 aybrid element 610 aydraulic and water resources engineering 2, G12 Hydrodynamic lubrication 596 Hydrodynamics 7 Hydroelasticity 612 Ayperosculatory interpolation formule 23 Imperméable boundary 54? Inconpressible viscous Elow $52 Infinite bady 103 Initial conditions 155 Integration by parte 618 Intermediate eigenvalues 60 Interpolation function 119 Intezpolation madel 8, 207, 211 Inte:polation polynomial 107, 111. 119 Inverse of matrix 48 Inviscid flow 508, S17 Inviscid fluid 5, 17 Inviscid incompressible flow 523 Irro:ational flow 518 Isoparametric element 193, 228 JACOBL 39, 26 Jacobian 230 Jacobi metod 54 Journal bearing 600 Lagrange equation: 362 Lagrange interpolation formula 2! Laugcange Loterpolacton pelynamia: 313, 222 Lagrangian epprosch 509 Laminar flow 508 Laplace equation 5, 422 Largest eigenvalue 58 Lose: eqesred wethod Linear model 109 19k, 196, 971 Local coordinates 126 Locacion of nodes 102 Lowe: trigngular matrix 46 Lumped mass matrix 165 pin-jointed element 67 164, GOL line elenent BOR frame elenent 368 triangular membrane eloment 350 triangular bending elenent 371 tetratedren element 372 Machine tavls 613 Magnerostacica 575 Mapping of elements 230 Mass mutrix 363 MATHML. 88 Matiix fuversion 40 Mechanical design 8 Mechaniems 613 Membrane element 303 Meah refinenent 115 Metal forming 613 Migcollaneous applications 611 Mixed element 610 MOMAL 59, 86 Mode superposition method Memonfim aqyiatione S10 Multiplex element 110 2, 591 NASTRAN 32 Natural boundary condition 148 Natural coordinates 128, 196, 2C5, 209, 343 Navier-Stokes equations 515, 56¢ Neumann condition 424, $40 Newmark method 8] Newtonien fluid 508 Newton-Raphson metho 187 Modal actions 136 Nodal interpolation function 20 Node numbering scheme 105 Monconferming elements 333 Nonconservative problems 410 Non-Newtonian fluid 508, 565 Muclear engineertug 7, 612 Number cf elements 102 Muuericel incepeivs 256 in one disension 236 in two diwensions 239 in three dimensions 2s0 Numerical methods 21 ‘One-dimensional elemenr 94, 196 Onendimencional fluid flow |S One-dimensicnal heat transfer Order of palynamial 117 Orthogonalization of modes 176 Orthogonal matrix 73 Ogculatcry interpolation forms 213 Overall equilibrium equations 9 Overdamped case 404 3, ASL424 Tndex Partial diffarereial aquarions 475, 601 Sigs af lememex 160 Particular integral 405 Smallest eigenvalue 60 Paszal terrzhedron 113 Soil mechanics 612 Paszal triargle 113 Solid bar under axicl load 5, 137 Path line 508 Solid mechanics 24 Perturbatior method 187 Solids of ravolutior 348 PHITLO 507, 53 Solution of difverertial equations 76, Planar creme element 292 83, 158, 170 Pimar truss 14 Solution of finite clement equations 38 Plane strain 142, 251 SOLVE 39, 30 Plane stress 250 Space frame elenent 279 PLATE 245, 381 Space-time fini-e element 579 Plares 303 Space truss element 271 Plare vader tension 321 Spherical coordinate system 4s Poisson equstior 5, 422, 580 Square cantilever plate 398 Polynomial epproximecion 103 Stabflity problems 410 Porsus nedic $8 Standard eigenvalue problem 53 Focantfal tinction 5, 520 Stave equation 517 Potential function formulation 524 State of stress in a Fluid 510 Fumes metluc 5E Slalic analysis 266 Prineipie of Stationary value 1/6 minisum pctentieal energy 262 Steady stat: Field problem 574 nininum cemplementary energy 263 Steady stat2 flow 142 sratienary Reiganer encepy 264 Steady atats problem 6, 40 Propagation protlem 6, 38, #4, 155, 168 Step bearing 599 Stepped bar 9, 137, 374, 06 Strain-displacenent relations 254 Quadratic clomect 164, bA5 Stream function 510, 533, 552 Quairac-c medel 110 Stream function vorticity formulation 563 Quadrilsters] element 235 Straanline 508 Quasi-harmonic equation 574 STRESS 245, 354 Stregs~rate of strain relations 31? RADIAT £19, 501 Radiation 420, 495 Radiation heat transfer cocfficient Rate equaticns 419 Rayleigh-Ritz method 25, 150, 134, 135 Rayloigh's wethed 24 Rec:angular elewent 222, 333 Reisner energy 264 Reynolds equaticn 596 Rock mechanics 612 RUNGE 39, 77 Kunge-Kutha method #b 496 Seepage boundary 543 Seepage flow 328 Seizhe noricn 591 Semi baadwidih 105 Separation cf variables 23 Shallow beain 544 Shape functions 229 Shape of olomente 93 Similarity transformation 73 Simlex LIC Simplex elenent 110, 117, 1.9, 121 Stress-strain relations Structural sechanics 245 Subdomain collocation 164 Subspace iteratien method 63 Substantial derivative 50% SUSPIT 39, 67 Symmetric geome:ry 103 System equations 13 209, 252, 511 Temperature dis:tibution ins fin 14 Tentative sslutien 146 Yetrahedral coordinates 133 Tetrahedron element 133, 203, 340 Thermal loa vector 331 Thermoelasticity 612 Three-dimensional elementa 95 Three-dimensional heat transfer 482 Tieee-dimeusivusl yrobleus 340 Three-dimensional structures 235, 30 Foraional diopleccment 282 Torsion of arismatic shafts ToRSON 588 Totel derivative 309 Tronsformarian matrix 177 ‘Transient field problem 577 S74, 582Index Transient problem 6, 74 Iransicicn flow 208 rianguler bending element 328 rianguler coordizates 130 Triangular element 130, 198 Ceienguler membraie element 303 Trusses 271 Surbomactines 612 Turbulent flow 508 Gwo dimereienal elements 94, 198 Two dimersional heat transfer 44£ Two station interpolation Function Type of elements 97 218 Uneorfined flow 502 Imeoupling of equations ‘Ol, 402 Undanped system 401 Underdasped case 404 Unsteady heat transfer 487 Upper triangular wactix 6 mation 675, Variational approach 136, 144, 425, 563 Variational formulation 262, 524 Vector quantities 123 Velucity puleutial 520 Velocity-pressure formulation 558 vibration of a beam 21 approximate solution 24 equation of motion 21 exact olution 23 finite difference method 23 finite elenent method 30 ecoelastieity 612 Viscoplarticity 612 Viscosity aquation 517 ‘iscous flow 508 Volume coordinates aa Vater boundary 542 Vavefront method 52 Vaveguide 393 Vave motion 544 Veighted residual approach 136, 162, 169