Nutrition in Humans

What you will learn

By the end of the lesson, all students will be able to:
describe the functions of the following parts in relation to
digestion
mouth
oesophagus
stomach
small intestines
describe peristalsis in terms of series of wave-like
contractions of muscles
describe the function of bile in the digestion of fats

The Digestive System

Sequence of processes:
1. Mechanical digestion
2. Chemical digestion
3. Absorption
4. Assimilation

The Alimentary Canal

mouth
teeth

salivary glands
epiglottis
glottis

trachea
oesophagus

stomach

liver

cardiac sphincter

gallbladder

pancreas
pyloric sphincter

duodenum
ileum
ascending colon
caecum
appendix

descending colon
large intestine
rectum
anus

Mouth / Buccal Cavity

Teeth grind and break down food
mechanically into smaller pieces
to give a larger surface area for
enzyme action. (mechanical
digestion)
Salivary amylase breaks down
starch into maltose. (chemical
digestion: breaking down of large
molecules contained in food into
simpler, soluble substances.)
Optimum pH 7

Mouth / Buccal Cavity

Mucin in saliva will soften
food.
Tongue rolls food into a
spherical structure called
bolus.
Saliva also lubricates the
bolus to allow easy
swallowing.

Oesophagus
A narrow, muscular tube
continuing from the pharynx to
join the stomach.
Circular and longitudinal
muscles contracts antagonistically
to push the bolus down to the
stomach.
This series of wave-like muscular
contraction is known as
peristalsis.

Peristalsis

Oesophagus
The innermost layer of
oesophagus, the submucosa,
contains gland cells which
secretes slimy mucous to
lubricate the bolus.
No enzymes are secreted here.
Digestion of starch continues for
approximately 7 seconds before
reaching the stomach.

Stomach
A muscular and stretchable
bag.
Food in stomach is churned
and mixed with the gastric
juice secreted by the gastric
glands.
This turns the food into a
semi-liquid state called
chyme.

Stomach
Cardiac sphincter prevents
food from flowing back into
oesophagus
the oesophagus.
Pyloric sphincter prevents
contents in stomach from
entering the small intestine
during the churning process.
Food can be kept in the
stomach for 2 to 6 hours.

cardiac
sphincter
stomach

pyloric
sphincter
duodenum

Stomach
Gastric juices consist of:
2 enzymes, pepsin and renin.
Hydrochloric acid.
Hydrochloric acid has the following
functions:
Stop the action of salivary amylase.
Kills harmful bacteria, germs and
parasites.
Activate the protease enzymes.
Provide an optimum pH 2 for the
protease enzymes.

Stomach
Protease enzymes first exist as inactive
pepsinogen and prorenin.
This is to prevent the enzymes from
digesting the very cells that produce them.
These two forms are activated to pepsin
and renin by hydrochloric acid.

Stomach
Action of pepsin
Hydrochloric acid
Pepsinogen
Pepsinogen
(inactive)
(inactive)

Pepsin
Pepsin
(active)

Proteins

Polypeptides

Stomach
Action of rennin
Hydrochloric acid
Prorennin
Prorenin
(inactive)

Rennin
Renin
(active)

Soluble milk
proteins
(casinogen)

Insoluble milk
proteins
(caesin)
Pepsin

Polypeptides

Question??
When a person suffers from gastric
pain, is it helpful if he drinks milk?
Explain.

Small Intestine
The small intestine consist of the Ushaped duodenum, jejunum and
coiled ileum.
Much digestion takes place here.
Food moves along it by peristalsis.
The small intestine is very long (6m)
to ensure enough time for the
completion of digestion.

Small Intestine
Chyme enters the duodenum and
stimulates the release of:
pancreatic juice by the pancreas
bile by the gall bladder
intestinal juice by the small intestine

These alkaline fluids neutralise the

acidic chyme.
The alkaline medium is needed for
the action of intestinal and
pancreatic enzymes.

Small Intestine
The gall bladder
releases its
stored bile.
The bile passes
through the bile
duct into the
duodenum.

The pancreas
secretes pancreatic
juice, which contains
the enzymes
pancreatic amylase,
pancreatic lipase
and trypsin.

The intestinal juice secreted by the intestinal glands contains the

enzymes maltase, sucrase, lactase, peptidases and intestinal
lipase. These enzymes digest food molecules.

Bile
Bile is not an enzyme.
It is produced in the liver and
stored in the gall bladder.
Bile emulsify fats by breaking
them down to smaller fat
droplets.
This is to increase surface area
for the action of lipase.

Summary of Digestion

Absorption
The rate of absorption depends on:
surface area
thickness of separating membrane
concentration gradient
Absorption at the small intestine is made
more efficient with the following adaptations:
large surface area
thin separating membrane
steep concentration gradient

Absorption
How is the small intestine adapted for absorption?
The surface area to volume ratio is increased for
absorption.
The surface area is
increased by the
numerous folds in
its inner wall.

Villi in the inner walls

increase surface area.

Microvilli in
the epithelium
of villi increase
surface area.

Absorption
One-cell thick wall
shorter distance
for diffusion

Lacteal/lymphatic
capillary helps to
transport fats to the
body.

Blood capillaries
network help to
transport amino
acids and glucose to
the body.

Well supplied blood

capillaries maintain
concentration
gradient

Presence of
microvilli
increase surface
area

Villus

Enzyme
Gl Sec Enz Action
Org
an reti ym Sub
an
Prod
d on e stra
uct
te
DuoPan Pan Tryp Prot Polyp
den cre cre sino ein eptid
um as atic gen
es
(ina
(pH
juic
Pept
ctiv
8.5
e e)
ones
)
Am Star Malto
ylas ch se
e
Pan Emu Fatty
cre lsifie acids
atic d and
Lip fats glyce
ase
rol
Int Int Mal Malt Gluc
esti esti tas ose ose
nal nal e
gla juic Suc Sucr Gluc

Large Intestine
Absorption of water and
minerals salts.
They are stored temporarily
in the rectum and discharged
as faeces through the anus.
The discharging of faeces
from the body is known as
egestion.

Assimilation - Liver

Glucose
Used up for cellular
respiration
Converted to glycogen for
storage

Amino Acids
Deamination
Produces urea and glucose

Assimilation - Liver

When red blood cells are worn out, they are

destroyed in the spleen. Their haemoglobin is
sent to the liver to be recycled.

Breakdown of haemoglobin produces iron which

is stored in the liver and used in the synthesis of
new red blood cells.

Breakdown of haemoglobin also produces bile.

Assimilation - Liver
Alcohol
Excess alcohol are
broken down by
alcohol
dehydrogenase to a
compound called
acetaldehyde.

Alcohol
Causes liver
cirrhosis

Increases the
risks of gastric
ulcers

Slows down
some brain
functions

What are some of the

harmful effects of
excessive alcohol
consumption?

Frequent intake
may lead to
addiction

Causes
symptoms of
drunkenness

Reduced
self-control