ICE NAVIGATION

TOPOGRAPHY AND HEADLANDS

Natural landmarks appearance changes significantly with or without ice/snow

cover
When using snow covered headlands for clearing bearings, errors are likely
Headlands where icebergs have grounded will also be longer and greatly
extended than the actual headland
Pack ice limit may be mistaken for coastline
Many inlets and points bear a marked resemblance

LIGHTHOUSES & BEACONS

During daylight, their detection or identification can become difficult, as snow or

ice hides the identification features or the entire structure in extreme cases
During night, the range of visibility of light may be impaired, due to ice or snow on
or around the lens

USE OF FLOATING NAVIGATIONAL AIDS

Floating aids are liable to be set adrift by force of ice, or simply drag their
moorings
Buoys or light vessels should not normally be used for navigation in ice regions,
unless their position has been confirmed using other means
They may be hidden under ice or snow
Mariner should be cautious in their use even after confirming their position when
ice is effecting the floating aids

SECTORED LIGHTS

Frost or ice on the lens of sectored lights is liable to change the visibility sectors
of lights significantly
Under such circumstances, mariner should confirm position of vessel using other
means
The sectors may be unreliable, but if the lighthouse or beacon is correctly
identified, it can still be used for taking bearings such bearings should be used
with extreme caution

DEAD RECKONING

Careful reckoning of course and speed along with time should always be kept, to
maintain a large-scale plot of ships track
Lack of information on tides and current will not help
Icebergs can be regarded as stationary
Determining speed relative to ice is key to accurate reckoning
Every opportunity to fix ships position should be availed
Systems like GPS, etc have much reduced the need for DR, but it should still be
maintained

USE OF COMPASSES

At or near (85) the geographical poles, gyrocompass becomes useless as it

loses all its directive force
At the magnetic poles, magnetic compass becomes useless as it looses all its
directive force
Gyro is generally reliable up to 70 latitude
Regular errors should be checked using azimuths, in extreme latitudes, more
frequent checks should be made
Impact with ice and frequent changes of course and speed introduce errors, that
are slow to settle
Frequent comparisons of gyro and magnetic compass should be made and
logged when azimuths are taken

ELECTRONIC & RADIO AIDS

GPS provides global coverage and if receiver is fitted, it can be relied upon, after
making allowance for errors
Other position fixing systems can be relied upon where available, after making
allowance for errors
Radar at peak performance is most advantageous

SOUNDERS

To be used continuously for signs of shoal water

Where proper surveys are done, depth obtained can be used as an indication of
position or drift of ice
Trace may be lost due to ice under the ship or hull noises
Ship may have to be slowed down or stopped to obtain sounding

OPERATING IN ICE
MAINTAIN FREEDOM OF MOVEMENT
Basic rules:

Keep moving, even if very slowly

Try to work with ice movement and not against it
Excessive speed leads to damage

FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED BEFORE ENTERING ICE

Dont enter ice if alternate route is available
Must consider
Type of ice
Time of year, weather and temperature
Area of operation
Availability of icebreakers
Ice classification of ship
State of hull, machinery, steering gear, bunkers and stores
Manoeuvrability of vessel
Draught and depth of water over propeller tips and the rudder
Adequate of stability
Ice experience of person in charge on the bridge

Brief all department heads

Reports on ice, open water and leads
Heating of accommodation and spaces
PPE for crew
Salt/Grit as non-skid material
Keep mooring winches and windlass turning slowly
Drain fire main
Permit to work system

SHIP HANDLING IN OR NEAR ICE

ENTERING

Enter during daylight hours only

Entry or navigation at night, or in reduced visibility, should be avoided, if forced to
proceed - good searchlights are essential
Never attempt entry where pressure is evident
Enter from leeward (less compact and less wave action)
Surge will be least, by entering at one of the bights
Enter at very slow speed
Enter at right angles

PROCEEDING

Engine must be ready for immediate manoeuvres

Once into ice, increase speed to maintain headway and control
Go round large floes and avoid attempting to break them
If required to hit a floe, hit square by the stem
Avoid glancing blows as it will sheer the bow off course and a blow with another
floe or at the stern is possible
Use leads through ice
Icebergs in an ice field may not follow the movement of ice field as they are
current driven and ice field is wind driven
Force of impact varies with square of the speed
Ship proceeding very slowly is likely to beset
Ship proceeding very fast risks damage
Engine should be slowed down if passing through small patch of open water, or
ship will pick up speed
Rudder should be amidships when going astern
When going astern, if ship is stopped by ice, leave rudder amidships, with engine
slowly turning ahead it will gradually wash ice clear
Immediately reduce to DS Ahead, if ice goes under ship
Violent rudder movements should be used in emergency only and hard over
movements can be used to slow down ship
Passage may be forced through ice by banging into it. Ensure engine is going
astern before vessel stops, or going ahead before she hits anything astern

ANCHORING

Avoid anchoring in heavy concentration of ice

If conditions permit anchoring, engine and windlass should be on immediate
notice
Weigh anchor if wind is to move ice on to ship

BESET

If ship is stuck in ice, the hull can get crushed

Ship beset in ice is at the mercy of ice movement
Icebreaker assistance should be requested immediately Icebreaker will clear
the ship by clearing ice from her sides and her intended course and sometimes
goes around the beset ship
Going full ahead, then full astern and using maximum rudder one way then
another can free up ship
As ship begins to move ahead, rudder should be amidships
Ships can be freed by changing trim and heel, by internal transfers
Anchors can be laid towards each beam on ice, to move ship
Anchor an also be placed on ice astern and with engine going astern, ship can
move astern
Engine should be kept turning slowly, to keep propeller clear

WORKING WITH ICE BREAKERS

Master of icebreaker directs any escorting operation
Icebreakers make use of aerial reconnaissance
Escorted vessels should:
Establish position of commencement of escorting service
Amend ETA if required
Maintain continuous radio watch
Follow the route ordered
Proceed at the speed ordered
Always follow path cleared by icebreaker
Have towing gear rigged at all times
OOW to be thoroughly familiar with signals for icebreaker assistance in
ICS
Acknowledge and execute icebreaker signals promptly
If icebreaker stops in an emergency, escorted ship should stop
immediately, either by going astern on engine or ramming into ice
If icebreaker is proceeding rapidly, channel will be wider than its beam, and
fragments of ice will be left in the channel, which can slowdown a following ship or
even block channel
Master of icebreaker decides on minimum and maximum distances from icebreaker
(minimum distance is the stopping distance and maximum is dependent upon ice
conditions to allow the channel to remain open). The distance may have to be
reduced to few meters if channel is likely to close

Icebreaker can decide to tow as well

Icebreaker decides on the engine speed of towed vessel
Icebreaker can tow at short or long stay, mainly dependent on towed vessel
Icebreaker connects towline well forward on her deck

WORKING IN CONVOYS

Master of icebreaker will order the sequence and distance between ships
Distance should be maintained
If speed is reduced ship astern must be informed immediately
Ship ahead and astern as well as ice must be carefully watched
Light and sound signals must be repeated promptly, by ships in the column in
turn

ICE ACCRETION
Forecast
received:

is difficult; ship may be in the area of ice accretion by the time warnings are
Send obligatory report as per SOLAS V
Steer towards warmer conditions, or seek shelter
Head into wind at minimum speed to reduce spray
If weather does not allow to head into wind, run before the wind at minimum
speed to maintain steerage