Bridge Construction

BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION
1. INTRODUCTION
Bridges play an important role in linking different parts of highway networks,
and therefore have a great impact on the capacities of such networks. Bridges are
massive structures that require large amounts of materials, skilled labor, and heavy
machinery for their construction. Therefore, the decision regarding the most
convenient construction system should be based on careful evaluation of all
applicable alternatives, and using evaluation criteria appropriate for each project.
The construction of bridges had started very long time ago. However, the
bridge construction technologies have evolved in the 20th century, and were fueled by
the Industrial Revolution. At the turn of the century, steel bridges were riveted
together, not bolted; concrete bridges were cast in place, not precast; and large bridge
members were built from lacing bars and smaller sections, not rolled in one piece.
Construction techniques such as post-tensioning, slurry walls, soil freezing, and
shield tunneling had not yet been conceived. Bridge construction is changing as the
new millennium begins. New construction techniques and new materials are
emerging. There are also new issues facing the bridge construction technologies
relative to the research needs associated with the new techniques and materials
introduced.
Over many decades, various construction systems for bridges have been
developed and successfully used. Most of these systems, with advances and
modifications, are still in use until today. The objective of this material is to review
the state of the art in the area of bridge construction. This involves the latest
construction systems and future trends for this type of structures.
For each construction system, a brief description is outlined that includes:
system concept, main system components, construction sequence, system advantages,
and system disadvantages and limitations. In addition, the bridge construction in
Egypt is discussed in view of the applicability of various construction systems under
the Egyptian construction environment. This includes the potential of using the
promising systems yet to be applied in Egypt.

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Bridges can be classified according to their purpose into highway bridges,

elevated roads, railway bridges, and foot bridges. This material is limited to highway
bridges and elevated roads since their work volume constitutes more than 90% of the
total volume of bridge works in Egypt. Only the construction systems for bridge
superstructures are included.
Further, bridges can be classified according to their material of construction
into timber, masonry, steel, reinforced concrete, and prestressed concrete. The
material is limited to prestressed concrete bridges since most recent developments in
the bridge construction systems are found in this category.

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2. BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION SYSTEMS

2.1 CLASSIFICATION OF BRIDGES
Several classifications of bridge type have been made. The most important
classifications include:
1. Purpose of Bridge: Highway bridges, railway bridges, foot bridges, viaducts,
elevated roads, etc.
2. Material of Construction: Timber, masonry, steel, reinforced concrete,
prestressed concrete, etc.
3. Type of Superstructure: Slab, girder, arch, truss, rigid frame, etc.
4. Type of Support: Simply supported, continuous, balanced cantilever, cablestayed, and suspension bridges.
5. Life of Bridge: Permanent and temporary bridges.
6. Navigation Requirements: Fixed, movable, and overhead bridges.
7. Span Length: Minor bridges (spans of 8 to 30 m), major bridges (spans of 30
to 120 m), and long span bridges (spans above 120 m).
2.2 SELECTION OF BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION SYSTEMS
The construction of bridges involves several phases, including surveying
works, soil investigation, bridge layout planning, selection of construction system,
design, and finally construction. Unlike most types of structures, bridges cannot be
designed until the construction system has been selected. Normally, the owner
specifies the broad requirements of the bridge, such as approximate length, number
and width of lanes and footpaths, and minimum width and vertical clearance of
navigation vents. Upon these requirements, the owner receives several alternative
designs; each is based on a certain construction system. The competitive proposals
should be thoroughly evaluated to reach at the most convenient construction system
for the bridge. The following evaluation criteria were suggested by bridge
construction experts:
1. Economy: It should consider the initial cost of each alternative.
2. Functional Requirements: They should consider channel clearance, approach
grades, aesthetics of design proportions, and overload capacity.
3. Long-Term Performance: It should consider maintenance cost and structure
durability.

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4. Construction and Design Requirements: They should consider familiarity

with the construction system, ease of construction, amount of risk involved,
interference with traffic or navigation during construction, construction
scheduling and overall time, design complexity, and use of local resources.
2.3 CONSTRUCTION SYSTEMS FOR PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
BRIDGE SUPERSTRUCTURES
Several construction systems for prestressed concrete bridge superstructures
have been developed. Most of these systems have been developed long time ago, but
are still in use until today. Therefore, this review article will focus on the most recent
and commonly used construction systems.
Table (2.1) shows a classification of prestressed concrete bridges and their
applicable methods of construction. From this table, seven systems could be
identified as the latest systems for constructing prestressed concrete bridge
superstructures. These systems are presented in Table (2.2). The suitability of these
systems for different conditions is given in Table (2.3).
For each construction system, a brief description is outlined that includes:
system concept, main system components, construction sequence, system advantages,
system disadvantages and limitations.
Table (2.1): Classification of Prestressed Concrete Bridges
Category
Pre-tensioned Girder
Bridges
(I- or T- Beam)

Method of Construction

Erected with Cranes

Erected with Launching Girders

Cast in-situ:

On Falsework
Cantilever Segmental
Span by Span

Post-tensioned Bridges

Precast:

Cable-Stayed Bridges
Suspension Bridges

Incremental Launching
Cantilever Segmental
Span by Span

Incremental Launching
Free Cantilever
Balanced Cantilever

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Table (2.2): Latest Bridge Construction Systems

System
Code

Description

Precast, Prestressed Concrete Girders

(Erected with Launching Truss)

Incremental Launching Construction

(Deck Pushing System)

Cast-in-place, Balanced Cantilever Construction

(Cantilever Carriage System)

Precast Segmental, Balanced Cantilever Construction

Spanwise Construction Using Stepping Formwork

(Flying Shuttering System)

Cable-Stayed Bridges

Suspension Bridges

Table (2.3): Suitability of Bridge Construction Systems

Syste
m
Code

Site
Structure
Span Lengths
Condition
Level
Short
(40 - 80 m)

Structure
Depth

Inaccessible

High

Inaccessible

High

Inaccessible

High

Inaccessible

High

Inaccessible

High

Inaccessible

Very High

Long
(200 to 1,000 m)

Variable

Inaccessible

Very High

Very Long
(500 to 2,000 m)

Variable

Short
(40 - 80 m)
Long
(up to 250 m)
Long
(up to 200 m)
Short
(40 70 m)

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Variable
Constant
Variable
Variable
Variable

Other Aspects
Sharp horizontal and
vertical curvatures, as
well as roadway
superelevations.
Straight or slightlycurved superstructures.
Crossing navigable
waterways.
Crossing navigable
waterways.
Long viaducts with
short spans.
Crossing deep rivers,
deep valleys, and
mountains.
Crossing deep rivers,
deep valleys, and
mountains.

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2.3.1 Precast, Prestressed Concrete Girders (Erected with Launching Truss)

System Concept
The basic idea of this system is the utilization of precast, prestressed I- of Tgirders, on top of which a deck slab is cast. The girders are usually erected by means
of mobile cranes. However, in case of inaccessible sites, a launching truss may be
used for this purpose.
Main System Components
The main components of this system include the following:
1. Formwork. The formwork includes the forms for the precast girders in
addition to the formwork for the deck slab. In case of T- girders, the girder
flanges provide support for the deck slab, restricting the formwork to the slab
sides only.
2. Gantry Cranes. They are required at the fabrication area to carry the girders to
the storage area and load them to the trolleys, as well as to carry the reinforcing
cage to the form.
3. Trolleys. Two trolleys are usually required to transport the girders to their
spans. Specially designed rubber-tired vehicles may also be used for this
purpose.
4. Launching Truss. A steel launching truss, equipped with two hoists, is
required for erecting the precast girders into their final positions. The launching
truss is shown schematically and at work in Fig. (2.1).

Construction Sequence
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

The construction sequence involves the following main operations:

Casting of girders in a casting yard.
Transporting the girders to their spans by means of the trolleys.
Carrying the girders by the launching truss which is positioned over the
respective span.
Erecting the girders into their final positions.
Casting of deck slab.
Moving the launching truss forward to the next span.

System Advantages
1.
2.
3.
4.

The main advantages of the launching truss system include the following:
Suitability for inaccessible sites, where the use of falsework is not economical
or not permitted.
Progress of work without interference with traffic under the bridge.
Economy, speed, and improved quality of mass production.
Adaptability to sharp curvatures, large grades, and roadway superelevations.
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(a) Launching Truss Schematic Diagram

(b) Launching Truss at Work

Fig. (2.1): Launching Truss Construction

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System Disadvantages and Limitations

The main disadvantages of the launching truss system include the following:
1. Requirement of a casting yard and special transport and erection equipment.
2. Unsuitability for complex roadway geometry. The system is limited to a
repetitive pattern of activities.
2.3.2 Incremental Launching Construction
(Deck Pushing System)
System Concept
In this system, the superstructure segments are cast in stationary formwork in a
casting yard located at one end of the bridge. After each segment is completed, the
superstructure is pushed forward to the other end of the bridge. In case of long
superstructures, two casting yards, one at each abutment, may be provided. In this
case, the superstructure is pushed forward from both abutments towards the center of
the bridge. Fig. (2.2) shows a schematic representation of the incremental launching
construction.
Main System Components
The main components of this system include the following:
1. Formwork. The formwork length is usually equal to the length of two
segments. The rear half of the formwork consists of forms for bottom slab and
lower part of webs, whereas the front half consists of forms for the rest of the
box section.
2. Lifting and Pushing Equipment. Vertical hydraulic jacks are used to lift the
bridge slightly at the abutment before each advance. Then, horizontal jacks are
used to push the superstructure forward.
3. Temporary Bearing Blocks. They are usually concrete blocks covered with
thin stainless-steel sheets. They are constructed on top of all supports
(including abutments, piers, and temporary intermediate supports) to reduce the
friction forces during the launching operation. The friction forces can be
reduced to about 2% of the vertical loading by feeding Teflon sheets between
the soffit of the bridge and the top of the stainless-steel sheets (Fig. 2.3).
4. Launching Nose. The launching nose is a lightweight-steel girder which is tied
to the front end of the bridge girder to reduce the cantilever moment during the
launching operations. To compensate for deflection of the nose before it
reaches a pier or intermediate support, the front end of the launching nose is
usually tapered upwards to facilitate easy engagement with the sliding blocks
(Fig. 2.2).

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Fig. (2.2): Incremental Launching Construction Schematic

Fig. (2.3): Temporary Bearing Blocks

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5. Intermediate Supports. They are temporary supports which may be provided

between the final piers to reduce the bending moments during launching of the
superstructure. As a rule of thumb, the bridge superstructure to be launched
incrementally should have a span-to-depth ratio of about 17:1 or smaller. If the
depth of superstructure is too shallow, intermediate supports should be used.
Construction Sequence
The construction of superstructures by the deck pushing system involves the
following main operations:
1. Construction of casting yard(s), including formwork and launching nose.
2. Installation of pushing and/or pulling systems, and temporary bearing blocks.
3. Construction of superstructure.
4. Disassembling of formwork, pushing and pulling systems, and launching nose.
5. Demolition of casting yard(s).
6. Erection and stressing of post-tensioning cables in longitudinal girders (webs).
7. Replacement of temporary bearings by permanent bearings.
Work Cycle for a Typical Segment
Segment lengths typically range between 15 and 30 m. The production of a
typical segment usually involves the following operations:
1. Casting of bottom slab and lower part of webs of a segment in the rear half of
the formwork.
2. Partial post-tensioning of bottom slab cables after the concrete has attained the
required strength.
3. Advancing of the segment to next position in the front half of the formwork.
4. Casting of top slab and the rest of cross-section for the first segment in the
front half of the formwork, while at the same time casting the bottom slab and
lower part of webs of the next segment in the rear half of the formwork.
5. Final post-tensioning of cables to link the segment to the previously
constructed segments.
6. Lowering of the formwork by means of hydraulic jacks.
7. Launching (pushing) the completed segments forward by means of hydraulic
jacks located underneath the bridge soffit at the casting yard. The launching
operation is conducted in successive advances (strokes) of about 25 cm each.
Before each advance, to reduce friction, the bridge superstructure is lifted
slightly off the support at the abutment by means of vertical hydraulic jacks.
During the launching operation, one worker should exist at each sliding block
to feed the Teflon sheets between the sliding block and the bridge
superstructure.

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System Advantages
The main advantages of the incremental launching construction (deck pushing
system) include the following:
1. Suitability for inaccessible sites, where the use of falsework is not economical
or not permitted.
2. Riding the learning curve through a repetitive pattern of operations.
System Disadvantages and Limitations
The main disadvantages of the deck pushing system include the following:
1. Requirement of a casting yard and pushing equipment.
2. Requirement of a large labor force during the launching operation.
3. Significant increase in longitudinal prestressing to resist the cantilever
moments during the launching operation, which increase proportional to the
square of the cantilever length.
4. Unsuitability for complex roadway geometry. The system is limited to
constant- depth superstructures, with straight or slightly curved alignment.
2.3.3 Cast-in-Place, Balanced Cantilever Construction
(Cantilever Carriage System)
System Concept
In this system, the superstructure is cast in segments in traveling forms. These
forms are supported from one end on the completed part of the superstructure, while
the other end is a free cantilever. After the concrete reaches the required strength, the
forms are moved forward and prepared for the next segments.
Main System Components
The main components of this system include the following:
1. Form Travelers. The basic elements of a typical form traveler include the main
frames, the guide rails, and the suspended platforms (Fig. 2.4). The main
frames run on the upper guide rails and both the frames and the rails are
attached to the finished portion of the bridge superstructure by means of tiedown anchors. All forms for the superstructure are suspended from the main
frames; the forms can be stripped in a single operation by lowering the main
frames. Modern form travelers are reusable and very flexible with respect to
changing geometry of the bridge superstructure and its alignment, including
camber. They allow all operations (such as advancing, adjusting of elevations,
and stripping of forms) to be carried out either hydraulically or electrically, and
controlled by a single central panel.

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2. Pier Brackets. They are used to provide support for the formwork of pier
tables. There are many types of pier brackets depending upon the local
conditions. If a pier is low, the pier brackets may be supported on the pier
footing or directly on the ground. On the other hand, if a pier is high, the pier
brackets are usually built out from the pier cap and pier shafts.
3. Local Bracings. They are required for the closure pours.
Construction Sequence
The construction of superstructures by the cantilever carriage system starts
with casting the pier tables. Cast-in-place segments (about 5 m long) are then added
to each side of the pier table alternatively in order to maintain balanced cantilevers,
which will minimize the out-of-balance moment at the pier. After the two cantilevers
reach the mid-span, the form travelers are stripped, to be erected on the next
completed pier table. The superstructure is completed by closure pours connecting the
cantilevers at the middle of each span. Fig. (2.5) shows the sequence of construction
using form travelers, whereas Fig. (2.6) shows the closure pour.
System Advantages
The main advantages of the cantilever carriage system include the following:
1. Suitability for inaccessible sites, where the use of falsework is not economical
or not permitted.
2. Spanning long navigation channels, where navigation is not to be interrupted.
3. High labor efficiency compared to other systems.
4. High level of efficiency and effectiveness for long spans, where the
cantilevering operation can be continued for a large number of segments.
System Disadvantages and Limitations
The main disadvantages of the cantilever carriage system include the
following:
1. Requirement of special equipment and skilled labor.
2. Need for very high precision during placement of segments so that the two
cantilevers meeting at the middle of each span have the same level.
3. Significant increase in superstructure reinforcement to resist the cantilever
moments.
4. Limited length of segments (from 2 6 m) according to the capacity of form
travelers and the optimum use of labor force.
5. Low construction progress rate due to the limited length of segments.

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(a) Form Travelers - Schematic Diagram

(b) Form Travelers during Construction

Fig. (2.4): Form Travelers

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Fig. (2.5): Cantilever Carriage System Construction Sequence

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Fig. (2.6): Cantilever Carriage System Closure Pour

2.3.4 Precast Segmental, Balanced Cantilever Construction

System Concept
In this system, the superstructure is precast and prestressed in segments in a
fabrication area. The segments are then transported to the bridge site, where they are
erected into their final positions.
Main System Components
The main components of this system include the following:
1. Formwork. The formwork for precast concrete segments usually consists of a
rigid outer shuttering and a hydraulically operated collapsible inner shuttering.
The inner shuttering can be completely removed during demoulding.
2. Transport Equipment. The precast segments are normally transported to the
site by means of trailers. The segments should be of transportable size and
weight.

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3. Erection Equipment. A variety of equipment types can be used for erecting the
segments; such as truck cranes, crawler cranes, floating cranes, launching
girders, cableways, etc. However, a launching truss equipped with hoists is
commonly used for precast segmental, balanced cantilever construction.
Fabrication of Precast Segments
To achieve a perfect fit between the ends of adjacent segments, each segment is
cast against the end face of the preceding one. This is called match-casting of
segments. The segments are then erected in the same order in which they were cast.
Segment joint faces need to be clean of any dirt for match-casting.
An epoxy resin, about 0.8 mm thick, is normally applied to the match-cast
contact surface. It serves as a bonding and leveling agent that transfers the shear and
bending stresses to the adjacent segment. Shear keys are usually provided in each
web of the segments to handle the erection stresses prior to the epoxy achieving the
final strength.
Typical Precasting Cycle
A typical precasting cycle involves the following operations:
1. Steam curing of freshly cast segments.
2. Releasing of pre-tensioning strands by cutting them.
3. Quality control and testing of concrete samples.
4. Removal of internal formwork units from the new segment.
5. Lifting of previously cast segment from its position for match-casting into
storage area.
6. Rolling of the new segment out of the formwork, and positioning it for matchcasting according to the required overall alignment.
7. Cleaning of the joint face and the bulkhead prior to casting the next segment.
8. Pre-assembly of reinforcement bars (in cages) to speed up placement.
9. Arrangement and stressing of pre-tensioning strands prior to concrete
placement.
10.Placement and curing of the concrete segment.
Erection of Precast Segments
The precast segments are picked from the transport trailer and launched to their
spans by means of the launching truss. They are then lowered to their level where the
epoxy resin is applied to the contact surface with the previously erected segments.
They are finally tied to the previously erected segments by post-tensioning cables.

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The precast segments are erected on either sides of the pier alternatively in
order to maintain balanced cantilevers, which will minimize the out-of-balance
moment at the pier. After the two cantilevers reach the mid-span, the launching truss
is moved forward to the next span, where it will be ready for erecting another pair of
balanced cantilevers. The erection procedure is described in detail in Fig. (2.7). The
launching truss at work is shown in Fig. (2.8).
System Advantages
The main advantages of the precast segmental, balanced cantilever
construction include the following:
1. Economy, speed, and improved quality of mass production.
2. Avoidance of interference with traffic or navigation by using an erection truss.
3. Low labor requirement for both fabrication and erection operations.
4. Adaptability to any horizontal or vertical curvature or any required roadway
superelevation.
System Disadvantages and Limitations
The main disadvantages of the precast segmental, balanced cantilever
construction include the following:
1. Requirement of a casting yard and special transport and erection equipment.
2. Need for a high degree of geometry control during the fabrication of precast
segments (match-casting).
3. Need for very high precision during the erection of precast segments so that the
two cantilevers meeting at the middle of each span have the same level.
4. Significant increase in superstructure reinforcement to handle the erection
stresses as well as the cantilever moments.
5. Temperature and weather limitations regarding the mixing and placing of
epoxy joint material.

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Erect precast segments on

either sides of pier as balanced
cantilever (shown), pour closure
segments, and erect temporary
steel frame on top of next pier.

Push launching truss forward

until steel frame and rear truss
legs carry weight (shown), then
continue pushing the truss
forward until the front legs rest
on the pier.

Replace steel frame on the

pier with a pair of segments,
and erect precast segments on
either sides of pier as balanced
cantilevers.

Fig. (2.7): Precast Segmental Construction Erection Procedure

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Fig. (2.8): Precast Segmental Construction Launching Truss at Work

2.3.5 Spanwise Construction Using Stepping Formwork

(Flying Shuttering System)
System Concept
In this system, the entire span is cast in place in stepping formwork (flying
shuttering), supported on specially designed and fabricated steel trusses extending
over the piers. After completion of the span, the form trusses carrying the formwork
are moved forward to the next span.
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Main System Components

The main components of the stepping shuttering system include the following:
1. Stepping Formwork. The stepping formwork is made of steel panels. The outer
formwork is supported by the steel trusses, whereas the inner formwork rolls
forward on rails within the box section.
2. Form Trusses. Two longitudinal steel trusses are erected beneath the two side
cantilevers of the box girder. They are designed to carry the forms of entire
span.
3. Support Frames (or Pier Brackets). They are erected on top of the piers to
support the form trusses. Steel rollers are usually used at the support frames to
facilitate launching of the trusses.
4. Hydraulic Jacks. They are used for advancing the form trusses. They may be
installed at the end of the trusses, at next pier, or at the finished portion of the
bridge.
5. Intermediate Supports. In case of long spans, intermediate supports for the
trusses may be used.
Construction Sequence
The construction of bridge superstructures using the flying shuttering system
involves two main phases; namely the concreting and advancing phases. The
construction sequence in these phases involves the following operations:
1. Erection of support frames.
2. Erection of form trusses and outer formwork.
3. Concreting of the box girder floor.
4. Erection of inner formwork.
5. Concreting of webs and top slab at one pour.
6. Partial prestressing of longitudinal cables.
7. Opening the stepping shuttering, and advancing the form trusses and stepping
shuttering to the next span using hydraulic jacks.
8. Preparation of stepping shuttering to cast the next span.
9. Final prestressing of cables after concreting of all spans, to make the whole
bridge continuous.
Fig. (2.9) shows a schematic diagram of the stepping formwork construction,
whereas Fig. (2.10) shows the stepping formwork during the concreting and
advancing phases. During the concreting phase, the form trusses should be tied to the
end of the finished portion of the bridge to avoid any displacement.

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System Advantages
The main advantages of the flying shuttering system include the following:
1. Suitability for long viaducts with short spans (40 70 m), where the work
continues for a large number of spans.
2. Elimination of the need for falsework supports or cranes at the ground level.
3. Progress of work without interference with the traffic under the bridge.
4. High construction progress rate (A typical rate of about 300 m2 of deck surface
area per week for span lengths of 40 m was reported).
System Disadvantages and Limitations
The main disadvantages of the flying shuttering system include the following:
1. Requirement of special equipment (stepping formwork and form trusses).
2. Unsuitability for long spans.

Fig. (2.9): Stepping Shuttering Construction Schematic Diagram

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(a) Concreting Phase

(b) Advancing Phase

Fig. (2.10): Stepping Shuttering during Construction, 6th of October Bridge:

(a) Concreting Phase; (b) Advancing Phase
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2.3.6 Cable-Stayed Bridges

System Concept
In cable-stayed bridges, the superstructure is supported at one or more points
by high-tensile steel cables, extending from support towers and connected directly to
the deck (Fig. 2.11). Various longitudinal and transverse cable arrangements are
shown in Figs. (2.12) and (2.13), respectively.
Construction Methods
The selection of appropriate construction method for cable-stayed bridges
depends on many factors, including the stiffness of the pylon, cable anchorage
system, possibility of installing temporary supports, maximum length of unsupported
spans permitted by the design, and ease of transporting materials.
Various methods have been used for the construction of cable-stayed bridges.
Recently, the balanced cantilever construction is probably the most favorable
construction method for modern cable-stayed bridges. However, other construction
methods can also be used, including incremental launching (deck pushing) and free
cantilever construction. The stay technology is outlined in the following sections.
Stay Technology
The stay technology has greatly developed with the development of highstrength steel and high-quality anchorages within the context of prestressed concrete.
The latest stay technology related to cables, anchorages and protection of cables will
be briefly outlined.
1. Cables. The cables used for bridge suspension (either cable-stayed or
suspension bridges) fall into four main categories: parallel-bar, parallel-wire,
stranded, and locked-coil cables (Fig. 2.14). The selection of the most
convenient cable type depends mainly on the mechanical properties required as
well as the structural and economic criteria (erection, design of anchorages,
etc.).
2. Anchorages. Various anchorage designs have been developed for different
types of cables. Fig. (2.15) illustrates an anchorage system for parallel-wire
cables (New-PWS) used for Suez Canal Cable-Stayed Bridge.
3. Protection of Cables. Stay cables, being the most exposed structural element
of the bridge, should be protected against aggressive environmental impacts,
particularly the corrosion. Recently, several efficient means of corrosion
protection have been developed and successfully used for modern cable-stayed
bridges, such as: galvanization of wires, coating of wires or strands with plastic
materials, providing each strand with a separate duct, etc. The application of
these protective measures is normally carried out in the factory, resulting in
high quality and facilitating the work on site.
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Advantages of Cable-Stayed Bridges

The main advantages of cable-stayed bridges include:
1- Suitability for long spans.
2- Provision of high clearance for traffic or navigation.
3- Requirement of less material quantities due to smaller superstructure depths.
Disadvantages of Cable-Stayed Bridges
The main disadvantages of cable-stayed bridges include:
1- High risks involved in the bridge construction.
2- High degree of control required on quality, time and budget.

Fig. (2.11): Schematic Diagram of Cable-Stayed Bridge

Fig. (2.12): Longitudinal Cable Arrangements: (a) Radiating; (b) Harp;

(c) Fan; (d) Star

Fig. (2.13): Transverse Cable Arrangements: (a) Single Plane - Vertical;

(b) Single Plane - Vertical/Lateral; (c) Double Plane - Vertical;
(d) Double Plane - Sloping
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(a)

(b)

(d)
(c)

Fig. (2.14): Types of Stay Cables: (a) Parallel-Bar; (b) Parallel-Wire;

(c) Stranded; (d) Locked-Coil

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Fig. (2.15): Anchorage System for Parallel-Wire Cables, 6th of October Bridge

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2.3.7 Suspension Bridges

System Concept
In suspension bridges, the superstructure is supported by steel suspenders
(vertical hangers) attached to main cables that are stung over the support towers in
the form of a catenary (Fig. 2.16).
Construction Methods
Most construction methods for cable-stayed bridges are still applicable for
suspension bridges. However, the suspension cable technology is different from the
stay cable technology, particularly the anchorage of main cables, and the connections
of vertical hangers to the main cables.
Construction Sequence
The construction of a precast, prestressed concrete suspension bridges typically
involves the following main operations:
1. Construction of towers and precasting of superstructure segments.
2. Erection of main cables. Strands are pulled by winches and erected
individually using specialized equipment.
3. Installation of cable clamps and hanger rods using cranes.
4. Transporting the superstructure segments below their final position on barges.
5. Erection of superstructure segments using erection equipment (erection girders,
for example).
6. Jacking-up of each segment prior to the erection of hanger bars.
7. Erection of hanger bars and their adjustment to predetermined lengths to bring
the segments into alignment.
8. Interconnection of the superstructure segments.
9. Cambering the superstructure upwards by controlled adjustment of hangers
before casting the deck.
10.Bringing the deck to its final level through a final set of hanger adjustments.

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Bridge Construction

Fig. (2.16): Schematic Diagram of Suspension Bridge

Advantages of Suspension Bridges

The main advantages of suspension bridges include:
1- Suitability for very long spans.
2- Provision of high clearance for traffic or navigation.
3- Requirement of less material quantities due to smaller superstructure depths.
Disadvantages of Suspension Bridges
The main disadvantages of suspension bridges include:
1- High risks involved in the bridge construction.
2- Highly advanced technologies required to attain the enormous span lengths.
3- High degree of control required on quality, time and budget.

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Bridge Construction

3. BRIDGE CONSTRUCTION IN EGYPT

Recent changes in Egypt have led to a rapid, continuous increase in traffic
volumes on both urban and rural roads. Consequently, the need for renovating old
bridges and constructing new bridges has increased. During the past decades, a great
breakthrough in the field of bridge construction has been experienced in Egypt, not
only in the number of constructed bridges, but also in the application of the latest
construction systems in building these projects.
Several highway bridges have been constructed for different purposes, such as:
(a) crossing the River Nile and Suez Canal, (b) crossing important highway
intersections, (c) solving the urban traffic problems by constructing elevated roads
over the existing roadways, and (d) replacing obsolete bridges.
This section presents the major bridge projects in Egypt, which are constructed
using the construction systems outlined previously. Various construction systems are
discussed in view of their applicability under the Egyptian construction environment.
This includes the potential of using the promising systems yet to be applied in Egypt.
3.1 Major Bridge Projects in Egypt
The construction of bridges in Egypt was being undertaken by foreign
construction companies. It was in 1967 when an Egyptian company, Arab Contractors
Co., started construction of bridges in Al-Giza New Bridge. Since that time, several
advanced construction systems have been applied in building many bridges and the
highest performance rates have been achieved. The latest bridge construction systems
used in Egypt and their major applications are presented in Table (3.1).
Referring to Table (3.1), all the latest bridge construction systems (outlined
previously in Section 2) have been applied in Egypt, except two systems: precast
segmental, balanced cantilever (System D), and suspension bridges (System G). The
precast, prestressed concrete girders (System A) has been applied in constructing two
bridges, with span lengths ranging from 33.0 to 40.0 m. The incremental launching
construction (System B) has also been applied in two bridges, with span lengths
ranging from 23.5 to 40.7 m. The cast-in-place, balanced cantilever construction
(System C) has been applied in many bridges, with main span lengths ranging from
104.0 to 130.0 m. The flying shuttering (System E) has been applied in two bridges,
with span lengths of about 40.0 m. Finally, two cable-stayed bridges (System F) have
been constructed: 6th of October Bridge (with a main span length of 133.0 m), and
Suez Canal Bridge (with a main span length of 404.0 m). It can be noted that the
span lengths of all bridge applications in Egypt lie approximately in the lower range
of optimum span lengths for each system, as shown in Table (2.3) in Section (2).
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Bridge Construction

Table (3.1): Bridge Construction Systems and Their Major Applications in Egypt
System
Code

A
B

System
Precast, Prestressed
Concrete Girders
(Launching Truss)
Incremental
Launching
(Deck Pushing)

Cast-in-Place,
Balanced Cantilever
(Cantilever Carriage)

Major Applications

6th of October Bridge, Ext.

from Ramsis Square to Ghamra

Ring Road 9-D Bridge

Zamalek Elevated Road

Dessouk Overhead Bridge

Precast Segmental,
Balanced Cantilever

Al-Giza New Bridge

6th of October Bridge
Abou El-Ela Bridge
Rod El-Farag Bridge
New Benha Bridge
Al-Moneeb Bridge
Al-Warrak Bridge

Stepping Formwork
(Flying Shuttering)

Width
(m)

Completion
Date

33 40

9.0 24.0

1988

40
31@25, 2@23.5
34.2, 7@40.7, 5@40, 34

22.0
16.6
2@10.75

1998
1986
1987

104, 2@69
110, 2@100, 2@70
115, 2@69
130, 2@75
120, 2@69
120, 2@60

34.6
34.0
2@17.8
2@17.8
2@11.0
2@22.5
2@22.5

1969
1976
1986
1990
1990
1998
2000

42

18.4

1998

40

20.0

2001

Has Not Been Applied

Span Lengths
(m)

6th of October Bridge, Ext.

from Ghamra to Autostrad

Suez Canal Bridge,

Approach Spans

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Bridge Construction

Cable Stayed Bridges

Suspension Bridges

6th of October Bridge, Ext.

from Ghamra to Autostrad

Suez Canal Bridge, Main

Spans
Has Not Been Applied

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133 (66.5 in each side of pylon)

2@10.9

1998

404, 2@163

20.0

2001

Bridge Construction

3.2 Site Conditions in Egypt

The site conditions for a job represent an essential factor in selecting the
construction system most convenient for that job. The bridge construction sites can
generally be classified into accessible and inaccessible. Inaccessibility may be due to
waterways, land obstructions, or traffic restrictions. The following four site
conditions are considered to represent the site conditions prevailing in Egypt:
Under running traffic.
Across navigable waterways.
Across deep waterways and mountains.
At accessible sites.
3.3

Applicability of Bridge Construction Systems for Different Site Conditions

in Egypt

(a) Construction under Running Traffic

Under this site condition, the traffic under the bridge should not be interrupted
during its construction. Almost all construction systems (outlined in Table 3.1) can be
applied. The substructure is usually constructed over land, away from the running
traffic. The substructure cost is therefore smaller than that for the other inaccessible
sites (which involve waterways or deep mountains). Consequently, the economic
span length, which is proportional to the square root of substructure cost is usually
small. Since balanced cantilever construction systems (C and D) are most suitable for
long spans, they are dropped. Similarly, cable-stayed and suspension bridges
(Systems F and G) are dropped for the same reason. Therefore, the precast concrete
girders (System A), the incremental launching (System B), and the flying shuttering
(System E) are most suitable for this site condition.
(b) Construction across Navigable Waterways
Under this site condition, no temporary or permanent work should intrude with
navigation. Large navigation vents are usually required. The substructure, usually
constructed within the waterway, is very costly. Correspondingly, the economic span
length is usually large. The construction systems most suitable for short spans
(Systems A, B, and E) are dropped. Similarly, the suspension bridge (System G) is
dropped since it is suitable for very long spans. This limits the choice to the balanced
cantilever construction (Systems C and D) and the cable-stayed bridges (System F).
(c) Construction across Deep Waterways and Mountains
Under this site condition, the economic span length is usually very long (it may
exceed one thousand meters) due to the very high cost of substructure. A cable-stayed
bridge (System F) can be used for span lengths of up to 1,000 m. Longer spans may
necessitate the construction of a suspension bridge (System G).
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Bridge Construction

(d) Construction at Accessible Sites

For these sites, all construction systems considered can be used. The
substructure cost is usually smaller than that for inaccessible sites. Consequently, the
economic span length is usually small. Thus, the construction systems for long spans
(Systems C, D, F, and G) are not feasible. The other systems (A, B, and E), although
suitable for inaccessible sites, may be considered feasible for accessible sites,
particularly when the superstructure is very high (such as for high approach spans and
viaducts), for which the falsework construction would be very costly.
The bridge construction systems applicable for different site conditions in
Egypt are presented in Table (3.2). The selection of the most convenient construction
system should be based on a detailed VE study involving the evaluation of all
applicable bridge construction alternatives, and taking into consideration the most
important criteria (economic and non-economic) that are relevant to each particular
project.
Table (3.2): Bridge Construction Systems Applicable for
Different Site Conditions in Egypt
#

Site Conditions

Construction under
Running Traffic

II
III
IV

Construction Across
Navigable
Waterways
Construction Across
Deep Waterways and
Mountains
Construction at
Accessible Sites*

System
Code

System Description

A
B
E
C
D
F

Precast, prestressed concrete girders.

Incremental launching.
Flying shuttering.
Cast-in-place, balanced cantilever.
Precast segmental, balanced cantilever.
Cable-stayed bridges.

F
G

Cable-stayed bridge (up to 1,000 m).

Suspension bridge (larger than 1,000 m).

A*
B*
E*

Precast, prestressed concrete girders.

Incremental launching.
Flying shuttering.

* These systems may be feasible for accessible sites, particularly when the superstructure is
very high (high approach spans and viaducts).

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Bridge Construction

3.4

Potential of Using Bridge Construction Systems Yet to be Applied in Egypt

Referring to Table (3.1), of the seven latest bridge construction systems

considered, only two systems have not been applied in Egypt, including precast
segmental, balanced cantilever (System D), and suspension bridges (System G). The
potential of using these two systems in Egypt will be explored.
a) Precast Segmental, Balanced Cantilever (System D)
This system is suitable for construction across navigable waterways (site
condition II, Table 3.2). Its main advantages include the economy, speed, and
improved quality of mass production. On the other hand, this system requires a
casting yard and special transport and erection equipment. Moreover, additional
reinforcement is required to handle the erection stresses. For these reasons, the castin-place balanced cantilever (System C) has been preferred in most bridges
constructed in Egypt under this site condition.
However, for longer crossings that warrant the installation of a casting yard,
the precast segmental construction (System D) may be considered a promising
alternative. In that case, the cost for the casting yard, storage, transportation, and
erection of precast segments needs to be evaluated in comparison with the cost of
form travelers for cast-in-place construction to select the most economical solution.
b) Suspension Bridges (System G)
This bridge type is suitable for construction across deep waterways and
mountains (site condition III, Table 3.2), where the economic span length is usually
very long (may reach several thousand meters). This bridge type provides high
clearance for traffic or navigation. On the other hand, it has high risks involved in its
construction, as well as requires highly advanced technologies to attain the increasing
span lengths. The cable-stayed bridges (System F) may be considered a good
alternative for economic span lengths of up to 1,000 m.
However, this site condition in not common in Egypt. The Egyptian terrain is
mostly flat, except for few, relatively low mountains. These mountains mostly exist at
isolated, low-population areas, creating no real traffic needs for spanning such
mountains. As for deep waterways, the most important waterways in Egypt include
the Suez Canal and the River Nile, both of which are less than 500 m wide. The River
Nile has been spanned by many overhead highway bridges, mostly using the cast-inplace, balanced cantilever (System C). The Suez Canal has recently been spanned by
a highway cable-stayed bridge; the largest cable-stayed bridge in the Middle East,
and the highest bridge in the world. (It has also been spanned by a movable steel
railway bridge).

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