Review of

DC Circuits
(EE 220)

Ohms Law

Ohms law states that the voltage across

a resistor is directly proportional to the
current I flowing through the resistor.
Mathematical expression for Ohms Law :

v iR

Note: the current enters the positive

side and leaves the negative side of v.
Two extreme possible values of R:
R = 0 (zero) v = 0 V ----- short circuit
R = (infinity) I = 0 A --- open circuit

Ohms Law

Conductance is the ability of an element to conduct

electric current; it is the reciprocal of resistance R and is
measured in Siemens (S).

1 i
G
R v

The power dissipated by a resistor:

2

v
p vi i R
R
2

Nodes and Branches

A branch represents a single element such as a voltage source
or a resistor (or a series connection of elements).
A node is the point of connection between two or more
branches.

Kirchhoffs Current Law (KCL)

Kirchhoffs current law (KCL) states that the algebraic

sum of currents entering a node (or a closed
boundary) is zero.

Mathematically,

i
n 1

0
5

Kirchhoffs Voltage Law (KVL)

Kirchhoffs voltage law (KVL) states that the algebraic

sum of all voltages around a closed path (or loop) is
zero.

Mathematically,

v
m 1

0
6

Series Resistors and voltage Division

The equivalent resistance of any number of resistors

connected in a series is the sum of the individual
resistances.
N

Req R1 R2 RN Rn
n 1

The voltage divider can be expressed as

Rn
vn
v
R1 R2 RN
7

Parallel Resistors and Current Division

The equivalent resistance of a circuit with N resistors in

parallel is:
1
1
1
1

Req R1 R2
RN

The total current i is shared by the resistors in inverse

proportion to their resistances. The current divider can be
expressed as:

v iReq
in

Rn
Rn

Nodal Analysis
Example 1: Determine the power consumed by each
resistor in the circuit below.
Apply KCl at
node 1 and 2

v1

v2

3
answer: v1 = -2V, v2 = -14V, P2 =2W, P7= 28W, P6 = 24W
9

Superposition Theorem
Example 1: Find v in the circuit shown below.

3A is discarded
by open-circuit

6V is discarded
by short-circuit

Answer: v = 10V

10

Source Transformation
Source transformation is the process of replacing a
voltage source vS in series with a resistor R by an
equivalent circuit that consists of a current source
iS in parallel with a resistor R, or vice versa.

v s is R
vs
is
R
11

Source Transformation
Example 1: Find io in the circuit shown below.

Answer: io = 1.78A

12

Thevenins Theorem
A linear two-terminal
circuit can be replaced by
an equivalent circuit
consisting of a voltage
source VTh in series with
a resistor RTh,

where
VTh is the open-circuit
voltage across terminals a-b.

RTh is the equivalent

resistance of the linear
circuit with the independent
sources turned off.

13

Thevenins Theorem
Example 1: Find the Thevenins equivalent circuit to the
left of the terminals in the circuit shown below.
6W

6W

4W

RTh

(a)

6W

2A

6W

2A

4W

+
VT
h

(b)

Answer: VTh= 6V, RTh = 3W, i = 1.5A

14

Maximum Power Transfer

The power consumed by the load
resistance RL is given by
2

VTh
RL
P i RL
RTh RL
2

Maximum power is obtained

by dP/dRL = 0.
2

RL RTh

Pmax

VTh

4 RL
Power transfer profile with different
values of RL
15

Capacitors
A capacitor is a passive element designed to store energy
in its electric field. It consists of two conducting plates
separated by an insulator (or dielectric).

16

Capacitors
Current-voltage relationship of
capacitor according to above
convention:

dv
iC
dt

and

1
v
C

i d t v(t )
t0

Energy stored in a capacitor:

1
2
w Cv
2

A capacitor acts as open

circuit under constant voltage.
The voltage across a capacitor
cannot change abruptly
17

Capacitors
Example 1: The current flow into an initially discharged 1mF capacitor
is shown below. Calculate the voltage across its terminals at t = 2 ms
and t = 5 ms.

Answer: v(2ms) = 100 mV, v(5ms) = 500 mV

18

Series and Parallel Capacitors

The equivalent capacitance of N parallel-connected
capacitors is the sum of the individual capacitances.

Ceq C1 C2 ... C N

The equivalent capacitance of N series-connected

capacitors is the reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of
the individual capacitances.

1
1
1
1

...
Ceq C1 C2
CN
19

Series and Parallel Capacitors

Example 2: Find the equivalent capacitance seen at the
terminals of the circuit in the circuit shown below:

Answer: Ceq = 40F

20

Inductors

An inductor is a passive element designed to store

energy in its magnetic field. It consists of a coil of
conducting wire.

21

Inductors
Voltage-current relation in an inductor:

di
vL
dt

and

1 t
i v (t ) d t i (t 0 )
L t0

Energy stored in an inductor.

1
w L i2
2
An inductor acts as short circuit under constant current.
The current flow through an inductor cannot change
abruptly
22

Inductors
Example 1: Determine vc, iL, and the energy stored in the
capacitor and inductor in the circuit of circuit shown below
under steady-state conditions.

Answer: iL = 3A, vC = 3V,

WL = 1.125J, WC = 9J

23

Series and Parallel Inductors

The equivalent inductance of series-connected

inductors is the sum of the individual inductances.

Leq L1 L2 ... LN

The equivalent capacitance of parallel inductors is the

reciprocal of the sum of the reciprocals of the individual
inductances.

1
1
1
1

...
Leq L1 L2
LN
24

Recap: voltage-current relation and power in

passive circuit elements

25

RC Circuit (source free)

Applying Kirchhoffs laws to purely resistive circuit
results in algebraic equations.
Applying the laws to RC and RL circuits produces firstfirst-order differential equations.
By KCL

iR iC 0
Current
flow in
resistor R

v
dv
C
0
R
dt
Current flow in
capacitor C

Vo is the initial voltage

= RC is the time constant
26

RC Circuit (source free)

Example 1: Refer to the circuit below, determine vC, and io

for t 0. Assume that vC(0) = 30 V.

Answer: vC = 30e0.25t V ;
io = 2.5e0.25t A

Example 2: The switch in circuit below was closed for a long

time, then it opened at t = 0, find v(t) for t 0.

Answer: V(t) = 8e2t V

27

RL Circuit (source free)

By KVL

vL vR 0
di
L
iR 0
dt

di R
( )i 0
dt
L

i(t ) I 0 e t /
Io is the initial current
= L/R is the time constant
28

RL Circuit (source free)

Example 2: For the circuit, find i(t) for t > 0.

Answer: i(t) = 2e2t A

29

Unit-Step Function

The unit step function u(t) is 0 for negative values of

t, and 1 for positive values of t.

0,
u (t )
1,

t0
t0

0,
u (t to )
1,

t to
t to

0,
u (t to )
1,

t to
t to
30

Unit-Step Function
Represent an abrupt change:

1.

voltage source.

2.

for current source:

31

Step-Response of an RC Circuit
The step response of a circuit is its behavior when the
excitation is the step function, which may be a voltage or a
current source.
Initial voltage (given):
v(0-) = v(0+) = V0
Applying KCL,

or

dv v Vs u (t )
c
0
dt
R

Vs u (t )
dv
1
(
)v
dt
RC
RC
Where u(t) is the unit-step function
32

The Step-Response of a RC Circuit

Integrating both sides and considering the initial

conditions, the solution of the equation is:

t0

V0
v(t )
t /
V

(
V

V
)
e
0
s
s

Final value
at t ->

Initial value
at t = 0

t 0

Source-free
Response

33

Step-Response of a RC Circuit
Example 1: Find v(t) for t > 0 in the circuit in below.
Assume the switch has been open for a long time and is
closed at t = 0. Calculate v(t) at t = 0.5.

Answer:

v(t ) 15e2t 5 and v(0.5) = 0.52 V

34

Step-response of a RL Circuit

Initial current (given)

i(0-) = i(0+) = Io

Final inductor current

i() = Vs/R

Apply KVL:

Vs u (t )
di
R
( )i
dt
L
L

Time constant = L/R

Vs
Vs
i(t ) ( I o )e
R
R

i (t ) i () [i (0) i ()] et /

35

t 0

Step-Response of a RL Circuit
Example 1: The switch in the circuit shown below has
been closed for a long time. It opens at t = 0. Find i(t)
for t > 0.

Answer:

i(t ) 2 e 10t
36

Second-Order Circuits
Chapter 8
8.1 Examples of 2nd order RCL circuit
8.2 The source-free series RLC circuit
8.3 The source-free parallel RLC circuit
8.4 Step response of a series RLC circuit
8.5 Step response of a parallel RLC

37

Examples of 2nd Order RLC circuits

A second-order circuit is characterized by a
second-order differential equation. It consists of
resistors and the equivalent of two energy
storage elements.

RLC Series

RLC Parallel

RL T-config

RC Pi-config
38

Source-Free Series RLC Circuits

The solution of the source-free
series RLC circuit is called as the
natural response of the circuit.
The circuit is excited by the energy
initially stored in the capacitor and
inductor.

d 2 i R di
i

0
2
L dt LC
dt
How to derive and how to solve?
39

Source-Free Series RLC Circuits

There are three possible solutions for the following 2nd
order differential equation (where the constants A1,
A2, B1, B2 are found from the initial conditions.

d 2i
di
2

i 0
0
2
dt
dt

where

R
2L

and 0

1
LC

1. If > o, over-damped case

i(t ) A1e s1t A2e s2t

2
where s1, 2 0

2. If = o, critical damped case

i(t ) ( A2 A1t )et

where

s1, 2

3. If < o, under-damped case

i(t ) e t ( B1 cos d t B2 sin d t ) where d 02 2

40

Source-Free Series RLC Circuits

Example 1

If R = 10 , L = 5 H, and
C = 2 mF, find and 0.
What type of natural
response will the circuit
have?

Answer: = 1, 0 = 10, under-damped

41

Source-Free Series RLC Circuits

Example 2

The circuit shown below

has reached steady state
at t = 0-. If the makebefore-break switch
moves to position b at t =
0, calculate i(t) for t > 0.

Answer: i(t) = e2.5t[5cos1.66t 7.538sin1.66t] A

42

Source-Free Parallel RLC Circuits

0

Let

1
i(0) I 0 v(t )dt
L

v(0) = V0
Apply KCL to the top node:
t

v 1
dv
vdt C 0
R L
dt

Taking the derivative with

respect to t and dividing by C

d 2 v 1 dv 1

v0
2
RC dt LC
dt
43

Source-Free Parallel RLC Circuits

There are three possible solutions for the following
2nd order differential equation:
d 2v
dv
2
02v 0
2
dt
dt

where

1
2 RC

and 0

1
LC

1. If > o, over-damped case

v(t ) A1 e s1t A2 e s2t where

s1, 2 2 0

2. If = o, critical damped case

v(t ) ( A2 A1t ) et

where

s1, 2

3. If < o, under-damped case

v(t ) e t ( B1 cos d t B2 sin d t ) where

d 02 2
44

Source-Free Parallel RLC Circuits

Example 3

Refer to the circuit shown below where the switch was

closed for a long time. Find v(t) for t > 0.

Answer:

v(t) = 66.67(e10t e2.5t) V

45

Step-Response Series RLC Circuits

The step response
is obtained by the
sudden application
of a dc source.

vs
d 2 v R dv v

2
L dt LC LC
dt

46

Step-Response Series RLC Circuits

The solution of the equation should have two components:
the transient response vt(t) & the steady-state response vss(t):

v(t ) vt (t ) vss (t )
The transient response vt is the same as that for source-free case
vt (t ) A1e s1t A2e s2t

(over-damped)

vt (t ) ( A1 A2t )et

(critically damped)

vt (t ) et ( A1 cos d t A2 sin d t ) (under-damped)

The steady-state response is the final value of v(t).
vss(t) = v()
The values of A1 and A2 are obtained from the initial conditions:
v(0) and dv(0)/dt.
47

Step-Response Series RLC Circuits

Example 4

Having been in position for a long time, the switch in the

circuit below is moved to position b at t = 0. Find v(t)
and vR(t) for t > 0.

Answer: v(t) = 10 +e-2t (2cos3.46t 1.15sin3.46t) V

vR(t)= e2t [2.31sin3.46t] V

48

Step-Response Parallel RLC Circuits

d 2i 1 di
i
Is

2
dt
RC dt LC LC

49

8.5 Step-Response Parallel RLC Circuits

The solution of the equation should have two components:
the transient response vt(t) & the steady-state response vss(t):

i(t ) it (t ) iss (t )
The transient response it is the same as that for source-free case
it (t ) A1e s1t A2e s2t

(over-damped)

it (t ) ( A1 A2t )et

(critical damped)

it (t ) e t ( A1 cos d t A2 sin d t )

(under-damped)

The steady-state response is the final value of i(t).

iss(t) = i() = Is
The values of A1 and A2 are obtained from the initial conditions:
i(0) and di(0)/dt.
50

Step-Response Parallel RLC Circuits

Find i(t) and v(t) for t > 0 in the circuit shown in circuit
shown below:

Answer: v(t) = Ldi/dt = 5x20sint = 100sint V

51