Section 4:

Early Childhood

Occipital lobe:
1.

Vision

Temporal lobe

Chapter 7:
Physical and Cognitive Development in
Early Childhood

1.
2.
3.

Hearing
Memory
Language processing

Parietal lobe:
1.
2.
3.

1
PHYSICAL CHANGES

Spatial location
Motor control
Attention

BODY GROWTH AND CHANGE

Height And Weight
2 inches and 5 to 7 pounds
average child growth a year
Preschool years boys and girls bodies lengthen
End of preschool years lost their top-heavy look
Fatty tissue girls

3
6
4
3 to 15
3 to 6

Three quarters adult size

95% adult size
Hand-eye coordination
Brain spurt of growth
Dramatic anatomical changes
Frontal lobe

Muscle tissue boys

MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

Note:

Growth patterns differ individually.

Variation is due to heredity.

IMPORTANT CONTRIBUTION TO HEIGHT DIFFERENCES:

1.
2.

Ethnic origin
Nutrition

Gross Motor Skills

3 years of age simple movements: hopping, jumping and running
- pride and accomplisment

4 years of age athletic prowess, adventuroues

The Brain
3 years of age three-quarters of adult size
6 years of age 95% of adult size

5 years of age stunts, races, climbing objects

3

Myelination axons are covered and insulated by a layer of fat cells

that increases the speed and efficiency of travelling information.

4 years of age hand-eye coordination

3 to 15 years of age brain undergoes dramatic anatomical changes

4 years brain experience spurt of growth

4
5

NOTE:

Overall size of the brain does not show dramatic growth in the
3- to 15- year age range.

3 to 6 years of age rapid growth in frontal lobe

Frontal lobe:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Voluntary movement
Thinking
Personality
Purpose

Simple movements
Hopping
Jumping
Running
Pride and accomplishment
Adventurous
Athletic prowess
Stunts
Races
Climbing object

Fine Motor Skills

3 years of age pincer grip
4 years of age put things perfectly
5 years of age intermodal perception
3

Pincer grip

4
5

Perfectionist
Intermodal perception

95th percentile overweight

85th percentile at risk of overweight

Sleep

NOTE:

10 to 13 hrs sleep

Amount of sleep and uninterrupted sleep is important.

Bedtime resistance associated with conduct problems and
hyperactivity.
Sleep duration linked to overweight.

Overweight at 3 years of age are at risk of being overweight

at 12 years of age.
Weight at 5 years of age is linked to weight at 9 years of
age.
Prevalence of being overweight persist to 4 to 11 years of
age.

NOTE:

SLEEP PROBLEMS:
1. Narcolepsy extreme daytime sleepiness
2. Insomnia difficulty in going to sleep and staying asleep
3. nightmares
Sleep problems show:
1. depression
2. anxiety
5 months of age difficult temperament
17 months of age anxiousness
3 to 8 years adolescent problems

Childhood obesity most common

Type 2 diabetes linked with obesity and low level of fitness in
children as young as 5 years of age.

Exercise
2 hrs:
1 hr structured play
1 hr free play
3 to 5 years old - outdoor: inactive
Physical activities influenced by family
3 to 5 years old incorporation of move and learn increases
activity level

NUTRITION AND EXCERCISE

Nutrition
Saturated and trans fat raise cholesterol and increase heart
disease

Malnutrition in Young Children From Low-Income

Families
Anemia failure to eat inadequate amounts of quality meat and dark
green vegetables

430 calories 1/3 of calorie intake recommended for 4 to 8 years

old

ILLNESS AND DEATH

Note:

Eating behavior is influenced by caregivers behavior.

Improves childrens eating behavior:
1. Predictable schedule
2. Model eating healthy food
3. Make mealtimes pleasant occasion
4. Engage in certain feeding styles.

The United States

Death:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Sensitive responsive caregiver:

1.
2.
3.

Caregiver is nurturant
Provide clear info wat is expected
Responds to childs cues

Motor vehicle accident

Cancer
Cardiovascular diseases
Accidental deaths:
a. Drowning
b. Falls
c. Burns
d. Poisoning

Parental smoking develop wheezing symptoms and asthma

Restrictive feeding style

1.
2.
3.

Forceful
Restrictive
Not recommended
Body mass index (BMI) determines the category for obesity,
overweight, and at risk of being overweight computed by a
formula that takes into account the weight and height of a child

97th percentile obese

Secondhand smoke exposure:

1.
2.

Sleep problems
Sleep-disoriented breathing

6 years of age - lead poisoning

NEGATIVE EFFECTS OF LEAD POISONING:

1.
2.
3.
4.

lower intelligence
lower achievement
ADHD
elevated blood pressure

Children in poverty, higher rates of:

5.
6.
7.

- expands mental world

- scribbles, language and pretend play

limitations:
1. egocentrism

death
accidents
asthma

The State of Illness and Health of Worlds Children

2.

Under-5 mortality rate is cause by these factors:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

immunization
dehydration
availability of maternal and child health
income
food availability
clean water availability
safe sanitation
security

1 of every 5 nations in the world:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

hunger
malnutrition
illness
inadequate access to health care
unsafe water
lack of security

HIV/AIDS common death

animism

UNICEF The State Of The Worlds Children

3.

inability to distinguish between ones own

perspective and someone elses perspective
THREE MOUNTAIN TASK: children pick their
view rather than the doll
Preschool children show ability to consider
others perspective

belief that inanimate objects have life-like qualities

and are capable of action
example:
The three pushed the leaf off, and it fell down.

symbolism

Drawings are fanciful and inventive

Simple but strong, abstractions found in modern
art.

The Intuitive Thought Substage

Intuitive thought substage
4 to 7 years of age
- use primitive reasoning
- always asks questions
5 years old asks why questions
Intuitive young children are sure about their their knowledge and

2
COGNITIVE CHANGES
Piagets PREOPERATIONAL STAGE

understanding yet are unaware of how they what they know.

Centration and the Limits of Preoperational Thought

Centration centering of attention on one characteristics to the
exclusion of all others

Sensorimotor stage organize and coordinate sensation and

perceptions with physical actions and movements

Preoperational stage 2 to 7 years of age

Conservation awareness that altering an objects or a

substances appearance does not change its basic
properties.

- second stage
- represent world with words, images, and
drawings

- egocentrism, magical beliefs

CONSERVATION TASK:

Preoperational child does not yet perform operations

Operations reversible mental actions
- adding and subtracting numbers

Preoperational thought ability to reconstruct in thought what has

been established in behavior.

The Symbolic Function Stage

Symbolic function substage
first substage, 2 to 4
- ability to represent an object that is not present

Children are presented with two identical beakers, each filled

with the same level of liquid.
They are asked if the two beakers had the same amount of
liquid, they said yes.
Then the liquid from one beaker is transferred to another
beaker, taller and narrower.

They are asked if the two beakers had the same amount of
liquid, they said no.
Because of the differing heights and width.
Conservation of-liquid-task sign that children are at the
preoperational stage

FAILURE SHOWED:
1.
2.

Centration
Inability to perform operations

NOTE:

Child might be able to conserve volume but not

number.

Lower limit level of skills reached by the child working

independently

Upper limit level of additional responsibility that the child can

accept with the assistance of an able instructor

Rochel Gelman attentional training in one dimension influences

another dimension

Skills can be accomplished only with assistance of a more skilled

person
- buds aka flowers of development
fruits of development child can accomplish independently

Scaffolding
Scaffolding changing the level of support
- adjusting the amount of guidance to fit the childs current
performance

NOTE:

VGOTSKYS THEORY

As competence increases, less guidance is given.

Language and Thought

Use of dialogue role of language in childs development

Children - describes as social creatures

Speech to communicate and solve tasks
Cultural context shape their mind
Language to plan, guide, and monitor their behavior
Social interaction develop their way of understanding and
thinking

Private speech - for self-regulation

Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD)

egocentric
immature
tool of thought during the early childhood
early transition in becoming more socially
communicative
Private speech:
o
when tasks are difficult
o
made errors
o
not sure how to proceed
o
are more attentive
o
improve their performance more

3 to 7 years old transition from external to internal speech

- involves talking to oneself

Inner speech internalized egocentric speech

- act without verbalizing
- thoughts

ZPD range of tasks that are too difficult for the child to master alone
but can be learned with the guidance of a more knowledgeable
other

Self- talk egocentric

reflects immaturity

NOTE:

All mental functions have external, social origins.

Children who use more private speech are more

socially competent.

Private speech:
o
When tasks are difficult
o
Made errors
o
Not sure how to proceed
o
Are more attentive
o
Improve their performance more

View on
education
Teaching
implications

Establish many
opportunities to
learn in a real-world
setting

Teaching Strategies
VGOTSKYS theory incorporated in classrooms:
1. Assess the childs ZPD

2.

the skilled helper presents the child with tasks of

varying difficulty to determine the best level at
which to begin instruction

Education erely refine

the childs cognitive
skills that have
emerged
Teachers is a
facilitator and a guide,
not a director
Provide support for
children to explore
their world and
discover knowledge

Criticism:

not specific enough about age-related changes

did not adequately describe how changes in socioemotional

capabilities contribute to cognitive development
overemphasize the role of language in teaching

Use the childs ZPD in teaching

teaching should begin toward the zones upper limit

(level of additional responsibility that the child can
accept with the assistance of an able instructor)
offer just enough assistance
encourage

3.

Use more-skilled peers as teachers

4.

Place instruction in meaningful context

5.

shaping thought
Education plays a
central role, helping
children learn the
tools of the culture
Teachers is a
facilitator and a
guide, not a
director

Provide opportunities to experience learning in a

real-world setting

Transform the classroom with Vgotskian ideas.

Kamehameha Elemetary Education Program

(KEEP) in Hawaii
20 minutes of Center One
scaffolding improves literacy skills

INFORMATION PROCESSING
Information processing approach

illuminates how children process information during the

preschool years

Attention
Attention focusing of mental resources on select information
- improves during preschool years

2 ASPECTS OF ATTENTION:
1. executive attention

Evaluating Vgostkys Theory

Evaluation:
1. development fits with the current belief that it is important to
evaluate the contextual factors in learning

2.

sustained attention

social constructivist approach emphasizes social contexts of

learning and that knowledge is mutually built and constructed

VGOTSKY

PIAGET

Sociocultural
context
Constructivism

Strong emphasis

Little emphasis

Social constructivist

Stages

No general stages
of development
proposed
Zone of proximal
development
Language
Dialogue
Tools of culture

Cognitive
constructivist
Strong emphasis on
stages (SPCF)

Key processes

Role of
language

A major role
Langauge plays a
powerful role in

Schema
Assimilation
Accommodation
Operations
Conservation
Classification
Has a miniminal role
Cognition directs
language

action planning
allocating attention to goals
error detection
compensation
monitoring progress on tasks
dealing with novel or difficult circumstances

extended engagement with an object, task, event, or

other aspect of the environment

2 WAYS A CHILDS TO CONTROL ATTENTION IS

DEFICIENT:
1. salient versus relevant dimensions

2.

children pay attention to stimuli that stand out

(salient)
6 to 7 years old attend more efficiently to stimuli
that are relevant

planfulness

preschool children use haphazard comparison

strategy (not examining all details before making a
judgement)
elementary school age use systematically
comparison strategy (compare details one at a time)

3.

Interviewing techniques can produces

distortions in childrens report about highly
salient events.

Strategies and Problem Solving

Strategies- deliberate mental activities to improve the processing of
information

TWO TYPICAL STRATEGIES:

1. Rehearsing
2. Organizing information
Hungary provide activities that improve attention

3 to 4 years old cannot understand that a single stimulus can be

describe in incompatible ways from two different perspectives

Computer exercises develop attention

Activities (4 to 6 years old)
1.
2.
3.

use a joystick
working memory
resolution of conflict

preschool children sustained attention is related to school

readiness (achievement and language skills)

rule of color the red one the rabbit

4 years old concept of perspectives : allows them to appreciate
that a single stimulus can be described in two different ways

The Childs Theory of Mind

Theory of mind awareness of ones own mental process and

Memory
Memory retention of information over time
2 TYPES:
1. implicit memory
2. explicit memory
FORMS OF EXPLICIT MEMORY:
1. short term memory

memory-span task way to assess a short term memory

- hear a shot list of stimuli presented at
a rapid pace then, you are asked to repeat the digits.

Note:

Short term memory increases during childhood.

Memory span varies from one individual to another.
Speed improves dramatically across the childhood
years.

long term memory

memory becomes more accurate

Factors that influence accuracy:

1. There are age differences in susceptibility to
suggestion.

2.

DEVELOPMENTAL CHANGES.
18 months to 3 years:
1. Perceptions
2 years of age recognizes that we have different
perceptions

retain information for 30 seconds, if there is no

rehearsal of information

rehearsal repeating information after it has been

presented

2.

mental process of others

- view children as a thinker who is trying to
explain, predict, and understand peoples thoughts, feelings
and utterances.

preschoolers are more susceptible

There are individual difference in

susceptibility.

ability to produce a high quality narrative was

linked to their resistance to attention

3 years of age child realizes that looking leads to

knowing whats inside the container

2.

Emotions
Child can distinguish between positive (happy) and
negative (sad) emotion.

3.

Desires
Toddler recognizes that if people want something, they
will try to get it.
Recognizing we have different desires
18 months old food preferences may not match
others

3 to 5 years old false beliefs (beliefs that are not true)

- Band aids box

KNOWLEDGE ON MORPHOLOGY RULES:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Use of plural nouns

Use of possessive nouns
Put appropriate ending on verbs
Use prepositions
Use articles
Use verb to be
OVERGENERALIZATION OF THE RULES

4 years old do not understand false belief.

5 to 7 years old deepening appreciation of the mind
Ambiguous line drawing a drawing that can be perceived in two
different ways

CHANGES IN SYNTAX AND SEMANTICS

SYNTAX
WH- QUESTIONS AUXIALIARY VERB SUBJECT
Where is going daddy?
auxiliary-inversion rule
WH- QUESTIONS AUXIALIARY VERB SUBJECT

7 years old there is only right answer, and it was not okay to

Where is daddy going?

have two different opinions

Early adolescence can have ambivalent feelings: person can

both feel happy or sad about the same event
- can have recursive thinking: thinking what
other people are thinking about.

INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES.
Executive function describes several functions (inhibition and
planning) that are important for flexible, future-oriented behavior

Autism:

Better at reasoning tasks

Not a homogenous grp
Some have less severe social and communication problems
Weaknesses in executive functioning may relate to theory of
mind tasks
Process information in a detailed, almost obsessive way

SEMANTICS

dramatic vocabulary development

18 to 6 years of age one word per hour

14, 000 words known by Grade 1

ADVANCES IN PRAGMATICS
Pragmatics
engage in extended discourses
talk to things that are not here
change speech style to suit situation (4 to 5 years old)

YOUNG CHILDRENS LITERACY

Important home literacy experiences:
1.
2.
3.

3
LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT

literacy experience
quality of mothers engagement with the child
provision of learning materials.

4
EARLY CHILDHOOD EDUCATION

UNDERSTANDING PHONOLOGY AND

MORPHOLOGY

VARIATIONS IN EARLY CHILDHOOD

EDUCATION

PHONOLOGY more sensitive to sounds of spoken words

Child-centered kindergarten

Child-centered kindergarten emphasizes the education of the

whole child and concern for his or her physical, cognitive and
socioemotional development

THE SELF

The Montessori Approach

Initiative vs. Guilt

Montessori approach educational philosophy in which children

Initiative vs guilt convinced that they are persons of their own

are given considerable freedom and spontaneity in choosing

activities and are allowed to one from one activity to another as
they desire.
- EQ IQ

- discover what kind of person they will become

- identify intensely with their parents

Initiative children at this age exuberantly move out into a wider

social world

Developmentally Appropriate and Inappropriate

Education
Developmentally appropriate approach education that
focuses on the typical developmental patterns of children (ageappropriateness) and the uniqueness of each child (ageappropriateness)

Desired outcomes:

thinking critically
working cooperatively
solving problems
developing self-regulatory skills
enjoying learning

EDUCATION FOR YOUND CHILDREN WHO ARE

DISADVANTAGED

Conscience great governor of initiative

Guilt lowers self-esteem

Self-Understanding and Understanding of Others

SELF-UNDERSTANDING
Self-understanding representation of self, the substance and the
content of self-conceptions

Self-recognition distinguish themselves through body attributes,

maternal possessions and physical activities.

4 to 5 years of age use psychological traits and emotion terms

Optimism dont distinguish between desired competence and
actual competence
- confuse ability and effort

Curriculum Controversy
child-centered, constructivist approach
vs
academic, direct-instruction approach

Universal Preschool Education

NOTE:

Quality preschool program increase the likelihood that they

will be retained in a group or drop-out.
Bring considerable cost savings.

UNDERSTANDING OTHERS
4 to 5 years of age use psychological traits and emotion terms
3 years of age children mistrust others by a single error
- recognizes joint commitment

4 years of age consider a relative frequency of errors before

mistrust

CONTROVERSIES IN EARLY CHILDHOOD

EDUCATION

NOTE:

CHILDREN ARE NOT EGOCENTRIC.

Head Start Program - a government-funded program that is

Emotional Development

designed to provide children from low0income families with the

opportunity to acquire the skills and experiences important for
school success.
- serve children from birth to 3 years

Chapter 8:
Socioemotional Development in Early
Childhood
1
EMOTIONAL & PERSONALITY
DEVELOPMENT

NOTE:

Growing awareness of self is linked to the ability to feel and

expanding range of emotions.

Expressing Emotions
Self-conscious emotions children must be able to distinctly
refer to themselves from others.
- 18 months of age

Understanding Emotions

NOTE:

Increased understanding of emotion

Emotion knowledge was positively related to 3- to 5year-olds social competence and prosocial
behavior.

Emotion knowledge was negatively related to 3- to 5year-olds internalizing and externalizing problems.
2 to 4 years of age increase number of terms they use to
describe their emotions
- learn about causes and consequences of
feelings

Feelings of anxiety and guilt central to the account of moral

development

Superego moral element of personality

Empathy responding to another persons feelings with emotions
that echoes the others feelings

Perspective taking ability to discern anothers inner psychological

states.

Moral Reasoning

4 to 5 years of age ability to reflect on emotions

- ability to understand that a same event can
elicit different feelings in different people

5 years of age determine emotions

2 to 4 years of age
4 to 5 years of age
5 years of age

Distinct stages according to Piaget:

1. Heteronomous morality

4 to 7 years of age

Justice and rules as unchangeable properties

2.

Terms to describe emotions

Causes and consequences of feelings
Reflect on emotions
Different feelings
Determine emotions

3.

7 to 10 years of age

Autonomous morality

Regulating Emotions
Emotion regulation ability to manage the demands and conflicts

Transition

10 years old and older

laws and rules are created by people
consider intentions and consequences
intentions consequences

immanent justice if a rule is broken, punishment will be melted

out immediately

they face in interacting with others

NOTE:
EMOTION-COACHING AND EMOTION-DISMISSING
PARENTS
Emotion-coaching parents
monitor their childrens emotions,
- view their childrens negative emotions as opportunities for
teaching,
- assist them in labeling emotions, and
- coach them in how to deal effectively with emotions.
- use more scaffolding and praise
- interact in a less rejecting manner
- focus their attention better

Older children : punishment occurs only if someone

witnesses the wrongdoing and that, punishment is not
inevitable.
Changes in moral reasoning occur in mutual-giveand-take-relations
Parent-child relations are less likely to advance
moral reasoning.

Moral Behavior
Moral behavior processes of reinforcement, punishment and

Emotion-dismissing parents deny, ignore, or change the

negative emotions.

imitation explain the development.

NOTE:
What children do in one situation is often only weakly related
to what they do in other situations
Ability to resist temptation is tied to self-control.
Self-control is a result of delayed gratification

REGULATION OF EMOTION AND PEER RELATIONS

Ability to modulate ones emotion is an important skill that

benefits children in their relationship with peers.

Conscience

MORAL DEVELOPMENT

Conscience internal regulation of standards of right an wrong that

involves an integration of all three component of moral
development: moral thought, feelings, and behavior.

Moral development involves the development of thoughts,

feelings, and behaviors regarding rules and conventions about
what people should do in their interactions with other people.

NOTE:

Moral Feelings

Young childrens willingness to embrace the values of their

parents that flows from a positive, close relationship.

Relativist doing whatever makes you happy.

Parenting and Young Childrens Moral Development

Aspects that contribute to childrens moral development:
1. Relational quality
2. Parental discipline
3. Proactive strategies
4. Conversational dialogue
NOTE:
Mutually responsive orientation and a decrease in parents
use of power assertion in discipline a young child is linked of
an increase in childs internalization an self-regulation

Proactive strategies using diversion, such as distracting or

moving them to alternative activities. (younger)

Natural selection favored males who adopted shortterm mating strategies.

Female:

Criticism:

Hypothesis backed by speculations

Little attention to cultural and individual variations

Social Influences
SOCIAL THEORIES OF GENDER
1. Social role theory

Conversational dialogue talking to them about values they

deem to be important (older)

GENDER

nonverbal
conform grp pressures
perform better
life satisfaction

Gender identity - sense of being male or female which most

children acquire by the age of 2 years old.

b.

Gender role sets of expectations that prescribe how female or

Gender typing refers to the acquisition of traditional masculine

or feminine role

2.

Psychoanalytic theory of gender (PHALLIC : 3 to

6)

Biological Influences
CHROMOSOMES AND HORMONES
XX female

3.

2 Main classes of sex hormone:

1. Estrogen (estradiol)

preschool develops sexual attraction towards the

opposite-sex parent
Oedipus and Electra Complex

Cognitive theory of gender

(LAWRENCE KOHLBERG)

XY - male

children observe and imitate behavior and through

being rewarder and punished for gender-appropriate
and gender-inappropriate behavior

STAGES:
a. gender identity
b. gender stability (4 to 6)
c. gender constancy (6 to 7)

released by ovaries
influence development of female physical sex
characteristics

androgen

released by testes
influence development of male physical sex
characteristics

NOTE:

low level of androgen = normal development of female

sex organs
EVOLUTIONARY PSYCHOLOGY VIEW
evolutionary psychology adaptation during human evolution
produced psychological differences in male and females

NOTE:

men women
leaders
helpful
aggressive

male should think, act and feel

2.

gender differences result from contrasting roles of

male and female
social hierarchy and division of labor are important
causes of differences in power, assertiveness, and
nurturing.

9 DIFFERENCES:
a. women men

Gender - characteristics of people as male or female

Improved when they secured resources that ensured

that their offspring would survive

PARENTAL INFLUENCES
MOTHER
More obedient
More responsible
More restrictions

FATHER
More involved with the
promotions of intellectual
development
More attentive
Engage in more activities

PEER INFLUENCES
Peers extensively reward and punish gender behavior
- greater pressure for boys to conform to their traditional male
role

Children:
o
o
o
o
o

Aspects of peer relations:

1. gender composition
3 years old Same-sex playmates
4 to 12
2.

2.

increases

clusters (6 children)
organized group games

authoritative
-

group size (5 years onward)

Boys
Girls

parent encourage their children to be independent but

still place limits and controls on their actions
extensive verbal-give-and-take is allowed
patents are warm and nurturant
associated with childrens social competence

dyads or triads

unhappy
fearful
anxious about comparing themselves with others
fail to initiate activity
weak communication skills

Children:
3.

interaction in same sex group

Boys
Girls
Rough-and-tumble play
competitive
Conflict
Ego displays
Risk taking
Dominance

o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o

Collaborative discourse
- talk and act in a reciprocal
manner

3.

neglectful parenting
-

Cognitive Influences

parent is very uninvolved in the childs life

associated with social competence, especially a lack
of self-control

Mechanisms by which gender develop:

1.
2.
3.

imitation
rewards
punishments

Children:
o
o
o
o
o

gender schema theory gender-typing emerges as children

gradually develop gender schemas of what is genderappropriate and gender-inappropriate in their culture.

schema cognitive structure, a network of associations that guide

individuals perceptions

4.

parents are highly involved with their children but

place few demands or control on them
associated with social competence, especially a lack
of self-control

- fuels gender-typing

Children:
o
o
o
o
o

2
FAMILIES
PARENTING
Baumrinds Parenting Styles
Four types of parenting styles:
1. authoritarian

restrictive, punitive style in which parents encourage

their children to follow their directions and respect their
work and effort.
places firm limits and controls on the child
allows little verbal exchange
associated with childrens social competence

low self-esteem
immature
alienated from family
truancy
delinquency

indulgent parenting

gender schema organizes the world in terms of female and male

cheerful
self-reliant
self-controlled
achievement oriented
tend to maintain healthy relations with peers
cope well with stress
neglectful parenting
indulgent parenting

Demanding,
controlling
Undemanding,
uncontrolling

rarely respect
difficulty in controlling their behavior and peer relation
domineering
egocentric
noncompliant
Accepting,
Rejecting,
responsive
unresponsive
Authoritative
Authoritarian
Indulgent

neglectful

Factors of correlation:
1. authoritarian parents
2. aggressive children
3. share genes

Parenting Styles in Context

Asian-American parents continue aspects of traditional Asian
child-rearing practices as authoritarian

Latino positive, and encourage development of self

African-American use physical punishment

Why do African-Americans enforce physical punishment?
-

Types of Child Maltreatment:

1. Physical abuse
-

To enforce rules in dangerous environment in which they are

most likely to thrive

2.

Punishment

Child neglect
-

Corporal (physical) punishment necessary and even desirable

method
- most likely to remember

3.

Antisocial behavior
a. cheating
b. telling lies
c. being mean to others
d. bullying
e. getting into fights
f.
disobedient

Physical punishment was associated with:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

higher levels of immediate compliance and aggression

lower levels of moral internalization
mental health
adolescent depression
externalized problems

4.

2.
3.
4.

Parents present out-of-control models for handling stressful

situations. Hence, children may imitate their aggressive, outof-control behavior.
Punishment can instill fear, avoidance, or rage.
Punishment tells children what not to do rather than what to
do.
Punishment can be abusive.

Time out child is removed from a setting that offers a positive

reinforcement

Physical punishment must be:

1.
2.
3.
4.

Mild
Infrequent
Age-appropriate
Used in context of a positive parent-child relationship

fondling a childs genitals, intercourse, incest, rape,

sodomy, exhibitionism, and commercial exploitation
through prostitution or the production of pornographic
materials

Emotional abuse
-

acts or omissions by parents or other caregivers that

have cause, or could cause serious behavioral,
cognitive, or emotional problems.

The Context of Abuse

NOTE:

No single factor causes child maltreatment.

Parents are involved in an intergenerational transmission of

abuse.

Reasons for avoiding spanking:

1.

failure to provide the childs basic needs

can be physical (abandonment), educational (child
truancy), or emotional (inattention).
most common form of maltreatment

Sexual abuse

Physical punishment was linked with:

1.

infliction of physical injury

parent may not intend to hurt the child
injury resulted from excessive physical punishment

Developmental Consequence of Abuse

Consequences:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

poor emotion regulation

attachment problems
problems in peer relations
difficulty in adapting to school
psychological problems
difficulty in maintaining healthy intimate relationships
violent romantic relationship
sexual risk taking
substance abuse

institutional neglect foster children who were neglected

TREATMENTS EFFECTIVE IN REDUCING CHILD
MALTREATMENT:

Coparenting

1.
2.

home visitation
parent-infancy psychotherapy

Coparenting support that parents provide one another in jointly

raising a child

SIBLING RELATIONSHIPS AND ORDER

CHILD MALTREATMENT

Sibling Relationships

Child abuse refers to both neglect and abuse

2 to 4 years of age conflict every 10 minutes

Child maltreatment - does not have the same emotional impact

Parents react in three ways:

and can include diverse conditions

Types of Child Maltreatment

1.
2.
3.

intervene or try to help them resolve the conflict

admonish or threaten them
do nothing at all

Characteristics of sibling relationships:

1.
2.
3.

emotional quality of relationship

familiarity and intimacy of the relationships
variation in siblings relationship

Birth Order
First born:

most intelligent
achieving
adult-oriented
helpful
conforming
self-controlled
conscientious

Later-born:

agreeable
liberal
rebellious

Only child:

spoiled brat
lack of self-control
self-centered behavior

Cross-Cultural Studies
Positive:

Openness

Ethnicity
acculturation cultural changes that occur when one culture
comes in contact with another

SES
Lowes SES:

More concerned with their childrens expectations

Create a home atmosphere
Use physical punishment
More directive
Less conservational

Higher SES:

More concerned with developing childrens initiative

Delay of gratification
Home in equal participants
Less likely to physical punishments
Less directive
More conservational

THE CHANGING FAMILY IN A CHANGING

SOCIETY
Working Parents
NOTE:

Overworking parents tend to be irritable at home.

Children of working member engage in less gender

stereotyping and have more egalitarian views.

Children in Divorced Families

PEER RELATIONS

NOTE:

3
PEER RELATIONS, PLAY, AND TELEVISION

Children from divorced families show poorer adjustment that

nondivorced families.
Acrimonious relationships have negative effects.
Poorer adjustment due to divorce
Gender differences are less pronounces and consistent than
was previously believed
Joint custody family was better adjusted than children in solecustody families.
Boys adjust better in father-custody families.

peer children at about the same age or maturity level

Peer Group Functions

Withdrawn children rejected by peers or are victimized and feel
lonely are at risk for depression

Aggressive risk for developing a number of problems, including

delinquency and dropping out of school

Gay and Lesbian Parents

Friends

NOTE:

There are only few differences between children growing up

with heterosexual parents and gay and lesbian parents.
No differences are found in adjustment and mental health of
children.

CULTURAL, ETHNIC, AND SOCIOECONOMIC

VARIATIONS

Friend someone to play with

Preschool children has friends of different ethnicity and gender

The Connected Worlds of Parent-Child and Peer

Relations

NOTE:

Lifestyle decisions by parents determine the childs pool of

friends.
In times of stress, children turn to parents for support.

B. Pretense/Symbolic Play:
Pretense/symbolic play child transforms the physical
environment into a symbol

- 18 months of age
- peaks at 4 to 5 years of age
- preschool years golden age

Linked to social competence and social acceptance:

Warmth
Advice giving
Provision of opportunities

Social competence prosocial behavior, low aggression

Social acceptance well liked by peers and teachers

18 months pretend play siya lang

3 to 5 years old role play
- socio-dramatic play

Childs peer relations attachment security and marital quality

town with fire

extinguish fire
imagine with other kids

PLAY
Play pleasurable activity in which children engage for its own sake,

Social Play:
Social play involves social interactions with peers

and its function and forms vary.

Plays Functions
Functions:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.

master anxieties and conflicts

cope with problems
work off excess physical energy
release pent-up tensions
important for cognitive development
a childs work
permits to practice their competencies and acquire skills
symbolic and make-believe plays

play therapy allow children to work off frustrations and to analyze

STAGES:
1. unoccupied behavior
-

2.

4.

Parents should encourage imaginary play because it

advances creative thought.

play exciting and pleasurable

- satisfies our exploratory drive

immature to mature
mimic other kid

associative play
-

6.

suggest
no interaction
observation

parallel paly
-

5.

egocentrism
play different toy on his own

unlooked behavior
-

childrens conflicts and ways of coping with them

NOTE:

solitary play
-

3.

no play
no objective

play with the same toy

no teamwork

cooperative
-

self-identification
with teamwork

exploratory drive involves curiosity and desire for information

about something new or unusual

Social interactions the benefit literacy skills:

1.
2.

negotiation
discussion

Types of Play

Constructive Play:
Constructive play play that combines sensorimotor and repetitive
activity with symbolic representation of ideas
- occurs when children engage in self-regulated
creation or construction of product of a solution

- manipulate objects
- focus: fingertips
- sandbox

A. Sensorimotor and Practice Play:

1. sensorimotor play
-

2.

derive pleasure from exercising their sensorimotor

schemes
6 months

Games:
Games activities engaged in pleasure that include rules and often
competition with one or more individuals

practice play
-

repetition of behavior when new skills are being

learned or when physical or mental mastery and
coordination of skills are required for games or sports
throughout life

Example: card game

TELEVISION
POSITIVE INFLUENCES:
1.
2.
3.

motivating educational programs

increasing their information about the world beyond their
immediate environment
providing models of prosocial behavior

Effects of TV on Childs Aggression

NOTE:

Exposure to TV violence caused the increased

aggression in the children in this investigation

Playing violent games Is linked to aggression in both
sexes.

Effects of TV on Childs Prosocial Behavior

NOTE:

SESSAME STREET --- IMITITATE POSTIVE SOCIAL

BEHAVIOR