Tensor Analysis on Manifolds Richard L. Bishop University of Minois uel I. Goldberg Iniversty of Minot Dover Publications, Inc. New Yorkcarrer O Set Theory and Topology 0.1. SET THEORY Since we cannot hope to convey the significance of set theory, itis mostly for the sake of logical completeness and to fix our notation that we give the definitions and deduce the Facts that follow. 0.1.4. Sets Set theory is concemed with abstract objects and their relation to various collections which contain them. We do not define what a set is but accept it as 1 primitive notion. We gain an intuitive feeling for the meaning of sets and, ‘consequently, an idea of their usage from merely listing some of the synonyms: ‘lass, collection, conglomeration, bunch, aggregate. Similarly, the notion of an object is primitive, with synonyms element and point. Finally, the relation between elements and sets the idea of an element being in a set, is primi We use a special symbol to indicate this relation, e, which is read “ element of." The negation is writen ¢, read “is not an element of.” ‘As with all modern mathematics, once the primitive terms have been specified, axioms regarding their usage can be specified, so the set theory can be developed as a sequence of theorems and definitions. (For example, this fs done in an appendix to J. Kelly, General Topology, Van Nostrand, Princeton, J., 1955) However, the axioms are cither very transparent intuitively ot highly technical, so we shall use the naive approach of dependence on intui- tion, since it is quite natural (deceptively so) and customary. We do not exclude the possibility that sets are elements of other sets. Thus we may have xe 4 and 7, which we interpret as saying that 4 and r are sets, x and A are elements, and that x belongs to 4 and A belongs to +. It may also be that x belongs to the set B, that xs itselfa set, and that ris an element2 SET THEORY AND TOPOLOGY {[Ch.0 ‘of some set. In fact, in formal set theory no distinction is made between sets ‘and elements. We srecfy a set by placing all its elements or a typical element and the ‘condition which defines “typical” within braces, { }- In the latter case we separate the typical element from the condition by a vertical |. For example, the set having the first three odd natural numbers as its only elements is {1, 3, }- IfZ is the set of all integers, then the set of odd integers is (x | there is m eZ such that x= 2n-+ 1}, or, more simply, (x | x= 2041, eZ} or (Qn+ 1] neZ}. ‘Set Ais a subser of set B if every element of A is also an element of B. The relation ig written A € B or B> 4, which can also be read ‘4 is contained in B” ot “B contains 4.” Although the word “contain” is used for both “<” ‘and “¢," the meaning is different in each case, and which is meant can be ‘determined from the context. To make matters worse, frequently an element x and the single-element set (x} (called singleton x) are not distinguished, which destroys the distinction (notationally) between "x = x,” which is always true, and “x x," which is usually false. ‘The sets A and Bare equal, writen A = B, ifand only if A ¢ Band Bc A. ‘We shall abbreviate the phrase “if and only if” as “if. 0.1.2, Set Operations For two sets A and B, the intersection of A and B, A 7B, read “A intersect 2B," is the set consisting of those clements which belong to both 4 and B. The tution of and B,A U B, consists of those elements which belong to 4 or B (or ‘both). The operations of union and intersection are easily described in terms of the notation given above: AnB AUB [Note that the use of “or” in mathematics is inva both” is not needed. tis sometimes convenient to use the generalization of the operations of ‘union and intersection to more than two sets. To include the infinite cases we start with a collection of sets which are labeled with subscripts (“indexed”) from an index set J. Thus the collection of sets which we wish to unite or intersect has the form (4, | «€4J). The two acceptable notations in each case, withthe first the more usual, are Aa = 0) (de 6}, the general intersection, U 4e= UtAs |e J), the general union. (x|xeAand xe), ix| xe Aor xe B). bly inclusive, so that “or z & ¥ $01.3) Conesian Products a Frequently J will be finite, for example, the first m positive integers, in which ‘case we shall use one of the following forms: QA and similarly for union, AOA Ag» U him ALU Ag Udy In order that the intersection of sets be a set even when they have no ‘common elements, we introduce the empty set othe set which has no ele ‘ments. For this and other reasons, appearing below, o isa useful gadget. The ‘empty set is subset of every set The set-theoretic difference between two sets A and B is defined by A~ B= {x| x¢ Aand x¢ B). We do not require that B be a subset of A in order for this difference to be formed. If A> B, then A — B is called the complement of B with respect to A. Frequently we are concerned primarily with a fixed set A and its subsets, in which case we shall speak of the comple- ‘ment of a subset, omitting the phrase “with respect to A.” Problem 0.1.2.1. The disjunctive union or symmetric difference of two sets A and Bis AA B= AUB ANB=(4— B)U(B— A). Observe that AAB= BAA, Prove the last equality. A distributive law is true for these set operations: (4A B) C= ANCA BAC. However, AA A= 2 for every 4. 0.1.3. Cartesian Products ‘An ordered paris an object which consists of a pair of elements distinguished 38a frst element and a second element of the ordered pai. The ordered pair ‘whose first element is a A and second element is be B is denoted (a, 8). In contrast we may also consider nonordered pair, sets having two elements, say a and 6, which would be denoted (a, 8) in accordance with what we said above. To be called a pair we should have a # 6, and in any ease (a, 8 {6,4}. On the other hand, we do consider ordered pairs ofthe form (a, a), and ita # 6, then (c, 6) # (ba). Indeed, (2,6) = (6d) iffa = cand b = d ‘The set of ordered pais of elements from and B, denoted x B, Ax B= (@Diacdbed), is called the cartesian product of A and B. Problem 0.131. Is Ax B= Bx A? WN