Running head: SYNTHESIS OF RESEARCH AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Synthesis of Research and Pedagogical Recommendations

ReTina D. Gray
EDUC 8100: Advanced Study of Learning
Kennesaw State University
November 15, 2015

SYNTHESIS OF RESEARCH AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Synthesis of Research and Pedagogical Recommendations

Finding/Implication (Source)
Module

Pedagogical
Recommendation
(Source- for example,
Anderman & Dawson,

Module 1:

According to Pashler, McDaniel, Rohrer,

Covington, OR from YOU!)

Instead of using the Learning Styles

Neuroscience

and Bjork, (2008) the Learning Styles

Theory to diagnose students, teachers

& Learning

concept is a waste of both time and

should build long-term memory by

resources. They believe that research

implementing activities that are

should be the bases for teaching not

relevant and engaging (Bernard,

Module 1:

diagnosis.
Bernard, (2010) states that the drill-and-

2010).
Teachers should be consistent,

Neuroscience

kill method is useless. It is when

provide challenging goals that are

& Learning

activities are relevant and engaging are

achievable, giving students a voice

students able to build long-term memory

and a choice in regards to the

assignments, using suspense when
introducing new assignments and
connect those assignments to
students personal lives (Bernard,

Module 1:

According to the film How the Brain

2010).
Brain stimulation in early childhood

Neuroscience

Learns (2003), scientists believe early

is important therefore, parents should

& Learning

stimulation triggers the brain to want to

interact with their children often by

learn. When there is a lack of parental

providing experiences that help

SYNTHESIS OF RESEARCH AND RECOMMENDATIONS

care, chronic under-activity in the brain

children discover their own gifts and

occurs.

aptitudes (How the Brain Learns,

Module 1:

Embarrassment, boredom, frustration,

2003).
Therefore, educators must create a

Neuroscience

fear and stress are obstacles to student

classroom climate that encompasses

& Learning

learning. Bernard, (2010) states that if

trust, equality, and multicultural

students are not comfortable in a

education which incorporates the

classroom, they will not learn.

students values, beliefs, and culture

into the curriculum (Hidden

Module 2:

Feedback is influenced by the three key

curriculum, 2014).
To ensure that feedback is beneficial

Three Key

learning theories which include

to student learning, teachers should

Learning

Behaviorism, Social-cognitive learning

refrain from using traditional

Theories and

theory, and Information processing

feedback and allow students to

the Role of

theory. Research suggest that feedback

become actively engaged in the

Feedback

has a powerful influence on the way

feedback process through self and

students learn when it is done correctly

peer assessment ("The Quality

(Hattie and Gan, 2011).

Assurance Agency for Higher

Module 2:

The Three Theoretical Perspectives and

Education," 2002).
When providing feedback teachers

Three Key

their Relationship to Feedback

should move past the traditional

Learning

The role of feedback under the

feedback or objectivism perspective

Theories and

Behaviorism learning theory is traditional

of feedback and instead implement

the Role of

and is used to reinforce or condition

feedback that engages students to

Feedback

students to produce the desired behavior

socialize, self-process, develop

SYNTHESIS OF RESEARCH AND RECOMMENDATIONS

or complete the desired task. Students are

strategies, and implement

rewarded through positive and negative

technology.

reinforcement. This positive or negative

reinforcement encourages learners to

Teachers should implement feedback

continue performing the desired behavior.

using the Socioculturalism

Feedback at this level is external and is

perspective by placing students in

often provided by the teacher who may

groups and encouraging students the

use cue as indicators or reminders of the

opportunity to give and receive

desired behavior or to remind students of

feedback to and from their peers

which undesirable behavior should be

(Edutopia, 2011). However,

diminished. Teachers should realize that

according to Hattie and Gan (2011),

the role of feedback under the

in order for this feedback to be truly

Behaviorism learning theory does not

beneficial, teachers should be sure

encourage learning but instead

that the peer feedback is at the same

encourages students to place more

level of self-regulation and that

emphasis on incentives and competition.

students are able to share control and

(Hattie and Gan, 2011).

be receptive when receiving

feedback.

The role of feedback under the Social

Cognitive learning theory consists of peer

Teacher can also provide feedback

interaction and feedback. Students gain

under Information Processing that

benefits from feedback when meaningful

allows students to take an active role

language is used through social

in their learning through self-

SYNTHESIS OF RESEARCH AND RECOMMENDATIONS

interactions (Hattie and Gan, 2011).

reflection (Liu and Carless, 2006).

Therefore, it is important that

Feedback under Information Processing

teachers asks questions that

theories of learning encourages students

encourages students to reflect on

to monitor their own learning or self-

their responses thus provide

regulate. It is used to encourage learners

feedback that helps students process

to process external information, internally

information and develop internal

by making connections to prior

understanding.

knowledge, experiences and beliefs.

Feedback helps learners process

Also, teachers should create learning

information and provides explanations on

environments where learning goals

why an answer is right or wrong.

are established, making feedback

Elaboration feedback also encourages

visible to both the teacher and the

students to reflect on their answers and

student (Hattie and Gan, 2011).

promotes learning.

Visible feedback can also be used in

the form of technology. During
classroom instruction, Teachers can
implement cellphones and electronic
clickers to help provided immediate
feedback to students while informing
teachers of student progress.
("Effective Practice with Eassessment. An Overview of

SYNTHESIS OF RESEARCH AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Technologies, Policies and Practice

in Further and Higher Education,"
Module 2:

The Three Feedback Questions and

2007).
According to O'Conner, (2010) in the

Three Key

Four Feedback Levels

traditional learning system

Learning

everything students do, is graded and

Theories and

According to Hattie and Timperley

included in the final grade, resulting

the Role of

(2007), feedback is related to three major

in students often asking Does this

Feedback

questions which include, Where am I

count? Teachers can change this

going? How am I going?, and

ideology by establishing a learning

Where to next? and the four levels of

environment that encourages

learning, which include Task and Product

ongoing learning, with well establish

Level, Process Level Self-regulation and

plans and goals (Hattie and Gan,

Self-level.

2011).

The Three Feedback Questions

Teachers can create a challenging

and rigorous learning environment

The first question, Where am I going?

that encourages self-regulated

relates to the establishment of goals. The

learning by utilizing the three main

second question, How am I going?

feedback questions of Where am I

provides feedback on student progress,

going? How am I going? and

and the third question Where to next?

Where to next? as well as the Four

encourages self-regulation that includes

Feedback Levels.

deeper understanding and various

SYNTHESIS OF RESEARCH AND RECOMMENDATIONS

strategies (Hattie and Timperley, 2007).

According to Hattie and Gan (2011),

in order to answer the question

The Four Feedback Levels include the

Where am I going? or the first

Task feedback level which is the most

level of feedback, a well establish

common type of feedback. At this level,

plan with establish goals must be set.

feedback is more information focused,

The second feedback question, How

and corrective; the second feedback level,

am I going? or the second level of

Process is more effective due to its ability feedback can be addressed when the
to providing strategies for identifying

teacher provides task processing

errors and helps students learn from their

strategies. Teachers can also provide

mistakes. This in turn helps to enhance

worked out problems or solutions

deeper understanding and provides

with step-by-step demonstrations on

connections between ideas; The third

how to solve these problems,

feedback level, Self-regulation boost

resulting in success and a deeper

students confidence. On this level,

understanding of the content (Renkl,

students monitor their own learning by

2011). Where to next? can be

generating internal feedback, seeking

answered by placing the students in

further and accepting feedback and the

groups. While in groups, students

fourth feedback level, Self does not

engage in high analytical thinking as

enhance learning or improve performance

they share ideas and provide Social

on task yet it provides comfort to students

Cognitive feedback to each other.

making them feel welcomed (Hattie and

Teachers facilitates student learning

Timperley, 2007; Hattie and Gan, 2011).

and increases critical thinking in

SYNTHESIS OF RESEARCH AND RECOMMENDATIONS

students by asking questions at

different stages of the learning
process encourage students to
become engage in self-regulatory
learning (The third level of
feedback), as they reflect on their
answers. The fourth level of
feedback, Self can be addressed as
teachers create a diverse learning
environment that welcomes all
students as well as their different
values, beliefs, and cultures (Gay,
2006).
Module 2:

According to Renkl (2011), Instruction

Three Key

becomes effective when worked-

Learning

examples are used as part of instruction.

Theories and

To aid students in developing a deeper

the Role of

understanding of key concepts, teachers

Feedback

can implement worked-examples at the

Renkl (2011) suggest teachers:

beginning of a lesson. Renkl (2011), has

compiled nine instructional guidelines to
that demonstrate the effectiveness of
worked-examples. These include Self-

Should provide worked out

problems or solutions with
step-by-step demonstrations
on how to solve these
problems, resulting in success
and a deeper understanding
of the content
Encourage students to gain a
deeper understanding of
concepts through selfexplanations or elaboration of
their answers.
Supplement self-explanations
with help guidelines that
provide instructional
explanations.

SYNTHESIS OF RESEARCH AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Explanation, Help, Example set, Easy-

mapping, Meaningful-building-blocks,
Learning by errors, Similarity,

Interleaving by fading, and Imagery

guidelines. These guidelines helps

students focus their attention on key

concepts by providing clues and
strategies on the right steps to follow.

Using worked-examples as an
instructional tool fosters learning.
According to Woloshyn and Gallagher
(2009), when students use SelfExplanations guideline while problem
solving, they gained a deeper
understanding when self-explanations
were meaningful and connections are
made using scheme. When implementing
the Easy-Mapping Guideline, conceptual
understanding is fostered when
information such as spoken text and
visual images are presented together.
Learning by Errors Guideline is

Provide information such as

spoken text and visual images
together and use color
coding.
Pair students using peer
models that are similar to
each other.
Encourage students to
imagine themselves
performing a solution or task
that they previously had read
or seen.
Ask students to use selfexplaining that includes both
correct and incorrect answers.

SYNTHESIS OF RESEARCH AND RECOMMENDATIONS

10

supported by Information Processing.

This type of evidence based learning is
more favorable when students use selfexplaining that includes both correct and
incorrect answers. Similarity Guideline is
supported by the Social Cognitive
learning theory. According to Renkl
(2011), when there are similarities in the
model and the observer, students were
able to master concepts. For example,
elementary students were successful in
mastering subtraction concepts when peer
models were used and similarities in
ethnicity promotes motivation. The
implementation of the Imagery Guideline
is supported by cognitive learning which
encourages students to use their working
memory to imagine themselves
performing a solution or task that they
previously had read or seen.
Module 3:

According to Costa (2009), when a

Educators should teach students how

Critical

student faces a challenge, educators

to independently analyze, synthesize,

Thinking,

should not focus the students ability to

conceptualize, evaluate, and apply

SYNTHESIS OF RESEARCH AND RECOMMENDATIONS

11

Habits of

reproduce the knowledge but on how

information through observation,

Mind, Self-

students produce knowledge.

experience and reflection. This

Regulation,

Consequently, teachers should not accept

includes implement strategies that

Metacognition

mere regurgitation of the content but

teaching students to be persistent,

accept the use of critical thinking skills

open minded, implement a step-bystep plan, make connections between

prior knowledge and newly acquired
knowledge, ask questions, and
identify critical thinking behaviors

Module 3:

According to Bonney and Sternberg

(Costa, 2009).
To improve critical thinking in their

Critical

(2013), the roles that students and

students, educators must rethink the

Thinking,

teachers play in the learning environment

traditional classroom and consider

Habits of

are important in the critical thinking

doing the following:

Mind, Self-

process. Instead of a teacher centered

Regulation,

classroom, the learning environment

Metacognition

should be student centered with the

teacher facilitating student learning.

Reconsider the roles students and

teachers play
Teachers rearranging their

classrooms
Assigning active roles to

students.
Encourage students to facilitate
their own learning by
participating in a fishbowl

discussions.
Ask questions at different stages

SYNTHESIS OF RESEARCH AND RECOMMENDATIONS

12
of the learning process. An
example of this can be found in
the Fun with STEM: The
Catapult Project video in which
the teacher repeats the questions
at different stages due to the
students different frames of
mind during each stage.

Module 3:

Costa states (2009) that the Habits of

According to Costa (2009), when a

Critical

Mind are a group of skills that help

student faces a challenge, educators

Thinking,

students know how to behave under

should not focus the students ability

Habits of

challenging conditions and enhances the

to reproduce the knowledge but on

Mind, Self-

ways students produce knowledge.

how students produce knowledge.

Regulation,

Theses 16 Habits are 16 ways students

Consequently, teachers should not

Metacognition

display their intelligence, they include:

accept mere regurgitation of the

content but accept the use of critical

1. Persisting
2. Managing Impulsivity
3. Listening with understanding and

thinking skills. Therefore, educators

empathy
4. Thinking flexibly
5. Thinking about your Thinking

independently analyze, synthesize,

(Metacognition)
6. Striving for accuracy and

information through observation,

should teach students how to

conceptualize, evaluate, and apply

experience and reflection. This

precision
7. Questioning and Problem Posing

includes implement strategies that

SYNTHESIS OF RESEARCH AND RECOMMENDATIONS

13

8. Applying past knowledge to novel

teaching students to be persistent,

situations
9. Thinking and Communicating

open minded, implement a step-bystep plan, make connections between

with clarity and precision

10. Gathering Data through all Senses
11. Creating, imagining and

prior knowledge and newly acquired

knowledge, ask questions, and

innovating
12. Responding with Wonderment and identify critical thinking behaviors.
Awe
13. Taking Responsible Risks
14. Finding Humour
15. Thinking Interdependently
16. Remaining Open to Continuous
Learning
Module 3:

Self-regulated learning requires students

Critical

to be self-directed, self-disciplined, self-

Thinking,

monitored, and self-corrective thinking

Habits of

(Foundation for Critical Thinking, 2013).

Mind, Self-

In a self-regulated learning environment

Regulation,

where students take responsibility for

Metacognition

their learning, the focus shifts from being

teacher-centered to student-centered. The
teacher is the facilitator or guide that
helps students construct their own
meaning to problem or issue (Bonney and
Sternberg, 2013).

To improve self-regulated learning in

the classroom Zumbrunn, Tadlock, &
Roberts (2011) suggests teachers
separated self-regulated learning into
three phases forethought and
planning, performance monitoring,
and reflections. During these phases
teachers should encourage students
to analyze and task and set goals,
employ strategies and monitor the
effectiveness of those strategies, and
reflection upon their performance on
the learning task focusing on the
effective strategies.

SYNTHESIS OF RESEARCH AND RECOMMENDATIONS

14

Module 3:

Influenced by Jean Piaget, John Flavell

According to Veenman (2011),

Critical

developed the Metacognition theory

educators can implement

Thinking,

which means to thinking about thinking

metacognitive skills through

Habits of

and consists of two components:

synthesis position which requires

Mind, Self-

knowledge and regulation. Under the

students to apply a relative solution

Regulation,

Metacognition theory, students must

in order to complete the task,

Metacognition

know how and when to apply strategies

informed instruction which explains

thus requiring students to become self-

the benefits of applying the

regulated learners;(Lai, 2011; Veenman

metacognitive skill, and prolonged

2011),

instruction which insures the

effectiveness of applying
metacognitive skills, due to its
prolonged use.

Module 4:

Over the years, theories regarding

Anderman and Dawson (2011), state

Motivation

motivation has changed. According to

that its the instructional strategies

Anderman and Dawson (2011),

implemented by teachers are the

motivation is complex and the

driving force behind students beliefs

motivational issue being examine

about their academic ability.

determines the theoretical perspective.

What is known is that motivation effects

Teachers can influence students' goal

how student learn and how they approach

orientation and build confidence and

learning and reach academic goals

motivation to achieve by changing

SYNTHESIS OF RESEARCH AND RECOMMENDATIONS

(Covington, 2000).

15

their attitudes toward children's goal

setting. This means, turning the
focus from performance-oriented
goals and teaching and focusing on
learning-oriented goals which
emphasize effort (The Power to

Module 4:

There are the four prominent theoretical

Overcome Failure, 2006).

In order to determine the

Motivation

perspectives on achievement motivation

effectiveness of the four prominent

which include (goal orientation theory,

theoretical perspectives on

social cognitive theory, self-determination achievement motivation, future

theory, and expectancy-value theory)

research is needed regarding the

cultural values that minority
students and the dominant white

Goal Oriented Theorist believe that goals

middle class holds regarding how

are the driving force behind motivation

goals are achieved (Covington,

and divided into two categories Mastery

2000).

and Performance goals. Mastery goals

refers to task and learning goals while
performance goals refers to ability.
Performance goals requires students to
focus primarily on ability and
performance while mastery requires
students to focus on learning (Anderman

SYNTHESIS OF RESEARCH AND RECOMMENDATIONS

and Dawson, 2011).

Social Cognitive Theorist believe there is

a connection between the learner, the
environment, and people around them.
When the learner is self-motivated
through self-efficacy and self-satisfaction,
students are driven to continue to
improve their methods of learning. Its
their beliefs about their ability and how
important the task is to them is what
drives them academic achievement
(Anderman and Dawson, 2011).

According to Anderman and Dawson

(2011), self-determination theory focuses
on three basic needs: the need for
competence, the need for autonomy, and
the need for relatedness and is rooted in
intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.

The expectancy-value theory relates to

the value students places on an outcome.

16

SYNTHESIS OF RESEARCH AND RECOMMENDATIONS

17

Module 4:

Students who are learning (mastery) goals

Teachers can influence

Motivation

oriented believe that effort and strategies

students' goal orientation and build

are factors to success while students who

confidence and motivation to achieve

are performance (ability) goals oriented

by changing their attitudes toward

avoid difficult tasks and give up more

children's goal setting. This means,

quickly and lose confidence when they

turning the focus from performance-

fail. As a result, performance (ability)

oriented goals and teaching and

goals oriented students are likely to lose

focusing on learning-oriented goals

their motivation. In a performance goal-

which emphasize effort (The Power

oriented situations where test scores are

to Overcome Failure, 2006).

the focus, students can be deprived of the

fun and joy of learning resulting in
students choosing the easy path (The
Module 4:

Power to Overcome Failure, 2006).

Within the motivational community,

According to the film, No Child

Motivation

motivational researchers cannot agree

Without Motivation (2006), it is

whether intrinsic or extrinsic motivation

important that educators set a few

is better. Those against extrinsic

guidelines for the appropriate use of

motivation believe that external rewards

rewards these include:

can actually decrease a child's intrinsic

Set goals and expectations that are

motivation and if external awards are

offered, intrinsic motivation decreases
resulting in an adverse effect on the

appropriate.
Complement and encourage
students for what they are

SYNTHESIS OF RESEARCH AND RECOMMENDATIONS

18

motivation. They believe that when

reaching for and what they are

students are given external rewards right

good at.

away or too early, it can hinder them from Create and develop an
enjoying the process resulting in a

environment that fosters children's

negative effect on their intrinsic

intrinsic motivation

motivation. (No Child Without

Motivation, 2006) However, if the
extremal reward is verbal and provides
students with information about their
learning in the form of feedback, then
intrinsic motivation increases (Anderman
and Dawson, 2011)

Let students experiment on their

own
Get involved in their learning
process.
Allow students enough time to
figure out the challenges and
projects on their own.

Module 4:

Competition and comparison can have a

To prevent competition and

Motivation

negative effect on students intrinsic

comparison among students, teachers

motivation. Competition and comparison

should create and develop an

can cause stress and disruptive behavior

environment that fosters children's

in students who may feel that they need

intrinsic motivation by setting goals

to stand out from their peers (No Child

and expectations that are appropriate

Without Motivation, 2006).

and complement and encourage

students for what they are reaching
for and what they are good at (No

Module 5:

Constructivist learning approaches can

Child Without Motivation, 2006).

The traditional teacher-centered

SYNTHESIS OF RESEARCH AND RECOMMENDATIONS

19

Learning

contribute to improvements in Self-

classroom does not meet the needs of

through

regulation by changing the traditional

our students because the teacher is

Inquiry

classroom. It shifts the focus, changing

the primary source of knowledge.

the traditional classroom structure from

Students are required to learn and

being teacher-centered to student-

produce through rote memory which

centered. Constructivist learning

is not beneficial for student growth.

approaches engages students and allows

Thus, Constructivist learning

them to be an active participant in the

approaches prepares students for life

learning process. It encourages students

outside of classroom by allowing

to become expert learners by helping

students to transform their mental

students to construct and build knowledge abilities into academic skills.

rather than reproduce facts or use rote

Therefore, teachers should

memorization. In the classroom, teachers

implement strategies that facilitate

become facilitators and guides by prosing

learning these including Goal

questions and valuing students interest.

Setting, planning, self-motivation,

As a result, students become self-guided

attention control, flexible use of

in the learning process as they use self-

learning strategies, self-monitoring,

reflection to self-correct and self-assess.

appropriate help-seeking and self-

Constructivist learning approaches aids in

evaluation (Narrated PowerPoint on

self-regulation by helping students

Self-regulation).

develop critical thinking skills which are

useful in real world experiences.
(Educational Broadcasting

SYNTHESIS OF RESEARCH AND RECOMMENDATIONS

20

Module 5:

Corporation, 2004).
Constructivist learning approaches can

When Constructivist learning

Learning

contribute to improvements in

approaches are implemented in the

through

Metacognition by aiding students in being classroom, teachers demonstrate and

Inquiry

aware of their own thinking.

teach strategies that include aiding

Constructivist learning approaches can

students in setting goals and

also help increase learning by building

developing a plan of action. Students

upon students problem-solving skills.

are encouraged to be persistent in

This is done by engaging students

order to maintain their plans and to

through ask questionings, solving

reach their goals. Students are also

problems and seeking the truth through

encouraged to critique their learning

Inquiry-based Learning (Educational

through the use of self reflection

Broadcasting Corporation, 2004).

which helps them identify their

strengths and weaknesses
(Educational Broadcasting

Module 5:

Constructivist learning approaches

Corporation, 2004).
Constructivist learning approaches is

Learning

contributes to motivation by encouraging

educational reform. It changes the

through

students to become intrinsically

way we motivate students to learn.

Inquiry

motivated. Constructivism taps into and

Motivation is no longer used as a

triggers students innate curiosity about

tool to force students to learn but a

the world and how things work thus

tool that entices students to take

encouraging students to be self- motivate.

ownership of their learning and

Because the Constructivist learning

establishing a future through their

SYNTHESIS OF RESEARCH AND RECOMMENDATIONS

21

approaches values students questions and own creation (Covington, 2000).

interests, students are motivated to learn
(Educational Broadcasting Corporation,
Module 5:

2004).
Lave and Wenger envisioned a learning

In a learning community, the roles

Learning

community that includes a variety of

that students and teachers play in the

through

roles that includes teachers, students, and

learning environment vary. In a

Inquiry

experts from the business, local and

learning community, students may

electronic community ("EPLTT - Situated

take on the role of a teacher while a

Cognition Presentation," 2012).

teacher may become a facilitator or

spectator ("EPLTT - Situated

Module 5:

The four benefits for using a situated

Cognition Presentation," 2012).

The situated cognition concept

Learning

cognition approach to learning include: 1.

encourages educators to place their

through

Students learn about the conditions for

students in an environment that is as

Inquiry

applying knowledge, 2. Students will

similar as possible to the context in

engage in problem solving and invention

which their learning will actually be

when involved in situated cognition, 3.

used. For example, when technology

Students will see the implications of the

is integrated, student achievement

knowledge they have gained and 4. When

improves because it fosters critical

students use their knowledge in context,

thinking, communication, creativity,

they are supported in structuring

and collaboration skills, which

knowledge in appropriate ways ("EPLTT

prepares students for a global society

- Situated Cognition Presentation," 2012).

and the workforce (Hollenbeck &

SYNTHESIS OF RESEARCH AND RECOMMENDATIONS

22

Hollenbeck, 2009).
Module 5:

Project based learning is an instructional

Learning

learning approach that differentiates

There are six tips for teachers

transitioning into project based
through

instruction and deepens comprehension

learning. These tips include 1. Set

Inquiry

by allowing students to explore real life

clear goals that know what is
problems and challenges. For example,
expected of them, 2. Over Plan for
when project based learning is used as an
those students who finished tasks
instructional approach, students become
early, 3. Make students accountable
engaged in the text and gain a better
for their time through differentiated
understanding of literature and themes
instruction which allows them to
within literature. Students begin to
choose the best way to complete
understand what they are learning today
assignments, 4. Give concrete
effects them outside the classroom and
deadlines for products by letting
the future. (An Introduction to Projectstudents knew what deliverables are
Based Learning, 2010)
due each day. 5. Share rubrics in
advance by giving students prior
insight into what is expected and 6.
Use self-reflection by taking notes on
the positives and the negatives of the
project (Canney, 2015).

Module 5:

According to Loyens and Rikers (2013),

When transitioning from teacher-

Learning

the coverage virus" effects the

centered instruction to student-

through

implementation of inquiry based learning

centered instruction, teachers should

SYNTHESIS OF RESEARCH AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Inquiry

23

due to the fear that subject matter is

expect resistance. In order to

insufficiently covered, leading to learning

counteract this resistance it is

becoming more teacher centered than

important for teachers to understand

student centered.

how the process works. They should

then take steps to aid students in the
transition, and wait for students to
eventually become comfortable

Module 5:

When it comes to the effectiveness of

(Felder & Brent, 1996).

To determine if Instruction Based on

Learning

Instruction Based on Inquiry, there is a

Inquiry is effective, future research

through

limited review of research studies

should focus on randomized

Inquiry

however Instruction Based on Inquiry has

controlled studies that compare

some positive effects on student learning.

inquiry-based instruction and direct

When it comes to Instruction Based on

instruction (Loyens & Rikers, 2013).

Inquiry there are mixed results for IBL,

PBL and predominately positive results
for PjBL. IBL has positive results for
tests, PBL fosters the development of
skills, and the all-around results for PjBL
Module 5:

are positive (Loyens & Rikers, 2013).

A group of Whitfield teachers worked

To measure the success of this

Learning

together to design projects integrating a

project based learning approach

through

variety of subjects, including history,

includes evidence of students

Inquiry

math and forensic science. To insure that

producing something that's actually

SYNTHESIS OF RESEARCH AND RECOMMENDATIONS

24

this program was a success, the teachers

meaningful, students finding the

ensured that there was collaborative

lesson more engaging and the

planning time, freedom to experiment and project makes students actually want
even to fail, and believed that every

to learn (Full-speed reform in rural

lesson does not have to be a project (Full-

Georgia, 2011)..

Module 6:

speed reform in rural Georgia, 2011).

According to Fox and Alexander (2013),

After reviewing the content area

Content Area

Learning to read is a lifetime process.

reading comprehension Classroom

Learning &

It is essential to view reading as a form of

Strategies at the website

Cross-

communication in which ideas are

http://www.adlit.org/strategy_library/

disciplinary

exchanged. It should not be viewed as a

list, I believe that although these

Literacy

skill but a behavior that develops over

strategies would apply to reading,

time. Along with recognizing reading as

they can also apply to theatre as well.

a method of communication, we should

Learning to read is a lifetime

also acknowledge that there are 5 other

process. In order to increase

broad principles that change the role of

students reading comprehension.

reading these include 2. Broadening the

Educators should seeks strategies

concept of reading beyond word

that increase intrinsic motivation.

recognition, 3. Learning to read should be

This includes finding reading

seen as a lifelong and continuous process,

materials that are interesting and

4. Consider students development interest

relatable to students (Fox &

and needs, 5. Instruction in domain-

Alexander, 2013). According to the

specific reading practices, 6. Pay

website AdLit.org (2015),

attention to students differences (Fox &

SYNTHESIS OF RESEARCH AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Alexander, 2013).

To increase the academic achievement of

students, it is important to broaden your
understanding of what reading means and
what reading development should be.
This includes considering the students
goals an intention while reading. (Gray,
1951) The Alexanders Model of Domain
Learning or MDL theoretical framework

25

There are other strategies that can aid

in comprehension instruction. This
website offers "Before" strategies
which activate students' prior
knowledge and set a purpose for
reading, "During" strategies help
students make connections to what
they are reading, monitor their
understanding of the reading,
generate questions regarding the
reading, and helps students stay
focused. The "After" strategies
provide students an opportunity to
summarize, question, reflect, discuss,
and respond to text. Here are a
couple examples of how these
strategies can be used.

is a three stage process which includes

acclimation, competence, and
Proficiency/Expertise. Each of these stage
describes the characteristics of students as
their domain knowledge and interest
grow. The MDL model replaces the
traditional model and improves student
reading and comprehension, as students

Before:
Think Aloud would help students to
monitor their thinking as they read
an assigned passage. The Think
Aloud allows students to monitor
their understanding as they are
directed through a series of questions

move toward competence to proficient

(Fox & Alexander, 2013).

During:
As students read stories or scripts
they can use Story Maps or guides
that will aid them by providng a

SYNTHESIS OF RESEARCH AND RECOMMENDATIONS

26

story structure and a visual

representation of the important
elements of a story such as the main
ideas, characters, setting, and plot of
an assigned reading.

After:
Exit tickets can be used as selfreflection tool in which students
describe what they learned that day,
they evaluate their performance, ask
questions, inform me that need help,
or that they did not understand a
concept.

SYNTHESIS OF RESEARCH AND RECOMMENDATIONS

27

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