N. PISKUNOV DIFFERENTIAL and INTEGRAL CALCULUS MIR PUBLISHERS Moscow 1969TRANSLATED FROM THE RUSSIAN BY 0. YANKOVSKY H.C Mexyos AVOSEPEHUHANBHOE H HHTETPARBHOE HCWHCAEHHA Ha aneonsenon saeneCONTENTS Preface (Chapter 1. NUMBER. VARIABLE. FUNCTION Real Numbers, Real Numbers as Points on a Number Scale 13 ‘The Absolute Value of a Real ‘Number ir Variables and Constants. 16 ‘The Range of Variable 6 Grdeed Variables. Increasing Variables seane Function a ays af Representing Functions ¢ Bale Elementary Functions. Eenetaty’ Forti eaie Fonctions sees ese n= Perr 10. Baler Coordinate Sytem DD D2I02 Exercises on Chapter Te ess ONE MALE (Chapter 11, LIMIT. CONTINUITY OF A FUNCTION 1 Te Lint of Vari. An Tatty tage Vs 4 Bie Li of aan Ae tate aaa 3 ila Mca ny’ Sided nding © 2S é a i 8 6. The Lint ofthe Function HF eg sss o Pie lumber ess est erases. Sa ERA uias SELL ciipinin® 3 Coma Amie 2 2 Si 18, SOU Bape Sioa Fuains 222022222 a It Goan etme, Seo SID 8 Powe m Gp I 8 Chapter I. DERIVATIVE. AND DIFFERENTIAL A. Velocity of Motion oe oe vv eee eee ee ee 2 Detiniton of Derivative 22D T LILI D iii iiit Dh & Geometric Meaning of the Derivative 122222222 22122 a 4 Diferentiablity of Functions ens LTT Lt a 5: Finding the Derivatives of Elementary’ Functions’ The ‘Derivative of the Function y =a", Where n Is Poslive and Integral. sss =» 8 6, Derivatives of the Functions yesin st y=cotx % 4. Darnativs of; a Constant te Produ oa Contant by & Funston 2'Sum, a Product, anda Quotient 0 8, The Derivative of’ « Logarithmic Funct Dill Be 8; The Derivative of a Composite Function. ©: | tas 10; Derivatives of the Functions y=tonx, y—eot#, yoin{e] 2.2 S 84 Contents 11. An Implicit Function and Its Differentiation. 12, Derivatives of & Power Function for an Arbitrary Real Exponent, “of an Exponential Funcion, nd a Compile Exponential Function". 81 13, An Inverse Function and’ Ite Different Dlg MM Inverse Trigonomettic Functions and Their Dilfereniistion << << 96 15, Table of Basle Differentiation Formulas =. es 2112S 02 16. Parametric Representation of a Function <2 120 D122 DI it 103 17. The Equations of Certain Curves in Parametric Form” <2 222. 2 105 8, The Derivative of a Function Represented Parametricaliy” <<.‘ ° 108 19. Hyperbolic Functions 500 20, The Differential Dos BL. The Geometric Signiticsnce of the Differential | 12121! erat B2 Derivatives of Different Orders. ss SS Ltt ue 28, Diferentials of Various Orders 222122 I ITLL 12 24, Different-Order Derivatives of ‘Impiicit’” Functions’ and ot Functions Represented Paramelrically 9. once cert ent + r 25. The Mechanical Significance of ihe Second Derivative |. ° 24 26. The Equations of @ Tangent and of a Normal. ‘The Lengths of ihe Subtangent and the Subnormal = +. ar 27. The Geometric Significance of the Beriva with Respect to the Polar Angles ss tse cere ee eee 9 Exercises on Chapter Is. oe oe eee rrr 130 (Chapter 1V. SOME THEOREMS ON DIFFERENTIABLE FUNCTIONS 1. A Theorem on the Roots of a Derivative (Rolle’s Theorem) 2. A Theorem on Finite Iyerements (Lagrange's Theorem). 3A Theorem ‘on the Ratto of thes Increments of. Two (Cauchy's Theorem) ee eee eet pee eee ett (he lito Rat lin (Eaton ot indie nimte Ferme ote Type) eee ee veces “ 5. The Lint fa Rell Tw Iily Large Quant Eton Ot ndeminte Fms the Ty8 Z) eee eee ee MO §, Feats Rome pe cv s-as cases watigee cole» ie 7. Expansion of the Functions ¢,'sin x, ‘ard'eds x in'a Taylor Series 1 156 Exercises on Chapler Ves ve vee t ete c ete cece 6 1D (Chapter V. INVESTIOATING THE BEHAVIOUR OF FUNCTIONS 1. Statement of the Problem 0 vo. eee ee ee 21 Inerease and Decrease of '@ Function 3. Maxima and Minima of Functions. < 4 Testing a Differentiable Function for Maximum” and Misimuim with aFirst Derivative see ee ee et ete et B."Teing Function fot Maximum ‘aid’ Niu ‘with ‘second Derivative vos. PCCP Cer 6. Maxima and Minime of a Function ‘of an‘Interwal” VL. LL 178Contents 5 7. Applying the Theory of Maxima and Minima of Functions to the Solution of Problems 19 8. Testing @ Function for'Naxiniuin ard Minimum by Means’ of Tajlor’s Fol sent eee nt nes + ne 18h 9. Convexity' and Concavily'of # Curve. Boinis of tatiection” S213 HO. Asymploles ee ee ee ee 9 1 General lan Jor investigating Fuvetions” ahd Consircting “GFephs 194 12 lnveligting carat Repeated Premeliely 199 Exercises on Chapter V voile 73 Chapter VI. THE CURVATURE OF A CURVE 1, The Length of an Are and Its Derivative «5... we = 208 2 Curvature. 5. Galeulation of Curva nt 4 Gileulation of the Curvature oi a Line Represenied Patametrically | | 215, 5, Galeulation of ‘the Curvature of a Line Given by am Equation of Polar Coordinates. ws eee nee 215 6. The Radius and Circie of Curvature. Centre of Curvature! Evolite and Involute st eee ete vee QT 7. The Properties of an Evoluie™ eee it 3. Approximating the Real Roots ofan Equation’ | 2... 15 Exercises on Chapter Vive ee eee a een ner 29 (Chapter Vil. COMPLEX NUMBERS. POLYNOMIALS, 1. Complex Numbers. Basic Definitions... . - er 2% Basle Operations on Complex Numbers 222222001 3. Bowers and Rools of Complex Numbers "© 4 Exponential Function with Complex Expose and its Broperties << & Euler's Formula. The Exponential Form of « Complex Number’. « « & Factoring’ s Polynomial enn ees Name et 7. The Multiple Roots of a Polynomial = ve 1 Factorisatlon of a Polynomial in the Caie of Compiex Rodis: ! 9, interpolation. Lagrange’s Interpolation Farmuly 0. 2: 10; On the Best Approximation of Functions by Polynomials. Chebyshev's Thory erste neces tentewtenetenees ves 282, Exercises on Chaplet VII oo es B58 (Chapter VItl FUNCTIONS OF SEVERAL VARIABLES 1. Definition of a Function of Several Variables 7 255, 2 Geometric Representation of a Function of Two eee) 3. Partial and Total Increment of a Function... +. +: 1359 4 Continuity of 3 Funetion of Several Variables © 022< 222. 2 380 5, Pattial Derivatives of a Function of Several Variables «<2 2. 2S 208 6. The Geometric Interpretation ofthe Partial Derivatives of une: tion of Two Variables coe eee ee 264 7, Total Increment and Total Dimerentiais © << SpcoogoE.| 8 Approximation by Total Differentials... 2222222022205 258 9, Error Approximation by Differentials «<2. 0 2 2? Dilan 10; The Derivative of a Composite Function’ The Toial Derivative ¢ 2° 273 MI; The Derivative of & Function Deflved Implicit... = - =. ss 210 12! Partial Derivatives of Different Orders sss cts tree 296 Contents 13. Level Surfaces Pee 14! Directional Derivatives’ | 02222220025 eee 15. Gradient. 16. Taylor's Forindla fora Function of Two 'Variabies << 1111 1! 290 17. Maximum and-Minimum of a Function of Several Variables” <<<; 292 18, Maximum and Minimum of a Funetion of Several Variables Relaied by Given Equations (Conditional Maxima and Minima) ss s+» 300 19, Siogular Polnts of Curve ws wenn e tet oles 2 SB Exercises on Chapter VII eee errr 22310 Chapter 1X. APPLICATIONS OF DIFFERENTIAL CALCULUS 70 SOLID GEOMETRY 1. The Equations of a Curve in Space. sv ew . 3M 2 The Limit"ang Desvaive gh the Veet, uli ‘i's’ Siar ‘zgument, ‘The Equation of a Tangent to a Curve. The Equation of a Normal Plane ss sas me ELEC e a 3, Rules for Differentiating Vectors (Véetor’ Functions) 721112 2 Sap 4. The First and. Second Derivatives ol Vector with’ Respect to ihe ‘Arc Length. The Curvature ofa Curve. The Principal Normal. =. 324 § Oseuiating Plane. Binormal. Torsion swiss wwe e+ Bobo 8 A'Tangent Plane and Normal toa Suiace’ 222222222222 335 Exercises on Chapter IX ov oe es beeen ee beens +0 (Chapter X. INDEFINITE. INTEGRALS. 1. Antiderivative and the Indefinite Integral... 2 Table of Integrals ee qpooGgG 5. Some Proprles ‘of an indedite infegal = 2 >: 4 Integration by Substitution (Change of Variable) " < 5. Integrals of Functions Containing @ Quadratic Trinomial + ° S @ Integration by Parts ese eee eee lt! 7 8 9 10. Rational Fractions. Partial Decomposition of s Rational onal’ Fractions and “Their ‘Integration $57 ction into Partial Fractions =. - 361 Teigrlion f Ratonl Bectiog on ue, Ett eee) Ougpadyemetion ewes SLIT LI IL! Ss TP ieee oPhnetonal Fuseins 22 TTTE LTT oH 12 Integrals of the Form (R(x, VaPRERO GE LLL LLL om 18 integration of Binomi Dileetigs vv =v vss sees 5 14, Integration of Certain Classes of Trigonometric ‘Functions’ <. <0 and let it be required to evaluate with an accuracy of + (Jor example, yy ql, and so forth). No matter what a is, it lies between two integral numbers N and W-£1. We divide the segment between Nand N+ into n parts; then a will lie somewhere between the rational numbers N+% and N+241, Since their difference is equal to 4, each of them expresses a to the given degree of accuracy, the former being smaller and the latter greater. Example. The trrational umber V2 is expressed by rational aumbers Ti and 15 to one decimal place, Tariand i: to two decimal places, Kai4"and 1415 to three decimal places, ete SEC, 2. THE ABSOLUTE VALUE OF A REAL NUMBER Let us introduce a concept which we shall need later on: the absolute value of a real number.The Absolute Value of a Real Number 8 Definition. The absolute value (or modulus) of a real number x (written |x) is a nonnegative real number that satisfies the con- ditions x ifs; ax ife<0. Examples. |2|=: 101=0. From the definition it follows’ that the rel for any x. Let us examine some of the properties of absolute values. 1. The absolute value of an algebraic sum of several real numbers is no greater than the sum of the absolute values of the terms letuls|xitlyl. Proof. Let x-+y=0, then lxtyl=xty<|xl+/yl (since x<]x| and y0 such that all subsequent values of the variable, after a certain one, satisfy the condition —Maxr0.Basic Elementary Functions. Elementary Functions 23 Power function y=", 1. a is a positive integer. The function is defined in the infi- nite interval —oo0 anda 1. This function is defined for all values of x. Its graph is shown in Figs. 13 and 14. ‘ aera ore of wee > aI Fig. 18. Fig. 14. Logarithmic function, y—log, x, a>0 and a% 1. This function is defined for > 0. Ils graph is shown in Fig. 15, Trigonometric” functions. In the formulas y=sinx, ete., the independent variable x is expressed in radians. All the enumerated F trigonometric functions are periodic. Let us give a general definition of a Periodic function. logy Definition 1. "The function y=/(x) is called periodic if there exists a con- stant C, which, when added to (or sub- tracted’ from) the argument x, does not change the value of the’ function f(e-+-C)=Ff (x). The least such number is called the period of the function; it Fig. 1. will henceforward be designated as 21 From the definition it follows directly that y= sinx is a periodic function with a period 2n:_sinx sin(r+2n). The period of cosx is likewise 2x. The functions y=tane and y=cotx have a period equal to x. The functions y= sinx, y=cosx are defined for all values of x; the functions y=tanx and y=seex are defined everywhere except the points x=(2k+1)F(k=0, 1, 2, ...); the functions y=cot x and y=cscx are defined for all values of x except the points x=kn(b=0, 1,2, ...). Graphs of trigonometric functions are shown in Figs.’ 16, 17,18, and 19. The inverse trigonometric functions will be discussed in more detail later on,Basic Elementary Functions. Elementary Functions 2 Fig. 18. Fig. 19. Let us now introduce the concept of a function of a function, If_y is a function of u, and w (in turn) is dependent on the var- iable x, then y is also dependent on x. Let y=F(u) u=9(x). We get y as a function of x y=F ip (4). This function is called a function of a function or a composite function. Example 1. Let y: function of =x The function y=sin (x4) is a composite Note. The domain of definition of the function y =F [(x)} is either the entire domain of the function, «= p(x), or that part% Number. Variable. Function of it in which those values of w are defined that do not go beyond the domain of the function F (u), Example 2, The domain of definition of the function y= Vi—s*(y= Vu, u=t—a) is the closed interval {—1, 1], because when | x]> Iu <0 and, conse” quently. the, function Vu is pot defined although the function w= t—? ig lefined for all values of x). The graph of this function is the upper hail of a circle with centre at the origin of the coordinate system and with radius tunity, The operation “function of a function”. may be performed any number of times. For instance, the function y=In [sin («*+-1)] is obtained as a result of the following operations (defining the following functions) 1 vexttlu Let us now define an elementary function. y Definition 2. An elementary function is a function which may be represented by a single formula of the type y=f(x), where the expression on the right-hand side is made up of basic elementary func- x tions and constants by means of a finite oy 72 number of operations of addition, Fig, 20 subtraction, multiplication, division and taking the function of a funetion. From the’ definition it follows that elementary functions are functions represented analytically. Inu, sinv, Examples of elementary functions: logx-+4 7e+2tane oo VFR fii a etiam, and the Tike. Examples of non-elementary functions: [The function y=1-2-3...n(y=f (n)}_ is not elementary because the ‘number of operations that must be performed to oblain y increases with 2, that is to say, it is not bounded 2. The function given in Fig. 20 is not elementary ellher because it is represented by meals of two formulas Hocxel, 1, exe, SEC. 9, ALGEBRAIC FUNCTIONS Algebraic functions include elementary functions of the following kind:Algebraic Functions 2 1. The rational integral function, or polynomial y=ar" tar" ...44,, where a,, a, ...,d, are constants called coefficients, and n is a nonnegative’ integer called the degree of the polynomial. It is obvious that this function is defined for all values of x, that is, it is defined in an infinite interval, Examples: 1. ymax is a linear Yh as Yas Junction, When’ 60, the linear function ° n yar expresses a8 being ditecly pro- artionsl to x. For t function is a, constant. De ymartebxte. Is a quadratic Junction. The graph of a quadratic func {ion isa ‘parabola’ (Fig. 21). These Fa functions are considered’ in detail in @ ® analytic geometry. Fig. 21. N. Fractional rational function. This function is defined as the ratio of two polynomials: on oe bays te YO BPE FO” For example, the following is a fractional rational function: w= it expresses inverse variation. Its graph is shown in Fig. 22. It is obvious that a fractional rational function is defined for all values of x with the exception yi of those for which the 00 denominator becomes zero. IMI. Irrational func- = tion. If in the formula y=f(x), operations of addition, subtraction, multiplication, division ® and raising to a power with rational non-inte- Fig. 22, gal exponents are per- formed on the right- hand side, the function y= f(x) is_called irrational. Examples y=Vi ete of irrational functions ar8 Number. Variable. Function Note 1. The above-mentioned three types of ‘algebraic functions do not exhaust all algebraic functions. An algebraic function is any function y= f(x) which satisfies an equation of the form Prlx) yr +P, (xy +... +P, (2) = 0, QQ) where P,(x), P,(x), -.-» Py (2) are certain polynomials in x. It may be proved that tach of the enumerated three types of function satisfies a certain equation of type (1), but not every func- tion that satisfies an equation like (I) is a function of one of the three types given above. Note 2. A function which is not algebraic is called transcendental. Examples of transcendental functions are: y= Cos x; y= 10% and the like. SEC. 10. POLAR COORDINATE SYSTEM The position of a point ina plane may be determined by means of a so-called polar coordinate system. We choose a point O in a plane and call it the pole; the half- line issuing from this point is called the polar axis. The position of the point M in the plane may be specified by two numbers: the number @, which expresses the distance of M- from the pole, ‘and the number g, which is the angle formed it by the line segment OM and the polar axis, ° The positive direction of the angle @ is reckoned counterclockwise. The numbers @ 0 and @ are called the polar coordinates of the fe x point M (Fig. 23). We will always consider the radius vector Fig. 23. @ nonnegative. If the polar angle g is taken within the limits 00- 8) Construct the’ graphs of the functions: 10. yon 88, Me peeaty li yet 18 Wye 2F 0), Ans. x #0. €) are sintx. Ans a (a> 0). Ans. —w log : tat oak all subsequent values of x will s isly the relation [-l% (Fig, 29), aoe4 Limit, Continuity of a Function Note 3. One should not think that every variable has a limit, Let the variable x take on the following successive values: 1 yael—ti yet Th 1 1 BF) Snes = GET (Fig. 30), For & sufficiently large, the value x,, and all subsequent values with even labels will differ from unity by as small a aay teat be bh hee ~ a He WaT 79 cag Fig. 29. Fig 2. number as we please, while the next value tao, and all subse quent values of x with odd labels will differ ftom zero by as. small a number as we please. Consequently, the variable x does not approach a In the definition of a limit it is stated that if the variable approaches the limit a, then a isa constant. But the word “appro- aches” is used also to describe another type of variation of a variable, as will be’ seen from the following definition. Definition 2. A variable x approaches ‘infinity if for every preassigned positive number M it is possible to indicate a value of x such that, beginning with this value, all subsequent values of the variable will satisty the inequality’ |.|>M, If the variable x approaches infinity, it is called an infinitely large variable and we write x— co. Example 3. The variable x takes on the values aeolian ‘This is an infinitely large variable quantity, since for an arbitrary M > 0 all Values of the variable, “beginaing ‘with s ceraia. one, "are, Ia absolute magnitude, greater than ‘©The variable x “approaches plus infinity’, x—-+0o, if for_an arbitrary M_>0 all subsequent values of the variable, beginning with a certain one, satisfy the inequality M -0, all subsequent values of the variable, beginning with 2 certain one, satisfy the inequality x<—M. For example, a variable x that assumes the values 2, ‘e approaches minus infinity SEC. 2, THE LIMIT OF A FUNCTION In this section we shall consider certain cases of the variation of a function when the argument x approaches a cerlain limit a ot infinity. Definition 1. Let the function y=/(x) be defined in a certain neighbourhood of the point a or at certain points of this neigh- bourhood. The function y= f(x) approaches the limit 6(y—>b) as x approaches a(x—ra), if for every positive number e, no matter how small, it is possible to indicate a positive number 8 such that for ail x, different from a and satisfying the inequality *) |x—a|<6, we have the inequality V@)—b], it may happen that the function is defined only for positive integral values of x." And so. in this case x—. a, ‘sssuming only positive integral values. We shall. not. specify this when i comes up later on. 236 Limit, Continuity of a Function that are not more distant fi the point a than 8, the points -M. of the graph of the function y=/(s) lie within a band of width 2¢ bounded by the lines y=b—e and y=b-+e. Note 1. We may define the limit of the function f(x) as x—a as follows. Let a variable x assume values such (that is, ordered in such fashion) that if |e—a|>|x"—al, then x** is the subsequent value and x* is the preceding value; but if |P—a|=|F*—a| and Pc then X* is the subsequent value and x* is the preceding value. In other words, of two points on a number scale, the subsequent one is that which is closer to the point a; at equal distances, the subsequent one is that which is to the right of the point a. Let a variable quantity + ordered in this fashion approach the limit alx—+a or lim: Let us further consider the variable y= f(x). We shall here and henceforward consider that of the two values of a function, the subsequent one is that which corresponds to the subsequent value of the argument. If, as x—+a, a variable y thus defined approaches a certain limit 6, we shall write and we shall say that the function y=f(x) approaches the limit b as xa. It is easy to prove that both definitions of the limit of a function are equivalent, Note 2. If f(x) approaches the limit 6, asx approaches a certain number a, so that x takes on only values less than a, we write lim f(x)=6, and call 6, the limit of the function f(x) on the left of the point a. If x takes Fig. 92 on only values greater than a, we write lim f(x)=6, and call 6, the limit of the function on the ‘right of the point @ (Fig. 32). it can be proved that if the limit'on the right and the limit on the left exist and are equal, that is, 6,=6,=6, then 6 will beThe Limit of a Function a the limit in the sense of the foregoing definition of a limit at the point a. And conversely, if there exists a limit 6 of a function at the point c, then there exist limits of the function at the point a both on the’ right and on the left and they are equal Example 1. Let us prove that lim (@x-1)=7. Indeed, let an arbitrary. >0 be glven forthe inequality (Se —7| A the inequality |f(x)—6|N, where W is determined by the choice of e. Inequality (3) in arbitrary e, the following inequality Segue! the aowing eqs |] co wh wl be ale li>t And this east tin (14) = tn EL re Fig. 23. Knowing the meanings of the symbols x» @ and x—¢—a the mea cof the follewing expressions are obvious: id S/(G) approaches 6 as 2-0" and *1) approaches © as so ‘or, In symbols, SEC. 3, A FUNCTION THAT APPROACHES INFINITY. BOUNDED FUNCTIONS We have considered cases when the function f(x) approaches a certain limit 6 as x—+a oF as x-+ oo. Let us now take the case when the function y= f(x) approaches infinity when the argument varies in some way.A Function that Approaches Infinity. Bounded Functions 9 Definition 1, The function f(x) approaches infinity as x— a, ie, it is an’ infinitely large quantity as x--a, if for each positive number M, no matter how large, it is possible to find a 850 such that for all values of x different from a and satisfying the condition |z—a| <9, we have the inequality |f (x)|>M. If f(x) approaches infinity as x— a, we write Jim f) oF f(x) + 00 as xv a. If [() approaches infinity as x—+ a and, in the process, assumes only positive or only negative values, the appropriate notation is, lim f(x)= + 08 or limf(x)=—co. Example 1. We shall prove that tim eo. Indeed, for any ‘M>O we will have >My ¥ provided an Hox< 0 we will nave provided [xl=12—01 < apt. vite (= 1) 0 tr <0 and (— ) 0 such that for all values of x satisfying the inequality |x|>N, the function f(x) is bounded. The boundedness of a function approaching a limit is decided by the following theorem. Theorem 1. Jj lim f(x)=b, where & is a finite number, the Junction f(x) is bounded as x—a, Proof. From the equality lim f(x)=6 it follows that for any 2>0 there will be a 6 such that in the neighbourhood a—60, values of x can be found such that [zsins|> M. But the function y= x sin is not infinitely large jecause it becomes zero when x=0, x, 2n,... The graph of the unetion y—=xsinx is shown in Fig. 38, Theorem 2. /f lim f(x)=6 +0, then the function I= Fe isa bounded function’ as x—-a. Proof. From the statement of the theorem it follows that for an arbitrary ©>0 in a certain neighbourhood of the point xa we2 Limit. Continuity of @ Function will have [f()—b| Tre > ite For example, taking e= 7/6], we get wo Li B1o1> Teal > Tet" which means that the function i; is bounded. SEC. 4. INFINITESIMALS AND THEIR BASIC PROPERTIES In this section we shall consider functions approaching zero as the argument varies in a certain manner. Definition, The function a= a(x) is called infinitesimal as x—+a or as x—reo if lim a(x)=0 or lim a(x)=0. From the definition of a limit’it follows that if, for example, Jim a(x)=0, this means that for any” preassigned arbitrarily Small positive ¢ there will be a 8>0 such that for all x satisfying the condition |x—a|<6, the condition |a (x)| 1 becauseInfinitesimals and Their Basic Properties 3 Example 2. The function (see Example 8, See. 2). ore * Fig. 99. Fig. 40. Let us establish a relationship that will be important later on. Theorem 1. if the function y=f(x) is in the form of a sum of @ constant b and an infinitesimal a: y=b+a, @ then limy=6 (as xa or x—+00). Conversely, if limy=b, we may write y=b-+Ha, where a is an infinitesimal. Proof. From equality (1) it follows that |y—b{=[a|. But for an arbitrary e, all values of a, from a certain value onwards, satisly the relationship al0, no matter how large, the inequality a >M will be fulfilled provided the inequality |a|

0, to ‘matter how’ small, there will be a d>0 such that when the inequality |x—a|<6 is satisfied, the inequality Ju|0 there will be a neighbourhood of the point x=a which ‘the inequality |z|0 there will be a neighbourhood in which the inequality |a|-< will be fulfilled. The following inequality will be fulfilled in the least of these two neighbourhoods: jaz] < Mae Wt which means that az is an infinitesimal. The proof is similar for the case x—+o0. Two corollaries follow from this theorem, Corollary 1. If lima=0, limB—=0, then limap—=0 because B(x) is a bounded quantity. This holds for any finite number of factors. Corollary 2. If lima=0 and c—const, then limcx—0. Theorem 5. The quotient +3 oblained by dividing the infini- tesimal a(x) by a function “whose limit differs from zero is an infinitesimal. Proof. Let lima(x)=0, lim 2(x)=6 #0. By Theorem 2, Sec. 3, it follows that z75 is a bounded quantity. For this reason, the fractions 1} —a(s) z+, are a product of an infinitesimal by a bounded quantity, that is, an infinitesimal. SEC. 5, BASIC THEOREMS ON LIMITS In this section, as in the preceding one, we shall consider sets of functions that depend on the same argument x, where x—a of £00. We shall carry out the proof for one of these cases, since the other is proved analogously. Sometimes we will not'even write x—a or x—+0o, but will take them for granted,6 Limit. Continuity of a Function Theorem 1. The limit of an algebraic sum of two, three and, in general, any definite number of variables is equal to the algebraic sum of the limits of these variables: im(u, +a, +... -+u,)=lima, lima, +... +lim uy. Proof. We shall carry out the proof for two terms, since it is the same for any number of terms. Let limu,—a,,”limu, Then on the basis of Theorem 1, Sec. 4, we can write 4,=0, +4, 4,=0, +4, where a, and a, are infinitesimals. Consequently, 4, +4,= (a, +4,) + (a, +4). - Since (a,+a,) is a constant and (a,-+a,) is an infinitesimal, again by Theorem 1, Sec. 4, we conclude that lim (4, +4) =4,-++a, =lima, +lima,. Example 1. tin £32 tn (14 2) = tnt tn Zeit tn Zn g0 Theorem 2. The limit of a product of two, three and, in general, any definite number of variables 'is equal to the product of the limits of these variables: Tima,-u, 2. dy=lima,-lima, ... lima, Proof. To save space we shall carry out the proof for two factors. Let limu,=a,, lima, Therefore, 4, a+ dy, 2,2, +4,0,-+4,0, -+4,0,. The product aa, is a constant. By the theorems of Sec. 4, the quantity a,,a,a,-+a,a, is an infinitesimal, Hence, limu,u, = =4,,—limd,-lima, Corollary. A constant factor may be taken outside the limit sign. Indeed, if limu,=a,, ¢ is a constant and, consequently, lime=e, then lim(u,)=Hime-limu,=e-limu, as required. Example 2: 1m 5e°=5 jim = 5-8=40, Theorem 3.. The limit of a quotient of two variables is equal to the quotient of the limits of these variables if the limit of the denominator is not zero: lim 4 = 724 if limo # 0,Basic Theorems on Limits ” Proof. Let limu=a, limo=b #0. Then u=ata, v=b+, where @ and B are infinitesimals. ‘We write the identities u ata a Ba oT orp ot bap oto eTh ) or Hoty oe TS OTB The fraction $ is a constant number, while the fraction #7—Fe is an infinitesimal variable by virtue of Theorems 4 and 5 (Sec. 4), since ab—Ba is an infinitesimal, while the denominator 6 (b+) hhas the limit 6% 40. Thus, lim = 214, Example 3. Hin 45) OMFS gag BD 2 Tim eH im BT 3 Here, we made use of the already proved theorem for the limit of a fraction because the limit of the denomingtor differs from zero as x—~ 1. If the limit of the denominator is zero, the theorem for the limit of a fraction is not ‘plicable, and special considerations have to be invoked. ata Example 4. Find im Here the denominator, and numerator approach aero as + 2 and, co sequently, Theorem 3 is inapplicable. Perform the following identical transformation: ‘This transformation holds for all values of x different rom 2. And co, having in view the definition of a limit, we ean write PM ig CHEZ tn AN Fan Mae Example 5. Find tim 17. As x-+1 the denominator approaches zero ut the numerator does not (it approaches unity), Thus, the limit of the reciprocal quantity is zero:8 Limit. Continuity of a Function Whence, by Theorem 2 of the preceding section, we have ain Fyne. Theorem 4. If the inequalities u-0 there will be a certain neighbourhood with centre ‘at the point a, in which the inequality |u—b|0. Proof. Assume that 6<0, then |y—b|/2; that is, the difference modulus |y—6| is greater than the positive number || and, hence, does not approach zero as x—+a. But then y does not’ approach 6 as x—+a; this contradicts the statement of the theorem. Thus, the assumption that 6<0 leads to a contradiction. Consequently, b= 0. In similar fashion we can prove that if y<0, then limy<0. Theorem 6. If the inequality usu is fulfilled between corre- sponding values of two functions u=u(t) and v=v(x) which Approach limits as x—+a (or as x—+ oo), then limo > lima.Basic Theorem on Limits 0 Proof, It is given that v—u=0. Hence, by Theorem Sy Tim (9— u) 0 or lim v—lim us 0, and so limo >limu. 4 Example 6; Prove that lim sin x=0. From Fig, 42 it follows that if 0A=1, x50, then acmane, Mae sn ce, Obviouty, phen a0 wee will have [sin-e|- tS cos x, We derived this inequality on the assumption that x>0; noting that EDIE and eos(—z\mcose, we conclude that it holds for x-<0 as well But lim cose=1, lim I=1. Hence, the variable “2 ties between two quantities that have the same limit (unity). Thus by Theorem 4 of the preceding section, jim 1 The graph of the function y=" is shown in Fig. 44,The Number @ 51 Examples. 1 ti 82 stake Oe ae mE Nesp 2sine = sind. 4m EE im 8. SEC. 7. THE NUMBER E Let us consider the variable (4 here is an increasing variable that takes on the values 1, 2, 3, Theorem 1. The variable (1+ 2)", as n—roo, has a limit between the numbers 2 and 3. Proof. By Newton's binomial formula we have (eaynierteumad (baea(4y's. Ww82 Limit. Continuity of a Function Carrying out the obvious algebraic manipulations in (1), we get (ited 2) From the latter equality it follows that the variable (1+7)" is an increasing variable as n increases. Indeed, when passing from the value n to the value n+1, each term in the latter sum increases, 14_t)yet 1 ta(1—£)<75(1— aaa) and 60 forth, and another. term is added, (All terms of the expansion are positive.) . We shall show that the variable (1-+2.)" is bounded. Noting that (1-2) 2 Thus, we get the inequality - 2<(14+5)<3. @) This proves that the variable (143) is bounded. Thus, the variable (1++4)" is an increasing and bounded variable; therefore, by ‘Theorem 7, Sec. 5, it has a limit. This limit is denoted by the letter e. Definition, The limit of the variable (1+-1)" as n—+oo is the number e: e= lim (1+) ia) By Theorem 6, Sec. 5, it follows from inequality (3) that the number ¢ satisfies the inequality 2(144)'>(14+ap)- If x—+00, it is obvious that n—+oo. Let us find the limits of the variables between which the variable (1-+)" lies: tim (144 y= tim (§+2)"(143)= = lim 144)". lim ti (1-4 745)"= tin, SD tim Hence, by Theorem 4, Sec. 5, lim (14)"=e “) 2) Let x—+—0o. We introduce a new variable #=—(x+1) or (t+ 1). When f—+-+ 00 then x—+—eo. We can write si (i) ii, (\-z) = tim (441) 1 = iim (144) (144)=e1The Number ¢ 85, ‘The theorem is proved, The graph of the function y=(t +4) is shown in Fig. 45. , ote me If in equality (4) we put tea, then as x—+00 we have a—+0 (but @ #0) and we get lim (1+-0)® =e, Examples:56 Limit. Continuity of @ Function SEC, 8, NATURAL LOGARITHMS In Sec. 8 of Chapter I we defined the logarithmic function log,x. The number a is called the base of the logarithms. It a=f0, then y is the decimal (common) logarithm of the num: ber x and is denoted y= log. In school courses of mathematics we have tables of common logarithms, which are called Briggs’ logarithms after the English mathematician Briggs (1556-1630). Logarithms to the base e=2.71828... are called natural or Napierian logarithms after one of the first inventors of logarithmic yring Fig. 46. tables, the mathematician Napier (1550-1617).*) Therefore, if =x, then yis called the natural logarithm of the number x. In writing we have y=Inx (after the initial letters of logarithmus naturalis) in place of y=log,x. Graphs of the function y=inx and y—logs are plotted in Fig. 46. Let us now establish a relationship between decimal and natural logarithms of one and the same number x. Let y=logx or x= 10%. We take logarithms of the left and right sides of the latter equality to the base e and get Inx=y!n 10. We determine y=saiginx, of, substituting the value of y, we have logx = ty Inx Thus, if we know the natural logerithm of a number x, the com- mon (decimal) logarithm of this number is found by multiplying by the factor M= 4, ~ 0.454294, which factor is independent of x. The number M is the modulus of common logarithms with respect to natural logarithms: log x= Minx. ‘The fist logarithmic tables were constructed by the Swiss mathemati- 10 Burgi (1552-1692) to a base close to the number ¢.Continuity of Functions a Ii in this identity we put x=e, we obtain an expression of the number M in terms of common logarithms: loge= M (Ine = 1). Natural logarithms are expressed in terms of common logarithms as follows: 1 Inx= flog where 1 a= 2302585. SEC, 9. CONTINUITY OF FUNCTIONS Let the function y=f(x) be defined for some value x, and in some neighbourhood with centre at x, Let y,=/(e,). If x receives some positive or negative (it'is immaterial which) increment Ax and assumes the value y x=x,+Ax, then the function y too will receive an'increment Ay. The new in- creased value of the function will be 9, + Ay =f (e,+ Ax) (Fig. 47). The incre- rient of the function Ay will be expressed by the formula by =F (x, + x)—F(x,). Definition 1. The function y= called continuous for the value (or at the point x,) if it is defined in some neighbourhodd of the point x, (obviously, at the point x, as well) and if % Fig. #7. Med is lim Ay=0 (oy or, which is the same thing, ima UF G+ 88) —F(61=0. ® In descriptive geometrical terms, the continuity of a function at a given point signifies that the difference of the ordinates of the graph of the function y=/(x) at the points x,+Ax and x, will, in absolute magnitude, be arbitrarily small, ‘provided [Ax| is sufficiently small8 Limit. Continuity of a-Function Example 1. We shall prove that the function y=? is continuous at an arbitrary point x,. Indeed, WPA EAD, Ay = (ey + AAP a2, AEE A, elim Ax lim Axe tim 42=0 ane ges gee for any way that Ax may approach zero (Figs. 48,2 and 48, 6). yy 490,80 4 A<0,8y60, Fig. 48. Example 2. We shall prove that the function y=sin is continuous at ‘an arbittary point 2, Indeed, Wasnt vob Ay maine + A), Ay=sin (%4+.A2)—sin xy It was shown that tim sinSE—0 (Example 7, See. 5). ‘The function conv Bf) bn Tle, =o In similar fashion, it is possible to prove the following theorem by considering each basic elementary function and each elementary function, Theorem. Every elementary function is continuous at each point at which it is defined. The condition of continuity (2) may be written thus: lim 16, +4991 or lim (() =F, but x= lim x,Continuity of Functions 59 Consequently, Him f@) =F (tim 9, ® In other words, in order to find the limit of a continuous function as x—x, it is sufficient to substitute into the expression of the function the value of the argument, x,, in place of the argument x. Example 8. The function yx? is continuous at every point x, and therefore Example 4. The function y=sinx is continuous at every point and therelore lim e* Example 6. Un Lin (1+)— lim In [(1-+2)¥]. Since jim (4)F =e and the function Inz is continuous for 2>0, and, Zonsequently, for 2 ‘io, tn (1-3) tn (C1) Definition 2. If the function y=f(x) is continuous at each point of a certain interval (a, 8), where a0 or F(a) >0 and f(b) <0, cuts the x-axis at least at one point (Fig. 52). y Mlo.tcod lenad Fig. 52. Fig. 53 Example. Given the function ucts i the terval ft By ene in this y= H—2 becomes zero. Indeed, y=0 when z= j/°B (Fig. 53). Theorem 3. Let the function y= f(x) be defined and continuous in the interval (a, 6). If at. the end points of this interval the Junction takes on unequal values [(a)= A, f(6)=B, then no mat- ter what the number between numbers A and B, there will be a point x=c between a and such that [(c)=y. The meaning of this theorem is clearly illustrated in Fig, 54. In the given case, any straight line y=p cuts the graph of the function y= f(x). Yom =— 1, Yeaa=6 It Is contie Yteeval_thete™'s a” point whereComparing Infnitesimats 6 Note. It will be noted that Theorem 2 is a particular case of this theorem, for if A and B have different signs, then for w one can take 0, and then w=0 will lie between the numbers A and 8. y aw ae Fig. 54. Fig. 65. Corollary of Theorem 3. if a function y= f(x) is continuous in some interval and takes on a greatest value and a least value, then in this interval it takes on, at least once, any value lying between the greatest and least values. Indeed, let f(x,)=M, f(%4)=m. Consider the interval [x,, 2]. By Theorem 3, in this inferval the function y=f(x) takes on any value p lying between M and m. But the interval [x,. x] lies inside the interval under consideration in which the function F(a) is defined (Fig. 55). SEC. 11, COMPARING INFINITESIMALS. Let several infinitesimal quantities 4, B. be at the same time functions of one and the same argument x and let them approach zero as x approaches some limit a or infinity. We shall describe the approach of these variables to zero when we consider their ratios. *) We shall, in future, make use of the following definitions. Definition 1. If the ratio & has a finite nonzero limit, that is, it im = 440, and therefore, lim = 40, the infinites- imals B and a are called infinitesimals of the ‘same order. *) We assume that the infinitesimal in the denominator does not vanish in some neighbourhood of the point 3.6 Limit. Continuity of a Function are oe Sae“otdee becde , tim 8 tim 1028 Example 2. When #0, the tnigitesinals x, sa Se, en2e,7Ip (bs) ae 2. Definition 2. If the ratio of two infinitesimals © approaches zero, that is, if tim&=0 (and lim&—oo), then the infinitesi- mal B is called an infinitesimal of higher order than a, and the infinitesimal a is called, an infinitesimal of lower order than B. Example 3. Let a. x", n>1, £0. The infinitesimal B is an lnfinitesimal of higher order than the infinitesimal a, since tim, 2 tim <"-1=0. Here, the infinitesimal a is an infinitesimal of lower order than B. Definition 3. An infinitesimal fis called an infinitesimal of the kth order relative to an infinitesimal a, if and a* are infinitesimals of the same order, that is, if limB =A #0. Example 4. If a= then as x-+0 the infinitesimal § is an infinitesimal of the third Order felative to the infinitesimal a since Definition 4. If the ratio of two infinitesimals 2 approaches B unity, that is, if tim®=1, the infinitesimals p and a are called equivalent infinitesimals and we write a ~ B. Example 8. Let ax and Basins, where x-+0. The inflnitesimals a and are equivalent, since im 82-1, Example 6. Let ams, Bein(1-+s), where x-+0. The Inflitesimals a sod fae equates snes 4 a, 2 1 (Gee Example 6, Sec. 9).Comparing Infinitesimals Co Theorem 1. If « and f are equivalent infinitesimats, their differ- ence a—B is an infinitesimal of higher order than a-and than B. Proof. Indeed, tain( 1-4) Theorem 2. If the difference of two infinitesimals a—B is an infinitesimal of higher order than a and than B, then a and B are equivalent infinitesimals. 8 0. Jim’ im Proof. Let lim*=2—0, then tim ( or Latim&, ie, am 8. If im lim F=1, that is, a B. Example 7. Let a= 39, where x —+ 0. The infnilesimals a and fare equivalent, since their difference B— is an Iniinitesimal of higher order tian @ and than ®. Indeed, tim P=2 tim 2m tim x40, on pa Bs B Example 8, As x—> the infinitesimalsa=2,! and g 1 are equivalent Vnfnitesimals, since thelr diflerence a—p-—Z! ol higher order than @ and than 8. The limit of the ratio of @ and B is nity Lis an infinitesimal Note. If the ratio of two infinitesimals & has no limit and does not approach infinity, then B and a are not comparable in the above sense. Example 9. Let a. passin, where x0. The initesinals B oad canot te compared because hei satio Esin- as 2—+0 det mt Soooach ier ne lilt Init (we Bamps See 8 320886 Limit. Continuity of @ Function Exercises on Chapter Ut Find the indicated limits: 1 tm EE2EES, any 42m [Rae—con beaten 2 3. im Ans. 0. 4. tim (21 aot VOPa aim, (2 at ins. im 241. Ans. aoe ened 8 ig BEM EN tt 1 dm sans 4b. Hint. Write the formula (&-+ 1)" Wm 3A SRL for k=O, 1, 2 Adzing th elt a gt side, we (oF DmOO EM tA NUE tm) HOD, oe nresargatd by 9D aod, Eat. im BISEL6 pgs mn BEB ay “osciew Mg lgacgeca Ane 16, tin PEE ane 2. rr, tim BMW EM Ans 0 wone Foy B 5 (a+2)(4=3) 18, tim ENE Ans, get a VeExercises on Chapter IT er 2V2 ‘ 2. ans 2V2. 2a, in < Ans L 3 AN VE ° a 2a tm VERVE agg, YE, 3 ae ma 1 2. am bom Ans te 28, tin VET pgs. 1 ane te, 1 as e=— a. 29. lim (VET = + lin, FE lim x(VE-FI—x). Ans. 5 at spo, me as sinte ion 1048 Z Ans 1. a2. tin 848 Ans. 4, 38, tim 3, dens xo dns . Ars, 85, lm cot. Ans. t rar “ye 36, v3 37. lim (1—ytan Ans. 2. 38. 39, Jim inate) pe. Ans. 2 cosa. 1 2)" “0 ee ee 2 bo am (EY ae te tm (EL). Am eA matinee inal}. Ans 46, lim (Leos ayt%*, Ans. et 41. Yin UFO) ns, a, im (B38) ins, ¢. im ant x60, Ins. 4 im (BEER). am ee gotta am a 50, im (oz). Ans. 1. 51. lim poo Ans. 1 as aro, 0 as sinax « atmo, 52. tm IR Ans, S58 im ae sin Be B we (> 1). Ans. te x68 Limit. Continuity of, a Function ssette,0ase+—e. 64 time [a 1). ans ne 8m oe Ans 08.56. in EE ns 1. Determine the points of discontinuity of the functions: 57. y ‘Ans. Discontinuitles of second kind for x= — at FEF RH 2. getan. Ane Decontinuten of econd tnd for 0 and 59, Find the points of discontinuity of the functions y=14+2* and con- struel the graph of this function, Ans. Discontinuity of Second kind at Gaye rs O40, yor see 0—-0), 0. Froi among the following laftnitesimals (as; 2, VE(=ar sin3x, 2cose 4/ tant, xe, seleot.infinitesimals of the same order a8 5, fand also of higher and lower order than x. Ans. Inflitesimals of the same order are sin 3x and xe; infnitesimatsof bigher order, xt and 2e cos x 3/ Tan, ingiteinals of Tower onde, Y=0—3} a. Ei ott he Gale Taos (#0) eh tht we ccuvalet fo the iafsiesinal =) Beinn, tends, xe, VETER, Int-ba 44 Ans tnd 23%, tn 62. Check to see that as x1, the inflnitesimals 1—x and 1—j/x are othe same order of sans. Are hey eqavaen? An rir hhence, these infinitesimals are of the same order, but they are not equivalent,CHAPTER II DERIVATIVE AND DIFFERENTIAL SEC. 1. VELOCITY MOTION Let us consider the rectilinear motion of some solid, say a stone, thrown vertically upwards, or the motion of a piston in the cylin: der of an engine, etc. Idealising the situation and disregarding dimensions and shapes, we shall always represent such a body in the form of a moving ‘point M. The distance s of the moving point reckoned from some initial position M, will depend on the time ; in other words, s will be a function of time ¢: asf + FO. a) iw t At some instant of time*) ¢, let the moving point M ‘| be at a distance s from the initial position M,, and at wy some later instant ¢-+A¢ let the point be at M,, a distance s-+ As from the initial position (Fig. 56). Thus, Fig. 56. during the interval of time Af the distance s changed by the quantity As, In such cases, one says that during the time ‘Af the quantity s received an increment As. Let us consider the ratio $2; it gives us the average velocity of motion of the point during the time At: oe @ u The average velocity cannot in all cases give an exact picture of the rate of translation of the point M at time #, If, for example, the body moved very fast at the beginning of the interval Ar and very slow at the end, the average velocity obviously cannot reflect these peculiarities in the motion of the point and give us a correct idea of the true velocity of motion at time ¢. In order to express more precisely this true velocity in terms of the average velocity, one has to take a small interval of time A¢. The most complete description of the rate of motion of the point at time ¢ is given by the limit which the average velocity approaches as Af—>0. », *) Here and hencelorward we shall denote the specific value of a varlable and the variable itself by the same letter.7 Derivative and DiGerentiat This limit is called the rate of motion at a given instant: a am, ar ® Thus, the rate (velocity) of motion at a given instant is the limit of the ratio of increment of path As to increment of time At, as the time increment approaches zero. Let us write equality (3) in full. As=/(t+A)—f(), ince @) This is the velocity of variable motion. It is thus obvious that the notion of velocity of variable motion is intimately related to the concept of a: limit. It is only with the aid of the limit concept that we can determine the velocity of variable motion. From formula (3') it follows that v is independent of the increment in time Af, but depends on the value of ¢ and the type of function (. Example. Find the velocity of uniformly accelerated motion at an arbi time f and” at f=2 sec Ml the relation of the path traversed to the time expressed by the formula ‘att sodat Sette, At tine ¢ ve taee ood gf at tne 14AF et dsm bgt Ante d guy oar ear, We find de senLeengmarsan—Lateatart eas. bs We form the ratio 3 by definition we have eatin ase mate, (ert ea ‘Thus, the velocity st an arbitrary time ¢ is o—gt. AUTH2'we have (.)jay=g-2—9-8-20019.8 msecDefinition of Derivative m SEC. 2, DEFINITION OF DERIVATIVE Let there be a function yale) (ay defined in a certain interval. The function y= f(x) has a definite value for each value of the argument x in this interval. Let the argument x receive a certain increment Ax (it is imma. terial whether it be positive or negative). Then the function y will receive a certain increment Ay. Thus, with the value of the argu- ment x we will have y=/(x), with the value of the argument x+Ax we will have y-+Ay=f (r+ Ax). Let us find the increment of the function Ay: Ay=f(x+Ax)—f (x). Q) Forming the ratio of the increment of the function to the increment of the argument, we get dy _ Meta —fee oy Meek an tee ® We then find the limit of this ratio as Ax— 0. If this limit exists, it is called the derivative of the given function f(x) and is denoted F'(#). Thus, by definition, Flim 4 O) Consequently, the derivative of a given function y= f(x) with respect to the argument x is the limit of the ratio of the increment of the function Ay to the increment of the argument Ax, when the latter approaches zero in arbitrary fashion. It will be noted that in the general case, the derivative /' (x) has a definite value for each value of x, which means that the derivative is also a function of x. The designation f' (x) is not the only one used for a derivative. Alternative symbols are ty WW The specific value of the derivative for x=a is denoted f(a) or Wee operation of tinding the derivative of a function f(x) is called diferentiation of the function.n Derivative and Diferentiat Example 1. Given the function y=a4; Gnd its derivative y" Iy'st'an arbitrary point 2, Bate Solution. i) For the value of the argument x, we have y=est, When the value of the argument is tz, we have y+ Ad=(-+ 2) Find the ingtement of the tinction Aga (e+ Oa) 2c} (Ae) Forming the rato 84, we have Ay deat (ant ax ax es be Passing to the limit, we get the derivative of the given function: yim Statin @r+ax)=2e, Hence, the derivative of the funetion 2) When x3 we have x at an arbitrary point is y’ V Vxay= 236. find y'. Example 2 y= Solution. Reasoning as before, we get ryt eeae eG AX RF OR)! fyi it, ar FAN)! jim 4 im f+ Jo mS, [~aeemal =e Note. In the preceding section it was established that if, the dependence upon time ¢ of the distance s of a moving point is ‘expressed by the formula ay: s=/(), the velocity v at time £ is expressed by the formula As f+ an—1o em mai ga Hence v=s=f'(t), or, the velocity equal to the derivative *) of the distance with respect to the time. *) When we say “the derivative with respect. to 2" or “the derivative with respect tof” we mean that in computing the derivative we consider the variable x (or the time f, ele.) the argument (independent variable).Geometric Meaning of the Derivative 3 SEC. 3. GEOMETRIC MEANING OF THE DERIVATIVE We approached the notion of @ derivative by regarding the velocity of a moving body (point), that is to say, by proceeding from mechanical concepts. We shall now give a no less important geometric interpretation of the derivative. To do this we must first define @ line tangent to a curve af a given point. We take a curve with a fixed point M, on it. Taking a point M, on the curve we draw the secant M, M, (Fig .67). If the point M, approaches the point M, without limit,"the secant M, M, will ‘occupy various positions M, M,,M,M,, and so on. If, in the limitless approach of the point M, (along the curve) to the point M, from’either side, the secant tends to occupy the position of a definite straight line M,T, this line is called the tangent to the curve at the point M, (the ‘concept “tends to occupy” will be explained later on). Let us consider the function f(x) and the corresponding curve y=Tey in a rectangular coordinate system (Fig. 58). At a certain value of x the function has the value y=/(x). Corresponding to these values of x and y on the curve we have the point M, (x, y). Let us increase Fig. 57. the argument x by Ax. Corresponding to the new value of the argument, x-+ Ax, we have an increased value of the function, y-+Ay=](x4-Aa). Another corresponding point on the curve will be M, (x + Ax, y+ Ay). Draw the secant M,M, and denote by @ the angle’ formed by the secant and the positive direction of the x-axis. Form the ratio a. From Fig. 58 it follows immediately that a St tan 9. wm Derivative and Diferentiat Now if Ax approaches zero, the point M, will move along the curve always approaching M,. The secant M,M, will turn about M, and the angle @ will change in Ax. If as‘Ax—0 the angle @ y approaches a certain limit cr, the straight line passing through M, and forming an angle a with the positive direction of the abscissa axis will be the sought-for line tangent. It is easy to find its slope: fo. Hence, F @=ten a, @ Fig. 58. which means that the values of the derivative f' (x), for a given value of the argument x, is equal to the tangent of the angle formed with the positive direction of the x-axis by the line tangent to the graph of the function f(x) at the corresponding point M, (x, y)- example Fad the age of te ple nition tte tng tote carve y=? a the pte, (4a Le My(—te 2 Solution. On the basis of Example |, Sec. 2, we have y’== 2x; hence, =-2 1; teng—y twomns'| SEC, 4, DIFFERENTIABILITY OF FUNCTIONS Definition. If the function y=1@) Q) has a derivative at the point x—.x,, that is, if there exists in Ste ig Mera He) Oy we say that for the given value x=x, the function is diferentiable or (which is the same thing) has a derivative. Hi a function is differentiable at every point of some interval la, 6] or (a, 6), we say that it is differentiable over. the interval. Theorem. Ifa function y=f(x) is differentiable at some point xx, Ut Is continuous at this point,Diflerentiaditity of Functions 8 Indeed, if din gent then Male) +y where y is a quantity that approaches zero as Ax-+0. But then Ay=f' (x) Ax yAx; whence it follows that Ay +0 as Ax 0; and this means that the function f(x) is continuous at the point’ x, (see Sec. 9, Ch. II). In other words, a function cannot have'a derivative at points of discontinuity. “The converse is not true; from the fact that at some point x=x, the function y=/(x) is continuous, it does not yet follow that it is differentiable at this point: the function f(x) may not have a derivative at the point x,. To convince ourselves of this, let us examine several cases Example 1. A function f(x) Is defined in an interval (0, 2] as follows (see Fig. 60) i@=x when Orel, Te) =2e—1 when 1 0 we have tim [U+ad—1) ate ar when ax <0 we get tim L0+a9—F (0, are ar continuous at this point ‘Thus, this limit depends on the sign of Ax, and_this means that the function has to derivative s) at the point #=1. Geometrically, this is In accord with, the fact that at the point x=1 the given “curve” does not have a definite Tin: tangent. {ow the continuity of the function at the point x= fact that follows from the aymar when ar <0, Ay=2ax when ar>0, and, therefore, in both cases ay-+ 0 as Ax ~0. “The dttion ofa derivative revs that te rato 82 should ts ‘Ax-~0) approach one and the same limit regardless of the way In which ax approaches zero,16 Derivative and Diflerentiat Example 2. A function Vey the graph of which is shown in Fig. 61, 1s defined and continuous for all values of the independent variable. {e's {ry to find cut whether this function has'a derivative at £0; to do ‘ths, we nd the values of the lunclion at x—0 and. at #=0-A%" a a= 0 we have y=0, at x=0-4+Ax we have y+ Ay= j/ (Aa). y ue Fig. 60. “Fig. 61. Therefore, ay= as. Find the limit of the ratio of the increment of the function to the incre- ment ot the argument y in SY tim LOD in aBe wae a ‘Thus, the ratio of the increment of the function to the increment of the argument atthe point x=0 approaches infinity 2s ax ~+0 (hence there is no mit). Cansequ- ently, fis Function is not differentiable at the point x=0. The line tangent tothe Cuive at this point forms, withthe xanis, an angle 2, which means tat it colncldes with the praxis SEC, 5, FINDING THE DERIVATIVES OF ELEMENTARY FUNCTIONS, ‘THE DERIVATIVE OF THE FUNCTION y=xe, WHERE 1 IS POSITIVE ‘AND INTEGRAL To find the derivative of a given function y=/(x), it is neces- sary to carry out the following operations (on the basis of the general definition of a derivative): 1) increase the argument x by Ax, calculate the increased value of the function: yt Ay=l (e+ Ax)Finding the Derivatives of Elementary Functions 1 2) find the corresponding increment of the function: Ay=F(x+ Ax) — Fla), 8) form the ratio of the increment of the function to the inerement of the argument: Ay _ fre ad—100), a a 4) find the limit of this ratio as Ax—+0: y= im Mm im eka —1e) Here and in the following sections, we shall apply this general method for evaluating the derivatives of certain elementary functions. Theorem. The derivative of the function y=x", where n is a positive integer, is equal to nx"="; that is, if y= x", then y' = ne", @ Proof. We have the function yas 1) If x receives an increment Ax, then y+ Ay= (e+ day, 2) Applying Newton's binomial formula, we find ys (et Ax) ate att Der* (May. (Axe a TP Aya net Ax BED et (Ayt ty ... + (A, 3) We find the ratio Bt yt 1 - Ba nett MOD ret aed + (Ax) 4) Then we find the limit of this ratio ve in = lim, Gap at bet + (hay net, consequently, y’=nx"-', and thus we have proved the theorem.8 Derivative and Diferentiat” Example Lys, y/ =5 Example 2 yas, ym is'~', ym1. The later result has a simple rete ttarprataions the Tie taigle to the’ sieight hoe peat ft at ttow Ste coincides with this line ‘and, consequently, forme ‘ith the’ positive Sireetion‘of the x-axis sn angle, the tangent of which Is. Sx Note that formula (1) also holds true when n is fractional or negative. (This will be proved in Sec. 12). Example 3. y= Vx - Ere Sebet ie tueton in the frm of » power: yer? we 1 ce Represent y in ihe form of a power functi Example 4 y= Then SEC, 6, DERIVATIVES OF THE FUNCTIONS y=sin x Theorem 1. The derivative of sinx is cos.x, or if y=sinx, then y' cos. ay Proof. Increase the argument x by the increment Ax; then 1) yp dys sin (x+Ax); 2) dy=sin(x+Ax)—sin x= 2sin rhar sin tfon( e448); Fos (x44)2 Dertoattves of the Functions ye=sin x; y= cose a 4 88 tin Et cone 8 Daf fim, hm ln fim cos 2 but since = ent! im ain a (+9) cos. gf = Jim cos This latter equality is obtained on the grounds that cos x is a continuous function. ‘Theorem 2. The derivative of cosx is —sinx, or —sinx, ay if y=cosx, then y’ Proof. Increase the argument x by the increment Ax, then y+ Ay=c0s (+ Ax); share gp eb Acts, —2sin SFAEM* gin EASE ‘Ay= cos (x-+ Ax) —cos x BE in (-4-48 =—2 ain sin (2+); taking into account the fact that sinx is a continuous function, we finally get =—sinx.% Derivative ond Diferential ‘SEC. 7, DERIVATIVES OF: A CONSTANT, THE PRODUCT OF A CONSTANT ‘BY A FUNCTION. A SUM, A PRODUCT, AND A QUOTIENT Theorem 1. The derivative of a constant is equal to zero: that is, if y=C, where C= const, then y’ =0. avy) Proof. y=C is a function of x such that the values of it are equal to G for all x. Hence, for any vaiue of x yaf(y=C. We jncrease the angument « by an increment Ax (dx 0). Since the function y retains the value C for all values of the argument, we have y+ Ay=f (e+ Ax)=C. Therefore, the increment of the function is Ay=F(x+ dx)—f (x) =0, the ratio of the increment of the function to the increment of the argument ay at—0, and, consequently, that is, y'=0. The latter result has a simple geometric interpretation. The graph of the function y=C is a straight line parallel to the x-axis. Sbviously, the line tangent to the graph at any one of its points coincides ‘with this straight line and, therefore, forms with the weaxis an angle whose tangent y’ is zero. Theorem 2. A constant factor may be taken outside the deriva tive sign, i.e. if y=Cu(x) (C= const), then y’ = Cu’ (x). w) Proof. Reasoning as in the proof of the preceding theorem, we have y=Cu(n); yt Ay =Cule+ Ax), Ay=Cu(x+ Sx)—Cu (x) =C [u(x+ Sx)—u(a)],Derivatives of: A Constant, the Product of @ Constant by @ Function 81 ty _ ouletan win a oo im MYC tim #82. ani ae Ott ae Example 1. y= v( ; ave Theorem 3. The derivative of the sum of a finite number of diffe- rentiable functions is equal to the corresponding sum of the derivatives of these functions. *) For the case of three terms, for example, we have ym ule) +e epwlxy yu! (e+ 0" (x). (VI) Proof. For the values of the argument x youtotw (for the sake .of brevity we drop the argument x in denoting the function). For the value of the argument x+Ax we have 9+ Ay = (w+ Au) + (0 +40) +-(w+d0), where Ay, Au, Av, and Aw are increments of the functions y, u, v and w, which correspond to the increment Ax in the argument x. Hence, ty y= du4-dot dv, Sm St 4 $24 82, y= tim one din B+ dim oe (x) +0" (x) + wa), *) The expression yu (s)—v (x) is equivalent to yoru (1) +(—1) 0 and ye) F—D OG me’) EL—0 Ul mu (8) —0" °2 Derivative and Diferentiat Theorem 4. The derivative of a product of two diferentiable functions is equal to the product of the derivative of the first fun- ction by the second function plus the product of the first function by the derivative of the second function; that is, ty Proof. Reasoning as i eet yaw, y+ Ay=(ut Au) (0+ Av), y= (w+ Au) (0+ 40) —uo = Auv-+udv-+ du do, Mea My put + Au Se 0, then y'=u'v-+u0", iy the proof of the preceding theorem, we a iat MM ie 80 tim My 4 tim u 82, 82 ali, ge dim ar? + im get jim Auge = ( tim, 25) oo tim 2+ fim, tim (since u and v are independent of Ax). Let us consider the last term on the right-hand side: lim Au tim 42, Since u(x) is a differentiable function, it is continuous. Consequently, lim Aw=0. Also, lim £2 v' #00, Thus, the term under consideration is zero and we finally get yauorue’, The theorem just proved readily gives us the rule for differentiating the product of any number of functions. Thus, if we have a product of three functions y=u0w,Derivatives of: A Constant, the Product of a Constont by a Function 8% then by representing the right-hand side as the product of u and (ow), we get y’ =u" (vi) + u (ow) =u'ow-+ u (0'w+ vw") = wow + ud'w-+ wow’, In this way we can obtain a similar formula for the derivative of the product of any (finite) number of functions, Namely, if Y= Ut, + ty then yaaa, Example 8. If y y Inna Mh oe gall bo ly = sin, then AY sin xp (sin x)’ =2x sin.x-bx*cos 2 i y= VFanzeoss, then VF stn xcos x VF (stan) cose + VF sin (08) Examp! mpgs nk V Hons consk VEsins(— sas) = L E(eos! x—siat 2) = cos. mpg tn cnt VE lcot sits) = PE 4 Fonte, Theorem 5, The derivative of a fraction (that is, the quotient obtained by the division of two Junctions) is equal’ to a fraction whose denominator is the square of the denominator of the given Fraction, and the numerator is the difference between the product of the denominator by the derivative of the numerator, and. the pro- duct of the numerator by the derivative of the denominator; i. wi ty then y! = Proof. If Ay, Au, and Av are increments of the functions y, wu, and v, corresponding to the increment Ax of the argument x, then wh bu yt by= Tae wou uw _vaumwae oF Au (oF Ae) * eaum—uae au, av ‘ae ax’ ar Twran vera) a ay vim Wav) are Bt agers 8OF AY)a Derivative and Diferential Whence, noting that Av— Oas Ax—+0,*) we get trample 8 ym, the sy coset (cos ict cos eb sin Note. If we have a function of the form where the denominator ¢ is a constant, then when differentiating this function we do not need to use formula (VIII); it is better to make use of formula (V): ya(Ee) ate Of course, the same result is obtained if formula (VIII) is applied. Example 6 y= 2%, then 7 aCe See SEC, 8. THE DERIVATIVE OF A LOGARITHMIC FUNCTION Theorem. The derivative of the function log, x is + logge, that is, if y=log, x, then y' = 1 logge. (x) Proof. If Ay is an increment of the function y=log,x that corresponds to the increment Ax of the argument x, then y+ My= log, (x + Ax); Ay = log, (¢-+ Ax) —log, x= log, + 4* Helog, (1+ 42). y function. since v (2) is a differentiable and, consequently, continuousDerivative of Composite Function 8 Multiply and divide by x the expression on the right-hand side of the latter equality: S84 Z tog, (1448) = Loe, (1448). We denote the quantity 4% in terms of @ Obviously, for the given x, a—+0 as Ax—+0. Consequently, At Log (tay arn But, as we know from See. 7, Ch. II, lim (1 +a But if the expression under the sign of the logarithm approaches the number e, then the logarithm of this expression approaches logge (in virtue of the continuity of the logarithmic function). We’ therefore finally get y= lim sea lim tog, (1 +0) Fog, e. Noting that log,e=—25, we can rewrite the formula as follows: rot yot The following is an important particular case of this formula: if a=e, then Ina=Ine=1; that is, if y=inx, then y= (09) SEC. 9, THE DERIVATIVE OF A COMPOSITE FUNCTION Given a composite function y= /(x), that is, such that it may be represented in the following’ form: y=F(u), u=9(x) or _y=Flp(x)} (see Ch. I, Sec. 8). In the expression u is called the intermediate argument. Let us establish a rule for differentiating composite functions. Theorem. /f a function u=@(2) has, at some point x. a deriva. tive u,= 9" (&), and the function y=F (u) has, at the corresponding Fu),86 Derivative and Digerentiat value of u, the derivative y,=F'(u), then the composite function y=F (g(2)] af the given point x also has a derivative, which is equal to Ye= Fi (ug (2), where in place of u we must substitute (he expression 9 Briefly, Y= Yat In other words, the derivative of a composite function is equal to the product ofthe derivative of the given function with respect to the intermediate argument u by the derivative of the intermediate argument with respect to x. Proof. For a definite value of x we will have 4u=9(z), y=F(u), For the increased value of the argument x-+Ax, upAu=y(x+ Ax), y+Ay=F(u+ du) Thus, to the increment Ax there corresponds an increment Aw, to which corresponds an increment Ay, whereby Au—0 and ‘Ay—+0 as Ar—0. It is given that wey inne From this relation (Laking advantage of the definition of a limit we get (for Au0) ay See vit a where a—+0 as Au—+0. We rewrite (1) as Ay=y,du+oAu. 2 Equality (2) also holds true when Au=0 for an arbitrary a, since it turns into an identity, 0=0. For Aw=0 we shall assume =0. Divide all terms of (2)'by Ax: ) It is given thatDerivative of Composite Function 87 Passing to the limit as Ax—+0 in (3), we get Y= Yidley @ which is the required proof. Example !. Given a function y=sin (#9. Find y;. Represent the given function a8 @ function of @ function as follows: We find Hence, by formula (4), email cosu-2e, Substituting, in place of u, its expression, we finally get y= 24 0824 Example 2. Given the function y=(In 2) Represent this function as follows: Find ge We nd Hence, gam lesannt, Wa funeton yo tx) i uch tha i may be eepreentd In he form V= FU), ump, omHU the derivative gis found by a successive application othe foregoing theorem, Applying the! proved rule, we have VeVi Applying the same theorem to find ui, we have Substituting the expression of d into Uhe preceding equality, we get % © vem W Fea F yO Fol) Vy Example 3 Given the funetion y=sia{(nsi"l. Find gj. Represent the Junction as follows: yesinu, uso’, velox«8 Derivative and Diferentiat We then find smcose, wader, oat tn this way, by formula), we yet He Wisi, =8 (cos u) ot or finally, ig e0s (In x) sanarh 1 to be old hat the ution cn seed ey fr #50 SEC, 10, DERIVATIVES OF THE FUNCTIONS yacotx, yin " Theorem 1. The derivative of the function tans is be, or if yatanx, then y =e «xn Proof. Since sine by the rule of differentiation of a fraction [see formula (VIII), See. 7, Ch. IIT] we get y= insane cosa) _ on eases i) costastsint caste Boat" Theorem 2. The derivative of the function cot x is 1 1 mais or tf ymcote, then y=. (XIN » We have (cos) sine co8 (sins) Example 1. If y=tan Ue then 1 a WW =55An Implicit Function and Its Diferentiation 9 Example 2. If yewincot x, then Wm ate bots = ote (aa) *~ eee a Theorem 3. The derivative of the function In|x| (Fig. 62) is +, or if y=in|x|, then y/ (XH) Fig. 62, Proof. a) If x>0, then |x|=x, In]x|—Inx, and therefore yet b) Let x<0, then |x|=—x. But In| x|=In(—2). (it will be noted that if x<0, then —x>0.) Let us represent the function y=In(—x) as a composite function by putting y=inug; w=— Then e=Yutiem= (= 1) And so for negative values of x we also have the equation Ye Hence, formula (XIII) has been proved for any value x0. (For x=0 the function In|x| is not defined.) SEC, 11. AN IMPLICIT FUNCTION AND ITS DIFFERENTIATION Let the values of two variables x and y be related by some equation, which we can symbolise as follows: F(x, y)=0. w% Derivative and DiQerentiat It the function y=f(x), defined on some interval (a, 6), is such that equation (1) becomes an identity in x when the expres- 9 4 Fig. 63. Fig. 64. sion f(x) is substituted into it in place of y, the function y=f(x) is an implicit function defined by equation (1). For example, the equation sty 0 @) defines implicitly the following elementary functions (Figs. 63 and 64): @) a) Indeed, substitution into equation (2) yields the identity P+ @ox)—a'=0. Expressions (3) and (4) were obtained by solving equation (2) for. But not every implicitly defined function may be represented explicitly, that is, in the form y=/(x),*) where f(x) is an ele- mentary function. For instance, functions defined by the equations y—y—a*=0 Ly, y—x—fsing=0 are not expressible in terms of elementary functions; that is, these equations cannot be solved for y by means of elementary functions. Note 1. Observe that the terms “explicit function” and “implicit function” ‘do not characterise the nature of the function but merely the way it is defined, Every explicit function y=f(x) may also be represented as an implicit function y—f(x)=0. ) Ifa function is defined by an equation of the form y=f(x), one says that the function is defined explicitly or is explicit,Dertvatives of a Power Function for an Arbitrary Real Exponent OL We shall now give the rule for finding the derivative of an implicit function without transforming it into an explicit one, that is, without representing it in the form y= f(x). Assume the function is defined by the equation s+y—a'=0. Here, if y is a function of x defined by this equality, then the equality is an identity. Differentiating both sides of this identity with respect to x, and regarding y as a function of x, we get (via the rule of differentiat- ing a composite function) De Quy whence y=—s. Observe that if we were to differentiate the corresponding explicit, function y=Va we would obtain y which is the same result. Let us consider another case of an implicit function y of x: gf —y—at=0. Differentiate with respect to x: Gy" —/ —28=0, whence Note 2. From the foregoing examples it follows that to find the value of the derivative of an implicit function for a given value of the argument x, one also has to know the value of the function y for a given value of x. SEC, 12, DERIVATIVES OF A POWER FUNCTION FOR AN ARBITRARY REAL EXPONENT, OF AN EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION, ‘AND A COMPOSITE EXPONENTIAL FUNCTION Theorem 1. The derivative of the function x", where n is any real number, is equal to nx*-*; that is, if ym’, then yi ant, w2 Derivative and Diferentiat Proof. Let x>0. Taking logarithms of this function, we get Iny=nlnx, Differentiate, with respect to x, both sides of the equality obtained, taking y to be a function of x: Substituting into this equation the value y= x, we finally get nat, It is easy to show that this formula holds true also for +<0 provided x" is meaningful. *) Theorem 2. The derivative of the function a, where a>O, is a* Ina; that is, if y=a%, then y’ =a* Ina, (xv) Proof, Taking logarithms of the equality y=a*, we get Iny=xina. Differentiate the equality obtained regarding y as a function of x: ty =Ina; y’=ylna or y =a" Ina. If the base is a=e, then Ine=1 and we have the formula yae, y= (xiv) Example 1. Given the function yae. Represent it asa composite function by introducing the intermediate argument a: ae, wast thea Be and, therefore, dpnet deme 2s, *) This formula was proved in Sec. 5, Ch. Ill, for the case when a Is a positive integer. Formula (I) bas now been” proved for the geacral case (ot ‘any constant umber 1).Derivatives of a Power Function for an Arbitrary Real Exponent 93. A composite exponential function is a function in which both the base and the exponent are functions of x, for instance, (sin x)", xins, x, (Inx)*, and the like; generally, any function of the form y=la(a) PP seu is an exponential function (composite exponential fun Theorem 3. If yu’, then yf =u! (uo! Inu. (Xv) Proof. Taking logarithms of the function y, we have Ing=vlnu. Differentiating the resultant equation with respect to x, we get a po'lng whence yi=y (2 Sonu). Substituting into this equation the expression y—u°, we obtain yf = ou" u uo! Inu. Thus, the derivative of an exponential function (composite expo- nential function) consists of two terms: the first term is obtained by assuming, when differentiating, that u is a function of x and 0 is a constant (that is to say, if we regard u® as a power function): the second term is obtained on the assumption that v is a function of x, and u=const (i. e., if we regard u as an exponential function). Example 2.1 ye, then yf mxx*~!(x') 28 (e’) Inx ory! aa¥ fe x¥ In ea (14 In 4), (sin a)**, then (sin a)**~" (sin a)’ (sin 27" (24) In sla r= = 21 (sinx)**—1 cos x + (sin x)" 2eIn sn x. Example 3. 1 yg The procedure applied in this section for finding derivatives (first finding the derivative of the logarithm of the given function) is widely used in differentiating functions. Very often the use of this method greatly simplifies calculations. *) In the Russian mathematical literature this function is also called an exponentia-power function or a power-ex ponential function.4 Dertoative and Diferetiat Example 4. To find the derivative of the funetion att Va=I wearer Solution. Taking logarithms we gst Inpetinces 4 In eS ine me cee tase weal 3 Sty a Multiplying by y and substituting, in place of y, the expression e+" Veal erie" 3 rena): Note. The expression & (Iny)’, which is the derivative, with respect to x, of the natural logarithm of the given function y=y(2), is called the logarithmic derivative. SEC. 13, AN INVERSE FUNCTION AND ITS DIFFERENTIATION Take an increasing or decreasing function (Fig. 65) y= TQ) a defined in some interval (a, 6) (a, then, as is readily seen, —a, Hence, in any case tanB=cota, whence tana tanB=tanacota or 1 tan B Substituting the expressions for tan a and tan B from formula (3), we get tana re 408898 Derivative and Diferential SEC. 14, INVERSE TRIGONOMETRIC FUNCTIONS [AND THEIR DIFFERENTIATION 1) The function y= aresin x. Let us consider the function xesiny “ and construct, its graph by directing the y-a: vertically upwards (Fig. 70). This “Tun nis defined in the infinite interval —ooy=>0. In Fig. 71, the function y=arccosx is depicted by the heavy line, ‘Theorem 2. The derivative of the function arc.cos x is ——- Vi=a? Le, ffy=arccos x, theny’ =— (Xvi Proof. From (2) we have xa—siny. rs100 Derivative and Diferentiat Hence vod 1 irda 3s But cosy, and so uO Vise In sin y=VT—cos"y the radical is taken with the plus sign, since the function y= arccos x is defined on the interval O=y y > 0. ‘Theorem 4. The derivative of the function arccot x is — 1. Tt ym arccots, theny’=— pha. (XX) Proof. From (4) we have Hence102 De ative and Differential But coty=x. Therefore Fi 1 wT SEC. 15. TABLE OF BASIC DIFFERENTIATION FORMULAS Let us now bring together into a single table all the basic for- mulas and rules of differentiation derived in the preceding sections. y=const, y’=0. Power function: particular instances: Trigonometric functions: y=sing, y’=cosx, y=cosx, y’=—sinx, oa yotans, yaa, pmcots, sf =— hy Inverse trigonometric functions: y=aresinx, y’ vw , L yearecos x, y= — visa roa yaarctans, y=Tha. yoaoots, y'=—shy. Exponential function: yaa’, y’ =a" ing;Parametric Representation of @ Function 103, in particular, goes yaa. Logarithmic function: ym logge, in particular, y=Cu(x), y’ =Cu' (x)(C= const), yauto—w, yaa’ +o'—w', your, yf mu'otue’, . } ye= fa (u) Ge), ut uo" Ina. pi YaIGh x= 9), where J and g ate reciprocal functions, then re) SEC. 16. PARAMETRIC REPRESENTATION OF A FUNCTION Given two equations: 2=00, \ y=v, where # assumes values that lie in the interval [ value of ¢ there correspond values of x and and are assumed to be single-valued), If one regards the values of x and y as coordinates of a point in a coordinate xy-plane, then to each value of ¢ there will correspond a definite point in the plane. And when varies from T, to Ty this point will de- scribe a certain curve. Equations (1) are’ called” parametric equations of this curve, ¢ is the parameter, and parametric is the way the curve is represented by equations (I).104 Derivative and Differential Let us further assume that the function x=: t=®(x). Then, obviously, y is a function of x; y=¥[O(2)} @ Thus, equations (1) define y as a function of x, and it is said that the function y of x is represented parametrically. The explicit expression of the dependence of y on x, y=/(x), is obtained by eliminating the parameter ¢ from equations (I). Parametric representation of curves is widely used in mechanics. If in the xy-plane there is a certain material point in motion and if we know the laws of motion of the projections of this point on the coordinate axes, then W x=0, F a } “ where the parameter ¢ is the time. Then equations (I’) are parametric equations of the trajectory of the moving point. Eli- Me minating from these equations the para- y| meter f, we get the equation of the trajectory in the form y= f(x) or F(x, y)=0. By way of illustration, let ox ¢ * us take the following problem. (has an inverse, Fig. 74. Problem. Determine the trajectory and point “of impact of a load dropped from an aieplane moving horizontally ‘with a velocity wat an altitude yy (ait Teaistance is distegarded). Solution. Taking a coordinate system as shown in Fig. 74, we assume that the airplane drops the load at the instant it cuts the y-axis. It Is ‘obvious that the horizontal translation of the load will be uniform and with constant velocity 94 Vertical displacement of the falling load due to the force of gravity will be expressed by the formula onl 2 Hence the distance of the load from the ground at any instant will be The two equationsThe Equations of Certain Curves in Parametric Form 105 will be the parametric equation of the trajectory. To eliminate the parame: E trom the frst equation and substitute i into the second equation. Then we fet the equation of the tralectory ta the form By fer f, we find the value ¢ 5 ‘This is the equation of a parabola with vertex at the point M(0, 4), the waxis serving as the axis of symmetry of the parabola ‘We determine the length of OC, denote the abscissa of C by X, and note that the ordinate of this point’ is y=0. Putting these values into the preceding formula, we get whence SEC. 17, THE EQUATIONS OF CERTAIN CURVES IN PARAMETRIC FORM Circle. Given, circle with centre at the coordinate origin and with radius r (Fig. 75) Denote by { the angle formed by the x-axis and the radlus to some point ‘M(x, 9) of the clecle. Then the coordinates of any point oa” the elrele will te expfessed in {erms of the parameter {as follows: These are the parametsic equations of the ciecle. we eliminate. the pa ineier { from there equations, we will have an equation of he circle contain: ing ‘only = andy. ‘Squaring. the parametric equations and adding, we get Bh pee ott sia) tiyen, Ellipse. Given the equation of the ellipse Bye, gtpal ay Set x=a cost, e@) Putting this expression Into equation (1), we get int @ The equations pesmanjoststn @ ‘are the parametric equations of the ellipse.108 Derivative and Diferentiat Let us find out the geometrical meaning of the parameter f, Draw (wo circles with centres at fhe coordinate origin and with radit a.nd 6 (Fig, 70). Let the point Mr, 4) lve on the ellipse; and let B be a point of (he iarge y y (| ex" ea) & ° Fig. 75, Fig. 76. circle with the same abscissa as M. Denote by f the angle formed by the Fadits OB with ihe axis. From the figure it follows directly that x= OP 1) hold only for the case when x is an independent variable.*) SEC. 24. DIFFERENT-ORDER DERIVATIVES OF IMPLICIT FUNCTIONS AND OF FUNCTIONS REPRESENTED PARAMETRICALLY 1, An example will illustrate the finding of derivatives of different orders of implicit functions. Let an implicit function y of x be defined by the equality a) Differentiate, with respect to x, all terms of the equation and re- member that y is a function of x: from this we get @ Again differentiate this equality with respect to x (having in view that y is a function of x): Substituting, in place of the derivative 42, its expression from 2), we get vs eed rt ay bE (atyt + bee £50 Mio He or, after simplifying, a ~ Neverthelest, we shall also write equality (2) whenx ts mgt am indepen- ent variable; but In thls case, the expression £4, ...,2°% should be ‘tegarded as symbols of derivatives,Diferent-Order Derivatives of Implicit Functions 123 From equation (1) it follows that atyt + bie att, therefore the second derivative may be represented as eyo ae ay Differentiating the latter equation with respect to x, we find ete 2. Let us now consider the problem of finding the derivatives of higher orders of a function represented parametrically. Let the function y of x be represented by parametric equations x= 90), y=, the function x=@(¢) has an inverse function val [ty, T). In Sec. 18 it was proved that in this case the derivative 4 is defined by the equation } qst0, However, they hold in the general case as well.128 Derivative and Diferentiat Example 2. Find the equations of the fangeot and normal, “he lengths of the tangent and the subtangent, the Tengthe ofthe normal "and x tubnoemal for the ellipse sat) cost, y at the point M(x, y) for whict eal the point M(x, 9) hich Solution. From equations (1) we find a ay fyb masings Hab cots: a We find the coordinates of the point of tangency of nO VE The equation of the tangent is yer (* 7a) bxfay—ab VE =0, ‘The equation of the normal is (ax—by) VB —ak- b= 0, ‘The lengths of the subtangent and subnormal are ‘The lengths ofThe Geometric Significance of the Derivative 129 SEC. 27. THE GEOMETRIC SIGNIFICANCE OF THE DERIVATIVE OF THE RADIUS VECTOR WITH RESPECT TO THE POLAR ANGLE We have the following equation of a curve in polar coordinates: e=/ (0). ay Let us write the formulas for changing from polar coordinates to rectangular Cartesian coordinates: x=gcost, y=esinl, Substituting, in place of o, its expression in terms of from equation (I), we get x=/(0)cosb, (0) sind. \ @ Equations (2) are parametric equations of the given ‘curve, the parameter being the Fig. 90. polar angle # (Fig, £0), if we denote by @ the angle formed by the tangent to the curve at some ‘point M(g, 0) with the positive direction of the x-axis, we will have dy a tang= f= o or wadsocod tang=§——. ® os —¢ sind Denote by p the angle between the direction of the radius vector and the tangent. It is obvious that" w=9—6, tan p—tan8 tank = TF tamptand” Substituting, in place of tang, its expression. (3) and making the necessary changes, we get = W'sin +0 60s 8) cos 0 — (0” cos 0—g sin) sind tan 4 = (er cos0—g sin) cos 0+ (@7sin BF cos 8) sin or @ cot ® S5aa30n130 Derivative and Diferential Thus, the derivative of the radius vector with respect to the polar angle is equal to the length of the radius vector multiplied by the cotangent of the angle between the radius vector and. the tangent to the curve at the given point Example. To show that the tangent to the logarithmic spiral Intersects the radius vector at s constant angle. Solution. From the equation of the spiral we get that is, y= arceota = const Exercises on Chapter Find the derivatives of functions using the definition of # derivative 1 i mA ye VF. An wee BVe Ans, 2sinxcosx, 6. yu 2st—x, Ans 44-1 ‘Determine the tangents of the angles of inclination of tangents to the curves 7 goa a) When eal. Ans. 3. 8) When Ane 3. Makes droving. Ape 9) When so Ans, =A.) When, a Make a drawing, @. y= VE when m2 Ans. Find the derivatives of the functions: 10. yerat-p-Bet—6, Ans pf dat 6, The ym 6xt—at, Ans, ta of a8 x An. y= 1. y= 2axt — Eke Ann eto 2 i pete HO Oe, Aas ge Dle? $142, 6. yR VEY E+. Ans. 4 rye EHE any, ye EDEN, aExercises on Chapter II BL ya (Fae) LED, Ans. of 4x (1430-4108), 22. ye (2e—NBEED, (Oa x1). 28. y=Ox— NA —BE+3). Ans. yf stab — x) a yet. Ans. % mare a Ans. y! @ tne POLLED. an yates ma = GDH) C+ Ans. ” pm) x po 2 pega. Ane ye em ve Ans, fm 8x(2et—3), 31, ym (xt--a%’, Ans. y= 10x (xt +04)' = VEER, Ans. B yearn Va my De 3 etait 28h ys add) nts Van san yo(Htghe) a VV 1 i 1 es a(t 2 nyse 2VetVa\ 2V2, yimsinzs, 40. ym 2sine-teose, Ans y= 2eore—Ssinde, Ml. yo - ne \ wlan art) Ant Pm arg. Me om HE. Ane mpg 43, yorsin2e-cosde, Ans, yf = 2cos 2x cos Se—S sin Resin Se, 44. y—cot! Se. Ans. y= —1Weot Sx ese*x, 45, yt sin tpe0st, Ans. y'= Leos t. 48. ym = sint cost. Ans. y’=esints (3 cos! t—sintf). 47. yaa VERDE. Ans. m= tan eot% x / ma stat cos? grey Ma emashtS Ans, fymasitScor’ 49, ya 2? I: 38. yesiots, Ans. asin 2e Py132 Derivative and Diferentiat Fs * 5 cost J tant te =In cos x. 20 stot 5 cos. St. ym tants. Ans ieee 52 y=h 3 dns. om tans. $8. yalntans. Ans. fgg A ymin sats, An y= teats, 55 ya! Ane, y msn xspoons. 8. yin V/ ERE Ans yaagly- Se ymtntan (EES). dna yey. wm yest tradx xeos (eta). Ans, ymcos2ietay 58 ans Ped = ED 60, ja yetan (inn Ans. fon G1 F(a) =sI0 (c0s x). sec! (In) 5 1 ant dt sant ans. f(a sin xeon cose) 62. rm btant tang tg. Ans Somtantg Hermcecotar Aw Fide Becax oles Oe ymtncert oy - yo Ans gmap: yale tN. Am v= Eri gO Dex ‘. 2m cose athe ans. logs tesla). Ans. y= eee pra] ymin tie, Ans. y=! ©. yain tts) vom me yeinetatet, Am pape 1 gens Ane Inst m2. yeints, Ans, yf = LEE, 73, e+ VIF, 1A yetndinay. Ans. ofthe. 18 ayn VE 2 mm Jw=tn an. Faye ‘ # Onn Vie ain St VEE CEE 78, paint vy coor 1 a Ans, y= FS =f td intend 0 yey. Ans. EBM at, gee tant bln cone, Ant tants, 82 ym Ans. of moet, 88. yore. Ans. 7 BA yea, Ans. Zea Ina. 8 ym TM, Ans, ye Debt) In 7, 86, pence“, Ans. y= Dae a Mine, Bh yma *, Ans. yExercises on Chapter Id 133 aa! rea, Ans. Ans, Patina, 88. Ans. ea 90. yet ae), Ans. yf me 229, 1 y= ETT Leta d en ne f Tete Fo ym cose. 05. yall, Ans. y= anal sectarina, 96. yae sing. Ans. y' =e (cos x—sint 2), 97, yet Insing. Ans. y’meX (cot x-finsing). 98 yax"el™™*, Ans. y/ (npr cos). 99 yast Ans yex*(Inx4l). 100 (ee 2 T= (EP aevne( 2) (tee). Ans. 9! Ans. meting) #105, 10h peste, Ane ets ($2E pine cons) 10 pt a An =(sins(lnsinx-+xcots). 108, y=(sina (U-bsectx In sin). 107, Fn y= = 10a 10 (titi). 108, yexsin YISP. Ans. tunel the derivatives of the functions after Get taking logarithms of these functions: eV an pe VE (La ete sT =D O° GED EH vere = 16124 4800—! 07 eV e—9V o—e 2 Ans. y=14 Derivative and Diferentiat 14Bet— ae 114 yO ns. ym ya (a+ 3a)"(a— 2H) Ans. 9! oe 115. ys (0-4 30)"0— 2098 Are. aay Hie bere toot eee, 8, pares. Ane f= M7. y=(are sinc)’. Ans. 7 ees 1B, yeearccot (x41). Ans. y'= ee es jai? 0008 = Te MP waste cot BEG. Ans. yp Ea: 120, ym are eos 2 tat, patesoee tan, yeasresn A Ans. =: Ans, yo VOOR ete dud - wmaceot tS. Ans, Geert. 18 po ttl arate na yf Ans. gm EES. tm yaxaresing, Ans. of 128. f(x)—acc cos (In). Ans. (2) = Hommes Vim An, Fem re a (cece, Ans yak ta, pet Any = ‘2 arcaing FAs gf pice 8. geste 132 yevare cot meting, Ine Ans, gm aston (wesinn <1, yeatesia(sing). Ans y= y ( = +7) I y (sia) y osx _ {+1 in Ist and 4th quadrants Teosx17 | —1 in 24 an 3d quadrants Asinx CST Scone 13s. -Ans.y'= 137. y= wept: 1% pewcet Stn /) nia (HEE)* batons, dns gel tm gS MTR a) FEL sctan 2! arctan Am wa, eetan =! * Y oe Vee ysExercises on Chapter II] 135, ‘Ans, —20#I" Mi, yearcoos Tey. Ans. TEE ifferentiation of Implicit Functions ae tye Li 14g, yay 40% RE 150. ymcostety). Ans. dy __ Leysin ey) a7 esin Go) ta TFsin ta) 151. cos (xy) =x. Ans. dy Find $2 of functions represented parametrially: 182. cost; y=bsint. Ans abet 15s (sins y= women, Ane Baca ah mace ts gba Ane Mw as, 2 Ans a5" T Bion 16 Incot s; du vmtans-teots. Show that 4 Find the tangents of angles of the slopes of tangent lines to curves: terse cost, pmeat at epoit samy pe, tate dening Ans, 1a, 188. x= 2008, y Wat va L ng. Ans. 19, ra (t—sin0, 2 drawing.Ans 1 10, xmacott, yeast when tm. Make a drawing. Ans. —1 161. A body thrown at an angle a to the horizon (in airless space) ‘described @ curve, under the foree of gravity, whose equations are: x= int at the point x Ly Make 2 ra -a(1—cost) when t=. Make136 Derivative and Digerentiat =o,cosat, y=oysinat—£ (g=98 msec). Knowing that a=60°, msec, determine the diection of motion when: I) t=2 sec; 2) (2-7 see Make "a. drawing. Ans. I) tang,=0.948, @,—=43°30", 2) tang,=— 1.012, nat HT. Find the differentials of the following functions: 162. yoa(at— x9. Ans. dy =— 10s (at — x98 dx. 163. y= VIR Aas. dy: ade 16h, pe tantebions, Ars, dymenceds, 1H, ym EE TH ln (lay. Ans, dy = lee, ca Calculate the increments and differentials of the functions: 166. y Hox when x=1, 4x=0,01. Ans, Ay=0.0902, dj ‘2x, Find Ay and dy when ae 0.02 tes. Given yosinx. Find dy when #=, ae or. 10, Koowig tht sins— 3 is; oir, tn the approximate values of sin 60° and sin 018". Compare the results with tabular data. Ans, sin 60°3" = 0.866451; sin 60°18" 0.868643. 170. Find the approximate. value of tan 45°4'30". Ans. 1.00262. 171.” Knowing. that fee 200-2 0109 nd the approxima valu of ly 2062. Ans, Zoe Derivatives of different orders. 172. Find Find y!, Ans. 18-4, 173, y=. Find y Ans 61178, yoo. Bind ps dns: MOLDS 0, y YA. Pind Ans. — 177. y= 2V%. ind y®. As 178. y a 18. oa ave maxttrete. Find yf". Ans, 0. 179%, Fley=in (ett). Find FY (x, fe /", Ans, 6 sect 2—4 sects GR 180. y= tan. Find", Ans, 6 sects 4 sect. 181 Find. yf". Ans. 2cot xesct x. 182. [x)= Vee. Find. Fe). Ans. F (2) = mau tafe. gee. Pind Ae. Ans qth. 1. 9 Ans. Insinx. a £. Bin pated te mtettoh arctan. Find ip fer conae. Find gM Aas. tos (ox0 2) ay ¥ Find £4. Ans. %. 186 af, Find y!. Ans. (Inat)a¥. 188. y=in(tte). Find 9, Find yf. Ans, 2(—1)" aa eke, Find gy! Ans. ef (-m). 1M, yaxtlIng. FindExercises on Chapter {11 137 Ans, =U jy =asine. 102, ymin x Find yAns,—2"~Ios(2e-+F). ind 9, Am sn (Bn) —ncon ( 0,950) dntey mzegtacy yeh Ans, y=. tat ge sin VTEB, Ans. =o I"Exercises on Chapter IIT 139 228 From the formulas for the volume and surface of a sphere, vane and start 3 Explain the geometric significance of this result. Find a it follows that $2 8 similar relationship between the area of a-citele and the length of the ct 220. In a triangle ABC, the side a 1s expressed in terms of the other two sides 0, c'and the angle A between them by the formula = VF FAA Te ceeA. For b and ¢ constant, side @ is @ function of the angle A. Show that Seaohg, where hg Is the altitude of the triangle corresponding to the base a. Ferpet this result geometrically. ‘280. Using the differential concept, determine the origin of the approxi- mate formulas PF Not a, Fhxeth, Vi where | | is a number small compared with a. B31. The period of oscillation of a pendulum is computed by the formula res VE F tn calculating the period 7, how wil the rrr be aected by an cor of 1% ive measurement oft 1) the Tength of the pendulum {2 the acceleration of gravity Ans.) pes 9 252. The traci has the property that for any point of it, the segment of the tangent

0O and that the function takes on its maximum value at x=c, so that H()=M. Let it be noted that, here, c is not equal either to a or to 6, since it is given that J (a)=0, f(6)=0. Since f(c) is the maximum value of the function, f(¢+Ax)—f(c) <0, both when ‘Ax>0 and when Ax<0. Whence it follows that Het an—1O ANNO <9 when Ax>0; ay epag—H 39 when dx<0. a’) Since it is given in the theorem that the derivative at exists, we get, upon passing to the limit as Ax—0, tim Hetag—ltO _ (cc when dx>0; tim Head 7 (0 when Ax<0. But the relations f’(c)<0 and f’ (c)=0 are compatible only if f'(c)=0. Consequently, there is a point c inside the interval {a, 6] at which the derivative /"(x) is equal to zero *) The mumber ¢ is called the root of the function @ (x) if @(=0.A Theorem on the Roots of a Derivative (Rotle’s Theorem) cn The theorem about the roots of a derivative has a simple geo- mettie interpretation: if a continuous curve, which at each point has a tangent, intersects the x-axis at points with abscissas @ and 6, then on this curve there will be at least one point with abs- cissa c, a

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