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Introduction
Reservoir simulation is based on well known reservoir
engineering equations and techniques the same
equations and techniques the reservoir engineer has
been using for years.
.-f m-c tO
In generai, sirmukition .e.w..
.- Lie representation
of some process by either a theoretical or a physical
model. Here, we limit ourselves to the simulation of
petroleum reservoirs. Our concern is the development
and use of models that describe the reservoir performance under various operating conditions.
Reservoir simulation itself is not really new. Engineers have long used mathematical models in performing reservoir engineering calculations. Before the
development of modem digital computers, however,
the models were relatively simple. For example, when
calculating the oil in place volumetrically, the engineer simulated the reservoir by a simple model in
which average values for the porosity, saturation, and
thickness were used.
Although simulation in the petroleum industry is
not new, the new aspects are that more detailed reservoir features, and thus more accurate simulations,
have become practical because of the capability afforded by the computers now available. The more detailed description, however, requires complex mathematical expressions that are difficult to understand,
and this difiicuhy has caused some engineers to shy
away from using simulators, and others to misuse
them.
We in the petroleum industry are in the reservoir
simulation revolution. As time goes on, simulators will
be used more and more, so a basic understanding of
. ..
reservolr modelmg is esseiitia,.
The engineer! especially, must become competent in setting up simulation problems, in deciding on appropriate input data,
and in evaluating the results.
.
7-Z3t-
Basic Analysis
If a reservoir is fairly homogeneous, average values
of the reservoir properties, such as porosity, are adequate to describe it. The average pressure, time, and
production behavior of such a reservoir under a solu. .
calculated
tion gas drive, for
by the familiar methods of Tamer, Muskat, or Tracy.
All of these methods use the material balance equation normally referred to as the MBE. A simple expression for the oil MBE is the following
---+
~Acwy.-,
nre
--
MNTI-MUy
several two-dimensional geometries, the most popular of which is the horizontal (x-y) geometry; but the
vertical (x-z) and the radial (r-z) geometries are also
used quite often.
Simulators can be classified also according to the
type of reservoir or process they are intended to simulate. There are, for example, gas, black oil, gas condensate, end miscible displacement reservoir simulators. Moreover, there are one-, two- and three-phase
reservoir models. Furthermore, any of these simulators may or may not account for gravitational or
capillary forces. It is not enough to choose the proper
simulator with respect to dirnensionality; the simulator must represent the type of hydrocarbon and the
fluid phases present.
Simulation Steps
Preparation of Data
After the type of model to use in a study has been
selected, the next step is to divide the reservoir into a
number of cells, as illustrated in Figs. 2 through 4.
This is accomplished by laying out a grid system for
the reservoir. In a two-dimensional study, the grid is
established by drawing lines on a map of the reservoir. All grid lines must extend across the reservoir.
Each cell is identified by its x, y, z coordinates. Then
the flow conditions around the perimeter of the reservoir are established. Normally the reservoir boundary is considered sealed, but influx or efflux at an
assigned pressure or rate may also be specified.
.
m.
for each
1rie next sfip is to ass:gn the
. .. -following
celk rock properties, geometry, initial fluid distribution, and fluid properties. The rock properties consist
of specific permeability, porosity, relative permeabiliCj ~d ~~m~e&~.e$~Apillary pressure. The Cell geometry includes the depth, thickness and locations of
wells. Usually the wells are assumed to be located at
the centers of &e cells in which *Aeyfal!a The initial
fluid distribution consists of the oil, water and gas
saturations at the beginning of simulation. Also, the
average pressure of the cell at that time is assigned or
calculated from known data. Fluid properties are
specitied by the usual PVT data. In addition, for each
well it is necessary to provide a production schedule
and a productivity index or a skin value (i.e., damage
or ,improvement).
Flow
5TY?l-Fig. 24ne-dimensional
simulator.
Fig. 3-Two-dimensional
simulator.
Flow
/
Fig. lTsmk model.
the reservoir.
Mathematical
Considerations
Derivation of Equations
For the engineer to adequately understand reservoir
simulation, he should be acquainted with the equations used. These are basicaUy material balances about
cells for each phase, and Darcys law, which describes
the interactions between cells. For illustration, we
derive here the fundamental equations for a black oil
system. and exp!ain thei: physical significance.
For the sake of simphclty, consider a cdl in a onedimensional reservoir simulator, as shown in Fig. 5.
Tine sane mia!jjsis is applicable to a cell in two- and
th.me-dimensional models. (An expression for the oil
material balance of the cell was given eariier.)
(Oil volume entering the ceU during a time increment At, in STB) minus (oil volume leaving the ceU
during the same time increment, in STB) equals (the
change in oil volume in the ceU, in STB).
Volume of oil entering the cell during At, in STB,
equals QinAt.
Volume of oil leaving the cell during At, in STB,
equals (At + dA~.
Change in volume of oil in the cell during At, in
STB, equals
Qcmt
.,.
go =
.
%w)w%)rnl
.
(1)
Qout
Flow
Qin
Fig. 4-Three-dimensional
simulator.
Fig. 5-Cell
in a one-dimensional simulator.
.
1385
and
[(
. hko
and
(Afv@g) +
+ V
O&AJv%)
(R,,oA,oV@t.)
*Y
/.LO
Ba
@y
Method of Solution
Eq. 4 and its comparable forms for the water and gas
AxAy
Ax
)1
give the relationships, for each cell, among pressure;
S*[(*)+l-(*)]
, ~ (4) and oil, water, and gas saturations; and time. If there
are m cells, then we have m equations for each phase,
.giving a tdai of 3m equations. The solution of these
where A = * , and the subscripts i+% and i 1%
equations is the major chore of reservoir simulation.
~B
Two methods of solution are generally used; these
indicate that the quantity is evaluated as an average
are the implicit-implicit 3 and the implicit-explicit.
They are similar in one respect. Given a value for the
for the (i+ 1, i) and (i, i 1) cells, respectively. DiEersaturations and pressure at each cell at the beginning
ent investigators use different averaging techniques.
The upstream value for A is the most commonly used.
of a time step, new saturations and pressure values
Eq. 4 is the oil mass balance equation in one diare found at the end of the time step. These values in
turn represent the starting point for the next time step.
mension, in difference form, which is used in the simuThis stepwise process is continued until the desired
lation calculations. In two and three dimensions, yamount of time elapses.
and z-&ection terms identical with the x-direction
The implicit-implicit method solves Eqs. 4 and
term are added.
Eq. 4 may be written in differential form as
the difference forms of Eqs. 5 and 6 directly. The
solution usually involves an iterative procedure. Capa+.
qo _ a
+JW
illary
pressure occasionally tames instability prob& Ao~
. . (4a)
2t
B.
AxAy
lems.* The implicit-implicit method overcomes the
problem by expressing saturation as a function of capand in vector notation as
illary pressure. To start the calculations, values of
saturations are assumed, and the pressures in the oil,
These calculated
.~,ater, ~d gas phasesarecalculated.
pressures result in new capillary pressures, which are
These three forms of the MBE are used interused
to calculate saturations. These are compared
changeably in the literature. Because of its compactwith the assumed values, and if necessary the calculaness, Eq. 4b is the most commonly used.
tions are repeated.
In deriving Eq. 4 we used the value of % at the
Using the fact that the oil, water, and gas satura(n+ 1)-time level, i.e., at the end of the time step.
tions
add up to one, we can manipulate the three MB
This diflerencing technique is called the implicit2 or
backward difference method and is the most comFor definition, refer to the section on Computetionel
Considmonly used. The Crank-Nicholson methodz uses an
eration.
%
()
qo
()
k,up
Zp
q=c-z
(7)
[v@ln:_l.
-!
cumulative total production
Computational Considerations
Computing Time
For a given computer, the time required for a particular reservoir simulation depends primarily upon
(1) the number of cells, and (2) the number of time
steps.
The computing time required for a time step is
proportional to the number of mesh points. Doubling
the number of mesh points approximately cioutiles the
computer time per time step.
The ~ti,m&r Of time stepsrequired to simulate an
~~assigned number of years dep-nds on the allowed
length of the time step At. The maximum value At
may take is a function of the volume and shape of the
cell. In a two-dimensional horizontal model, for example, the cell volume is AXAy times thickness, and
the shape is given by the ratio of Ax/Ay, where Ax
and Ay are the horizontal dimensions of the cell. The
allowed time step decreases as AX and Ay decrease,
and as
IAX
Fy
tion to blow up; in other words, the solutions become ph ysicaiiy -mrea!istic. The most common cause
of this instability is excessively large changes in saturations and pressures during the time step. Usually
this may be remedied by reducing the size of the
time step.
Nnmerfctd Dispersion
This is an inherent property of digital simulation. It
is due to the representation of the reservoir by cells in
which properties are averaged. When a saturation
front enters the ceil, it is S~ir3Xl out over the cell to
arrive at average satmdicm values. Numerical dispersion can be minimized by decreasing the dimensions
of the cells. However, this leads to increased computer time.
Validity of Solution
Norriseal 3-way
2-position
motor valves.
Acknowledgment
I should liie to thank G. L. Smitt, J. W. Watts and
J. E. Walraven for helpful comments, and Mobil Research & Development Corp. for permission to publish this paper.
References
1.Craft, B. C. and Hawkins, M. F., Jr.: Applied Petroleum
Reservoir Engineering, Prentice-HallInc., EnglewoodCliffS,
N. J. (1959).
2. Smith, G. D.: Numerical Solution of Partial Differential
Equations, Oxford U. Press, Inc., New York (1965).
3. Muskat, M.: Physical Principles of Oil Production, McGraw-Hill Book Co., Inc., New York (1949 ).
Jim, Jr., Peacemen, D. W. and Rachford, H. H.,
4. ~hss,
A Method for Calculating Multi-Dimensional lm~ncible Displacement, Trans., AIME ( 1959) 216, 2975. ~oa~, K. H., Nielsen, R. L., Terhune, M. H. and Weber,
Simulation of Three-Dimensional, Two-Phase
Fiow ;n Oil and Gas Reservoirs, Sot. Pet. Eng. J. (Dec.,
1967) 377-388.
6. Fagin, R. G. and Stewart, C. H., Jr.: A New .Approach
to the Two-Dimensional Multiphase Reservor Sumdator,
Sot. Pet. Eng. J. (June, 1966) 175-182.
7. Blair, P. M. and Weinaug, C. F.: Solution of. Two-Phase
Flow Problems Using Implicit Difference Equations, paper
SPE 2185 presented at SPE 43rd Annual Fall Meeting,
JPT
Houston, Tex., Sept.29-Ott. 2, 1968.
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